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Encyclopedia Britannica,
MED
''Utility of -jl /rEDAL, denotes a piece of metal in^the form
them J_Vx of coin, fuch as was either current money
^ 01 yJ c‘ among the ancients, or flrtick on any particular occa-
fion, in order to preferve to pofterity the portrait of
fome great perfon, or the memory of fome illuftrious
action. Scaliger derives the word medal from the Ara¬
bic methalia ; a fort of coin with a human head upon
it. But the opinion of Vofiius is generally received;
viz. that it comes from metadum, “ metalof which
fubftance medals are commonly made.
Sect. I. Utility of Medals in Hijlory, and various
other Sciences.
There are few ftudies of more importance to hif-
tory than that of medals ; the foie evidence we can
have of the veracity of an hiftorian being only fuch
collateral documents as are evident to every body, and
cannot be falfified. In modern times, thefe are found
in public memoirs, inflruttions to ambafladors, and
flate papers of various kinds. Such memorials, how¬
ever, are fubjeft to various accidents, and belides com¬
monly remain in the countries where they are firft
publifhed, and cannot therefore give to the world
at large that perfect and.entire fatisfa&ion which
ought to be derived from genuine hiftory; fo that
more durable and widely diffufed monuments are dill
to be wilhed for. Such are public buildings, infcrip-
tions, and datues ; but thefe, excepting a few indances
of the two lad, are always confined to particular
countries; fo that medals alone remain as infallible
documents of truth, capable of being diffufed over
all countries in the world, and of remaining through
the lated ages.
Various The fird who Ihowed the importance of medals *in
writers on afcertaining the dates, and arranging the order of
medals. events, in ancient hidory, by means of medals, was
Vaillant, in his Hidory of tie Kings of Syria,
printed at Paris in 1681. By medals alone, he
has been enabled to fix the chronology and important
events of hidory, in the three mod ancient kingdoms
of the world, viz. Egypt, Syria, and Parthia. Many
coins have been difeovered fincC his time, which con¬
firm the accounts he has given. He was followed
in this method by Father Hardouin, though with lefs
'fuccefs. Hardouin’s bed work is his Nerodiades, or
Series of Succeffors to Herod king of Judrea. The
fame plan was purfued by Noris, in.his learned Trea-
tife on the Syro-Macedonian princes, and by Bayer
•iV0L. XI. Part K
A L S.
in his Hiftory of Ofrhoene, as well as by Froelich, in Guilty of
the work intitled Annales Regum et Rerum
Vien. 1754, and another named Kevenhullers Regum ’ ■ ‘f
veterum Numifmdta Anecdota aucl Ferrara, "ien. 1752,
4to, of which Froelich was properly the author. Cor-
fini and Cary likewife publilhed works of a fimilar na¬
ture ; the former in 1744, Ue Minnifari, aliorumque
Armenia Regum, Nummis, See. 5 the latter in 1752,
Hijloire des Rais de Thrace, et du Bofphore Cimmerien,
eclaircie par les Medal lies. ■ 4
The ftudy of the Greek coins does not diow the Of the
dates of events, though it tlluftrates the chronology Greek
of reigns. This defect, however, is abundantly fup-coins*
plied by thofe of Rome, which commonly mark the
date of the prince’s confulfhip, the year of his tri-
bunician power; giving alfo, upon the reverfe, the re-
prefentation or poetical fymbol of fome grand event.
The year of the tribunician power is fometimes ima¬
gined by antiquaries to he fynonymous with that of
the emperor’s reign: but this is not the cafe; and
Mr Pinkerton is at fome pains to fet them right ifl
this refpeft. He finds fault with Julius Caefar, when
he affumed the fovereign authority, for taking upon
him the title of Perpetual Diftator, af-being fynony¬
mous with that of king or abfolute governor, which
the Romans abhorred. “ He ought (fays our author),
under the difguife of fome fupreme magiftratc of an¬
nual ele&ion, to have lulled the people with a dream,
that they might terminate his power when they pleafed;
or that he himfelf would refign it, when the necefiities
of ftate which had required his temporary elevation
had fubiided.” To this error Mr Pinkerton aferibes .. 3.
the affaflination of the Di&ator,' and commends the
policy of Auguftus, who, with far inferior abilities, Au'uftus
continued in poffeffion of the moft abfolute authority to fecure
as long as he lived. The tribunelhip was an office ofhls P0,Wer>
annual eleftion.; and if put into the hands of any
others than plebeians, muft have been the fupreme
power of the Hate, as it belonged to that office to put
a negative upon every public meafure whatever. Au-
guftus, being of feriatorial rank, could not affume this
office ; but he invefted himfelf with the tribunichn
power, which had the advantages of appearing to be
only a temporary fupremacy, though in truth it was
continued during his whole lifetime. Towards the
end of his reign, he frequently affumed his deftined
fucceffor, Tiberius, for his colleague, though in the
beginning he had enjoyed it alone. This, with his
artifice of refigning his power every ten years, and
A re-affuming
2 MED
Utility of re-affuming it at the defire, as was pretended, of the
tftor'-in&ci fenate> fecured his fovereignty as long as he lived.—
f His example was followed by his fucceflbrs ; fo that
mod of them have the infeription ¥ribunicia Potejlate
upon their medals, with the date affixed to it thus,
TV. Pot. Vll. Yet though this date generally im¬
plies the year of the emperor’s reign, it fometimes
happens that the emperor, by fpecial favour from a for¬
mer prince, had been endowed with this title before
he came to the throne, as being the fucceffor to that
prince, of which we have already given an inftance in
Tiberius. Befides the tribunician power, the empe¬
rors very frequently enjoyed that of the confuls; and
the date of their confulffiip is frequently expreffed in
their coins.
The office of Pontifex Maximus was likewife af-
fumed by the Roman emperors in order to fecure them-
felves in their authority ; which, Mr Pinkerton ob-
ferves, was one of the moft efficacious artifices they
could have fallen upon. “ In the Greek heroic times
(fays he), king and prieft were carefully united in one
perfon ; and when fovereigns arofe in Denmark and
Sweden, the fame plan was followed, as appears from
Snorro, and other writers. Nothing could lend more
fecurity to the perfon of the monarch than an office
of fupreme fanftity, which alfo confirmed his power
by all the terrors of fuperftition. Even the Chriftian
fyftem was afterwards debafed by a mock alliance with
government ; though it be clear from the whole New
Tefiament, that fuch an alliance is fubverfive of its
genuine inftitution, and the great;eft of all its corrup¬
tions. But the Roman Catholic clergy, in the dark
ages, were the authors of ‘ no church no king,’ for
their own intereft ; while the Roman emperors only
fought to ftrengthen their power by the dark awe of
fuperftition. The title of Pontifex Maximus was fo
important, that'it was retained even by the Chriftian
emperors till the time of Gratian. Its influence in the
ftate’was, indeed, prodigious. Cicero obferves, that
to this office were fubjeft temples, altars, penates,
gods, houfes, wealth, and fortune of the people.—
That of augur is alfo borne by many emperors; and
its authority was fuch, that by the law of the twelve
tables no public bufinefs could be tranfafted without
a declaration from the augur concerning its event.—
The pro-confular power was alfo given to Auguftus
and the other emperors. It conferred a direft autho¬
rity over all the provinces, and implied the emperor
to be chief pro-conful, or governor of each, and of all.
Another fpecial power affigned to the emperors, but
not occurring on coins, was the Jus Relationis Tertia,
2>uartte, &c. or the right of making three or four mo¬
tions in the fenate on the fame day, while the fena-
tors could only propofe one.
Hence our author infers, that medals afford the
moft authentic documents of the Roman hiftory, in
particular, that could have been invented by man.—
The hiftories of Nerva and Trajan are much-better
elucidated by medals than by authors; for the hiftory
of Suetonius ends with Domitian, and the Hifloria
Juguja Scriptores begins with Adrian: fo that the
reigns of the two emperors juft mentioned are almoft
tinknown ; and Mr Pinkerton is furprifed that none of
the learned have attempted to fupply the defeS. 
a l s. Sea. r,
“ Capitolinus (fays he), in his life of Maximinus Ju- Utility 0f
nior, is quite puzzled to know if Maximus and Pu- t|lem
• ^ ^ ^ c r ftory. &c.
pienus were two emperors, or two names for the fame. J f
Had he happened on any of thofe coins which bear
-M. Cl. Pupienus Maximus Aug. he would have
feen at once that Maximus was only another name for
Pupienus.” 4
Medals are ufeful in other fciences befides Mftory. Ufe of me-
In geography, we find the fituation of towns de-dals *n geo“
tennined by their vicinity to fome poted river, moun-srap •
tain, &c. Thus, MArxin nM xiutao r {hows that
Magnefia was fituated under Mount Sipylus. In like
manner, it is drown from-a medal, that Ephefus !1 ood
on the river Cayfter; and there is extant a medal, bear¬
ing an infeription, which fignifies Alexandria on the
Scamander ; a name given to Troy by Alexander the
Great. The reverfe has upon it the famous Apollo
Smintheus of Homer. In natural hiftory, alfo, medals jn na^uraj i
are ufeful chiefly from the coins ftruck on the celubra- hiftory.
tion of the fecular games, in which the figures of
various animals are preferved ; and thus it may very
often be determined whether any animal be known to
the ancients or not. On many of the Greek medals
are feveral uncommon plants and animals. Thus, on
moil of the medals of Cyrene is the figure of the ce¬
lebrated Syiphlum ; and on thofe of Tyre, the fhell-fifti
from which the famous Tyrian purple was procured. 6
By means of medals, alfo, the exa& delineations of tn architect
many noble edifices are preferved, though not even a ture.
veftige of their ruins be now exifting; fo that the ufes
of them to the architedft are very confiderable. To (n ^ gn{.
the connoiffeur they are abfolutely neceffary ; becaufe arts,
by them alone he is enabled to aferibe ancient bulls
and (latues to their proper perfons, with multitudes
of other points of knowledge which cannot be othtr-
wife determined. The elucidations of obfeure paf-
fages in ancient authors by means of medals are fo
numerous and well known, that it is needlefs to infill
upon them.
Mr Addifon has treated the connexion betwixt me¬
dals and poetry at confiderable length; but Mr Pin¬
kerton finds fault with him for preferring the Latin
to the Greek poets. He obferves alfo, that the know¬
ledge of Greek medals is moft neceffary for a fculp- g
tor, and perhaps an architeft ; but an acquaintance Latin me-
with Latin ones is preferable for a poet, or perhaps a da^s of ufe
painter. The reafon of this difference is, that thetoaPoet*
former generally have on the obverfe the head of fome
king, god, or goddefs, of exquifite relief and work-
manftn'p ; but the reverfe feldom affords much fancy
of lymbol in the early Greek coins; and in the impe¬
rial Greek coins, is chiefly impreffed with the temples
of their deities. To a perfon of poeKcal imagination,
however, the Roman coins afford the greatell enter¬
tainment, from the*fine perfonifications and fymbols
to be found on their reverfes; of which our author
gives the following inftances: ~ ^
“Happiness has fometimes the caduceus, or wandPerfonifica-
of Mercury, which,Cicero, i. Offic. tells us was thought,tlonsonRe”
to procure every wifh. She has in a gold coin of ye.man
verus heads of poppy, to exprefs that our prime blefs
lies in oblivion of misfortune.
“ Hope is reprefented as a fprightly girl, walking
quickly, and looking, ftraight forward. With her left
* hand.
Sea. IL MEDALS. 3
Utility of hand die holds up her garments, that they may not im-
tftem ’ Pe^e t^ie rapidity of her pace ; while in her right hand
. uryJ c' fhe holds forth the bud of a flower; an emblem infi-
*■- nitely more fine than the trite one of an anchor, which
is the fymbol of Patience and not of Hope. This
perfonification, with fome others, mull have been very
familiar to the ancients ; for often in this, and in a few
more inllances, no name, as Spes Aug. or the like,
is inferted in the legend.
“ Abundance is imagined as a fedate matron, with
a cornucopia in her hands, of which Ihe fcatters the
fruits, and does not hold up her cornucopia and keep
the contents to. herfelf, as' many modern poets and
painters make her do.
“ The Emperor Titus, having caufe to import a
great fupply of corn during a fcarcity at Rome, that
fupply, or the Annona, is finely reprefented as a fe¬
date lady, with filled cornucopia in her left hand,
which flie holds upright, to indicate that Ihe does not,
however, mean to fcatter it, as Abundance has a title
to do, but to give it to Equity to deal out. This lafl:
particular is fhown by her holding a little image of
Equity, known by her fcales and hajln pura, or point-
lefs fpear, in her right hand, over a balket filled with
wheat. Behind the Annona is the prow of a fhip
decked with flowers, to imply that the corn was
brought by fea (from Africa), and that-the fhips had
had a profperous voyage. The bell poet in the world
would not have given us a finer train of imagery ; the
bell painter would have been puzzled to exprefs fo
much matter in fo fmall a compafs.
“ Security Hands leaning upon a pillar, indica¬
tive of her being free from all defigns and purfuits ;
and the pofture itfelf correfponds to her name. Ho¬
race, in defcribing the wife man, mentions his being
teres atque rotundas ; round and poliflied, againll all
the rules of chance : an idea feemingly derived from
the column upon which this ideal lady reclines.
“ The emblems of Piety, Modesty, and the like,
are equally appofite and poetical.
“ The happinefs of the Hate is pidlured by a Ihip
failing before a profperous breeze : an image than
which the fuperlative genius of Gray could find none
more exquifite ; and he has accordingly ufed it in his
moll capital production “ The Bard,” with due fuc-
cefs.
“ The different countries of the then known world
are alfo delineated with great poetical imagery. It
affords patriotic fatisfaftion-in particular to a Briton,
to fee his native illand often reprefented upon the ear- (
hell imperial coins fitting on a globe, with a fymbol of
military power, the labarum in her hand, and the ocean
rolling under her feet. An emblem almoft prophetic of
the vail power which her dominion over the fea will
always give her, provided Ihe exerts her element of
empire with due vigour and perfeverance.
“ Coins alfo prefent us with Achaia, Africa, Ala-
mannia, Alexandria, Arabia, Armenia, Alia, Bithy-
nia, Cappadocia, Dacia, Dardania, Egypt, Gallia,
• Hifpania, Italia, Judasa, Macedon, Mauritania, Pan-
nonia, Parthia, Phrygia, Sarmatia, Sicily, Scythia,
Syria, and the rivers Danube, Nile, Rhine, Tyber.
This perfonification of provinces feems to have arifen
from the figures of provinces carried in triumphs ; as
the perfonification of our old poets fprung from the
ideal perfons aClually repvefented in the myllenal Utility of
pJays. _ _ _
“ There is one colonial medal of rude execution of
Augullus and Agrippa, which has an high claim to
merit in difplaying the ancient poetical imagery. It
is infcribed Imp. and Divi. f. and on the reverfe, the
conqueft of Egypt is reprefented by the metaphor of
a crocodile, an animal almoll peculiar to that country,
and at that period elleemed altogether fo; which is
chained to a palm-tree, at once a native of the coun¬
try, and fymbolic of vidtory. ro
“ As the n?verfes are fo ufeful for knowledge of vTedals ufc>
perfonification, fymbols of countries and adlions, and ful to a
the like ; fo the portraits to be feen on old coins ard Painter.
no lefs important to a painter; the high merit of A
great number of them, in every charadler,juitly intitling
them to be regarded as the bell lludies in the world.
Not to mention, that, to an hilloric painter, the fei-
ence of ancient medals is abfolutely neceffary, that he
may delineate his perfonages with the features they
really bore while in exillence. This can only be at¬
tained in this way, or from llatues and bulls; any one
of which will colt as much as hundreds of medals j
and indeed a colledtion of fuch is only attainable by
princes.”
The fame things which render the Itudy of medals p0 arfcu]p;
important to a painter, do Hill more fo to a fculptor;tor.
and in this particular, the Hudy of the Greek coins is
remarkably ufeful. The Ikill of the Greeks in the
art of fculpture has always been admired throughout
the world ; and on their coins the heads of feveral dei¬
ties are reprefented in the mofl exquifite alto-relievo.
Our author therefore thinks it Hrange, that the Gre¬
cian coins Ihould have hitherto been fo little attended
to by men of learning and tafle. They may have been
looked upon, he fuppofes, as belonging only to the
province of the antiquary ; but he affures us,
that the Greek medals will afford fatisfaction to
the perfons wdio value them only as pieces of work-
manlhip. In moH refpedls, they" greatly excel thofe
of Rome even in its bell times ; which our author fup¬
pofes to have been from the days of AuguHus to A-,
drian. “ In the days of Adrian, in particular (fays
he), the Roman mint feems to have been the very
feat of art and genius; vvitnefs the yafi number of ex¬
quifite perfonifications, engraven with equal work¬
man fli ip, which fwarm on the medals of that prince.
Yet from his time down to Poflhumus, coins of admi¬
rable workmanfliip are to be found. Thofe of the
FauHinas and Lucilla deferve particular mention.
There is one, and not an uncommon one, of the latter
in great brafs, which yields to nothing of the kind.
The reverfe is a Venus with the name around her.
The portrait of the obverfe feems to fpring from the
field of the coin ; it looks and breathes, nay talks, if
you truff your eyes. The coins of Tarfus are ex¬
tremely remarkable for a kind of perfpedlive in the
figures, as Froelich obferves. On others are found
triumphal arches, temples, fountains, aquedudls, am¬
phitheatres, circi, hippodromes, palaces, bafilicas, co¬
lumns and obeliiks, baths, fea-ports, pharofes,, and the
like. Thefe furnifh much pleafure and infiruftion to
the architedl, and ferve to form his taHe to the ancient
manner ; that manner which unites perfedl fimplicity
with fublimity and grace ; that manner which every
A 2 age
Difference
betwixt a
medalHft
and anti-
■quary.
MEDALS. SeailL.
age adpilres, iii proportion as it has genius to imi- moft important to their country, but leave its anti- Hiftory.
tate.” quities to chance. Every thing is important but our
hiftoiy ; and. we are profound in. every ancient matter
Sect. IL Entertainment arlf.ngfrom the Study that is fuperficial; and fuperficial in what is profound..
cf Medals. Even England cannot boail of one general hiltorian,
but trufts to the inaccuracy of Rapin,. and the igno-
Besides the purpofes which the ftudy of medals rant neatnefs of: Hume. It is therefore no wonder
anfwers in the ufeful arts, a great variety of fources of that, the ftudy of antiquity is here ridiculous, though,
entertainment are to be found in it. Mr Pinkerton moft important in other countries; none requiring
cbfervesj that the moft barbarous nations are more greater talents, learning, or induftry. But the hifto-
pleafed with the rudeft efforts of art, than with the ric antiquary has the pleafure of benefiting fociety, ,
mqftr admirable works of nature ; and that m proper- and enlightening-whole nations, while the medallic has
tion as the powers of the mind are large and various, only an innocent amufement. This amufement, con*
Inch are alfo the pleafures which it receives from thofe fidered merely as riling from antiquarian objeas, has
iaperlative produaions of art, which can only be the not been explained,.though.felt.by moil people, and
offspring of vaft genius. Hence works of art are more by the learned. It- feems analogical with that
agreeable both to the enlightened and to the ignorant, which- we derive from an extenfive profpea : for as
The chief amufement, therefore, which attends, the the mind delights to expand itfelf into diftant places,
ftudy of medals,, originates from the ftrength and fpi- fo alfo into diftant. times. We.connect ourfelves with
rit, the finifli and beauty, which the engraver has dif- thefe times, and feel as it were a double exijtence. The
played in the execution of them.. It belides gives a paffions are Angularly affe&ed by.minutepircumllances,
kind of perfonal acquaintance with the perfons of whom though mute to generalities ; and the relids of anti-
they are the reprefentations. Portraits have always quity imprefs us more than its general hiftory.”
been highly entertaining'to mankind ; and our author
is of opinion, that the love of them gave rife both to Sect III. Hijlory,of Medals.
painting and fculpture. They are no where to be
found fo ancient, numerous, and fo well preferved as The ftudy of medals is not of very ancient date;
in medals. Amufement is alfo derived even from the None of the claflic writers give any account of collec-
reprefentations of ideal heads and perfons; nay, .even tions of them ; though indeed many little particulars
from the minuteft fymbols. Thus the Greek coins of are paffed without notice by them. In the times
cities prefent us with heads of deities of exquifite °f the Greeks, a colle&ion • of fuch Coins, as. then
workmanfhip, apparently copied from ftatues or paint- exifted muft have been but little regarded, as confift-
Jiigs; fo that we may even guefs at the works of A- log onIy °f thofe ftruck by the numerous little nates
pelles and Praxiteles from fome of the Greek medals, which at that time ufed the Greek chara&ers and lan»
Their reverfes afford ftill greater variety ; there being guage. Hence they would have had an air of
fcarce an objeft either in art or nature which is not domeftic coinage, and no attention would have been
reprefented upon fome of them : and to the fatisfac- paid to them, however exquifite their workmandxip
tion arifrng from a view of thefe, we may likewife add might have.been. The little intercourfe at that time
that of beholding, in a-lively manner, the dreffes, man - carried on betwixt the different provinces alfo, greatly
ners and cuftoms, religious and civil ceremonies, of impeded any communication of knowledge to thofe
the. ancients: fa that: from medals we may obtain an. who wrote hiftories; fo that it is no wonder to find
inteiefting hiftory of manners which, though very any fmall collections that might then have exifted al-
lately cultivated, may perhaps afford the moft ufeful together unnoticed by them.
and entertaining of all the provinces of hiftory. Almoft as foon as any communication was opened Greekcoins-
There is a very-confiderable difference betwixt the between the Greeks and Romans, the latter treated imitated ky-
ftudy of medals and that of a mere antiquary. The. the arts of the Greeks with all due refpeft and ap-!ilc Ro-
latter frequently feems to take delight in coins mere- plaafe. Their coins were imitated by the Romans, mans‘
ly in proportion to their ruft and deformity.; fo that: and preferved in cabinets by tbe fenators among their
it is often a recommendation of fome of their pieces, choiceft treafures. Suetonius informs us, that on fo-
that neither portrait, reverfe, nor legend, can be dif- lemn occafions Auguftus was accuftomed to prefent
covered ; at. leaft in fuch manner as can be intelligibly his friends with medals of foreign Rates and princes,
explained. “ The delight of the antiquarift (fays Mr along with other valuable teftimonies of Ins friendftnp.
Pinkerton) may be called a depraved appetite of the In a more advanced period of the Roman empire,
mind, which feeds on tralh, and fills itfelf with empti- however, individuals would undoubtedly form collec-
nefs. It is perhaps a mere childilh curiofity mingled tions of coins peculiar to their own llate ; for Dr
with caprice and hypochondricifm. Again ft this cha- S.tukeley, in. Ids MedaUic Hiftory of Caranfius, in-,
rafter the ridicule of Severus is;particularly Ihot, but forms us, that a complete feries- of filver coins was
with little effeft ; for our antiqu'ifts exceed in vilions lately found in Britain, containing all, the emperors
and nonfenfe. I fay nntlqutjls ; for the name of anti- down to Caraufius inclufively. From Banduri we
quary is facred. ~£>y antiquary, in foreign countries, alfo know, that; certain. Greek coins were fpecially
is implied a man who illuftrates their ancient laws, pveferved by the Romans ; and it appears from their :
manners, poetry, but efpecially their ancient.hiftory. code, that ancient gold and filver coins were made ufe
There, men of the raoft elevated minds are antiquaries;. of inftead of gems; to which diftinftion thofe of Sicily
as Muratori, Leibnitz, Montefquteu, Du Bos. Here were particularly intitled. From the decline of the
men of takots will not ftoop, forfooth, to ftudies the Roman empire till towards the end of the 5th centa-
*7*
Sea. nr. MED
Hiftbry. ry, almoft all branches of literature were involved in
darknefs, and the medallic fcience among the reft.
While the Chriftian dominion of Conftantinople lafted,
indeed, almoft all the arts and fciences may be faid to
have been kept within its own boundaries} though
the Arabs and eaftern nations had fome arts and fci¬
ences of their own : but after the deftru&ion of the
imperial city by the Turks, the Greeks were once
more compelled to become fathers to the European
Science. Even before this time, indeed, fome veftiges
of a revival of literature had appeared in Italy; “and
fo intimate and neceffary a connexion (fays Mr Pin¬
kerton) has now the ftudy of medals-with that of an¬
cient erudition, that on the earlieft appearance of a
revival of the latter, the former was alfo difclofed.”
<&>Ue<ftors The firft among the moderns who began to ftudy
wi mcua.s. the medallic fcienee was Petrarch. Bting delired by
the Emperor Charles IV. to compofe a book contain¬
ing'the lives of-eminent men, and to place him in the
lift, he replied, that he would do fo whenever the em¬
peror’s life and condtltt deferved ■ it; In. confequence
of this converfation he afterwards lent the emperor a
collection of gold and filver coins bearing the repre-
fentations of eminent men,-with an addrefs fuitable to
his former declaration. A collection of coins was
made in,the next age by Alphonfo king of Arragon ;
but though this monarch colledted all' that could be
found throughout Italy, we know that there could not
have been very many, as the whole were contained im
an ivory cabinet, and carried always about with him.,
A very confiderable collection was made by Anthony
Cardinal St Mark, nephew to Eugene IV. who afcend-
ed the pontifical chair in 143L4 and foon after the
grand mufeum at Florence was begun by Cdfmo de
i Medici, where a collection of ancient coins and medals
had a place among other curiofities, Corvinus king of
Hungary about the fame time formed a noble collec¬
tion of coins along with ancient manufcripts and other
valuable relicts of antiquity.
Mr Pinkerton confiders .Agnolo Poliziano, .more
commonly known by the name of Angelus Politianus, as
the firft writer who adduced medals as vouchers of an¬
cient orthography and cuftoms. He cites different
coins of the Mediceam collection- in his Mifcellanea
written about the year .1490. By means of a cabinet
of medals collected by Maximilian I. emperor of Ger¬
many, Joannes Huttichius was enabled to publUh a
book of the lives-of the emperors; enriched with their
portraits, delineated from ancient coins. It is gene¬
rally fuppofed that this book, which appeared in 1525,
was the firft work of the kind; but Labbe, in his
Bibliotheca Nummaria, mentions another named Illujlri-
vm Imagines, by one Andreas Fulviusy-printed in 1517,
in which moft of.the portraits feem to be from medals..
About the year 1512 alfd, Guillaume Bude; a French
author, had written his treatife De.AJfc, though it was
Dot printed till many years afterwards. M. Grollier,
treafurer of the French armies in Italy, during part of
the 16th century, had a great colleftion of coins of
different,kinds of metals. After his death, his brafs
medals were fem to Provence, and were about to be
lent into Italy; when the king of France, having got
information of the, tranfaftion, gave , orders to flop
them; and purchafe the whole at a very high price for
his owa cabinet of antiquities. M* Grollier had an. af-
3
A L s. y
fortment of gold and filver as well as of brafs medals: Hiftory.
the cabinet in which they were contained fell two —
centuries afterwards into the hands of M. L’Abbe de
Bothelin; and was known to have been that of Grol¬
lier from fome flips qf paper, on which wras his ufual
infeription for his books, Joannis Grollierii, et ami-
corum.
Cotemporary with Grollier was Guillaume de Choul, Number ojjf
who was- likewife a man of rank and fortune. He cabineu.
had a good collection of medals, and puhliflied many
in his Treatife on the Religion of the ancient Romans
in 1557. In the low countries we know, from the
letters of Erafmus, that the ftudy of medals was begun
about the beginning of the 16th century. About the
middle of that century, Hubertzus GoltzLus, a printer ■
and engraver, travelled over moft countries in Europe
fearching forcoins aud medals', in order to publifli books
concerning them. From one of thefe works it ap¬
pears, that there were then in the low countries 200
cabinets of medals; 175 in Germany, upwards of 380
in Italy, and 200 in France. It is probable, how¬
ever, that there are now four times as many in thefe
countries^btlides 500 in Britain; but we are not to
imagine that all thefe were grand collection's, for of
fuch there are not above a dozen even in Italy ; moft
of thofe juft mentioned were of the.clafs named cajlels
of medals, containing from 100 to 1000 or 2000. 16
There are few countries, Italy excepted, in which Number cf"
a greater number of coins have been found than in co'ns fomii
Bk • . - , . 1111 13riUi2U
ntam ; though we are by no means well acquainted
with the time whan the ftudy of them commenced.
Mr Pinkerton fufpefts. that Cambden was one of the
firft, if not the very firft, Britifli author who produced
medals in -his works, and who mull have had a fmall
collection. Speed’s Chronicle, publilhed in the 17th
century, was illuftrated with coins from Sir Robert
Cotton’s cabinet. Gorlaeus’s collection was purchafed
by Henry prince of Wales, brother to Charles I. to
whom he left it at his death According to Jofeph
Scaliger, it confifted of 3 0,000-coins and medals. A
collection of 5500 coins was purchafed by Archbilhop
Laud for L.6oo, and given to the-Bodleian library.
Thomas earl of Arundel, earl-marihal of England,
well known from the Arundelian tables and other an¬
tiquities which he imported from Greece and Italy in-
to-Britain, had a rich cabinet of medals collected by .
Daniel Nit inn. The dukes of Buckingham and Ha¬
milton, Sir William Patton, Sir Thomas Fanfhaw of
Ware-Park,. Sir Thomas. Hanmer, Ralph Sheldon,
Efq; Mr Selden, ,&c. are enumerated by Evelyn as
collectors of medals. Charles I. as well as -his hifto-
rian the earl of Clarendon, were alfo collectors. The
king had a very ,dine cabinet; which, however, were
diflipated and loft during the civil commotions. Oliver
. Cromwell had a fmall, collection; and the .cabinet of
Charles II. is mentioned by Vaillant in the preface to
Ins treatife intiried Nummi in Coloniis,” &c. This
branch of magnificence has not been much attended to
by fucceeding Britifh monarchs ; though -his prefent
majefty has a very good coHeCtion «f ancient gold
coins.
A great number of fine cabinets have been formed Bm/ik
in Britain fince the time of Evelyn. About the yearcubinear--
1720 Haym makes mention of thofe of the duke of
Devon (hire, the earls of Pembroke and Wuichelfea,
•JSiri
6 MED
Of what Sir Hans SJoane, Sir Andrew Fontaine, Mr Sadler,
loniWtei Mr Abdy> Mr Wren> Mr Chlcheley, and Mr Kemp.
At prefent there are many remarkable colleftions;
but that of the late Dr Hunter is defervedly elleemed
the mo ft remarkable in Europe, excepting that of the
French king. It was not only formed at a great ex¬
pence, but with much care and ability ; many foreign
' medals offered to it having been rejetted. The other
remarkable collettions are thofe of the duke of Devon-
fhire, the earl of Pembroke, earl Fitzwilliam, formerly
the marquis of Rockingham’s, the honourable Horace
Walpole, the reverend Mr Crachrode, the reverend
Mr Southgate, Mr Townley, Mr R. P. Knight, Mr
Edward Knight, Mr Tyfon, Mr Barker, Mr Brown,
and feveral others. The mufeum and univerfities have
alfo collettions; as well as the lawyers library, and
the colleges in Scotland.
Sect. IV. Materials of which Medals are con-
fruftcd.
tg Medals are formed of gold, filver, and the various
Ancient modifications of copper. The gold ufually made ufe
gold coin . of in coinage is about the finenefs of 22 carats; and
as the art of purifying this metal was very much un-
knowrn in former times, the moft ancient medals are
for this reafon much more impure than the modern
coins. Gold is never found in its native ftate above
22 carats fine; and the very ancient medals are much
under that ftandard. Many of them are compofed of
a mixture of gold and filver, called by the ancients
eleHrum. The gold medals were made of much
finer metal after Philip of Macedon became poffeffed
of the gold mines of Philippi in Thrace, and the me¬
dals of his fon Alexander the Great are equally fine ;
as well as thofe of fome other princes of that age.
Thofe of the Egyptian Ptolemies are of the finenefs
of 23 carats three grains, with only one grain of alloy.
The Roman coins are very pure even from the earlieft
times ; the art of refining gold being well known be¬
fore any wras coined at Rome. Some authors are of
opinion, that the Roman coins begin to fall ftiort of
their purity after the time of Titus; but Mr Pinker¬
ton denies that any thing of this kind takes place till
the time of the Emperor Severus; and even then only
in a very few inftances. Moft of the Roman gold
was brought from Dalmatia and Dacia, where that
•metal is ftill to be met with. A very remarkable cir-
cumftance is obferved in the eaftern part of Hungary,
which belonged to the ancient Dacia: It germinates
in the vines of Tokay, and is found in their Items; as
it is elfewhere in the ftraw of corn.
Heta?call- Pliny informs us, and indeed it is generally known,
thclrum. that gold and iilver are found mixed together in the
earth. When the filver amounted to one-fifth part of
the gold, the metal was called eleBrum but fometimes
the quantity of filver was added artificially. The gold
was in thofe days as well as at prefent refined by means
of mercury: and the ancient artifts had certainly at¬
tained to great perfettion in this branch of metallurgy;
as Bodin tells us, that the goldfmiths of Paris upon
melting one of Vefpafian’s gold coins found only
a0 part of alloy.
Ancient fil- Moft of the ancient filver, particularly that of Greece,
,rer* is lefs pure than that of fucceeding times; even the
A L S. Sea. IV.
Roman filver is rather inferior to the prefent ftandard, Of what
and that from the very beginning; but in the time ofconftrufted
Severus, the filver appears very bad, and-continues fo *
until the time of Dioclefian. Many writers upon this
fubjett have miftaken the denarii arei, “ coins of brafs
walked with filver,” for filver currency. Silver coins
are extremely fcarce from , the time of Claudius Gothi-
cus to that of Diodefian, or from the year 270 to 284;
in w'hich ihort fpace no fewer than eight emperors
reigned. Silver at that time was found moftly in Spain;
and the commerce with that country was difturbed by
the ufurpefs who arofe in Gaul: and fuch were the
troubles of the times, that not only the filver, but alfo
the gold coins of thofe eight emperors, are extremely
fcarce. There is ftill, however, fome filver extant of
thefe eight emperors; and it is certain, that copper
wafhed was never ufed as filver currency, but was en¬
tirely a diftintt coinage. Occafional depravations of
filver had taken place long before ; as Pliny tells us,
that Mark Anthony mixed iron with his filver denarii;
and Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he had feen a de¬
narius of Anthony, which was attratted by a mag¬
net. 2*
The ancient brafs coins confift of two kinds : the
red or Cyprian, which indeed is no other than copper;
and the common yellow brafs. Our author obferves,
that in the Roman coinage brafs wras of double the
value of copper, and he is of opinion, that it was the
fame among the Greeks; and the latter is the metal
moft commonly made ufe of in the Greek coinage.
The Roman feftertii are always of brafs: the middling-
fized kind are partly copper and partly brafs; the for¬
mer being double th? value of the latter, which are
the afes.' #
Mr Pinkerton next proceeds to give an account of Mixed me-
the mixed metals ufed among the Romans. In Bri- tal**
tain all kinds of coins made of mixed metal are with¬
out hefitation alleged to be forgeries ; although it is
certain that the variety of mixed metals ufed in coi¬
nage was very confiderable. The moft valuable mix¬
ture was that of gold or filver already mentioned, na¬
med e/eSrtf.’n; the filver commonly amounting to one-
fifth part of the gold made ufe of, or perhaps more.
Of this mixture are many of the early coins of Lydia,
and fome other Afiatic ftates; alio thofe of the kings
of the Bofporus Cimmerius, during the imperial ages 23
of Rome. Next to the elettrum were the coins of Corinthian
Corinthian brafs: but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that brafs.
not a fingle coin was ever ftruck of this metal by the
ancients; it having been conftantly employed only in
the fabrication of vafes or toys. It was in ufe at any
rate only for a very ftiort time’; being altogether un¬
known in the days of Pliny the Elder. Our author
therefore ridicules thofe who pretend not only to find
out imperial coins of this metal, but to difeover three
kinds of it; viz. one in which the gold predominates,
another in which the filver prevails, and a third where
the brafs is moft confpicuous. He gives zEneas Vico,
one of the moft ancient writers on medals, as the au¬
thor of this idea; but whofe opinions were confuted
by one Savot, a writer in the 17th century. Vico
mentions a coin of this kind ftruck under uguftus,
another of Livia, and a third of Claudius. The mif-
take, he is of opinion, arch - from the circumftance of
the firft propagator not hti-g able-to account for the
various
Seel. V. M E D
Of what various mixtures and modifications of brafs obfervable
conftru&ed jn coins of the large fize; and which in fo
• * common a metal appear very odd to the moderns.
Befides the authority of Pliny and other antiquaries of
more modern date, who all declare that they never faw
a fingle medal of Corinthian brafs, or of that metal
mixed with filver and gold, our author adduces another
evidence which he looks upon to be fuperior to either;
viz. that thofe'who have given into this fuppofition,
imagine, that the large pieces called fcjlertii, and others
called dupondiarii, worth about twopence or a penny,
are faid to have been compofed of this precious metal.
It is unreafonable to think, that any proportion of
gold or filver could have been made ufe of in thefe.
The coins faid to have been ftruck upon Corinthian
brafs are only done upon a modification of common
brafs; of which we know, that in proportion to the
quantity of zinc made ufe of in conjun&ion with the
copper, the metal aflumes a variety of hues. On the (
authority of Pliny he informs us, that the coins miila-
ken for Corinthian brafs were no other than prince’s
metgl.
The Egyptian filver coins ftruck under the Roman
Egyptian emperors are at firft of tolerably pure filver; but af-
£iver coins, tcrwards degenerate into a mixture of copper and tin
with a little filver. They are very thick, but many
of them are elegantly ftruck, with uncommon reverfes.
There are likewife three fets of brafs coins belonging
to this country from the earlieft times of the Roman
emperors there. Some of thefe are of bell-metal or
pot-metal; and after the time of Gallienus and Vale¬
rian, the coinage of brafs with a fmall addition of fil¬
ver becomes authorifed by the ftate; the coins ftrtfck
upon it being called denarii arei. Tkofe of lead or
copper plated with filver have been fabricated by Ro¬
man forgers. Some coins of lead, however, have been
met with o.f undoubted antiquity: and an ancient wri¬
ter informs us, that tin-money was coined by Diony-
fius; but none has been found. The lead coins of
Tigranes king of Armenia, mentioned as genuine by
Jobert, are accounted forgeries by Mr Pinkerton and
other modern medallifts. Plautus, however, makes
mention of leaden coins, and feveral of them have been
found; but our author looks upon them to have been
chiefly eftay pieces, ftruck in order to let the artift
judge of the progrefs of the dye. Others are the plated
kind already mentioned, fabricated by ancient forgers,
but having the plating worn off. A great number of
leaden coins are mentioned by Ficorini. in a work in-
titled Piombi Antichi, in which he fuppofes them to
have ferved as tickets for guefts; and coins of the
fame kind are alfo mentioned by Pafferi. In the work
xntitled Notitia Imperii Romani, there is mention of
coins made of leather, but none of them have ever
been found.
Sect. V. Of Ancient Money.
In confidering the different fizes, values, &c. of the
Greek and Roman coins, our author treats of the me¬
dals as money ; a knowledge of which, he fays, is ef-
fentially neceffary to every reader of the claflics; info-
much that it may almoft difpute the preference with
the ftudiesof ancient geography and chronology. Not-
withftanding all that, has been written upon the fub-
A L S. 7
je&, however, our author is of opinion, that the fcrence Ancient
is ftill in its infancy, in as far as it relates'to the real, °"ey ,
money of the ancients. “ The ideal (fays he), which
is indeed the molt important province of difeuffion, Knowledge
has been pretty clearly afeertained; and we are almoft ancient
as well acquainted with the Attic mna or rnina, and
the perplexing progress of the Roman fferl'w, as with 1
our oven pounds. But with the aftual coin of the an¬
cients the cafe is different; and the ignorance even of
the learned in this point is wonderful.”
Our author now goes on, with great afperity of
language, to particularife the ignorant manner in which
modern authors have treated the fubjedl of medals.
“ Arbuthnot and Clarke (fays he) are if poflible more
ignorant of medals than Budseua the very firft. The
latter profeffes his love of medals, but quotes a con-
fular coin wuth the head of Cicero; and looks upon
one of the 30 pieces of filver, the reward of the treach¬
ery of Judas, and which was faid to be preferved a-
mong fome relidts at Paris, to be worthy of reference-
and commemoration. Arbuthnot, if we may judge
from his book, had never feen any ancient coins; and
Clarke, it is well known, was quite ignorant of them.
The latter, with all his labour, feems even to have
known nothing of the theoretic part of the real ancient
money. Indeed Dr Mead’s catalogue feems to have
been almoft the only booh on medals which had under
gone his perufal. On the other hand, the ignorance
of medallifts on , this fcore is no lefs profound. To
this day they look upon the didrachms of iEgina, fo
celebrated in antiquity, as tridrachms of vEgium; and
upon the early obolus as a brafs coin. In the Roman
clafs the large brafs is efteemed the as, while it fhall
be proved that it is the fefertius, and worth four afes.
The denarius is reckoned at ten afes even in the impe¬
rial times ; whereas it only went at that rate for the
firft 90 years after the coinage of filver at Rome.
The denarius sereus is taken for filver currency; with
other miftakes which evince that medallifts are as ig¬
norant of the theory as the-others are of the prac-
tIce ” . . *6
In his account of the ancient. Greek money, Mr Money firflfc
Pinkerton obferves, that the light of fcience, like that coined in
of the fun, has proceeded from eaft to weft. “ It is t^e ea^*
moft probable fays he), that the firft invention of
money arofe like the other arts and fciences; and
fpread from thence into the weftern parts of the world: »
In its firft lhape it appeared as mere pieces of metal Its firft
without any ftated form or impreffion;, in lieu ofrudcftate^
which, it was regulated by weight. Even down to
the Saxon government in England, large fums were
regulated by weight; and in our own times every fingle
piece is weighed in gold; though with regard to filver
this nicety is not minded, nor indeed does it feem
pra&icable. Among the ancients, whofe commercial
tranfadlions were lefs important and extenfive than
thofe of the moderns, filver was weighed as well as
gold; nay even brafs, in fome cafes. ^
In Greece, large fums were determined by mna or Greek mc>-
mince; and the moft capital fums by talents. In every ney.
country the mina is fuppofed to have contained 100
drachmas, or fmall filver coins, of that country, and
the talent 60 minae. The mina is fuppofed to be a
pound weight of the country to which it belonged.
The Attic pound; according to Dr Arbuthnot, con¬
tained.
MED
cient tained 16 ounces, oqual to our avoirdupois pound:
>"ey' but Mr Pinkerton looks upon this as a very abfurd
opinion, and accufes the Do&or of having adopted it
merely that he may explain a paflage in Livy. He is
of opinion, that the Attic pound is very nearly the
fame with the pound Troy. The mina of Athens had
at firft 73 drachms; but by Solon it was fixed at too.
The ancient drachm weighed the fame which it does
at prefent in medical weight, viz. the eighth part of
an ounca The mina or pound of 12 ounces had con-
fequently 96 of thefe drachms; but four of them were
given to the round fum to fupply delefts in the alloy;
“ and indeed (fays our author), in confequence of a
common praftice in all ages and in all countries, of
giving fome addition to a large weight. Thus the
pound in weight had but 96 drachma: in faft, while
the pound in tale had 100; as the Roman libra in
weight had but 84 denarii; in tale too; and as our
pqund in tale, by an inverfe progrefs, is not a third of
^ our pound in common weight.”
e an- Notwithftanding the very Severe criticifm on Dr
<«- Arbuthnot juft mentioned, however, we find our au¬
thor adopting his account of the talents ufed in coin¬
age in feveral countries. Thus, according to the
Doftor,
The Syrian talent had 15 Attic mina:.
.Ptolemaic - -2 0
. Antiochian - 60
Euboean - - 60
"Babylonian - 70
Larger Attic * 80
Tyrian - 80
Egyptian - 80
Eginean - too
R :••••'! • ICO
'Notwithftanding the conceflion made here by Mr
Pinkerton to the Doftor, he tells us, that he very
much queftions this lift of talents, and that many an¬
cient writers are little to be relied upon. “Writers
on this fubjeft confefs, that the numbers in all ancient
manufcripts are the parts moft fubjeft to error, as be¬
ing almoft always contrafted. They ought to allow
that the authors themfelves muft often be liable to
wrong information.
“ Herodotus mentions, that King Darius ordered
gold to be paid into his treafury by the Euboic ta¬
lent, and filver by the Babylonian. The Euboic is
efteemed the fame with that called afterwards the At-
■tic : and as we eftimate gold by carats, fo it is natu¬
ral to fuppofe, that the moft precious metal would be
regulated by the moft minute weight. But I con¬
fefs, I take the Babylonic talent to be the fame with
that of iEgina. Mr Raper has proved the firft coins
of Macedon to be upon the ftandard of iEgina. Now
the early Perfian coins are upon that veiy fcale, the
dargeft tetradrachms weighing from 430 to 440 grains.
Hence it follows, that the Perfian filver coins were of
the ./Eginian ftandard; and the payment was certainly
to be made according to the ftandard of the money.
The larger Attic talent was of 80 lefler minae; becaufe
the larger Attic mina was of 16 ounces. The Alex¬
andrian talent, according to Feftus, confifted of 12,000
denarii, being the fame with that ufed by the Egyp¬
tian kings in their coins; and is fhown by Mr Raper
.to have been the fame with the talent of A>ina. Per-
N»soi.
A L S. Sea.V.
haps the whole of the ancient coins of Afia, Africa, Ancient
Greece, Magna Grecia, and Sicily, are reducible to , loilt:y- <
three talents or ftandards. 1. That of fEgina, ufed in " ' •
moft of the more ancient filver coinages; as would
feem in even the later of Egypt, Carthage, Cyrene,
&c. 2. The Attic (being the Afiatic gold ftandard,
afterwards ufed by Phidon king of Argos in eftima-
ting gold, and called Eiiboic from Euboea, one of the
quarters of the city of Argcs), ufed in Athens and
the greater part of the world as the ftandard both
of gold and filver. 3. The Doric or Sicilian talent
of 24 nummi, each worth an obolus and an half; whence
the talent is eftimated at fix Attic drachms or three
darics. Thefe weights continued to be the ftandard
of money after it began to be diftingaifhed by im-
preflion ; nay, to the fall of Greece and prevalence of
the Roman empire.”
Coinage, according to Herodotus, was firft invent-
ed by the Lydians, from whom the Greeks quickly re«originates
ceived it. The former could not have received it from in lydia.
the Perfians, whofe empire did not begin till 570 B.C.
though our author, fuppofes that it might have pro¬
ceeded from the Syrians, who carried on commerce in ^
very ancient times. The moft ancient Greek coins of Moft an-
■filver have an indented mark upon one fide, and a tor-cient Greek
toife upon the other; and thofe of greateft antiquityco“1^e*
have no letters upon them. Thofe of later date havelcriDed'
Ain marked upon them, which medallifts interpret of
iEgium in Achaia; being led into that fuppofition by
the tortoife, which they look upon as the fure mark
of the Peloponnefus. But though our author agrees
that the tortoife was fo, he thinks that they are other-
wife very far wrong in their conclufions. ./Egium in
Achaia was a place of no confequence till the times of
Aratus and the Achaian league; but there are 11 of
thefe coins in Dr Hunter s cabinet, which fliow that
they muft have been ftruck in times of the moft re¬
mote antiquity, and that the place where they were »
ftruck was rich and flouriihing at the time. The coins
we fpeak of are not uncommon; but thofe which have
the name aiteixin at full length, and which may
perhaps belong to Aigium in Achaia, are extremely .
jfcarce; infomuch that in all Dr Hunter’s vaft collec¬
tion there are not above one or two. They are like-
wife conftrudted upon a fcale quite different from all
other Grecian money; being of 8, 13, 90, and
about 186 grains. The Grecian drachma at an ave¬
rage is 66 grains; and Mr Pinkerton thinks it would
have been ftrange if pieces had been ftruck of eight-
tenths of an obolus, of an obolus and an half, or of a
drachma and an half. dEgium being originally an ob-
fcure village, could not be the firft which coined mo¬
ney.* fo that Mr Pinkerton fuppofes the name ’•1 r 1
to have ftood for JEgialus, the ancient name of Si-
cyon, a wealthy and powerful city; or rather iEgina,
the mint of which was much celebrated, and perhaps
the moft ancient in Greece.
Other arguments in favour of thefe coins being de¬
rived from iEgina, are drawn from their weight as weft
as their workmanfhip, which are quite different from
thofe bearing the name of iEgium at full length.
The coinage of Aigina is known to have been different
from that of the reft of Greece; infomuch that its
drachma was worth 10 Attic oboli, while the tti-c
drachma was valued only at fix. Hence the drrch-
nua
Sea.V. MED
Ancient mas of iEgina were named by the Greeks *««««, or
Money, tkicl,. a name very applicable to the coins in queftion.
V- z—w prom obfervations, our author is of opinion, that
we may even diftinguilh the precife weight of the an¬
cient coins of iEgina. According to the exaft pro¬
portion, the drachma of this place fhould weigh ex¬
actly no grains; and one of them very much rubbed
weighed above 90. The others of larger fize, *which
feem to be didrachms of iEgina, weigh from 181 to
194 grains; but the latter being the only one he could
meet with in good prefervation, it was impoffible to
form any juft medium. Even in thofe beft preferved,
he thinks that ten grains may be allowed for a wafte
of the metal in fo long a time as 2400 years, which
would bring the drachma of iEgina near its proper
ftandard. The obolus of iEgina was in proportion
to its drachma of fix oboli. It is the piece of 15^
grains, and 13 when very much rubbed. The hemi-
obolon is that of eight, and when rubbed ought to weigh
nine.
The^drach general denomination of the Greek money is
ma the " drachma, or eighth part of an ounce; which to this
moft gene-day is retained in the medical weights, the Grecian
ral denomi- coins receiving their names from the weights they bore;
nation. though in feme inftances the weights received their
appellations from the coins. The filver drachma, ac¬
cording to Mr Pinkerton, was about nine pence fter-
ling; and he finds fault with thofe who make the
drachma and denarius both equal to one another, the
latter being no more than eight pence. The didrachm
of filver, according to the fame calculation, was worth
18 d.; but the tridrachm occurs very rarely : and Mr
Pinkerton is even of opinion, that medallifts give this
name to the didrachm of ^gina. The largeft of all
the Grecian coins is the tetradrachm, which on the
iEginean ftandard is worth five Ihillings ; but in thofe
of the other ftates only four. There are, however,
many fubdivifions in the filver drachma; the higheft
being the tetraobolion or coin of four oboli; being in
proportion to the drachma as our groat to a fixpence,
weighing about 44 grains, and being in value about
fixpence. The hemidrachm or triobolion comes next
in value, weighing about 33 grains, and worth four-
pence halfpenny. The filver diobolion, or third of
the drachma, weighs about 22 grains, and is worth
three pence. The obolus of filver weighs about 11
grains, and is worth only three halfpence. There is
likewife a hemiobolion in filver, or half the obolus,
of five grains and an half, value three farthings: and
another called tetartobolion dichalcos or quarter obolus,
which is the moft minute coin yet met with ; and by
reafon of its extreme fmallnefs, weighing only two
grains and a quarter, is now very fcarce : but there
is one in the cabinet of Dr Hunter, and fome more
have been lately brought from Athens by Mr Stu¬
art. Some of them are likewife met with at Taren-
tum. It would appear, however, that there were
fome ftill fmaller, and of value only three-fourths
of a farthing. None of thefe have been met with ;
and the fmallnefs of the fize renders it improbable that
any will ever be met with; as the peafants, who com¬
monly difcover coins, would probably either not ob-
ierve them at all, or if they did would neglect them as
things of no value.
Vol. XI. Part I,
A L S. 9
Many different names have been impofed on. the Ancient
coins belonging to the different ftates of Greece: thus l0nt:y‘ f
K°?», the maiden, was a name often applied to the te¬
tradrachm, and w-hich would feem to apply to thofe Differ^,,,,
of Athens; thpugh there are coins of other cities withnam-s of
the head of Proferpine, and the word K’f", to which G^eek
it would appear more applicable in our author's opi-com*'
nion. theJhell, was the name of another coin
from its type. A Sicilian coin was named Af^eri^
from Gelon’s wife. A tetradrachm was named
K^aa-arayouf, and had eight or hcmidrachms.
The fo called from, its country Troizene,
had Pallas on one fide and a trident on the reverie.
The hemiobolion was the of Lacedemon ; and
the Ko/at/0@- is fuppofed to have been equal to the
Roman feftertius or quarter drachma. The colophon
were coins with the myftic cheft or hamper of Bacchus
upon them, out of which a ferpentrifes; and are much
celebrated in antiquity. We are told by Livy, that
Marcus Acilius, in his triumph over Antiochus and -
the Etolians, carried 248,000 of them ; Cneius Man¬
lius Vulfo in that over Gallo-Gr3ecia had 250,000;
and Lucius Emilius Regillus, in his naval triumph over
the fleets of Antiochus, had 131,300. Cicero like-
wufe mentions his being poffeffed of a vaft fum in them.
The moft probable opinion concerning them feems to
be, that they are all filver tetradrachm s; fuch as be¬
long to the cities of Apamea and Laodicea in Phry¬
gia ; Pergamus in Myfia ; Sardes and Tralles in Ly¬
dia ; and Ephefue; but it is a miftake to aferibe any
to Crete. Mr Pinkerton thinks it abfurd to imagine
that Crete, a fmall ifland, fliould ftrike fuch vaft num¬
bers of coins; though Cicero mentions his being in
poffeffion of an immenfe treafure imthem at the time
he was governor of Afia Minor. “ It is moft likely
(fays Mr Pinkerton), that his wealth fliould be in the
coin of the countiy to which he belonged. But what
had thefe triumphs ©r Cicero’s government to do with
Cretan money ? But indeed the coins themfelves, as
above noticed, eftablilh the faft.”
Another fet of coins famous in antiquity were thofe 34
of Cyzicus in Myfia, which were of gold; but they are Co*IJS
now almoft entirely vanifhed by being recoined in G>'Z1CUS*
other forms. The AjiavJixov or money of Ary-
andes, who was made governor of Egypt by Cam-
byfes, is made mention of by Hefychius; but none of
them, as far as is known, have reached our times.
They muft have been marked with Perfian charadters,
if with any. The coin of Queen Philijlis is mentioned
by the fame writer, and many of thefe pieces are ftill
extant; but we know not where this queen reigned,
nor does there feem to be any method of finding it
out. Mr Pinkerton inclines to believe, that (he pre-
fided over Sicily ; and as a confirmation of that fup-
pofition, mentions fome inferiptions of baxiaisxas
<diai2tiao2 on the Gradini of the theatre at Syracufe;
but which appear not older than the Roman times.
Some authors are of opinion, that ftie reigned in Cof-
fara or Malta; which our author thinks much more
improbable.
The moft particular attention with regard to the
names and ftandard of coins is due to thofe of Athens ;cojrj>Iuan
and it is remarkable, that moft of them which have
reached us are of a very late period, with the names of
B magiilrates
to MED
Anc'cnt magiflrates infcribed upon them. Some of thefe bear
. Money. < ^ name 0f MIthridates ; and few are older than the
v " era of that prince ; who, it is well known, took the
city of Athens in his war with the Romans. I fuf-
pe& (fays Mr Pinkerton) that no Athenian coins of
filver are pofterior to Sylla’s infamous deftruftion of
that city : an event the more remarkable, as Sallull
tells us, that Sylla was learned in Greek. Indeed Ca.
ligula, Nero, and moil of the pefts of fociety, have
been learned men, in fpfte of a noted axiom of Ovid,
ingenuas didic'ijje feliciter artes
Emollet mores, nec ft nit ejfe feros.
It is ftill more remarkable, that the fabric of Athe¬
nian coins is almoil univerfally very rude : a lingular
circumflance, if we refleft how much the arts fkmrifh-
ed there. It can only be accounted for from the ex¬
cellence of their artills being fuch as to occalion all
the good ones to be called into other countries, and
none but the bad left at home. In like manner, the
coins ftruck at Rome in the imperial times are excel¬
lent, as being done by the beft Greek artifts; while
thofe of Greece, though famous at that time for pro*
ducing miraculous artiils, are during that period com¬
monly of very mean execution. The opulence of A-
thens in her days of glory was very great; owing in
an eminent degree to her rich commerce with the
kingdoms dm the Euxine fea ? carried on chiefly from
Delos, which belonged to Athens, and was the grand
centre of that trade.” Hence it has become matter
of furprife to Neumann, that when there are fo
many coins of Mycene, an illand even proverbially
poor, there Ihould be none of Delos. But Mr Pinker¬
ton accounts for this from Mycene’s being a free ftate,
and Delos fubjeft to Athens. “ It may be well fup-
pofed (fays he', that Athens had a mint at Delos;
and fuch Athenian coins as have fymbols of Apollo,
Diana, or Latoha, were ftruck in this iftand.'5
36 The copper-money of the Greeks is next fn anti-
Greek cop- qU;ty to the filver. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that
per money. jt was not ufe(j at Athens till the 26th year of the Pe-
loponnefian war ; about 404 years before Chrift, and
300 after filver was firft coined there. The firft cop¬
per coins were thofe of Gelo of Syracufe, about 490
B. C.
37 The chalcos of brafs, of which eight went to the
Of the chal- £}ver 0bolus, feems to have been the firft kind of
^0,' Greek coin. At firft it was looked upon as of fo little
confequence, that it became proverbial; and to fay
that a thing was not worth a chalcos, was equivalent
to faying that it was worth nothing. As the Greeks
became poor, however, even this diminutive coin was
fubdivided into two, four, nay eight rixTa. or fmall
Coins; but our author cenfures very feverely thofe
who have given an account of thofe divifions. “ Pol¬
lux and Suidas, copying from him (fayshe), tell us, that
there were feven lepta to one chalcos; a number the
moft unlikely that can be, from its indivifibility and
incapacity of proportion.
“ Pollux Ijved in the time of Commodus, fo was too
late to be of the fmalleft authority : Suidas is four or
five centuries later, and out of the queftion. Pliny tells
us, that there were ten chalci to the obolus; Diodo¬
rus and Cleopatra that there were ffix ; Ifidorus fays
there were four; and if fuch writers differ about the
A I. s.
Sea. V.
larger denomination, we may well imagine that the Ancient
fmaller equally varied in different ftates ; an idea fup- M,ney- ,
ported by thefe undeniable witneffes the coins which
remain. Moft of the Greek copper-coin which has
reached our times confifts of chalci; the lepta bei.ng
fo fmall as to be- much more liable to be loft.” In Dr
Hunter’s cabinet, however, there are feveral of the di-
lepta of Athens: and from being ftamped with the
reprefentation of two owls, feem to be the fame with
the filver diobolus: “ a circumftance (fays Mr Pinker¬
ton) of itfelf fufficient to confute Pollux; for a dilep¬
ton can form no part of feven; a number indeed which
never appeared in any coinage of the fame metals, and
is contradidtory to common fenfe. It may be ob-
ferved, that the whole bcafs coins of Athens publiftied
by Dr Combe are reducible to four fixes, which may
Be the lepton, dilepton, tetralepton or hemichalcos, and 38
chalcos. The firft is not above the fixe of one of king lepton,
James I.’s farthing tokens; the laft about that of our^.et>tou*
common, farthing.” The lepta was alfo called
as beings change for the poor. The Kofap®-, perhaps
fo called from the figure of a wolf upon it, was the coin
of a particular ftate, and if of brafs muft have weighed
three chalci. The other names of the copper-coins of
Greece are but little known. Lycurgus ordered iron
money to be coined at Sparta ; but fo periftiable is
this metal, that none of that kind of money has reach¬
ed our times.
After the conqueft of Greece by the Romans, moft
of the coins of that country diminiflied very much in
their value, the gold coinage being totally difeonti-
nued: though fome of the barbarous kings who ufed
the Greek charadter Fwere permitted to coin gold,
but they ufed the Roman model; and the ftandard
ufed by the few cities in Alia who fpoke the Greek,
language in the times of the emperors is entirely un¬
known. Copper feems to have been the only metal
coined at that time by the Greeks themfelves ; and
that upon the Roman ftandard, then univerfal through
the empire, that there might be no impediment to the
circulation of currency. They retained, however, fome
of their own terms, ufing them along with thofe of
the Romans. The ajfarion or ajfarium of Rome, the
name of the diminifhed as, being 16 to the drachma
or denarius, the obolus was fo much diminiflied in va¬
lue as to be ftruck in brafs not much larger than the
old chalcus, and valued at between two and three af-
faria; which was indeed its ancient rate as to the
drachma. This appears from the copper coins of
Chios, which have their names marked upon them.
The brafs obolus, at firft equal in fixe to the Roman
feftertiusor large brafs, leffensby degrees to about the
fixe of a filver drachma. From the badnefs of the
imperial coinage in Greece alfo, it appears that brafs
was very fcarce in that country, as well as in all the
cities ufing the Greek charadfers; being found moftly
in the weftern countries of the Roman empire. The 3p
time of this declenfion in fixe of the Greek coins is Era of the
by Mr Pinkerton fuppofed to have been from Au- declenfion
guftus down to Gallienus. He is of opinion, however, Grjetsoin-
that the copper obolus, at firft above the fixe of large age.
brafs, was ufed in Greece about the time of its firft
fubje&ion to Rome ; and that the lepta ceafing, the
chalci came in their room, with the dichalcus and the
hemiobolion of brafs.
With
Sea.’V. MED
Ancient With refpeA to the gold coins of the Greeks, Mr
. M°ney. Pinkerton is of opinion that none of that metal was
4Q coined before the time of Philip of Macedon, as none
<jold coins have reached our times prior to the reign of that mo-
«f Greece, narch. From a pafTage in Thucydides our author con-
clues, that in the beginning of the Peloponnefian war
the Athenians had no gold coin. Mentioning the
treafure in the Acripolis or citadel of Athens, at the
commencement of that war, the hiftorian mentions
filver coin, and gold and filver in bullion; and had
Tiny of the gold been in coin, he would certainly have
mentioned it. Philip began his reign about 68 years
after the beginning of the Peloponnefian war ; and
we can fcarce fuppofe that any city would have pre¬
ceded the elegant and wealthy Athens in the coining of
gold-
41 Notwithftanding, however, this deficiency of gold
ecTearT^iji C0ln amon£ t^ie Greeks, it is certain that the coinage
Bitily. y in gold had taken place in Sicily long before ; as we
have gold coins of Gelo about 491 B. C. of Hiero I.
478, and of Dionyfius I. in 404, all ufing the Greek
characters; though not to he ranked among the gold
coins of Greece, as Philip caufed his to be. Gold
coins of Syracufe even appear of the third clafs of an¬
tiquity, or with an indented fquare, and a fmall figure
in one of its fegments. Gold coins were ufed in the
cities of Brettium, Tarentum, and throughout Magna
Grecia; alfo in Panticapsea in Thrace, and likewife
Cofa in that country ; but not in Tufcany, as is com¬
monly believed, though Neumann proves that they are
ftruck by Brutus, and are unqueftionably as ancient as
the Greek coins. The Thebans and Athenians pro-
_ bably coined the firft gold after Philip had fet them
■the example, and when they were attempting to refill;
the projects of that enterprifing monarch. The Atto-
Jians probably coined their gold during the time of
their greatell power, about a century after Philip, and
when they were combating the power of Aratus and
the Achaean league; “ There is (fays Mr Pinkerton)
but one of Thebes, much worn, in Dr Hun¬
ter’s cabinet, and weighing but 59 grains ; and per¬
haps not above two or three Xf>va<t‘ or gold didrachms
of Athens in the world ; one of which is alfo in the
colledlion of Dr Hunter, and weighs 1324- grains.
It appears to be more modern than the reign of Phi¬
lip. That monarch having got pofieffion of the mines
of Philippi in Thrace, improved them fo much, that
they produced him annually above a thoufand talents
of gold, or 2,880,0001 of our money. From this
gold the firft coins named from the monarch Philippi
were ftruck. They were marked with his portrait;
and for many ages after were fo numerous, that they
Were common in the Roman empire; whence the
name Philippi became at length common to gold, fil¬
ver, and at laft even brafs coins of their fize. Even
in the time of Philip gold was very fcarce in Greece ;
but after the Phocians had plundered the temple of
Delphos, this precious metal, which had been valu¬
ed as gems, and confecrated only to the decoration
of the temples of the gods, began to be known among
the Greeks. The comparative value of gold and fil¬
ver, however, feem to have been at that time very dif¬
ferent from what they are now. Herodotus values
gold at 13 times its weight in filver ; Plato in his
Hipparchus at 12; and even the low value of 10 to
A L S. 11
j feems to have been the ftated value in Greece, tho' Aainenr
in Rome the plenty of filver from the Spanilh mines MontyA
made the value of gold to be much higher; and there
is no reafon to think that it was ever valued in that
city at lefs than 12 times its weight in filver. The
Philippusy xZ'ja<Sr' gold piece, or Jlatert is a didrachm,
and is the moft common of all the ancient coins. Mr
Pinkerton is of opinion that it went for 20 filver
drachms on its firft appearance ; but in latter times
for 25 Greek drachma; or Roman denarii. There are
proofs of the Philippi being didrachms, both from the
writings of ancient authors and from numbers of the
coins themfelves, which remain to this day ; and that
the or principal gold coin of Greece, was of
the fame weight, is alfo evident from ancient writings.
It was anciently worth about 15 s. but valuing gold
now at the medium price of 41. per ounce, it is worth
about 20 s. The or half the former coin,
fcarcely occurs of the coinage of Philip and Alexan¬
der, though it does of Hiero I. of Syracufe and of king
Pyrrhus. It palled for ten filver drachmas, and was
valued only at 7 s. 6d. though now worth 10 s. There
was another divifion of this kind worth about 5 s. >
There were befides fome leffer divifions of gold coins,
which could not be worth above two drachmas. Thefe
were coined in Cyrcne ; and there were befides feveral
old gold coins of Afia Minor, the value of which is
now unknown. Our author fuppofes that they were
coined not with relation to their weight as parts of the
drachma, but merely to make them correfpond with fo
many filver pieces as was necefiary. There are alfo
larger coins than the x- <T^r’ the &‘x?‘u,T®' of Alexander
and Lyfimachus being double its value. Some others
are met with by Lyfimachus, Antiochus III. and fome
of the Egyptian monarchs, weighing four times the
and now worth about 4I. fterling. Some
weigh even more ; but this our author fuppofes owing
to the gold being lefs pure.
In Rome, as well as in Greece, the money was at 42
firft eftimated by weight; and the firft metal coinedRoniaa
by that people was copper, filver being long unknown moncir*
in Rome ; nor is it certainly known that any filver
has ever been found in the Italian mines. In Rome
the firft valuation of money was hy the libra gravis
itris, or pound of heavy brafs: and in the progrefs of
their conquefts, the little filver and gold that came in
their way was regulated by the fame ftandard, as ap¬
pears from the ftory of Brennus. The weights made 43
ufe of were the fame with thofe which continue to this poundi
day. The pound confifted of 12 ounces of 458 grains
each; but the pound by which the money was weigh¬
ed appears to have confifted only of 420 grains to the
ounce, or to have contained in all 5040 grains. This
became the ftandard of copper; and when filver came
to be coined, feven denarii went to the ounce as eight
drachms did in Greece. Gold was regulated by the
fcriptulum or fcrupulum, the third part of a denarius,
and by the larger weights juft mentioned. The num¬
ber 10 was at firft ufed by the Romans in counting
their mone y ; but finding afterwards that a fmaller
number was more convenient, they divided it into
quarters ; and as the quarter of 10 is 21, they for this ^
reafon bellowed upon it the name offejlerlius or “ half Seftertius,
the third;” to exprefs that it was two of any weights, as, &c.
meafures, &c. and half a third; whence the feftertius
B 2 came
3 2 MED
Ancient came at laft to be the grand eflimate of Roman mo-
^ Money. ney.< rpjie being at firft the largeft, and indeed the
^ only Roman coin, the word fejlertius means fejlertius as,
or “ two afes and an half.” On the firft coining of
filver, the denarius of ten afps was ftrbck in the moft
common and convenient denaiy divifion of money, or
that by tens; the feftertius being of courfe two afes
and an half. But the denarius being afterwards efti-
mated at 16 afes, the name feftertius was ftill applied
to a quarter of the denarius, though it now contained
four afes. The term fejlertius was applied to all fums
not exceeding 1000 feftertii, or L 8:6:8; but for
greater fums the mode of the feftertius was likewife
altered, though not to exclude the former. Very large
fums of money were eftimated by the hundred weight
of brafs; for the Romans were at firft unacquainted
with the talent. The hundred weight, by way of
eminence, was diftinguifhed by the name of pondus,
and fejlertium pondus became a phrafe for two hundred
weight and an half. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion,
that we may value the as libralis of ancient Rome at
about eight-pence Englifh. Eftimating the as there¬
fore at a pound weight, the fejlertium pondus was equal
to 1000fejlertii, or L.8 : 6 : 8; and by a coincidence
■which our author fuppofes to have been the effedf of
defign, as foon as the filver coinage appeared, the
fejlertium centum denariorum was always equal to L.8,
6s. 8d. alfo. The word fejlertium itfelf, however, feems
to have been unknown prior to the coinage of filver
money at Rome : the pondera gravis eeris being fuffi-
cient before that time for all the purpofes of a ftate in
which money was fo fcarce. But however this may
be, the pondus or hundred weight of brafs was precife-
ly worth too denarii, or a pound of filver. As the
great feftertium was always valued at iooo of the
fmaller, or L.8 :6: 8, we never find one feftertium
mentioned in authors, but two, three, or more ; ten
thoufand of them being equal to L. 8,333,333 • 6 :
■Whoice ^ates from which the Romans may be fuppo-
*he Ro- fed firft to have derived their coinage, were the Etruf-
xnans deri- cans and the Greek colonies in Magna Grecia and
■wed their Sicily. Jofeph Sealiger, Gronovius, &c. contend that
«omage. jt was from the Sicilians that the Romans firft derived
their knowledge of money ; but Mr Pinkerton argues
that it was from the Etrufcans. In confirmation of
his opinion he appeals to the ftate of the Roman ter¬
ritories in the time of Servius Tullius, who is looked
upon to have been the firft who coined money at
Rome. At that time the whole Roman dominion
did not extend beyond ten miles round the city ; and
was entirely furrounded by the Etrufcan and Latin
ftates; Cuma being the next Greek colony to it that
was of any confequence, and which was in the neigh¬
bourhood of Naples, at about the diftanee o'f 150
miles. Our author afks. Is it reafonable to think
that the Romans received the ufe of money from the
Etrufcans and Latians who were their neighbours, or
from the Greeks, who were at a diftance, and at that
time, as far as appears from their hiftory, abfolutely
unknown to them ? “ If this argument (adds he) is
ftrong with regard to the neareft Grecian colonies,
what muft it be with refpeft to Sicily, an ifland 300
miles diftant from Rome, where it was not known, at
that time, if a boat went by land or water V* Argu¬
ments, however, for this opinion, have been derived
A L S. Sefl.V.
from the fimilarity betwixt the Sicilian and Roman Ancient i
coins; which Mr Pinkerton now proceeds to examine. Money. |
The Greek pound in Sicily was called and con-
filled, like the Roman, of 12 ovyuix,, or ounces; and'
Mr Pinkerton grants that the Roman libra was deri¬
ved from the Greek MT?a> but denies that the as, or
libra, a coin, was from Sicilian model. The Sicilians
had indeed a coin named but it was of filver, and
of equal value to. the Eginean ftandard, ten of which
went to the Sicilian He differs from Gro¬
novius, that the ftandard of jEgina was ufed at Co¬
rinth, and of courfe at Syracufe 5 as it appears from
Arillotle, that the Sicilians had a talent or ftandard of
their own. The Sicilian obolus or contained al¬
fo 12 ounces or chalci, fo named at firft becaufe they
weighed an ounce weight; but the 0f Hiero
weigh more than a troy ounce; and the brafs coins
of Agrigentum are marked with cyphers as far as fix:
the largeft weighing only 186 grains, or about one
third of the primitive ounce. Our author denies that
even the Roman denarius took its rife from the Si<ri-
lian .WMrfov, as many authors affert. Were this the
cafe, it would have weighed 180 grains ; whereas the
Roman denarii are not above the third part of the
quantity.
From all thefe confiderations, our author is of opi- 46
nion that the Sicilians borrowed the divifion of their °rigin .°f
K’.Tga from the Etrufcans, or pofiiblyfrom the Romansth? Sicilia* ,
themfelves; which our author thinks is more probableCUmS*
than that the Romans had it from Sicily. The
ftrongeft argument, however, againft the Roman coin¬
age being borrowed from the Sicilian is, that though'
great numbers of Sicilian coins are to be found in the
cabinets of medallifts, yet none of them refemble the
as libralis of the Romans in any degree. In moft ca¬
binets alfo there are Etrufcan coins upon the exaft
fcale of the as libralis, and feveral of its diyifions f
from whence Mr Pinkerton concludes, that “ thefe,
and thefe alone, muft have afforded a pattern to the
primitive Roman coinage.” The Etrufcans were a co¬
lony from Lydia, to which country Herodotus aferibes
the firft invention of coinage. “Thofecolonifts(faysMr
Pinkerton), upon looking round their fettleraents, and<
finding that no filver was to be had, and much lefs gold,”
fupplied the mercantile medium with copper; to which
the cafe of Sweden is very fitnilar, which, as late as the
laft century, had copper coins of fuch magnitude, that
wheebbarrows were ufed to carry off a fum not very
eonfiderable.
Some coins are found which exceed the as lilralis in
weight; and thefe are fuppofed to be prior to theOf the moft
time of Servius Tullius. Some of them are met with anc»ent.R<>-
of 34 and of 53 Roman ounces; having upon oneman S0lDS‘
fide the figure of a bull rudely impreffed, and upon
the other the bones of a fifh. They are moft com¬
monly found at Tudder, or Tudertum in Umbria J
but they appear always broken at one end : fo that
Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that perhaps fome might
be ftruck of the decuffis form, or. v/eighing ten pounds.
Thefe pieces, in our author’s opinion, make it evi¬
dent, that the Romans derived their large brafs coin»
from the Etrufcans and the neighbouring ftates : they
are all call in moulds ; and the greater part of them
appear much more ancient than the Roman afes, evea
fuch aa arc of the greateft antiquity.
Se£t,
of the dates of the Roman coinage is given by Mr A"“
Pinkertqn. Mo
The libralis, coined by TuIIus with the figures of
oxen, See. about 167 years after the building of Rome,
according to Sir Ifaac Newton, or about the year be-
V. MEDALS.
nt Mr Pinkerton agrees with Sir Ifaac Newton as to the
y- time that Servius Tullius reigned in Rome, which he
fuppofes to be about 460 B. C. His coinage feems to
have been confined to the as, or piece of brafs having the
impreffion of Janus on the one fide and rhe prow of a
ihip on the other, becaufe Janus arrived in Italy by fea. fore Chrift
Varro, however, informs us, that the very firft coins As libralis with Janus and the prow of a Ihip
of Tullius had the figure of a bull, or other cattle As of ten ounces
upon them, like the Etrufcan coins, of which they
were imitations. Thofe with the figure of Janus and
the prow of a Ihip upon them may be fuppofed firft
to have appeared about 400 B. C. but, in a Ihort
time, various fubdivifions of the as were coined. The
*3
Eight
Six
Four
Three
Two, according to Pliny
1 4'8 femis or half is commonly llamped with the head ©f One, according to the fame author
Iso/the JuP'ter laureated ; the trieru or third, having four cy-
, phers, as being originally of four ounces weight, has
the head of Minerva; the quadrant or quarter, marked
with three cyphers, has the head of Hercules wrapt
in the lion’s Ikin; the fextans or fixth, having only
two cyphers, is marked with the head of Mercury
with a cap and wings ; while the uncia having only
one cypher, is marked with the head of Rome. All
460
400
3 00
290
280
270
260
250
214
About 175 B. C. alfo, we are informed by Pliny,
that the as was reduced to half an ounce by the Papy-
rian law, at which it continued till the time of Pliny
himfelf, and long after.
After the Romans began to have an intercourfe with
Greece,a variety of elegant figures appearupon the parts
of the as, though not on the as itfelf till after the time
of Sylla. Towards the latter end of the republic alfo,
thefe coins appear to have been call in moulds, by a dupondii, or double afes, were coined, together with
confiderable number at a time; and in the Britilh mu- the feftertii serei, which came in place of the quadruf-
feum there are four of them all united together as fes> when the denarius began to be reckoned at 16 afes ;
taken out of the mould in which perhaps dozens were probably at the time the latter was reduced to half an
call together. In procefs of time, however, thefmall- ounce. In fome inllances it is to beobferved, that the
er divifions were ftruck inllead of being call ; but "
the larger Hill continued to be call until the as
fell to two ounces. Even after this time it was
ft ill called libra, and accounted a pound of copper;
Romans accommodated their coins to the country where j r.
their army was ftationed ; whence we have many coins CoIbs on
marked as Roman, which have been coined in Magna
Grecia and Sicily, and are evidently upon, the Greek/j as Ro- "
Larger de- though there were now larger denominations of it and not the Roman feale. In the latter part of the
noirina coined, fuch as the biffas or double as : treffis and qua- republican times, alfo, the types begin to vary ; fo
tions of it drufis of three and four afes; nay as far as decujfis or that we have a brafs coin fuppofed to be ftruck by
ruc * ten afes, marked X. Olivieri mentions one in his own Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, having upon it a double
cabinet weighing upwards of 25 ounces, and call when head of that warrior, reprefenting a Janus. Mr Pin-
the as was about three ounces weight. There is likewife kerton fuppofes it to have been a dupondius ; which
in the Mufseum Etrufcum a decuflis of 40 Roman indeed appears to be the cafe from the double head,
ounces, call when 'the as was at four ounces. There This coin is of copper, and ftill weighs an ounce, not-
was likewife a curious decuflis in the Jefuit’s library withftanding its antiquity.
at Rome, for which an Englilh medallift offered 20I.;
but it was feized by the Pope along with every other
thing belonging to the fociety.
Mr Pinkerton eontefts the opinion of Pliny that
The largeft imperial copper coin was the feftertius, 5*
apiece worth about two-pence of our money. Mrr^e k*’'
Pinkerton cenfures feverely the opinion of otlier me-^ertnM*’
dallifts, all of whom fay that the feftertius'was of id-
Lecreafc of the as continued of a pound weight till the end of ver. “ In faA (fays he), it would be as rational in
the firft Punic war. His opinion (he fays) is con¬
futed by the coins which ftill remain ; and it appears
probable to him that the as decreafed gradually in
weight; and, from one or two of the pieces which
ftill exift, he feems to think that the deereafe was
flow, as from a pound to eleven ounces, then to ten.
any antiquary, a thoufand years hence, to contend
that the halfpenny and farthing are of filver, becaufe
they were fo in the reign of Henry VIII.” In con¬
firmation of his own opinion, he quotes the following
paflage from Pliny “ The greateft glory of brafs is
now due to the Marian, called alfo that of Cordova.
nine, &c.; but neither the as nor its parts were ever This, after the Livian, moft abforbs the lapis calami-
eorre&ly fized. During the time of the feeond Punic Baris, and imitates the goodnefs of native orichalcum
war, when the Romans were fore prefled by Hanni- in our feftertii and dupondiarii, the afes being con-
bal, the as was reduced to a Angle ounce. It is faid tented with their own copper.” Gronovius confefles
to have taken place in the 215th year before our era, that he does not know what to make of this paflage,
being about 36 years after the former change. This and that it caufes him hefitate in his opinion. The
as libralis, with the face of Janus upon it, is the form Livian mine mentioned here by Pliny, is fuppofed to
moft commonly met with previous to its being redu- have got its name from L'roia the wife of Auguftus j
ced to two ounces. Our author fuppofes that the as and it is probable that the pieces marked with her
libralis continued for at leaft a century and an half portrait, intitkd Justitia, Salus, Vrarus, &c.
after the coinage of Tullus, down to 300 B. C. about were dupondii from this very mine, the metal being,
the year of Rome 452, between which and the 502d exceedingly fine, and of the kind named Corinthian.
year of Rome a gradual diminution of the as to two- brafs by the ancient medallifts. “ Perhaps (fays Mr
eunces oiuft have- taken place. The following table Pinkerton) the mine received its name from this very
u MED
Ancicnf circumfiance-erf her coins being ftruck in the metal
Money. ta}ien from it.”
^ No change took place in the Roman coinage from
. (jokfagc the time that the as fell to half an ounce to the
of > ellow davs of Pliny: but Mr Pinkerton obferves, that be-
■tsrdf;, fore the time- of Julius Cefar yellow brafs began to
be ufed, and was always looked upon to be double the
value of Cyprian Or red copper. There are but few
coins in large brafs immediately before Julius Ctefar,
or even belonging to that emperor ; but from the time
of Auguttus downward, the large coins are all found
of brafs, and not one of them copper. The largeft of
what are called the middle iize are all of yellow brafs;
and the next fize, which is the as, and weighs half an
ounce, is unive*rfally copper. What the ancients na¬
med ork/w/cam, or what we call lrajs, was always look¬
ed upon to be greatly fuperior in value to the ass cy-
prium. Procopius, fpeaking of a ftatue of Juftinian,
tells us, that brafs infei-ior in colour to gold is almoft
equal in value to filver. The mines of native brafs
were very few in number, and were owing entirely to
the lingular combination of copper and lapis calamina-
ris in the bowels of the earth, which very feldom oc¬
curs ; and the ancients were far from being well ac¬
quainted with the method of combining thefe two bo¬
dies artificially; fo that yellow brafs was always efteem-
ed at double the value of copper: and hence, in the
ancient coinages, the brafs and copper pieces were
kept as diftindt as-tliofe of gold and filver.
Mr Pinkerton challenges to himfelf the difeovery
> that the imperial fellertius was of brafs; and is at con-
fiderable pains'to bring proofs of it. Befides the te¬
stimony of Pliny, which of itfelf would be decifive,
this isfupported by the llrongeft collateral evidence of
other authors. From a pafiage in Julius Africanus,
who wrote the ©r Treatife on Medicine, it ap¬
pears that the nummus, or feftertius, weighed an
ounce, and of confequence that it could not be filver
but brafs; and all the large imperial Roman coins
weigh an ounce. We know not the age in which Ju¬
lius Africanus lived ; but as he makes the denarius to
contain 16 afes, he mull have been before the age of
Gallienus, when it had 60. Gronovius fuppofes him
to have been the fame mentioned by Eufebius. This
author fpeaks of a Julius Africanus who lived in the
time of Heliogabulus, and whom Mr Pinkerton fup¬
pofes to have been the fame with him above men-
tioned.
Diminution The feftertius underwent no change till the time of
of the fe- Alexander Severus, when it was diminifhed by one
ftertius. third of its weight. Trajanus Decius was the firft
who coined double feftertii, or quinarii, of brafs ; but
from the time of Trebonianus Gallus to that of Gal-
lieiur, when the firft brafs ceafes, the feftertius does
not weigh above the third part of an ounce: the lar¬
ger coins are accounted double feftertii ; and after
the time of Gallienus it totally vanifhes. In the time
of Valerian and GaUienu* we find a new kind of coin¬
age, mentioned by ti e name otdenarii arts, or Philip*
pi ar'ei. Two fizes of denarii began to be ufed in the
time of Caracalla ; the larger of .fix feftertii, or 24
afiaria ; the fmaller of four feftertii, or 16 affaria as
ufual. In the time of Pupienus, the latter was redu¬
ced to fuch a fmall fize as not to weigh more than
36 grains j though in Caracallatime it weighed 56.
A L S. Sect. v.
After-the time of Gordian III. the fmaller coin fell Ancient
into difiife, as breeding confufion. The larger dena- Money'
rius of fix feftertii, though diminifhed at lait to the
fize of the early denarius, {till retained its value of fix
feftertii, or 24 aflaria. The Phdippus areas came at
length in place of the fefteitius. It was alfo called
denarius ; from which we may learn not only their
.fize, but that they were in value ten aflaria as the firft
denarius. In the reign of Dioclefian, the place of
the feftertius was fupplied by the follis, that emperor
having reftored the filver coin to its purity, and like-
wife given this form to the copper; but it would feem
that this reftoration of fhe coinage only took place to¬
wards the end of his reign ; whence we have but few
of his filver coins, and ftill fewer of the folks, though
the denarii arei continue quite common down to the
time of Conftantine. The follis of Diocldian feems
to have weighed above half an ounce ; and Mr Pin¬
kerton is of opinion, that Dioclefian deiigned this
coin to fupply the place of the denarius sereus; which
of courfe was worth ten affariae, and fix of them went
to the filver denarius. From this time the aflarium
diminilhes to the iize of 30 grains ; and foon after the
follis appeared, the denarius aereus was entirely drop¬
ped, the former having gradually fupplied its place.
Some mints appear to have retained the ufe of the de¬
narius longer than others ; and in fome the change
was preceded, and gradually brought in by wafhing
the follis with filver or tin, as the denarius had for¬
merly been. Pieces of this kind occur in the times
of Dioclefian, Maximian I. and II. and Conftantius I.j
that is, for about ten years after the follis made its ap¬
pearance. Some countries, however, retained the de¬
narius cereus ; others the follis; and fome had a me¬
dium betwixt the two, or the follis wafhed in imita¬
tion of the denarius.
Towards the end of the reign of Conftantine La
new coinage was introduced throughout the whole
empire. The follis coined by this prince was of halfduced by'
an ounce v/eight; 24 of them going to the milliaren-Conftan-
fis, or larger filver coin. The word fo/lis fignifies alfotine *•
a purfe, in which fenfe we fometimes find it mention¬
ed in the Byzantine hiftory. The common follis of
filver, when it occurs by itfelf, means a puri'e of 250
milliarenfes, as the feftertium was 250 denarii; and by
a law of Conftantine 1. every man paid to the fta.te a fol¬
lis or purfe according to his income. The method of
counting by purfes continues in Turkey to this day.
The duponchus was only half the value of the feftertius, *6
or about one penny Sterling; and Before the yellow Of the dit-
brafs appeared it feems to have been ftruck upon cop-Pou<*‘us*
per, and double the fize of the as. There are fome
of this coin, ftruck in the time of Julius Cstfar, in yel-
low brafs, weighing half an ounce, with a head of
Venus Vi£trix upon one fide; on the reverfe, a female
figure, with ferpents at her feet: while others have a
Vitlory on the reverfe, with Q^Oppius Pr. After the
time of Auguftus, the dupondnts was ftruck in yellow
brafs ; which Pliny tells us was alfo the cafe in his time.
The word dupondiarius feemsto have been ufedby Pliny,
and adopted, not to exprefs that the coin was dupondius,
but that it was of dupondiary value. Neither was the
former word confined to fignify double weight, but was
ufed alfo for double length or meafure, as in the in-
ftance of dupond'ms pes, or two feet, &c. In the im¬
perial
Sea. V. MED
Ancient perial times, therefore, dupondius was ufed, not to fig-
Money. £;fy a coin 0f double the weight of the as, but of
  double the value. It was one of the moll common of
the Roman coins ; and feems to have been very com¬
mon even in Conftantinople. In the time of Juf-
tinian, it feems there was a cuftom of nicknaming
young Undents of the law dupondii, againft which the
emperor made a law ; but it is not known what gave
rife to the name. The dupondms, though of the
fame fue with the as, is commonly of finer workman-
Ihip, the metal being greatly fupenor in value. It
continues to be of yellow brafs, as well as the ielter-
tins, to the time of Gallienus ; but the as is always
of copper.
57 The imperial as, or atfarium, was worth only an
Of the af- halfpenny. At firtt it weighed half an ounce, and
feriuni- was always of copper till the time oi Gallienus, when
it was made of brafs, and weighed only^ the eight
part of an ounce. From the time of Galhenus to
that of Dioclefian, it continued to dimimlh ihll more,
thefize being then twenty to an ounce. This was
the fame with the lepta, or fmallelt coins but the
vowua, which weighed only ten grains.
& The parts of the as occur but leldom ; which may,
fharts of indeed, be well expefted, confidering the low value of
6 aS' it; though there ftill occur fome oi thofe called femis,
triens, quadrans, fextans, and uncia, coined in the
times of Nero and Domitian. There is no fmall brafs
from the time of Pertinax to that of Gallienus, ex¬
cepting that of Trajanus Decius ; but in the time of
Gallienus it becomes extremely common ; and the coins
of fmall brafs, as well as the larger, are always mark¬
ed S. C. fuch as want it being umverfally accounted
forgeries, and were plated with filver, though the
plating be now worn off. The fmall pieces itruck for
Haves during the time of the faturnaha muff alio be
diffinguiihed from the parts of the as. The S. C.
upon thefe moff probably iignifies Saturm ConfuUo, and
were ffruck in ridicule of the true coins, as the ilaves
59 on that occafion had every privilege oi irony.
Of the The feftertius dimihifhes from Pertinax to Gallienus
Roman fo faft that no PartS °f the aS ^ itrUtk’ kfelf bCin£
coins.”1 fo fmall. Trajanus Decius, indeed, coined iome imaii
pieces, which went for the femis of the time. 'I he
fmall brafs coins under Gallienus were called affaria,
fjxty of which went to the filver denarius. They are
about the iize of the denarius, and fome of them oc¬
cur of the coinage of Gallus and his family, of half
thatfize, which appear to have been ftruck during the
latter part of his reign, when the affarium was dimi-
nifiled to a ftill fmaller fize. It is probable, however,
that fome of thefe very fmall coins had been ftruck in
all ages of the empire, in order to fcatter among the
60 people on folemn occafions. Mr Pinkerton is of opi-
Of the mif- nion that they are the mijjiha, though moft other me-
daliifts think that they were medallions. “ But if fo
(fays our author), they were certainly called mijjika a
non mittendo j for it would be odd it fine medallions
were fcattered among the mob. It is a common cuf¬
tom juft now to ftrike counters to fcatter among the
populace on fuch occafions, while medals are given to
peers of the kingdom ; and we may very juftly reafon
from analogy on this occafion.”
The ajjarion vr Upton of the Conftantinopolitan em-
A L S. 15
pire was, as we have already obfmed, one of the Ancient
fmalleft coins known in antiquity, weighing no more Money~ ,
than 20 grains; and the noumia were the very fmalleft ^
which have reached our times, being only one-half of
the former. By reafon of their extreme fmallnefs,
they are very fcarce ; but Mr Pinkerton informs us,
that he has in his poffeffion a fine one of Theodofius II.
which has on it the emperor’s head in profile. Theo¬
dofius P. F. AV.; on uthe reverfe a wreath, having in
the centre vot. xx.: mult. xxx.
The principal coin of the lower empire was the fol- 61
lis, which was divided into an half and quarter, narned^1°^v^gr
3>t!ero^x;®-and Tsrzf j-v; the latter of which is fliownempjre>
by Du Cange to have been a fmall brafs coin, as the
other is fuppofed to have been by Mr Pinkerton.—
Befides thefe, the follis was divided into 8 oboli, 16
affaria or lepta, and 32 noumia, though in common
computation it contained 40 of thefe laft. This coin,
notwithftanding fo many divifions, was of no more •
value than an halfpenny.
Mr Pinkerton controverts an opinion, common
among medallifts, that the largeft brafs coin or follis
of the lower empire had 40 fmall coins, expreffed by
the letter M upon it ; the next had 3c, exprefftd by
the letter a ; the half by the letter K ; and the quar¬
ter marked I, which contained only io. Mr. Pinker¬
ton informs us, that he has three coins of Anaftafius,.
all marked M in large : one of them weighs more
than half an ounce ; the fecond 40 grains lefs; and
the third of 160 grains, or one-third of an ounce ; but
the fize is fo very unequal, that the laft, which is very
thick, does not appear above half the fize of the firft.
There are pieces of Juftinian which weigh a whole
ounce; but the fize of copper was increafed as the
filver became fcarcer ; and the value of the coinage
cannot be deduced from the weight of the coins, as it
is plain that our own coinage is not of half the value
with regard to the metal. A great number of medal¬
lions were ftruck by Conftantius II. but there is no
other copper larger than the half ounce, excepting
that of Anaftafius, when the follis began to be ftruck
larger. All medallifts allow the others to be medallions.
The metal employed in thefe very fmall coins,
though at firft of brafs, was always a bafe and refufe
kind j but copper is generally made ufe of in the parts
of the as from the earlieft times to the lateft ; and if
brafs be fometimes employed, it is never fuch as ap¬
pears in the feftertii and dupondiarii, which is very
fine and beautiful, but only the refufe. “ Yellow brafs
of the right fort (fays Mr Pinkerton) feems totally
to have ceafed in the Roman coinage with the fefter¬
tius, under Gallienus, though a few fmall coins of
very bad metal appear under that hue as late as Ju¬
lian II.”
Silver was coined in Rome only as late as the 485th
year of the city, or 266 B. C. Varro indeed fpeaksRoman
of filver having been coined by Servius Tullius, and^ver.
the libella having been once in filver ; but Pliny’s au¬
thority muft be accounted of more weight than that
of this author, as he miftakes the of Sicily for
Roman coins, having been current at Rome during
the time of the firft Punic war. Even Pliny, accord¬
ing to our author, very frequentlynniftakes with regard,
to matters much antecedent to his own. time; and;
J among.;
i6 MED
Ancient among the moderns he criticifes feverely Erafmus and
, M, liey~ Hume. “ Erafmus (fays he), who had been in Eng-
L"' janci for fome time, talks of leaden money being ufed
here. Not even a leaden token was ftruck in the
reign of Henry VIII.; yet his authority has been fol¬
lowed with due deference to fo great a name ; for
how could Erafnaus, who mull have feen the matter
with his own eyes, afl'ert a direft falfehood ? To give
a later inftance in a writer of reputation, Mr Hume,
in vol. vi. of his hiftory, has thefe words, in treating
of the reign of James I. “ It appears that copper
halfpence and farthings began to be coined in this
reign. Tradefmen had commonly carried on their re¬
tail bufinefs by leaden tokens. The fmall filver penny
was foon loft; and at this time was nowhere to be
found.” Copper halfpence and farthings were not
ftruck till Charles II. 1672 : there were fmall tokens
for farthings ftruck in copper by James I. but not one
for the halfpenny. The filver farthings had ceafed
with Edward VI. but the filver halfpence continued
the foie coins till Charles II. It was by copper tokens
that fmall bufinefs was carried on. The filver penny
was much ufed till the end of the reign of George I.;
and, fo far from being nowhere to be found, is fuper-
abundant of every reign fince that period, not except¬
ing even the prefent reign of George III. From thefe
inftances the reader may judge how ftrangely writers
of all ages blunder, when treating a fubjeft of which
they are entirely ignorant.”
The firft filver denarii coined at Rome, are fup-
Denarii pofed by our author to have been thofe which are im-
when firft preffed with the Roma ; and he inclines to account
coined. the moft ancient which have a double female
head on the one fide, and on the reverfe Jupiter in a
car, with Victory holding the reins, and the word
Roma indented in a rude and Angular manner. The
double female head feems to denote Rome, in imita¬
tion of the Janus then upon the as. There are 15 of
thefe in the Cabinet of Dr Hunter; one of the largeft
weighs 98J- grains: and the reft, which feem to be of
greateft antiquity, are of various weights betwixt that
and 84; the fmaHer and more modern weigh 58 or
59 grains ; but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that the
large ones are of the very firft Roman coinage, and
ftruck during that interval of time betwixt the coin¬
age of the firft filver denarius and the as of two ounces.
He takes the indentation of the word Roma to be a
mark of great antiquity ; fuch a mode being fcarcely
known any where elfe, except in Caulonia, Crotona,
and other towns of Italy ; all of them allowed to be
ftruek at leaft 400 B. C. As thefe large coins are not
double denarii, they muft have been ftruck prior to
the fmall ones ; and Newmann has given an account of
one of them recoined by Trajan, in which the inden¬
tation of Roma is carefully preferved. The firft de¬
narius was in value 10 afes, when the as weighed three
ounces ; and allowing 90 grains at a medium for one
of thefe large denarii, the proportion of copper to
filver muft have been as 1 to 160 ; but when the as
fell to one ounce, the proportion was as 1 to 80 ;
when it fell to half an ounce, fo that 16 afes went to
the denarius, the proportion was as 1 to 64, at
which it remained. Copper with us, in coinage, is
to filver as 1 to 40 ; but in aftual value as 1 to 72.
At Rome the denarius was worth 8d.: the quina*
N° 201.
A L S. Sea. V.
rius 4d.; and the feftertius, whether filver or brafs, 2d. Ancient
The denarius is the coin from which our penny is de- Money«
rived, and was the chief filver coin in Rome for
600 years. According to Celfus, feven denarii went VaiKf
to the Roman ounce, which in metals did not exceed the denarius
430 grains ; but as all the denarii hitherto met with and its
weigh at a medium only 60 grains, this would feem Part8,
to make the Roman ounce only 420 grains ; though
perhaps this deficiency may be accounted for from the
unavoidable wafte of metal even in the beft preferved
of thefe coins. According to this proportion the Ro¬
man pound contained 84 denarii ; but in tale there
was a very confiderable excefs; for no fewer than 100
denarii went to the Roman pound. The Greek
ounce appears to have been confiderably larger than
that of Rome, containing about 528 grains ; yet not-
withftanding this apparently great odds, the difference
in the coins was fo fmall, that the Greek money went
current in Rome, and the Roman in Greece. The
denarius at firft went for 10 afl'es, and was marked X;
it was afterwards raifed to 16; which Mr Pinkerton
fuppofes to have been about 175 B. C. Some are
met with bearing the number XVI. nay, with every
number up to CCCCLXXVI. Thefe large numbers
are fuppofed to have been mint-marks of fome kind
or other. After being raifed to 16 afes, it continu¬
ed at the fame value till the time of Gallienus; fo
that till that time we are to look upon its conftituent
parts to be 16 afes or affaria, eight dupondii, four
brafs feftertii, and two. filver quinarii. Under the
emperor Severus, however, or his fucceffor Caracalla,
denarii were ftruck of two fizes, one of them a third
heavi£rthanthecommon; whichwemuft ofconfequence
fuppofe to have borne a third more value. This large
piece obtained the name of argenteus, and argenteus
Philippus, or the “ filver Philip the name of Philip
having become common to almoft every coin. The
common denarii now began to be termed minuti and
argentei Philippi minutuli, &c. to exprefs their being
fmaller than, the reft. Some have imagined that the
large denarii were of the fame value with the fmall,
only of worfe metal; but Mr Pinkerton obferves, that
among the few which have any difference of metal,
the fmalleft are always the worft. The firft mention
of the minuti is in the time of Alexander Severus, who
reduced the price of pork from eight minuti at Rome
to two and to one. The minutus argenteus of that age
was about 40 grains; and from the badnefs of the
metal was not worth above 4d. of our money. Thus
the price of meat was by this prince reduced firft to
8d. and then to 4d.
According to Zozimus and other writers, the pu- 64
rity of the Roman coin was reftored by Aurelian : Reftorat'oa
but Mr Pinkerton controverts this opinion ; thinking^yh0ef^‘
it more probable, that he only made the attempt with- Rotnam
out fuccefs ; or that his reformation might be entirely coins,
confined to gold, on which there is an evident change
after the time of this emperor. His fucceffor Taci.
tus is faid to have allowed no brafs to be mixed with
filver upon any account; yet the few coins of
this emperor are very much alloyed. We are certain,
however, that the emperor Dioclefran reftored the fil¬
ver to its ancient purity ; the denarii ftruck in his
reign being very fmall indeed, but of as fine filver as
the moft ancient coins of the empire. After Gor¬
dian
Sea.V. MED
Ancient dlan III. the fmall denarius entirely vanifhed, while
Money. t^e iarge one was f0 much diminifhed, that it refem-
V’" -'r bled the minutus, or fmall one of Caracalla in fize.
Gallienus introduced the denarii arei in Head of the fe-
Jlertii. The argenteus, though reduced more than one
third in fize, contained fix denarii aerei, the old ftand-
ard of feftertii. According to the writers of this pe¬
riod, and fome time afterwards, the denarius or ar-
genteus contained 60 affaria; whence it follows, that
each denarius sereus had io; and from this it probably
had its name. The affaria are of the fize of the ar-
gentei already mentioned ; and (how the copper to
have retained nearly its old proportion of value to the
65 filver, viz. 1 to 60.
Reforms- A larger filver coin was introduced by Conftan-
tion of t e t; j wh0 accommodated the new money to the
by Conftsn- pound or gold in iuch a manner, that 1000 or the ror-
tine. mer in tale were equal to the latter in value ; fo that
this new piece from thence obtained the name of the
milliarenjis or “ thoufander.” Its weight at a medi¬
um is 70 grains, or 70 to the pound of filver : but Mr
Pinkerton is of opinion, that it might have contained
72 grains, of which two have now perifhed by the
foftnefsof the filver; that the pound contained 72 ; or
that two of the number might be allowed for coinage;
while the alloy alone would pay for coining gold.
The code fays, that 60 went to the pound ; but the
numbers of this are quite corrupt. The milliarenfu was
worth about a Ihilling fterling. The argentei or de¬
narii, however, were itill the moft common currency;
and having been originally rated at the 100 to the
pound of filver in tale, they from thence began to be
called centenionales, or “ hundreders.” Thofe of Con-
ftantine I. and II. Conftans, and Conftantius, weigh
from 50 grains down to 40 ; thofe of Julian and Jovian,
from 40 to 30 ; and of the fucceeding emperors from
that time to Juftinian, from 30 to 20. Under Hera-
clius they ceafed entirely; and from Juftinian to their
total abolition, had been brought down from 15
to 10 grains. A like decreafe of weight took place
in the milliarenfis ; thofe of Conftantine and Conftans
being above 70 grains in weight; thofe of Arcadius
not above 60; and the milliarenfis of Juftinian not
more than 30 grains; but, from the weight of thofe
in Dr Hunter’s cabinet, Mr Pinkerton deduces the
medium to have been exaftly 70r8T grains. Thefe
65 coins were alfo called majorities.
Account of The fmaller filver coins of Rome were, 1. The qui-
the fmall narius, at firft called viSoriatus, from the image of Vic-
tory on its reverfe ; and which it continued to bear
from firft to laft. Its original value was five afes, but
it was afterwards raifed to eight, when the value of the
denarius increafed to 16. According to Pliny, it was
firft coined in confequence of the lex Clodia, about
the 523th year of Rome. Some are of opinion, that
it was called under the Conftantinopolitan
empire, becaufe it was worth a of gold, 144
of which went to the ounce : but this is denied by Mr
Pinkerton, becaufe at the time that the word
firft appears in hiftory, the denarius did not weigh
above 30 grains; and of confequence, as 25 mufthave
gone to the gold folidus, of which there were fix in
the ounce, 130 denarii mull have gone to the ounce
of gold. He is therefore of opinion, that the word
Vol. XI. Part I.
A L S. 17
x!£«Tiov was only another name for the denarius when Ancient
much reduced in fize ; probably owing to the great Money' .
fcarcity of filver in Conftantinople, though in the fame "" v
city there was plenty of gold ; and of confequence, the
gold folidus was never diminifhed. “ For Montef-
quieu (fays our author) has well obferved, that gold
muft be common where filver is rare. Hence gold
was the common regulation of accounts in the Eaftern
empire.” The met with in ancient authors,
according to Mr Pinkerton, was merely an improper
name for the tnilliarenfis; when, on account of the
fcarcity of filver, the denarius was reduced, and no
milliarenfis coined : fo that the current milliarenfis of
former reigns happened to be double to the denarius
or centenonialis. The quinarius diminifhes in fize
along with the other coins: thofe of Auguftus weigh¬
ts 3° grains, of Severus 25, of Conftantine I.
20, of Juftinian 12, and of Heraclius only 5. A
new filver coinage feems to have taken place after the
days of this emperor ; as the little we then meet with,
which in the beft cabinets fcarce exceeds a dozen of
coins, confifls entirely of large unlhapely pieces of
coarfe metal.
2. The confular denarius had alfo four filver fefter- Divifions of
tii, till the as fell to half an ounce, when it was thought dena-
proper to coin the feftertius in brafs, as it continuednus‘
to be ever afterwards. “ The very laft filver fefter¬
tius (fays Mr Pinkerton) which appears, is one with a
head of Mercury, and H. S.; on the reverfe a Caduceus
p. sepvllivs ; who appears to be the p. sepvllivs
macer of the denarii of Julius Caefar. If fo, as is
moft probable, the feftertius was coined in filver down
to Auguftus; and it is of courfe not to be expefted
that any of brafs can appear till Auguftus, under
whom they are a&ually quite common. I have in¬
deed feen no coin which could be a confular brafs fe¬
ftertius ; and tho’ we have certainly brafs dupondii of
Caefar, yet it is reafonable to infer, that the brafs fe¬
ftertius was firft coined by Auguftus. Not one filver
feftertius appears during the Whole imperial period,
yet we know that the feftertius was the moft common
of all filver coins. The confular feftertii of filver,
marked H. S. are not uncommon, nor the quinarii ;
but the latter are very fcarce of all the emperors, if
we except one inftance, the as 1 a recepta of Au¬
guftus.
“ The Roman gold coinage was ftill later than that Roman
of filven Pliny tells us, that “ gold was coined 62 S0^-
years after filver; and the fcruple went for 60 fefter-
ces. It was afterwards thought proper to coin 40
pieces out of the pound of gold. And our princes
have by degrees diminilhed their weight to 45 in the
pound.” This account is confirmed by the pieces
which ftill remain ; for we have that very coin weigh¬
ing a fcruple, which went for 20 felterces. On one
fide is the head of Mars, and on the other an eagle ;
and it is marked xx. We have another coin of the
fame kind, but double, marked xxxx; and its triple,
marked or 60; the 't* being the oldy numeral
character for 50.” Mr Pinkerton, the difeoverer of
this, treats other medallifts with great afperity. Sa-
vot and Hardouin are mentioned by name; the latter
(he fays) is “ ignorant of common fenfe ;” and^iei-
ther he nor Savot could explain it but by reading
C back-
i8 MED
Ancunt backward ; pat the 4, for the Roman V, and thus ma-
, Mor-e^ , king it xv. Other readings have been given by vari-
OU3 medallifts, but none have hit upon the true one
excepting our author, though the coin itfelf led to it;
being juft three times the weight of that marked xx.
We have likewife half the largeft coin, which is mark¬
ed xxx, and which weighs 26 grains; the fmalleft is
only 17x5 the xxxx weighs 34; and the lx or
drachma 53. There is alfo the didrachm of this coin-
69 age, of ic6 grains.
Account of The aurei or Roman gold coins, were at firft 48 in
the aurei. tbe pound; but they were afterwards diminilhed in
number to 40, owing to an augmentation in the weight
of each coin. In the time of Sylla, the aureus weigh¬
ed no lefs than from 164 to 168 grains, and there were
only 30 in the pound; but fuch confufion in the
coinage was introduced by that conqueror, that no
perfon could know exaftly what he was worth. Till
this time the aureus feems to have continued of the
value of 30 filver denarii, about one pound fterling j
for about that time it was enlarged a whole third,
that it might ftill be equivalent to the full number of
denarii. But after Sylla had taken Athens, and the
arts and manners of Greece became obje&s of imita¬
tion to the Romans, the aureus fell to 40 in the pound,
probably when Sylla had abdicated his dicfatorfliip.
Thus, being reduced near to the fcale of the Greek
Xpiot®*, it pafied for 20 denarii, as the latter did for
as many drachmas, being in currency 133. 4d. fter¬
ling. “ This (fays Mr Pinkerton) is the more pro¬
bable, becaufe we know from Suetonius, that the
great Caefar brought from Gaul fo much gold, that it
fold for nine times its weight of filver: but the Gallic
gold was of a very bafe fort.”
In the time of Claudius, the aureus was valued at
100 feftertii, or 25 filver denarii, at which it conti¬
nued till the time of Heliogabalus, when it fell to about
02 grains at a medium, or rofe in number to 55 in
the pound. In the reign of Philip, during which the
city completed its thoufandth year, the aureus was
coined of two or three fixes. Thefe are impreffed
with a head of Rome on one fide, and various figures
on the other; but the workmanlhip is fo rude, that
they are fuppofed to have been ftruck in fome of
the more uncivilized provinces of the empire. The
praftice of having different gold coins, however, con¬
tinued under Valerian, Gallienus, and his fucceffors.
In the time of Gallienus, they were of 30, 65, and
1 from 86 to 93 grains; the double aurei being from
172 to iSjx grains; but the aureus properly fo call¬
ed was from 86 to 93 ; thofe of 30 and 32 being the
trie rites aurei of the Hijlor'ut Augujhz Scriptores ; while
the larger, from 62 to 65, are to be accounted double
trientes, and were perhaps called minuti aurei. The
value of thefe different fizes of aurei is not known.
Alteration That Aurelian made fome alteration in the coin is
in the gold certain ; but Mr Pinkerton fuppofes it to have been
coin made on]y tyie g0i(j . becaufe under him and his fucceffor
Jianf'Ure" Probus, the common aureus was of 100 grains, a fize
confined to thofe emperors: there are likevvife halves
ef about 50 grains ; and double aurei, commonly of
very fine workmanfhip, of upwards of 200 grains.
In the time of Gallienus, the precious metal was fo
common, that this emperor vied in magnificence with
Nero and Heliogabalus. Aurelian, who plundered the
A L S, Sea.V.
rich city of Palmyra, and thus became mafter of the Ancient
treafures of the eaft, obtained fuch a profufion of gold, Money,
that he looked upon it to be produced by nature in 1
greater plenty than filver. It is remarkable, that du¬
ring this emperor’s reign there was a rebellion among
the money-coiners, which could not be quelled but by
the deftruftion of feveral thoufands; which Mr Pin¬
kerton aferibes to his having ordered the gold to
be reftored to its former fize, but to go for no m^ire
filver than it formerly did. “ So very little filver (fays
he) occurs of this period, that it is plain no altera¬
tion in the filver produced the war with the money-
ers : and in the brafs he made no change ; or if he
had, it were ftrange that fuch commotions fiiould arife
about fo trifling a metal. But if, as appears from the
coins, he ordered the aureus, which had fallen to 80
grains, to be raifed to about 100, it is no wonder that
the contra£tors (hould be in an uproar; for a whole
quarter of their coinage, amounting as would feem to
all their profits, was loft. Aurelian judged, that when
he found gold fo common in the eaft, it was equally
fo in the weft ; and that the moneyers muft have made
a moft exorbitant profit ; but his ideas on this fubjeft
were partial and unjuft : and after his fliort reign*
which did not exceed five months after the alteration*
the gold returned to its former courfe; though a few
pieces occur of Aurelian’s ftandard, ftruck, as would
feem, in the commencement of the reign of Probus his-
fucceffor.
From this time to that of Conftantine I. the aureus
weighed between 70 and 80 grains; but in his reign
it was changed for the folidus, of which fix went to
the ounce of gold, which went for 14 milliarenfes, and
25 denarii as before; the value of filver being now to-
gold as 14 to x. This new coin continued of the
fame value to the final downfal of the Conftantinopo-
litan empire; gold being always very plentiful in that
city, though filver became more and more fcarce. The
folidus was worth 12 s. fterling. Here again our am
thor moft feverely criticifes Mr Clarke and Mr Raper:
the former (he fays) with refpeft to the value of gold
in the time of Conftantine I. “ has left all his fenfes
behind him. In page 267. he abfurdly afferts, that
20 denarii went to the folidus in the time- of Theo--
dofius I. and proceeds with this deplorable error to
the end of his work. He then tells us, that only «4
denarii went to the folidus under Conftantine I; &c.”
To Mr Raper, however, he is a little more merciful,
as he owns, that “ though he (Mr Raper) has ttrange-
ly confounded the milliarenfis with the denarius, he
has yet kept common fenfe for his guide.” Mr Pin¬
kerton argues, indeed with great probability, “ that
had any change in the coinage taken place between,
the time of Conftantine and Theodofius I. that is, in.
lefs than 50 years, the laws of that period, which are
all in the Theodoftan code, muft have noticed it.”
To this and other arguments upon the fubjedf, Mr
Pinkerton adds the following obfervation upon the va¬
lue of gold and filver: “ As a Hate advances to its
height, gold i> icreafes in value ; and as a ftate declines,
it decreafes, providing the metals are kept on a par as
to purity. Hence we may argue, that gold decreafed
in its relation to filver perhaps four or five centuries,
fnrnilhed moft European kingdoms with gold in coin,
which otherwife would, from their want of arts, and
Ancitnt of intercourfe with the caff, then the grand feminary
Money. 0f t]iat metal, have almoft been ignorant of what gold
was. Thefe gold coins were called Bezants in Eu¬
rope, becaufe lent from Byzantium or Conftantinople;
and were folidi of the old fcale, fix to the ounce In
Byzantine writers, the folidus is alfo called nomlfma,
or “ the coin cryjinos, becaufe of gold ; hyper per ns,
from its being refined with fire, or from its being of
bright gold flaming like'fire. The folidi alfo, as the
aurei formerly, received names from the princes whofe
portraits they bore ; as Michelati, Manuelati. Solidus is
a term ufed alfo for the aureus by Apuleius, who lived
in the time of Antoninus the Philofopher; nay, as
early as in the Praetorian edicts of the time of Trajan.
It was then a diitinftion from the femiflis or half
In the time of Valerian, when aurei of different fizes
had been introduced, it became neceffary to diftin-
guiflr the particular aurei meant. Hence in the Im¬
perial Refcripts, publifhed by the HiJloriteAuguJltz Scrip-
tores, Valerian ufes the term Philippeos nojlri vultvs, for
the common aurei. Aurelian ufes the fame term au¬
rei Philippa, for the aurei winch he had reltored to
their fize in fome degree. Gallienus ufes aurei Vale-
riani for his father’s coins. Aurei Antoninuini are like-
wife put by Valerian for coins of the early Antonini,
of fuperior flandard to any then ufed.
Divifinns of Jn the gohj coinage at Rome, the aureus was
the aureus, ;nto four parts ; the femiffis of 60 fertertii ;
the tremiflis, or t;>: d, of 40 ; the fourth, the name of
which is not menthmed, of 30 ; and the fcrupulum of
20. But in a flrort time all of thefe fell into difufe,
except the femiflis or half, which is extremely fcarce ;
fo that it is probable that few have been ftruck. It
is an erroneous opinion (according to Mr Pinkerton)
that the femifiis was called a denarius aureus. The
aureus itfelf indeed had this name ; but the name of
qtlinarius is applied to the femiflis with greater proprie¬
ty than the former. Trientes, or tremiffes of gold,
are found of Valerian and hisfon Gallienus, and weigh
about 30 grains. Thofe of Salonina the wife of Gal¬
lienus weigh 33 grains. Under the Conftantinopo-
litan empire, tremiffes again make their appearance ;
and from the time of Valentinian downwards, the
thirds are the moft common coins of gold, being worth
about 4 s. flerling. The femiflis is likewife mention¬
ed, but none occur earlier than the time of Bafilifcus.
The gold tremiflis was the pattern of the French and
Spanifli gold coins ; as the filver denarius, in its dimi-
nilhed Hate, was of the Gothic and Saxon penny.
th^Roman ^ e c^°^e this account of the Roman money
method of W1'th fome remarks concerning the mint, and method
coining of coinage. This <at firft feems to have been under
the direftion of the quseffor. About the time that
filver was firft coined in Rome, viz. about 166 B. C.
the triumviri monetales were created. They were at firft
of fenatorial rank, but were by^Auguftus chofen from
I among the equeftrian; and the title of triumviri was
continued till after the Time of Caracalla ; but under
Aurelian there was probably but one mafter of the
mint called Rationalis; and Mr Pinkerton is of opi¬
nion that the change took place under Gallienus. He
feems alfo to have permitted the provincial cities to
coin gold and filver, as well as to have altered the form
of the mints in the capital, and to have ordered them
all to ftrike money with Latin legends, and of the
fame forms; as in his time vve firft meet with coins At1ci'
with mint-marks of cities and offices. The violent in- Monc
furreftiort which took place in his reign has already
been mentioned, as well as its probable caufe; and Mr
Gibbon has ftiown, that the concealed enemies of Au¬
relian took fuch advantage of this infurre&ion, that it
coft 7000 of his beft troops before it could be quelled.
About this time the procurator monetee feems to have
fucceeded the rationalis as dire&or of the mint. In
the colonies, the direAion of the mint feems to have
been given to the decemviri, whofe names frequently
occur on colonial coins; “ which (fays Mr Pinkerton),
though generally of rude invention, and ruder execu¬
tion, are yet often interefting and important.”
The engraving of the ancient dyes ufed in coinage
was a work of much genius and labour; and at Rome
Greek artifts were generally employed in it; but it
has been thought a matter of great furprife, that fcarce
any two ancient coins are to be found exaftly the
fame. Hence fome antiquaries have imagined, that
only a fingle coin was thrown off from each dye. M.
Beauvais informs us, that the only two Roman impe¬
rial coins of the firft times which he had feen perfeft-
ly alike were thofe of the Emperor Galba. It is, how¬
ever, the opinion of the beft judges, that a perfed fi-
milarity betwixt two medals is a. very great reafon for
fuppofing one of them to be forged. “ It muft alfw
be obferved (fays Mr Pinkerton), that the differences
in coins, apparently from the fame dye, are often fo
minute as to efcape an eye not ufed to microfcopic ob-
fervations of this fort. But it w ould be furprifing if
any two ancient coins were now found ftruck with the
fame dye; for out of each million iffued, not above
one has reached us. .Dyes foon give wray by the vio¬
lence of the work; and the ancients had no puncheons
nor matrices, but were forced to engrave many dyes
for the fame coin. Even in our mint, upon fending
for a (hilling’s worth of new halfpence, it will appear
that three or four dyes have been ufed. Sometimes the
obverfe of the dye gives w>ay, fometimes the reverfe ;
but among us it is renewed by puncheons, though
with variations in the lettering or other minute ftrokes;
while the ancients were forced to recur to another dye
differently engraven. The Engravers of the dye were
called ccelatores; other officers employed in the mint
were the fpeQatores, expedatores, or nummularii. The
melters were ftyled fufarii, Jlatuarii, and Jlaturarii;
thofe who adjufted the weight were called aquatores mo-
netarum ; thofe who put the pieces, into the dye fup-
pcfitores, and thofe who ftruck them malleatores. At
the head of each office was an officer named primke-
rius, and the foreman was named optio et exaftor.”
In order to aflift the high relief on the coins, the
metal, after being melted and refined, was caft into
bullets, as appears from the ancient coins not being
cut or filed on the edges, but often cracked, and al¬
ways rough and unequal. Thefe bullets were then
put into the dye, and received the impreffion by re¬
peated ftrokes of the hammer, though fometimes a
machine appears to have bsei? ufed for this purpofe:
for Boiterue informs us, that there was a pifture of
the Roman mintage in a grotto near Baia>, where a
machine was reprefented holding up a large (tone as if
to let it fall fuddenly, and ftrike the coin at once.
None of the ancient money was cafi in moulds, except-
20 MED
Preferva- ing the moft ancient and very large Roman brafs, com-
t t‘on* monly called weights, and other Italian pieces of that
* fort; all the reft being mere forgeries of ancient and
modern times. Some Roman moulds which have been
found are a proof of this ; ami from thefe fome medal-
lifts have erroneoufly imagined that the ancients firft
call their money in moulds, and then (lamped it, in
order to make the impreftion more clear and ftiarp.
The ancients had fome knowledge of the method
of crenating the edges of their coins, which they did
by cutting out regular notches upon them; and ©f
this kind we find fome of the Syrian and ancient con-
fular coins, with a few others. The former were call
in this lhape, and then ftruck; but, the latter were
crenated by incifion, to prevent forgery, by (howing the
infide of the metal: however, the ancient forgers alfo
found out a method of imitating this; for Mr Pink¬
erton informs us, that he had a Roman confular coin,
of which the incifions, like the reft, were plated with
filver over the copper.
Sect. VI. Of the Prefervation of Medals.
We now come to confider what it is that diftin-
guifties one medal from another, and why fome are fo
* highly prized more than otheis. This, in general,
befides its genuinenefs, confifts in the high degree of
prefervation in which it is. This, by Mr Pinkerton,
is called the confervation of medals, and is by him re¬
garded as good and as perfeQ. In this, he fays that
a true judge is fo nice, that he will rejedt even the
rareft coins if in the leaft defaced either in the figures
or legend. Some, however, are obliged to content
themfelves with thofe which are a little rubbed, while
thofe of fuperior tafte and abilities have in their ca¬
binets only fuch as are in the very ftate in which they
came from the mint; and fuch, he fays, are the ca¬
binets of Sir Robert Auftin, and Mr Walpole of
Roman filver at Strawberryhill. It is abfolutely. ne-
ceftary, however, that a coin be in what is called good
prefervation ; which in the Greek or Roman empe¬
rors, and the colonial coins, is fuppofed to 6e when
the legends can be read with fome difficulty; but
when the confervation is perfedl, and the coin juft as
it came from the mint, even the moft common coins
are valuable.
B-afs and ^ he fine ruft, like varnifh, which covers the fur-
'opper beft face of brafs and copper coins, is found to be the beft
prcferved preferver of them ; and is brought on by lying in a
(b£thc ruft certain kind of foil. Gold cannot be contaminated
th«in.0VerS kut hy iron mold, which happens when the coin lies
in a foil impregnated with iron; but filver is fufcep-
tible of various kinds of ruft, principally green and
ted; both of which yield to vinegar. In gold and
filver.coins the ruft mull be removed,, as being preju¬
dicial ; but in brafs and copper it is prefervative and
ornamental; a circumllance taken notice of by the
ancients. “ This fine ruft (fays Mr Pinkerton), which
is indeed a natural varniffi not imitable by the art of
man, is fometimes a delicate blue, like that of a tur-
quoife ; fometimes of a bronze brown, equal to that
obfervable in ancient ftatues of bronze, and fo highly
prized ; and fometimes of an exquifite green, a little
on the azure hue, which laft is the moft beautiful of
all. It js.alfo found of a fine purple, of ©live, and
of a cream colour or pale yellow : which laft is exqui-
A L s. Sea. V.
fite, and (hows the impreffion to as much advantage Preferva-
as paper of cream colour, ufed in all great foreign tlon' ,
preffes, does copperplates and -printing. The Neapo- ’ J
litan patina (the ruft in queftion) is of a light green;
and when free from excrefcence or blemiih is very
beautiful. Sometimes the purple patina gleams thro’
an upper coat of another colour, with as fine effedt
as a variegated filk or gem. In a few inftances a ruft
of a deeper green is found ; and it is fometimes fpot-
ted with the red or bronze (hade, which gives it quite
the appearance of the Eaft Indian (lone called the
bloodJlone. Thefe rufts are all, when the real product
of time, as hard as the metal itfelf, and preferve it
much better than any artificial varnifti could have done;
concealing at the fame time not the moll minute par¬
ticle of the impreffion of the coin.” ^
The value of medals is lowered when any of the Meda's
letters of the legend are mifplaced ; as a fufpicion of h?w
forgery is thus induced. Such is the cafe with many"!llue m
of thofe of Claudius Gothicus. The fame, or even
greater, diminution in value takes place in fuch coins
as have, not been well fixed in the dye, which has oc-
cafioned their flipping under the ftrokes of the ham¬
mer, and thus made a double or triple image. Many
coins of this kind are found in which the one fide is
perfectly well-formed, but the other blundered in the
manner juft mentioned. Another blemifti, but of
fmaller moment, and which to fome may be rather
a recommendation, is when the workmen through in¬
attention have put another coin into the dye without
taking out the former. Thus the coin is convex on
one fide, and concave on the other, having the fame
figure upon both its fides.
The medals faid by the judges in this fcience to be
countermarhd are very rare, and highly valued. TheyniP(1aig_
jDifferent
kin.'s of
-tills i lift.
Counter-
highly valued. They
have a fmall (lamp imprefied upon them, in fpme an
head, in others a few letters, fuch as Aug : n. pro¬
bus, &c. which marks are fuppofed to imply an al¬
teration in the value of the coin; as was the cafe with
the countermarked coins of Henry VIII. and Queen
Mary of Scotland. Some have a .fmall hole through
them; fometimes with a little ring faftened in it,
having been ufed as ornaments; but this makes no altera¬
tion in their value. Neither is it any diminution in the
value of a coin that it is fplit at the edges ; for coins of
undoubted antiquity have often been found in this
(late, the caufe of which has already been explained.
On the contrary, this cracking is generally confidered
as a great merit; but Mr Pinkerton fufpedts that one
of thefe cracked coins has given rife to an error with
refpeft to the wife of Carauiius who reigned for fome
time in Britain. The infeription is read oriuna
Aug : and there is a crack in the medal juft before
the O of oriuna. Without this crack Mr Pinker¬
ton fuppofes that it would have been read Fortuna
Aug. * . 5
Some particular foils have the property of giving ^ and
filver a yellow colour as if it had been gilt. It natu-h°w
rally acquires a black colour through time, which any tarntlh6d*
fiulphureous vapour will bring on in a few minutes.
From its being fo fufceptible of injuries, it was ab
ways mixed by the ancients with much alloy, in or¬
der to harden it. Hence the impreffions of the ancient
filver coins, remain perfeft to this day,, while thofe of
modern coins are obliterated in a few years.. On this
Sea.VL MED
Preferva- account Mr Pinkerton expreffes a wirti, that modern
ilates would allow a much greater proportion of alloy
" , in their filver coin than they ufually do. As gold
admits of no ruft except that from iron above mention¬
ed, the coins of this metal are generally in perfect
confervation, and frefli as from the mint.
How to To cleanfe gold coins from this ruft, it is beft to
ctear.fc fteep them in aquafortis, which, though a verypower-
them. ful folvent of other metals, has no effect upon gold.
Silver may be cleanfed by fteeping for a day or two
in vinegar, but'more efredtually by boiling in water
with three paits of tartar and one of fea-fait; on both
thefe metals, .however, the ruft is always in fpots,
and never forms an entire incruftation as on brafs or
copper. The coins of thefe two metals mu ft never
be cleanfed, as they would thus be rendered full of
fmall holes eaten by the ruft. Sometimes, however,
they are found fo totally obfcured with ruft, that no¬
thing can be difcovered upon them ; in which cafe it
is beft to clear them with a graver; but it may alfo
be done by boiling them for 24 hours in water with
three parts of tartar and one of alum ; not fea-faltas
Why an- in fdver coins.
ciei.t coins The high ftate of prefervation in which ancient
are 'n ■|uth coii*s are ufually found, is thus accounted for by Mr
ftltepf) re Hancarville. He obferves, that the chief reafon is
feiva ioi). the cuftom of the ancients always to-bury one or more
coins with their dead, in order to pay for their paf-
fage over the river Styx. “ From Phidon of Argos
(fays he) to Conftantine I. are 36 generations: and
from Magna Graecia to the Euphrates, from Cyrene
to the Euxine Sea, Grecian arts prevailed, and the
inhabitants amounted to about 30,000,000. 'i here
died therefore, in that time and region, not lefs than
ten thoufand millions of people, all of whom had coins
of one fort or other buried with them. The tombs
were facred and untouched; and afterwards negle&ed,
till modern curiofity or chance began to difelofe them.
The urn of blavia Valentina, in Mr Towley’s capital
collection, contained feven brafe coins of Antoninus
Pius and Eleagabalus. . Such are generally black,
from being burnt wdth the dead. The beft and freftr-
eft coins were ufed on thefe occaftons from refpeCl. to
the dead; and hence their fine confervation. At Sy-
racufe a Ikeleton was found in a tomb, with a beauti¬
ful gold coin in its mouth; and innumerable otherin-
ftances might be given, for hardly is a funeral urn
found without coins. Other incidents alfo confpire
to furnifh us with numbers of ancient coins, though
the above-recited circumftance be the chief caufe of
perfed confervation. In Sicily, the filver coins with
the head of Prcferpine were found in fach numbers
as to weigh 600 French livres or pounds. In the
t6th century, 6o,coo Roman coins were found at
Modena, thought to be a military cheft hid after the
battle of Bedriacum, when Otho was defeated by Vi-
tellius. Near Brett, in the year 176c, between 20
and 30,000 Roman coins were found. A treafure of
gold coins of LyftmacLus was found at Deva on the
Marus; and Strabo, lib. vii. and Paufan in Jlttic. tell
that be was defeated by the Getae ; at which time
77 this treafure feems to-have fallen into their hands.”
Number of Thus Mr. Pinkerton, from the authority of Mr
ancient Hancarville and others : but confidering thefe vaft
com*. numbers of coins found in various places, it feems fur-
s.
2T
prifing how fo few fhould now remain in the cabinets H<.w to dfc.
of the curious, as the fame author informs us that the
whole of the different ancient coins known to us co.jrrer-
amount only to about 80,000, though he owns that feits.
the calculation cannot be efteemed accurate. ....-v.-.*w
SeCl. VII. H'jV) to dijlivginjh true Medals from
counterfeits.
Thi- moft difficult and the moft important thing
in the whole fcience of medals is the method of dif-
tinguifliing thfc true from the counterfeit. The value
put upon ancient coins made the forgery of them al-
moft coeval with the feience itfelf; and as no laws in-
fii£t a punifliment upon fuch forgers, men of great
genius and abilities have undertaken the trade: but
whether to the real detriment of the fcience or not,
is a matter of fome doubt; for if only exadl copies of
genuine medals are fold for the originals, the impofi-
tion may be deemed trifling : but the cafe muft be ac¬
counted very different, if people take it upon them
to forge medals w’hich never exifted. At firlt the for¬
geries were extremely grofs ; and medals were forged
of Priam, of Ariftotle, Artemifia, Hannibal, and moft
of the other illuftrious perfonages of antiquity. Moft
of thefe w'ere done in fuch a manner, that the fraud
could eafily be difcovered ; but others have impofed
even upon very learned men. Mr Pinkerton mentions
a remarkable medal of the emperor Heraclius, repre-
fenting him in a chariot on the reverfe, with Greek
and Latin inferiptions, which Jofeph Scaliger and
Lipfius imagined to have been ftruck in his own time,,
but which was certainly iffued in Italy in the 15th
century. i“ Other learned men (fays our author) have
been ftrangely milled, when fpeaking of coins; for to
he learned in one fubjedf excludes not grofs ignorance
in others. Budaeus, de Affe, quotes a denarius of
Cieero, m. toll. Erafmus, in one of his Epiftles,
tells us with great gravity, that the gold coin of
Brutus, itryck in Thrace, xosns', bears the patriarch
Noah coming out of the ark with his two fons, and
takes the Roman eagle for the dove with the olive
branch. Winkelman, in his letters, informs us, that
the fmall brafs piece with Virgil’s head, reverfe f.po,
is undoubtedly ancient Roman ; and adds, that no
knowledge of coins can be had out of Rome: but
Winkelman, fo converfant in ftatues, knew nothing
of coins. It is from other artifts and other produc¬
tions that any danger of deceit arifes. And there is
no wonder that even the Ikilful are milled by fuch
cirlifts as have ufed this trade for among them appear go
the names of Viffor Gambello, Giovani del. Cavino, Coins fir-
called the Papuan, and his fon Aleffandro Baffiano,f'e'! b>' e!S'
likewife of Padua, Benvenuto Cellini, Alcffandro^^nt ar*
Greco, Leo Aretino, Jacobo da' Erezzo, Eederigo
Bonzagna, and Giovani Jacopo, his brother ; Sebaf-
tiano Plumbo, Valerio de Vicenza, Gorljeus a-Ger¬
man, Carteron of Holland, and others, all .or-moft of
them of the 16th century ;. and Cavino the Paduan,
who is the moft famous, lived m the middle
of that century. The forgeries of- Cavino are
held in no little efteem, being of wonderful exe¬
cution. His and thofe of Carteron are the moft nu¬
merous, many of the other artifts here mentioned not
having forged above two or three coins. Later forgers
were •
22 MED
How t<-> rh- were Dervieu of Florence \vlio confined himfelf to
true^rom me^a^'ons> a;1d Cogornier who gave coins of the 30
counter- ty,a'nts in fmall brats. The chief part of the forgeries
frits. of Greek medals which have come to my knowledge
--v are of the firft mentioned, and a very grofs kind, repre-
fenting perfons who could never appear upon coin,
fuch as Priam, ^Eneas, Plato, Alcibiades, Artemi-
iia, and others. The real Greek coins were very little
known or valued till the works of Goltzius appeared,
which were happily pofterior to the tera of the grand
forgers. Why later forgers have feldom thought of
counterfeiting them cannot catily be accounted for, if
it is not owing to the mafterly workmanthip of the ori¬
ginals, which fets all imitation at defiance. Forgeries,
however, of moil ancient coins may be met with, and
Sj of the Gre6k among the reft.
Romun hr- “ The forgeries are more confpicuous among the Ro-
gerxs more man medals than any other kind of coins; but we are
than Gvteknot t0 uPon tbefe as the work of modern
outs. artifts. On the contrary, we are affured that many
of them were fabricated in the times of the Romans
themfelves, fome of them being even held in more ef-
timation than the genuine coins themfelves, on account
of their being plated, and otherwife executed in a
manner to which modern forgers could never attain.
Even the ancients held fome of thefe counterfeits in
fuch eftimation, that Pliny informs us there were fre¬
quently many true denarii given for one falfe one."—
Caracalla is faid to have coined money of copper
and lead plated with filver ; and plated coins, the
work of ancient forgers, occur of many Greek cities
and princes ; nay, there are even forgeries of barbaric
coins. “ Some Roman coins (fays Mr Pinkerton)
are found of iron or lead plated with brafs, perhaps
trials of the fkill of the forger. Iron is the moft com¬
mon ; but one decuriio of Nero is known of lead plated
with copper. Neumann juitly obferves, that no hif-
toric faith can be put in plated coins, and that moft
faulty reveries, &c arife from plated coins not being
$2 noticed as fuch. Even of the Roman confular coins
Denarms of not very many have ever been forged. The celebrated
rutus. hlver denarius of Brutus, with the cap of liberty and
two daggers, is the chief inftance of a confular coin
of which a counterfeit is known. But it is cafdy . re¬
jected by this mark : in the true coin the cap of liber¬
ty is below the guard or hilt of the daggers ; in the
83 falfe, the top of it rifes above that hilt.”
medals^ ^ *mPer'a^ feries medals is the grand ebjeCl of
modern medallic forgeries ; and the deception was at
firft extended to the moft eminent writers upon the
fubjeCt. The counterfeits are by Mr Pinkerton di¬
vided into fix claffes:
I. Such as are known to be imitations, but valued
on account of the artilfs by which they are executed.
In this clafs the medals of the Paduan rank higheft;
the others being fo numerous, that a complete feries
of imperial medals of almoft every kind, nay almoft of
every medallion, may he formed from among them. In
France, particularly, by far the greater part of the ca¬
binets are filled with counterfeits of this kind. They
are diitinguiftied from fuch as are genuine by the fol¬
lowing marks : x. The counterfeits are almoft uni-
verfally thinner. 2. They are never worn nor damaged.
3. The letters are modern. 4. They are either defti-
tute of varniih entirely, or have a falfe one, which is
a l s. Sea. vir.
eafily known by its being black, finning, and greafy, How to di-
and very eafily hurt with the touch of a needle, while
the varnifh of ancient medals is as hard as the metal co,,nt»r-
itfelf. In'lead of the greafy black varnifh above feits.
mentioned, indeed, they have fometimes a light green -y——J
one, fpotted with a kind of iron marks, and is com-
pofed of fulphur, verdigreafe, and vinegar. It may
frequently be diftinguiftied by the hairftrokes of the
pencil with which it was laid on being vifibl.e upon it.
5. The fides are either filed or too much fmoothed
by art, or bear the marks of a fmall hammer 6. The
counterfeits are always exaftly circular, which is not
the cafe with ancient medals, efpecially after the time
of Trajan. 84
The Paduan forgeries may be diftinguifhed from Pa<laaa
thgfe of inferior artifts by the following marks : 1. The j^Q^n,u
former are feldom thinner than the ancient. 2. They
very feldom appear as worn or damaged, but the others
very frequently, efpecially in the reverie, and legend
of the reverie, which fometimes, as in forged Othos,
appear as half confirmed by time. 3. The letters ia
moulds taken from the antique coins have the rudenefs
of antiquity. 4. Falfe varnifii is commonly light green
or black, and ihines too much or too little. 5. The •
fides of forged coins are frequently quite fmooth, and
undiftinguifhable from the ancient, though to accom-
plifh this requires Itut little art. 6. Counterfeit me-
dais are frequently as irregular in their form as the
genuine; hut the Paduan are generally circular, though
ralfe coins have often little pieces cut off, in perfeft
imitation of the genuine. 7. In call coins the letters
do not*go fliarp down into the metal, and have no fix¬
ed outline ; their minute angles, as well as thofe of
the drapery, are commonly filled up, and have not the
fharpnefs of the genuine kind. Where the letters or
figures are faint, the coin is greatly to be fufpeCled. 8?
The letters form the great criterion of medals, the Letters ‘he
ancient being very rude, but the modern otherwife ;
the reafon of which, according to Cellini, is, that the
ancients engraved all their matrices with the graver or
burin, while the modern forgers ftrike theirs with a
punch: _ _ 86
According to Vico, the falfe patina is green, black, Vico’s ac-
ruffet, brown, grey, and iron-colour. The green is count of
made from verdigreafe, the black is the fmoke of ful>ie
phur, the grey is made of chalk fteeped in urine, the
coin being left for fome days in the mixture. The ruf-
fet is next to the natural, by reafon of its being a
kind of froth which the fire forces from ancient coins ;
but when falfe, it ftiines too much. To make it they
frequently took the large brafs coins of the Ptolemies,
which were often corroded, and made them red hot in
the fire; put the coins upon them, and a fine patina
adhered. Our author does not fay in what manner
the iron-covered patina was made. “ Sometimes
(adds he) they take an old defaced coin, covered with
real patina, and itamp it anew ; but the patina is then
too bright in the cavities, and too dull in the protu¬
berances. The trial of brafs corns with the tongue
is not to be defpifed ; for if modern the patina taftes
bitter or pungent, while if ancient it is quite tafte-
lefs.”
Mr Pinkerton informs us, that all medallions from
Julius Caefar to Adrian are much to be iufpe&ed of
forgery ; the true medals of the firft 14 emperors he*
Sefl.Vir. MED
How to di- ing exceedingly valuable, and to be found only in the
ftin^uifii cabinets of princes.
^ounterm The fecond clafs of counterfeit medals contains
feits. thofe caft from moulds taken from the Paduan forge-
u—- ries, and others done by eminent mafters. Thefe are
8? fomeiimes more difficult to be difcovered than the for-
fron^the^mer’ fiecaufe in calling them they can give any degree
Paduan for- of thicknefs they pleafe ; and, filling the fmail fand-
gcries* holes with mallic, they retouch the letters with a gra¬
ver, and cover the whole with varnifli. The inltruc-
tions already given for the former clafs, however, are
alfo ufeful for thofe of the fecond, with this addition,
that medals of this clafs are generally Ughter than the
genuine, becaufe fire rarefies the metal in fome degree,
while that which is ftruck is rather condenfed by the
ftrokes. In gold and filver medals there cannot be
any deception of this kind ; becaufe thefe metals ad¬
mit not of patina, and confequently the varnifh be¬
trays the impofition. The marks of the file on the
margin of thofe of the fecond clafs are a certain fign
of forgery ; though thefe do not always indicate the
forgery to be of modern date, becaufe the Romans
often filed the edges of coins to accommodate them to
the purpofes of ornament, as quarter guineas are fome-
times put into the bottom of punch laddies. It is com¬
mon to imitate the holes of medals made by time by
means of aqua-fortis; but this deftroys the fides of
a coin more effeclually than if it had been eat into na¬
turally. The fraud, however, is not eafily diftin-
guifhed.
*8 III. Medals cajl in moulds from an antique.—In this
Mstlals caft mode fome forgers, as Beauvais informs us, have been
f om anan-jf0 very careful, that they would melt a common me-
*,^ue’ dal of the emperor whom they meant to counterfeit,
left the quality of the metal ftiould betray them.
“ This (fays^Mr Pinkerton) has been done in the fil¬
ver Septimius Severus, with the reverfe of a trium¬
phal arch, for which a common coin of the fame prince
has been melted ; and in other inftances. Putting me¬
tals in the fire or upon hot iron to cleanfe them, gives
them an appearance of being caft ; for fome fpots of the
metal being fofter than the reft will run, which makes
this one of the worft methods of cleaning medals —
The directions given for difcovering the two former
deceptions hold good alfo in this.
IV. Ancient medals retouched and altered.—This is a
clafs of counterfeits more difficult to be difcovered
than any other. “ The art (fays Mr Pinkerton) ex¬
erted in this clafs is aftonifhing ; and a connoiffeur is
the lei's apt to fufpect it, becaufe the coins themfelves
are in fa<ft ancient. The acute minds of the Italian
artifts exerted themfelves in this way, when the other
forgeries became common and known. With graving
tools they alter the portraits, the reverfes, and the in-
fcriptions themfelves, in a furprifing manner. Of a
Claudius ftruck at Antioch they make an Otho * of
a Fauftina, a Titiana ; of a Julia Severa, a Didia
Clara ; of a Macrinus, a Pefcennius, &c. Give them
a Marcus Aurelius, he ftarts up a Pertinax, by thicken¬
ing the beard a little, and enlarging the nole. In ftiort,
wherever there is the leaft refemblance in perfons, re¬
verfes, or legends, an artift may from a trivial me¬
dal generate a moft fcarce and valuable one. This
fraud is diftinguiffiable by the falfe varnilh which fome-
times malks it j but, above all, by the letters of the
Ancfeir
medals re- ,
touched.
A L S. 23
legend, which are always altered. Though this be t0. d* ~
fometimes done with an artifice almoft miraculous, yet
moft commonly the characters ttraggle, are difunited, cotmter-
and not in a line.” feits.
In counterfeits-of this kind fometimes the obverfe is c——y—J
not touched, but the reverfe made hollow, and filled
with maftic coloured like the coin, and engraven with
fuch device and legend as was moft likely to bring a
great price ; others are only retouched in fome mi¬
nute parts, by which, however, the value of the coin
is much ditninifhed. “ Againll all thefe arts (fays
Mr Pinkerton), fevere fcrutiny mull be made by the
purchafer upon the medal itfelf; and the inveftigation
and opinion of eminent antiquaries had upon its being
altered, or genuine as it is iffued from the mint.
V. Medals imprejfed with new devices, or foldered.— Medals
In the iirft article of this clafs the reverfes have been with new
totally filed off, and 'new ones impreffed with a dyet!evites,or
and hammer. This is done by putting the face or 0 t'ere '
obverfe, whichever is not touched, upon different folds
of pafteboard, afterwards applying the dye and link¬
ing it with a hammer. ~ The forgery in this clafs is
very eafily difcovered, as the devices and infcriptions
on the counterfeits are known not to exift on true
medals : as the Pons JElius on the reverfe of Adrian ;
the Expeditio Judaica of the fame emperor, &c.
The difference of fabrication in the face or reverfe
will be difcovered at the firft glance by any perfon of
fkill.
The foldered medals confift of two halves belong¬
ing to different medals, fawed through the middle and
then joined with folder. This mode of counterfeiting,
is common in filver and brafs coins. “ They will
take an Antoninus, for example, and faw off the re¬
verfe, then folder to the obverfe which they have treat¬
ed in the fame manner. This makes a medal, which,
from an unknowing purchafer, will bring an hundred
times the price of the two coins which compofe it.
When the deceit is ufed in brafs coins, they take care
that the metals be of one hue; though indeed fome
pretenders in this way fometimes folder copper and-
brafs together, which at once reveals the deceit. Me¬
dals which have a portrait on each fide, and which
are generally valuable, are the moft liable to a fufpi-
cion of this fraud. To a very nice eye the minute
ring of folder is always vifible ; and upon inferting a;
graver, the fabrication falls into halves.”
In the fame manner reverfes are fometimes foldered
to faces not originally belonging to them; as one men¬
tioned by Pere Jobert of Domitian with an amphi¬
theatre, a reverfe of Titus joined to it. Another art
is fometimes made ufe of in this kind of counterfeits,
of which there is an inflance of the temple of Janus-
u-pon Nero’s medals; where the middle brafs is takea
off, and inferted in a earity made in the middle of a
large coin of that prince. In the coins of the lower
empire, however, the reverfes of medals are fometimes-
fo connected with their obverfes, that a fufpicion of
forgery fometimes occurs without any foundation.
They are met with moft commonly after the time of
Gallienus, when fueh a number of ufurpers arofe, that
it was difficult to obtain an exadl portrait of their fea¬
tures ; the coiners had not time, therefore, to ftriker
a medal for thefe as they could have done for other
emperors who reigned longer. Hence, on the reverfe
of
24 MED
How to di- of a medal of Marius, who reigned only three days,
frSIm there is pacator orbis, which fhows that at that
counter- t*me t^iey reverfes ready fabricated, to be applied
feits. as occafion might require.
*—-“v—VI. Plated medalsor tbofe'which have clefts.— It has
Plated me ^>een a^reac^y remarked, that many true medals are
dais &c. * cracked in the edges ; owing to the repeated ftrokes
of the hammer, and the little degree of ductility which
the metal pofieffes. This the forgers attempt to imi¬
tate by a tile ; but it is eafy to diliinguifh betwixt the
natural and artificial cleft by means of a fmall needle.
The natural cleft is wide at the extremity, and appears
to have a kind of almoft imperceptible filaments ; the
edges of the crack correfponding with each other in
a manner which no art can imitate.
The plated medals which have been forged in an¬
cient times were long fuppofed to be capable of refill¬
ing every effort of modern imitation; but of late
years, “ fome ingenious rogues (fays Mr Pinkerton)
thought of piercing falfe medals of filver with a red
hot needle, which gave a blacknefs to the infide of
the coin, and made it appear plated to an injudicious
eye. This fraud is eafily diitinguilhed by feraping the
infide of the metal.” It is, however, very difficult to
diftinguilh the forgeries of rude money when not caff;
and our author gives no other direction than to confult
\ ikilful medallift./ Indeed, notwithllanding all the di¬
rections already given, this feems to be a refource
w hich cannot by any means with fafety be neglected.
- ' real and practical knowledge of coins “ is only to
be acquired (fays he; by feeing a great number, and
. jg comparing the forged with the genuine. It cannot
iais. therefore be too much recommended to the young
connoiffeur, who wiffies to acquire fome knowledge in
this way, to vifit all the fales and cabinets he can, and
to look upon all ancient medals with a very microfco-
pic eye. By thefe means only is to be acquired that
ready knowledge which enables at firft glance to pro¬
nounce upon a forgery, however ingenious. Nor let
the feience of medals be from this concluded to be un¬
certain ; for no knowledge is more certain and imme¬
diate, when it is properly fludied by examination of
the real objefls. A man who buys coins, trailing
merely to his theoretic perufal of medallic books, will
find himfelf woefully miilaken. He ought to iludy
coins firft, where only they can be iludied, in them-
felves. Nor can it be matter of wonder or implica¬
tion of caprice, that a medallift of ikill ffiould at one
perception pronounce upon the veracity or falfehood
of a medal; for the powers of the human eye, em¬
ployed in certain lines of fcience, are amazing. Hence
a ftudent can diftinguiffi a book among a thoufand fi-
milar, and quite alike to every other eye: hence a
ffiepherd can difeern, &c.: hence the medalliil can
Forgeries ^aY an inftant, ‘ this is a true coin, and this is a
a£ modern falfe,’ though to other people no diltinflion be percep-
coins. tible.”
Forgeries of modern coins and medals, Mr Pinker¬
ton obfer.ves, are almofl as numerous as of the ancient.
The fatync coin of LouisXII. Perdam Babylonis
nomen, is a remarkable inftance: the falfe coin islaraer
than the true, and bears date 1512. The rude coins
of the middle ages are very eafily forged, and forgeries
have accordingly become common. Forged coins of
Alfred and other early princes of England have ap-
N°20I.
a I. s.
Sea. VIII.
peared, fome of which have been done with great art,
“ The two noted Engliffi pennies of Rich. I. fays our
author, are of this flamp ; and yet have impofed upon
Meffrs Folkes and Snelling, who have publiffied them
as genuine in the two bell books upon Englifti coins.
But they were fabricated by the late Mr White of
Newgace-ftreet, a noted collector, who contaminated
an otherwife fair charadler by fuck practices. Such
forgeries, though eafy, require a Ikill in the hiftory and
coinage of the times which luckily can hardly fall to
the lot of a common Jew or mechanic forger. But
the practice is deteftable, were no gain propofed: and
they who ftoop to it muft fuppofe, that to embarraft;
the path of any fcience with forgery and futility, im¬
plies no infamy. In forgeries of ancient coin, the
fiflion is perhaps fufficiently atoned for by the vaft
Ikill required; and the artift may plaufibly allege, that
his attention was not to deceive, but to excite his ut-
moft powders, by an attempt to rival the ancient ma-
fters. But no poffible apology can be made for for¬
ging the rude money of more modern times. The
crime is certainly greater than that which leads the
common coiner to the gallows; inafmuch as it is com¬
mitted with more eafe, and the profit is incomparably
larger.”
Value.
Sect.VIII. Of the Value of Medals.
Alb ancient coins and medals, though equally ge¬
nuine, are not equally valuable. In medals, as well
as in every thing elfe, the fcarcity of a coin ftamps a
value upon it which cannot otherwife be derived from
its intrinfic worth. There are four or five degrees of
rarity reckoned up; the highefl of which is called
unique. The caufe is generally aferibed to the few-
nefs of number thrown off originally, or to their having
been called in, and recoined in another farm. To the
former caufe Mr Pinkerton aferibes the fcarcity af the
copper of Otho and the gold of Pefcennius Niger; to
the latter that of the coinage of Caligula: “ though
this laft (fays he) is not of Angular rarity; which (hows
that even the power of the Roman fenate could not
annihilate an eftabliffied money; and that the firft caufe
of rarity, arifing from the fmall quantity originally
ftruck, ought to be regarded as the principal.” ^
In the ancient cities Mr Pinkerton aferibes the fear-Caufes of
city of coin to the poverty or fmallnefs of the ftate;t}le Scarcity
but the fcarcity of ancient regal and imperial coins
arifes principally from the ffiortnefs of the reign; and titles,
fometimes from the fuperabundance of money be¬
fore, which rendered it almoft unneceffary to coin any
money during the reign of the prince. An example
of this we have in the fcarcity of the (hillings of
George III. which (hows that (hortnefs of reign does
not always occafion a fcarcity of coin ; and thus the
coins of Harold II. who did not reign a year, are
veiy numerous, while thofe of Richard I. who reigiv
ed ten, are almoft unique.
Sometimes the rarelt coins lofe their value, and be¬
come common. This our author aferibes to the high
price given for them, which tempts the poffeffors to j
bring them to market ; but chiefly to the difeovering
of hoards of them. The former caufe took place with
Queen Anne’s farthings, fome of which formerly fold
at five guineas; nay, if we could believe the newfpa-
pers,
Sea. IX.
MED
■vcrfii.
, 95
Silver co
in what
Value, petr, one of tKrm was fome years ago fold for 9601.
the latter with the coins of Canute, the Danilh king
Rare coin* England ; which were very rare till a hoard of them
Tometimes was difeovered ih the Orkneys. As difeoverifis of
become this kind, however, produce a temporary plenty, fo
when they are difperfed the former fcarcity returns *,
while on the other hand fome of the common coins
become rare through the mere circumllance of ne-
As doable the number of copper-coins of Greek
in what c‘t'es ^ to met w^h that there ire of filver* the
cafe's ir.oft ^atter are rtf confeqnence much more ellcemed: but
eheemed. the reveVfe is the cafe with tliofe of the Greek princes.
All the Greek civic coins of filver are very rare ex¬
cepting thofe of Athens, Gorinth, Meffana, Dyrrha-
chium, MafTilia, Syracufe, and fortie others. Of the
'Greek monarchic coins, the moft rire are the tetfa-
drachms of the kings of Syria, the Ptolemies, the fo-
vereigns of Macedon and Bithynii, excepting thofe of
Alexander the Great and Lyfimachus. Thofe of the
kings of Cappadocia are of a fmall fize, and fcarce to
be met with. Of thofe of Numidia and Mauritania,
the coins of Juba the father are common ; but thofe
of the fon and nephew Ptolemy fcarce. Coins of the
kings of Sicily, Pirthia, arid Judfca* are fate 5 the
laft very milch fb-. We meet with no coins of the
kings of Arabia and Comagene except in brafs: thofe
of the kings of Bofphorus are in eleftrum* and a few
in brafs, but all of them rare; as are likewife thdfe
of Philetenis king of Pergamus and of the kings of
Pontus. In the year 1777, a coin of Mithndates fold
for L. 26, Didrachms of all kings and cities
are fcarce excepting thdfe bf Corinth and her colonies!
but the gold Coins of Philip of Macedoii, Aiekander
the Great, and Lyfimachusy as has already been ob-
ferved, are common The ftlver tetradfaehms of all
kings bear a Very high price. The didrachm of Alex¬
ander the Great is one of the fcarceft of the fmaller
Greek filver coins; fome of the other princes are not
uncommom
96 In moft cafes the copper mrifiey of the Greek mo-
teTcoins0*1"narc^3 ‘s fcarce ; blit that of Hieto I. of Syracufe is
Uncommonly plenty, as Well as that of feVefal of the
Ptolemies.
Roman con- ^ ™°ft rare the confular Roman coins are thofe
fular coitis. teftored by Trajan : of the others the gold confular
coins ate the moft rare, and the fdvet the moft com¬
mon; excepting the cbift of Brfttus with the cap of
Liberty already mentioned, with fome others. Some
of the Rbtna'n imperial Coins are Very fcarce; particu¬
larly thofe of Otho in brafs; nor indeed dbes he occut
at all on any coin ftruck at Rome *, blit the reafon of
this may with great probability be fuppofed to have
been the fhortneis of his feign. His portrait upon
the brafs coins of Egypt and Antioch is very bad ; as
Well as almoft all the other imperial coins of Greek
cities. The heft iikenefs is on iiis gold and filver
coins ; the litter of which are very common. The
Greek and Egyptian coins are all of fmall or middling
fizes, and have reverfes of various kinds: thofe of An¬
tioch have Latin legends, as well as moft of the other
i mperial coins of A ntioch. They have no other reverfc
but the BC in a wreath ; excepting in one inftance or
two of the large and middle brafs, where the inferip-
tions are in Greek. Latin coins of Otho in brafs,
VOL.XI. Parti.
A L 5. 25
with figures on the reverfe, are certainly falfe; though Value,
in the cabinet of D’Ennery at Paris there was art '
Otho in middle brafs reftored by Titus, which was
efteemed genuine by connoilfeurs. ^
The leaden corns of Rome are very fcarce: MoftLeaiitn Ro-*
of them are pieces ftruck or call on occafion of the man coin*,
fatumalia; others are tickets for feftivals and exhi¬
bitions; both private and publia The commoa
tickets for theatres were made of lead, is were the
contorniati', perpetual tickets, like the Englilh filver
tickets for the opera. Leaden medallions are alfb
found below the foundations of pillars and other public
buildings, in order to perpetuate the memory of the
founders. From the time of Auguftus alfo we find
that leaden feals Were ufed. The work of Ticorini
upon this fubjett, Intitled Piomli Antiochi, is much re¬
commended by Mr Pinketton.
The Roman coins, which have beeri blundered in of coin*
the manner formerly mentioned, rtne very rare, arid un- jw n Wed
defervedly valued by the connoiffeurs. The blundersl;: '^eniint-
iri the legends of thefe coins, which in all probability a8e‘
are the mere effe&s of accident, have been fo far mi-
ftaken by Tome medalliftsy that they have given rife td
imaginary emperors who never exifted. A coiri of
Fatiftina, which has on the reverfe sousti. s. c.
puzzled all the German antiquaries, till at laft Klotz
gave it the following facetious interpretation : Sine
omni utibtate fedamini tantas ineptias. too
The heptarchic coins of England art generally rare Hepta’-chift
except thofe calledyfyetfr, which are verycommon, as well coin=
as thofe of Burgred king of Merciai The coins of Al-E‘ 8‘ai' *
fred w'hich bear his bull are fcarce, and his other mo¬
ney much more fo. Tliofe of Hardyknute are fo
rare, that it was even denied that they had an exift-
ence; but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that there are
three in the Britilh mufeum, upon all of which the
name harthcanut is quite legible. No Englilh
coins of King John are to be met with; tho’ there are
fome Irilh ones j and only Fferich coins of Richard I.
“ Leake (fays Mr Pinkerton) made a ftrartge blunder
in aferibing coin's of different kings with two faces, and
otherwife fpoiled in the ftamping, to this prince ; in
w'hich, as ufual, he has been followed by a mified
number.” icr
Coins of Alexander II. of Scotland are rather fcarce, ScMtifll
but ‘thofe of Alexander III. are more plentiful. Thofe cchis.
of John Baliol are fare, and none of Edward Baliol to
be found.
Sect. IX. Of the Purchafe of Medals.
Medaus are to be had at the Tho'ps of goldfmiths
and filveffmiths, with thofe Who deal ih curipfities;
&c. but in great cities there are profeffed dealers in
them. The heft method of ptirchafing medals, how¬
ever, is that of’buyirfg Whole cabinets, which are every
year expdfed to auction at London. Iri thefe the rare
medals are fold by themfelves; but the common ones
are put up in large lots, fo that the dealers commonly
prtrehafe them. Mr Pinkerton thinks it would be
better that medals were fold one by orie ; becaufc A
lot is often valued and prtrehafed for the fake .of a
fingle coin ; while the others feparately wotild fell fof
perhaps four times the price of the w’hole lot. “ If
any man of common fenfe and honefty ( fays Mr Piri-
D kcn«j
•f Car¬
thage, &c.
Spreek cop.
|>er coins.
Cold coins
of Philip
and Alexan¬
der.
ic6
Creek cop¬
per coins
more rare
than the
jsiver.
MED
kerton) were to take up the trade of felling coins in
London, he would make a fortune in a fhort time.
This profitable bufinefs is now in the hands of one or
two dealers, who ruin their own interefl by making
an elegant ftudy a trade of knavery and impofition.
If they buy 300 coins for 10s. they vviil aik 3s. for
one of the work of them! nay, fell forged coins as
true to the ignorant. The fimpletons complain of
want of bufinefs. A knave is always a fool.”
The gold coins of Carthage, Cyrene, and Syracufe,
are worth about twice their intriniic value as metal;
but the other gold civic coins from 5I. to 30I. each.
The only gold coins of Athens certainly known to
exift are two lately procured by the king. One of
thefe remains in pofleffion of his majefty, but the other
was given by' the queen to Dr Hunter. There was
another in the Britifli mufeum, but fufpe&ed not to
be genuine. Dr Hunter’s coin, then, if fold, would
bear the higheft price that could be expedted for a
coin. .
The filver coins of SyrScufe, Dyrrhachium, Maffi-
lia, Athens, and a few other ftates, are common; the
drachmas and coins of leffer fize are worth’ about
five fliillings ; the didrachms, tetradrachms, &c. from
five to ten, according to their fize and beauty; the
largeft, as -might naturally be expedted, being more
valuable than the fmall ones. The tetradrachms, when
of cities whofe coins are common, are worth from 7 s.
6d. to il. is. but it is impoffible to put a value upon
the rare civic coins ; ten guineas have been given for
a fingle one.
The Greek copper coins are common, and are al-
moft all of that kind called [mall Irafs; the middle fize
being fcarce, and the largeft in the ages prior to the
Roman emperors extremely fo. The common Greek
coins of brafs bring from 3d. to 18d. according to
their prefervation; but when of cities, whofe coins are
rare, much higher prices are given. “ The want of a
few cities, however (fays Mr Pinkerton), is not thought
to injure a colkdtion ; as indeed new names are dif-
covered every dozen of years, fo that no aflbrtment
can be perfedt. To this it is owing that the rarity of
the Grecian civic coins is not much attended to.”
The gold coins of Philip and Alexander the Great
being very common, bear but from five to ten /hillings
.above their intrinfic value; but thofe. of the other-
princes, being rare, fell from 31. to 30I. each, or even
more.
The tetradrachms are the deareft of the filver mo¬
narchic money, felling from five to ten (hillings; and
if very rare, from 3I. to 30I. Half thefe prices may
be obtained for the drachmas, and the other denomi¬
nations in proportion.
The Greek copper coins are for the moft part fcar-
cer than the filver, except the Syro-Grecian, which
are common, and almoft all of the fize called fmall
brafs. “They ought (fays:Mr Pinkerton) to bear a
a high price ; but the metal and fimilarity to the cop¬
per civic coins, which are common, keep their adtual
piirchafe moderate, if the feller is not well inftrudted,
and the buyer able and willing to pay the price of
rarity.”’
The name of weights given to the ancient Roman
a£es is, according to our author, exceedingly impro¬
per y as. that people had weights of lead and brafs
A L S. Sea.IX.
(ides, without the leaft appearance of a portrait upon'Purchafe.
them. Thefe denote the weight by a certain number ^ f
of knobs ; and have likewife fmall fleunttes engraved
upon them. According to Mr Pinkerton, whenever
we meet with a piece of metal (lamped on both (ides
with bufts and figures, we may lay it down as a certain
rule that it is a coin ; but when (lightly ornamented
and marked upon one fide only, we may with equal
certainty conclude it to be a weight. _ ■
The ancient Roman afes are worth from 2s. to 2I. p[.;Cj.0f the
according to the (ingularity of their devices. Confu-ancient K.o*
lar gold coins are worth from il. to 5I. Pompey withman alcs*
hisfons 211. and the two Bruti 25I. The filver coins
are univerfally worth from a (hilling to half a crown,
excepting that of the cap of Liberty and a few others,
which if genuine will bring from 10 s. to 5I. The
confular copper bears an equal price with the filver,
but is more rare ; the confular filver coins reltored by
Trajan are worth 20$. each.
With regard to the Roman imperial coins, it is to
be obferved, that fome of thofe which belong to
princes whofe coins are numerous, may yet be ren¬
dered extremely valuable by uncommon reverfes. Mr
Pinkerton particularly points out that of Auguftus,
with the legend-C. Marius Trogvs, which is worth
three guineas, though the filver coins of that prince
in general are not worth above a (hilling. In like
manner, the common g<5ld coins of Trajan are not
worth above twenty (hillings, .while thofe with Bafrii-
ca Ulpia, Forum Trajani, Dlvi Nerva et Fraj anus ■,
Patery D'vvi Nerva et Platina Aug. Profeclio Aug.
Regna AJJignata, Rex Par thus, and fome others, bear
from three to fix pounds. The ticket medals belong
to the Roman Senate, and are worth from three to
ten (hillings. The forged coins and medallions of
the Paduan fell from one to three (hillings each. ioS
Of the coins of other nations, thofe of Hilderic Barbaric
king of the Vandals are in filver, and worth 10 s.; coins,
the fmall brafs of Athanaric, 5 s. ;.the gold of Theo-
doric 2 1.; the fecond brafs of Theodahat 5 s. ; the
fecond brafs of Badueta rare, and worth 1 o s.; the
third brafs, 3 s. The Britilh coins are very rare, and
worth from ten (hillings to -two guineas each, fome-
times much more.- Medals with unknown characters
are always fcarce and dear. Saxon pennies of the
heptarchy are rare, and worth from ten (hillings to
ten pounds, according to their fcarcity and preferva¬
tion. The coins of the Englifir kings are common ;
thofe of Edward the Confeffor, in particular; others
are rare, and worth from ten (hillings to two guineas,
while two of Har4yknute are worth no lefs than ten
guineas. The gold'medals of Henry, in 1545, and
the coronation of Edward, are worth 201. each : the
Mary of Trezzo, 3 1. ; Simon’s head of Thurloe in
gold is worth 121. ; his oval medal in gold upon
Blake’s naval victory at fea is worth 30 1. ; and «his
trial piece, if brought to a fale, would, in Mr Pinker¬
ton’s opinion, bring a (till higher price. The medals
of Queen Anne, which are intrinfically worth about
two guineas and a half, fell for about 3 1. each ; the
filver, of the fize of a croa n piece, fell for 10 s. and
the copper from five to ten (hillings. Dalfier’s copper
pieces fell from tv o to five (hillings, and a few bear a.
higher price.
The Scpttilh gold coins fell higher than the. Eng?.
lift*-
Sed. x: , ‘ MEDALS. 27
Arrange- lift, but the others are on a par. The ftilling of an infallible mark of foyerefgn poorer. In the Roman Arrange¬
ment, &c. Mary with the baft, is rare, and fells for no lefs than confular coins it is feen in conjun&ion with Numa and me! t’
  30 L; the half 3 1.; and the royal 5 1. 5 s. The Ancus, but never afterwards till the time of Uciniue,
Gold°coin« French teftoon of Francis and Mary brings 10I. 10 s. the colleague of Conftantine. Dioclefian, indeed, ac*
of Scotland and the Scottift one of Mary and Henry would bring cording to Mr Gibbon, firft wore the diadem, but hi>
501. as would alfo the medal of James IV. The co- portrait upon coins is never adorned with it. So
ronation medal of Francis and Mary is worth 201. great an averfipn had the Romans to kingly power,
BrioFs coronation medal fold in 1755 only for two that they rather allowed their emperors to affume the
guineas at Dr Mead’s fale ; but would now bring 20I. radiated crown, the fymbol of divinity, than to wear a
if fold according to rarity. diadem ; but after the time of Condantine it becomes
no The Englift coins ftruck in Ireland are of much the common. The radiated crown appears firft on the
fengl-fti fame price with thofe of the native country ; but the pofthumous coins of Auguftus as a mark of deifica-
St Patrick’s halfpence and farthings are rather fcarce, tion, but in fomewhat more than a century became
Ui S and the rare crown of white metal is worth 41. The common.
gun-money of James 11. and all other Irifli coins are
very common.
Se6l. X. Arrangement of Medals, ■with the In-
Jlruftion to be derived from them.
felcm nf
fovereign
authority.
The laurel crown, at firft a badge of conqueft, was
afterwards permitted by the fenate to be worn by Ju¬
lius Csefar, in order to hide the baldnefs of his head.
From him all the emperors appear with it on their
medals, even to our own, times. In the lower empire
the crown is fometimes held by a hand above the head.
Having thus given a full account of every thing in as a mark of piety. Befides thefe, the naval, mural,
general relative to medals, we muft now come to fome and civic crowns, appear on the medals bot-h of empe-
particulars refpe&ing their arrangement, and the enter- rors and other eminent men, to denote their great ac-
tainment which a medallift may expeft from the trouble tions. The laurel crown is alfo fometimes worn by
and expence he is at in making a collection. the Greek princes. The Arfacidas of Parthia wear
It has already been obferved, that one of the prin- a kind of faft round the head, with their hair in rows
cipal ufes of medals is the elucidation of ancient hif- of curls like a wig. The Armenian kings have the
tory. Hence the arrangement -of his medals is the tiara, a kind of cap which was efteemed the badge of
firft thing that muft occur in the formation of a cabi- imperial power in the eaft. Conical caps are feen on
net. The moft ancient medals with which we are ac- the medals of Xerxes, a petty piirice of Armenia,
quainted are thofe of Alexander 1. of Macedon, who and Juba the father, the former having a diadem
began to reign about 501 years before Chrift. The around it. m
feries ought of confequence to begin w ith him, and to The impious vanity of Alexander and his fucceftbrs Symbols
be fucceeded by the medals cf Sicily, Caria, Cyprus, in affuming divine honours is manifeft on their medals, d,vin>ty on
Heraclia, and Pbntus. Then follow Egypt, Syria, where various fymbols of divinity are met with. Some ^
the Cimmerian Bofphorus, Thrace, Bithynia, Par- of them have an horn behind their ear, either to de- and j,;s
thia, Armenia, Damafcus, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, note their ftrength, or that they were the fucceffors of ceffors.
Pergamus, Galatia, Cilicia, Sparta, Pasonia, Epirus, Alexander, to whom this badge might be applied as
Illyricum, Gaul, and the Alps, including the fpace of the fon of Jupiter Ammon. This, howrever, Mr
time from Alexander the Great to the birth of Chrift, Pinkerton obferves, is the only one of. thefe fymbols
and w'hich is to be accounted-the third medallic feries which certainly denotes an earthly fovereign, it being
of ancient monarchs. The laft'feries goes down to doubted whether the reft are not all figures of gods.—.
the fourth century, including fome of the monarchs According to Eckhet, even the horn and diadem be-^
of Thrace, Bofphorus, and Parthia, with thofe of long to Bacchus, who invented the latter to cure his
Comagene, Edefla or Ofrhoene, Mauritania, and headachs ; and, according to the fame author, the.
Judsea. A moft diftinft feries is formed by the Ro- only monarch who appears on coins with the horn is
man emperors, from Julius Casfar to the deftruftion Lyiimachus. We are informed, however, by Plutarch,
of Rome by the Goths; nay for a much longer pe- that Pyrrhus had a creft of goats horns to his helmet i
riod, were it not that towards the latter part of it. and the goat we know was a fymbol of Macedon.
the coins become fo barbarous as to deftroy the beau- Perhaps the fucceflbrs of Alexander wore this badge
ty of the colleftion. Many feries may be formed of the horn in confequence. The helmet likewife fre-
of modern potentates. quently appears on.the heads of fovereigns, and Con-
By means of medals we can with great certainty ftantine I. has helmets of various forms curioufly or-
determine the' various ornaments worn by ancient namented.
princes as badges of diftindtion. The Grecian kings The diadem is w’orn by moft of the Greek queens, by
;; have generally the diadem, without any other orna- Orodaltis, .daughter of Lycomedes, king of Bithynia .;
. ment; and though in general the fide of the face is and though the Roman emprefies never appear with
prefented to view, yet in fome very ancient Greek and it, yet this is more than compenfated by the variety of
Roman confular coins, full faces of excellent wTork- their head-dreffes.- Sometimes the bull of an emprefs
manftiip are met with. On feveral coins alfo two or is fupported by a crefcent, to imply that fte w'as the
three faces are to be feen, and thefe are always ac- moon as her huftand was the fun of the ftate. The
counted very valuable. toga, or veil drawn over the face, at firft implied that
The diadem, which was.no more than a ribbon tied the perfon was invefted with the pontifical office ; and
round the head wdth a floating knot behind, adorns accordingly we find it on the bufts of Julius Casfar,
all the Grecian princes from firft to laft, and is almoft while Pontifex Maximua. It likewife implies the au-
D 2 gurfhip,
28 Med
Arrange- gurflup, the augurs having a particular kind of gown
rnenr, &c. ca]ie(j Janat with which they covered their heads when
'J ' sbferving an omen. In latter times this implies only
confecration, and is common in coins of empreffes.
It is firft met with on the coins of Claudius Gothicus
as the mark of confecration of an emperor. The
nimbus, or glory, now appropriated to faints, has been
already mentioned. It is as ancient as Auguftus, but
is not to be met with on many of the imperial medals,
even after it began to be appropriated to them. There
is a curious coin, which has upon the reverfe of the
common piece with the head of Rome Urbs Roma,
in large brafs, Conftantine I. fitting amid vidlories
and genii, with a triple crown upon his head for Eu¬
rope, Afia, and Africa, with the legend Securitas
Romas.
Portrays £enera^ only the bull is given upon medals,
iipoi/m - though fometimes half the body or more ; in which
dais. latter cafe the hands often appear with enfigns of ma-
jefty in them ; fuch as the globe faid to* have been in¬
troduced by Auguftus as a fymbol of univerfal domi¬
nion ; the feeptre fometimes confounded with the con-
fular ftaff, a roll of parchment, the fymbol of legifla-
tive power, and an handkerchief exprelfive of the power
over the public games, where the emperor gave the
fignal Some princes hold a thunderbolt, flowing that
their power on earth was equal to that of Jupiter in
Heaven ; while others hold an image of Viffory.
Medals likewife afford a good number of portraits
of illuftrious men ; but they cannot eafily be arranged
in chronological order, fo that a feries of them is not
to be expedfed. It is likewife vain to attempt the
formation of a feries of gods and goddeffes to be foun4
on ancient coins. Mr Pinkerton thinks it much bet¬
ter to arrange them under the feveral cities or kings
whofe names they hear. A colledfion of the portraits
of illuftrious men may likewife be formed from medals
of modern date.
JUverfes of ^‘e reverfes of ancient Greek and Roman coins
Greek ami afford an infinite variety of inftrudlion and amufement.
Roman They contain figures of deities at full length, with
coins. their attributes and fymbols, public fymbols and diver-
fions, plants, animals, &c. &c. and in fhort almoft
every objedl of nature or art. Some have the por¬
trait of the queen, fon, or daughter of the prince
whofe image appears on the face or obverfe ; and thefe
are efteemed highly by antiquaries, not only becaufe
every coin ftamped with portraits on both fides is ac¬
counted valuable, but becaufe they render it certain
that the perfon reprefented on the reverfe was the
wife, fon, or daughter of him who appears on the
obverfe ; by which means they afiift greatly in the ad-
jufting of a feries. Some, however, with two portraits
arc common, as Auguftus, the reverfe of Caligula;
and Marcus Aurelius, reverfe of Antoninus Pius.
We find more art and defign in the reverfes of the
Roman medal’s than of the Greek r but, on the oilier
hand, the latter have more exquifite relief and work-
manfhip. The very ancient coins have no reverfes,
excepting a rude mark ftruck into the metal refem-
bling that of an inftftiment with four blunt points on
which the coin was ftruck ; and was owing to its ha¬
ving been fixed by fuch an inftrument on that fide
to receive the imprelfion upon the other. To this
fuceeeds the image of a dolphin, or fbme fmall animal,
3
A L S. Sefl. X.
in one of the departments of the rude mark, or in an Arrange-
hollow fquare: and this again is fucceeded by a more ,ment’
perfect image, without any mark of the hollow fquare.
Some of the Greek coins are hollow in the reverfe, as
thofc of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, and fome
other ancient cities of Magna Grecia. About 500
B. C. perfect reverfes appear on the Greek coins, of
exquifite relief and workmanfhip. “ The very muf-
cles -of men and animals (fays Mr Pinkerton) are ieen,
and will bear inipeftion with the largeft magnifier as
ancient gems. The ancients certainly had not eyes
different from ouVs ; and it is clear that they muft have
magnified obje&s. A drop of water forms a micro-
feope ; and it is probable this was the only one of the
ancients. To Greek artifts we are indebted for the
beauty of the Roman imperial coins; and thefe are
fo highly finifhed, that on fome reverfes, as that of
Nero’s decurfion, the advent us and progrejfus of vari¬
ous, emperors, the fundator pacts of Severus, the fea¬
tures of the emperor, riding or walking, are as exa£b
as on the obverfe. But though the bell Greek ar¬
tifts wrere called to Rome, yet the Greek coins under
the Roman emperors are fometimes well executed,
and always full of variety and curiofity. No Roman
or Etrufcan coins have been found of the globular
form, or indented on the reverfe like the early Greek.
The firft Greek are fmall pieces of filver, while the
Roman are large maffes of copper. The former are
ftruck ; the latter call in moulds. The reverfes of the
Roman coins are very uniform, the prow of a fhip, a
car, or the like, till about the year 100 B. C, when
various reverfes appear on their confular coins in all
metals. The variety and beauty of the Roman impe¬
rial reveifes are well known. The medallift much va¬
lues thofe which have a number of figures; as the
Puella FauJUnianee, of Fauftina, a gold coin no larger
than a fixpence, which has 12 figures ; that of Trajan,
regna ajpgnata, has four; the congiarium of Nerva five ;
the allocution of Trajan feven } of Hadrian 1,0 ; o£
Probus 12. Some Roman medals have fmall figures
on both fides, as the Jpolloni fanSo of Julian II. Such
have not received any peculiar name among the medal-
lifts. Others have only a reverfe, as the noted fpintri-
ati, which have numerals I. II. &c. on . the ob¬
verfe.” i*y
The names of the deities reprefented on the rever- Of the dei-
fes of Greek coins are never expreffed ; perhaps, as Mr j.,es '-epre-
Pinkerton fuppofes, out of piety, a fymbolical repre-^^P0*
fentation of their attributes being all that they thought £u;nJ,‘
proper to delineate ; but the Roman coins always ex¬
press the name, frequently with an adjuntl, as Veneri
Victrici, &c. In others, the name of the empe¬
ror or emprefs is added t as Pudiciti.® August®,
round an iraa^e of Modefty; Virtus Augusti, a
legend for an image of Virtue.
The principal fymbols of the divine attributes to
be met with on the Greek medals are as follow:
t. Jupiter is known on the coins of Alexander the
Great by his eagle and thunderbolts; but when the
figure occurs only on the obverfes of coins, he is di-
ftingiwfhed'by a laurel crown, and placid bearded coun¬
tenance. Jupiter Ammon is known, by the ram’s-
hern twilling round his ear ; a fymbol of power and
ftrength, affumed by fome of the fucceffors of Akx-
ander the Great, particularly by Lyfimaehus.
2. Nep-
sea. X. M E l
Arrange- 2. Neptune is known by his trident, dolphin, or be-
. ate nr, 6cc, jng drawn by fea-horfes; but he is fcldora met with on
' the Grecian coins.
3. Apollo is dillinguifhed by an harp, branch of
laurel, or tripod; and fometimes by a bow and arrows.
In the character of the. Sun, his head is furrounded
with rays •, but when the butt only occurs, he has a
fair young face, and is crowned with laurel. He is
frequent on the coins of the Syrian princes.
4. Mars is diftinguiflied by his armour, and fome¬
times by a trophy on his Ihbulders. His head is
. armed with a' helmet, auid lias a ferocious counte¬
nance.
5. Mercury is reprefented as a youth, with a fmall
cap on his head, wings behind his ears and on his
feet. He is known by the cap, which refembles a
fmall hat, and the wings. He appears alfo with the
caduceus, or wand twined with ferpents, and the mar-
Jupium, or purfe, which he holds in his hand.
6. iEfculapius is known by his bufhy beard, and
his leaning on a club with a ferpent twitted round
it. He fometimes occurs with his wife Hygeia or
Health, with their fon Telefphorus or Convalefcence
between them.
7. Bacchus is known by his crown of ivy or
vine, his diadem and horn, with a tiger and fatyrs
around him.
8. The figure of Hercules is common on the coins
of Alexander the Great, and has frequently been mi-
flaken for that of the prince himfelf. He appears
fometimes as a youth and fometimes with a beard.
He is known by the club, lion’s Ikin, and remarkable
apparent ftrength; fometimes he has a cup in his hand,
and a poplar tree, as a fymbol of vigour, is fometimes
added to the portrait.
9. The Egyptian Serapis is known by his bufhy
beard, and a meafure. upon his head.
10. Apis is delineated in the form of a bull, with a
flower of the lotos, the water-lily of the Nile, fup-
pofed by Macrobius to be a fymbol of creation; and
Jamblichus tells us, that Ofiris was thought to have
his throne in it.
xi. Harpocrates, the god of Silence, appears with
his finger on his mouth ; fometimes with the fiftrum in
his left hand ; a fymbol common to molt of the.Egyp¬
tian deities.
12. Canopus, another Egyptian deity, appears in
the fhape of an human, head placed on a kind of pitch¬
er. “ This deified pitcher (fays Mr Pinkerton) feems
to refer to an anecdote of ancient fuperftition, .which,
I. believe, is recorded by Plutarch. It feems fome Per-
fian and Egyptian prietts had a conteft which of their
deities had the fuperiority. The Egyptian faid, that
a fmgle vafe, facred to Serapis, would extinguifh the
whole power of the Perfian deity, of fire. The expe¬
riment was tried; and the wily Egyptian, boring holes
in the vafe and flopping them with wax, afterwards
filled the vafe with water; which, guttling through
the holes as the wax melted, extinguiflted the Perfian
deity. Hence the vafe was deified.”
13. The Holy Senate and Holy People, appear fre¬
quently on Greek imperial coins,.fometimes reprefent¬
ed as old men with beards, at others as youths.
The goddefles reprefented on medals are,
x. Juno) reprefented by a beautiful young woman,
> A L S. *5
fometimes with a diadem, fometimes without any Arrange •
badge, which is reckoned a fufficient diftindlion, as
the other goddefies all wear badges. Sometimes fhe • 1
appears as the goddefs of marriage ; and is then veiled
to the middle and fometimes to the toes. She is
known by the peacock, a bird facred to her from the
fable of Argus.
2. Minerva is very common on the coins of Alex¬
ander the Great; and her butt has been miftaken by
the celebrated painter Le Brun for the hero himfelf.
She is very eafily diftinguifhed by the helmet. Her
fymbols are, her armour ; the fpear in her right hand,
and the aegis, with a Medufa’s head, in her left; an ovvT’
commonly Handing by her.
3. Diana of Ephefus is commonly reprefented on
the Greek imperial coins; and appears with a great
number of breatts, fuppofed to denote univerfal Na¬
ture. She is fupported by two deer, and carries a
pannier of fruit upon her head. The butt of this
goddefs is known by the (mefeent on her brow, and'
iometimes by the bow and quiver at her fide.
4. Venus is known by an apple, the prize of beau¬
ty, in her hand. Sometimes ftie is diftinguittied only
by her total want of drefs; but is always to be known
by her extraordinary beauty, and is fometimes adorned
with pearls about the neck.
5. Cupid is fometimes met with on the Syrian
coins, and is known by his infancy and wings.
6. Cybele is known by a turreted crown and lion
or is feen in a chariot drawn by lions.
7. Ceres is known by her garland of wheat, and is
common on the Sicilian coins ; that ifland being re¬
markable for its fertility. Sometimes fhe has two fer¬
pents by her, and is fometimes drawn in a chariot by
them. She carries in her hands the torches with
which Ihe is fabled to have gone in fearch of her
daughter Proferpine.
8. Proferpine herfelf is fometimes met with on
coins with the name of or the
9. The Egyptian Ifis. has a bud or flower on her
head ; a fymbol of the perpetual bloom ef the inha¬
bitants of heaven. She carries alfo a fiftrum in her
hand.
10. The Sidonian Aftarte appears on a globe fup¬
ported on a chariot with two wheels, and drawn by
two horfes.
Thefe are the deities moft commonly reprefented on
the Greek coins.. The more uncommon are, Saturn
with his feythe, or with a hook on the He-raclian
coins ; . Vulcan with his tongs, on the reverfe of a coin
of Thyatira, reprefented at work in the prefence of
Minerva. Adranus, a Sicilian god, is fometimes re¬
prefented on coins with a dog. Anubif, an Egyp¬
tian deity, has a dog.’s head.. Ati* is known by his
Phrygian bonnet; Caftor and Pollux by a liar on the
head of each ; Dis, by his old face, di fhe veiled hair
and beardj and a hook ; Flora by her crown of flow¬
ers ; Nemefis by her wheel-; and Pan by his horns and
ears belonging to fome kind of beaft.
There are likewife to be found on medals many x^te 0f
different fymbols by themfelves; of the moft remark-Symyol*«
able of which we (hall give the following table, with
their fignifieations :
Symbols. Signification.-
1. Vafes with-fprigs, « Solemn games.
2. SaaaU.^
M
Symbols.
_c\ 2. Small cheft or hamper, with
ferpent leaping out.
3. Anchor on Seleucian medals,
E D
Signification.
CMyftic rites of
2 Bacchus.
Coin ftruck
x at Antioch,
< where an an-
r chorwasdug
^ up.
4* inerted hamper a" ^ ^ {Covered tripod.
5. Bee,
6. Laurel,
7. Reed,
8. Ivy and grapes,
9. Poppy,
10. Corn,
a 1. Owl and olive,
is. Dove,
13. Torch, "
14. Mudnis, or conic Hone,
Symbols of Countries, &c.
•15. Pomegranate flowers, - Rhodes.
16. Owl, - - - Athens.
17. Pegafus, - - Corinth.
18. Wolf’s head, - Argos.
19. Bull’s head, - - Boeotia.
20. Minotaur’s head and labyrinth, Crete.
21. Horfe’s head, - Pharfalia.
22. Lion, - - Marfeilles.
23. Tortoife, - - Peloponnefus.
24. Sphinx, - - Scio.
25. Three legs joined, as in the Ifle Jo- m
of Man-monev. / IC1
A I s:
Symbols.
35. Globe on an altar with three
ftars.
36. Fort and gate,
37. Tribuli, a kind of Chevaux de
Prize, -
38. Altar or tripod,
39. Dolphin,
40. Le&ifternia,
41. Lituus, or twifted wand,
42. Apex, or cap with firings,
43. Thenfa, or chariot employed to
carry images,
44. Peacock,
45. Eagle, - -
Sea. XI;
Signification. Arranee* I
Pie world pre- ment» &c>.|
ferved by the ' J-
I gods for the
j three fons of
I Conftantine
LL.' 1
Security.
^ Unknown.
Piety.
Apollo.
Feftivals.
Augurfhip.
Pontificate.
( Confecrationof
l an emprefs.
Ditto.
( Confecrationof
I an emperor.
of Man-money,
26. Horfe,
27. The crefcent,
28. Bull,
29. Enfign, with the letters col.
30. Bull,
31. Caduceus,
32. Cornucopia,
33. Pontifical hat,
34. Parazonium, - —
Theflaly.
Byzantium(A).
C Suppofed to be
2 a river.
C A colony drawn
■< from one le-
C gion.
5 Apis, ftrcngth
\ or fecurity.
f Peace and con-
\ cord.
Abundance.
Priefthood.
C Baton of com-
2, mand.
The legends put upon medals are defigned as ex- *17
planations of them ; but as the compafs of even the
large ft coins does not admit of any great length of
infcription, it has always been found neceflary to ufe
abbreviations; and in readily decyphering thefe lies a
confiderable part of the difficulty of the fcience. This,
however, is greater in the Roman than in the Greek
medals; for the Greeks commonly infert as much of
the word as is fufficient to enable us eafily to under-
ftand its meaning ; but it is common for thofe who at¬
tempt to explain letters that do not often occur, to
fall into very ridiculous errors. Of this Mr Pinker-
ton gives a moft remarkable inftance in Fortunius Li-„*r
cetus, a learned man, who finding upon a coin of A- take of For-
drian the letters r. ia. fignifying the 14th year of that tuniusLice-
emperor’s reign, imagined that they flgnified Lucer-tU5‘
nas invenit Delta ; “ Delta invented lanthorns and
thence afcribed the origin of lanthorns to the Egyp¬
tians. Tables explaining the meaning of the abbrevi¬
ations found upon medals have been publilhed by Pa-
tin, Urfatus, and others.
Sect. XL Of Medallions, Medalets, &c.
Besides the ordinary coins of the ancients, which
pafled in common circulation through the country,
there were others of a larger fize, which are now term¬
ed medallions. Thefe were ftruck on the commence¬
ment of the reign of a new emperor and other folemn
occafions : frequently alfo, by the Greeksin particular,
as monuments,-of gratitude or of flattery. Sometimes
they were mere trial or pattern pieces; and thofe
abound after the time of Maximian with the words
Tres Monette on the reverfe. The common opinion
(a) This appears Cn the early coins of Byzantium, with the legend btzantin xit. “ the preferver of
Byzantium.” The reafon of this was, that when Philip of Macedon befieged the city, and vras about to
ftorm it in a cloudy night, the moon flione out on a fudden and difcgvered, him ; by which means the inhabi¬
tants had time to colle& their forces and repulfe him. . The Turks, on entering Conftantinople, found this
badge in many places ; and fufpe&ing fome magical power in it, aflumed the fymbol and its power to them-
felve® ; fo that the crefcent is now the chief Turkilh enfign.
Sea. XT. MED
Medal- is, that all the Roman pieces of gold exceeding the
lions, &c. denarius aureus, all in filver exceeding the denarius,
'J" * and all in brafs exceeding the feilertius, went under
the denomination of medallions: but Mr Pinkerton
thinks that many of thefe large pieces went in circu¬
lation, tho’ not.very commonly, as our five and two
guinea pieces, filver crowns, &c. do in this country*
The fineft medallions were prefented by the mint-ma-
fters to the emperor, apd by the'emperor to his friends,
as fpecimens of fine workmanfiiip. The belt we have
at p; Tent are of brafs, and many of them compofed
of two forts of metal; the centre being copper, with
a ring of brafs around it, or the contrary ; and the
infcription is fometimes confined to one of the metals,
fometimes not. There is a remarkable difference be¬
tween the Greek and Roman medallions in point of
thicknefs ; the latter being frequently three or four
lines thick, while the other feldom exceed one. Very
few medallions, however, were ftruck by the Greeks
before the time of the Roman emperors ; but the Greek
medallions of the emperors are more numerous than
thofe of the Romans themfelves. All thefe pieces,
however, are of fuch high price that few private per-
fans are able to purchafe them. In the laft: century
Chriffina queen of Sweden procured about 300. In
the king of France’s cblle£fion there are 1200; a num¬
ber formerly fuppofed not to exifl ; and Dr Hun¬
ter’s collection contains about 400, exclufive of the
Egyptian.
Befides thefe large pieces, there are fmaller ones of
a fize fomewhat larger than our half-crowns; and by
Italian medallifls are called medaglion cini, or fmall
medallions. They are ftill fcarcer than the large
kind.
tI^ There is ftill a third kind, which have almoft efca-
@f meda- Ped the notice of medallifts, viz. the fmall coins or
lots. mijfdia fcattered among the people on folemn occa-
fions ; fuch as thofe ftruck for the flaves. on account
of. the faturnalia ; counters for gaming ; tickets for
baths and feafts; tokens in copper and in lead; ,&c.
Thefe are diftinguiftied by Mr Pinkerton by the name
of medalets. Many, or perhaps almoft all, of thofe
ftruck for the faturnalia were fatyrical; as the Haves
had then a licence to ridicule not only their mafters
but any perfon whatever. Mr Pinkerton mentions
one of the moft common pieces of this kind, which
has on the obverfe the head of an old woman veiled,,
with a laurel crown ; the reverfe only s. c.‘ within a
wreath. Baudelot is of opinion that it is the head of
Acca Laurentia, the nurfe of Romulus, to whom a
feftival was ordained. “ Perhaps (fays Mr Pinkerton),
it was ftruck in ridicule of Julius C<efar; for the man¬
ner of the laurel crowm, and its high. appearance over
the head,perfeftly referable that of Julius on his coins.”
Some have a (hip upon one fide; on the reverfe T,
or a crofs, which was the image of Priapus; and oc-
cafioned many falfe inveftives againft the firft Chri-
ftians, who paid fuch refpeift to the crofs. Some pieces
have the heads of the emperors upon one. fide ; on
the reverfe only numerals III. IV V. &c. and the
noted fpintriati of Tacitus. Both thefe kinds appear
tickets for the baths, as the number feems to denote the
particular bath. Some have the head of a girl, -with
a veflel ufed at the baths in her hand. The fpintriati
are.fo.hniaodeft, that few will bear mention. But
A L
fome are merely ludicrous} as one which has an afs Meda!-
with a bell about his neck, and a foldier riding him ; hons, &c,
another with two figures hoifting a woman in a baiket ~
into the air. Of thofe that will juft bear mention, is
a man with titles around him, as chief of the games ;
and a woman in ridicule of the-modell bath-girl above-
mentioned. There is alfo one marked xix, on which
appears an imperator triumphing in a car: this car is
placed on the back of a camel; and behind the impe¬
rator is a monkey mimicking him.
A fourth clafs of medals are called contorniati from no
the Italian contorniato, “ encircled;” becaufe of the.con^
hollow circle which commonly runs around them.torniatu
They are diftinguiftied from medallions by their thin-
nefs, faint relief, reverfes fometimes in relief, fome¬
times hollow ; and in general by the inferiority in
their workmanfhip. The opinions of medallifts con¬
cerning thefe pieces are very various; fome fuppofe
them to have been ftruck by Gallienus to the memory
of illuftrious men and celebrated athletic, at the time
that he caufed all the confecration coins of his pre-
deceffors to be reftored; others afcribe their, invention
to Greece, &c. but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that
they were only tickets for places at public games.
Many of them, notwithftanding their inferior work-
manftup, are very valuable on account of their pre-
ferving the portraits of fome illuftrious authors of an¬
tiquity, no where elfe to be found. Much depen-
dance, however, cannot be put on the portraits of
Greek authors and eminent men found upon fome ot
them ; for though we know that the bulls of Salluft,
Horace, &c. mull have been ftt'uck when their perr
fons were frelh in the memory of the. artifts, yet it
was otherwife with Homer, Solon, Pythagoras, &c.
which are to be found on fome of them. Even thefe,
however, are valuable, as being ancient and perhaps
traditional portraits of thefe great men. The laft
whofe portraits are fuppofed to have been delineated
in this way, are Apollonius Tyaneus who flourilhed
in the time of Domitian, and Apuleius in that of
Marcus Antoninus. Mr Pinkerton thinks it a con¬
firmation of his opinion concerning thefe medals, that
the reverfes always contain fome device alluding to
public games, as that of a charioteer driving a cha¬
riot,'&c.
Sect. XII. Direffionsfor making Cabinets.
We muft now proceed to the laft part of our lub-
jeft, viz. that of giving direftions for the formation
of cabinets. As we have already feen that the forma¬
tion of any one muft be attended with very confide?
ruble expence, it is neceffary for every one who at¬
tempts this to proportion the cabinet to his own cir-
cumftances. There are; properly fpeaking, three kinds
of cabinets. I. Thefe meant to contain a coin of
every fort that has been iffued from the mint in every
age and country; but this, which may be called the
large and complete cabinet, is not to be purchafed by
private perfons., That of Dr Hunter already men¬
tioned is perhaps one of the bell private cabinets ever
known ; and coft 23,000!. but as many duplicates
were fold as coft 20001. by which means the expence
was reduced to 21,000. The vaft collection made by
the king of France coft upwards of' ioo,ocol.. fhe
4 fmaUerr
32 MED
> JDire<St:ons fmaller cabinet may be fuppofed to confifl; only of
^cabinet "g m'^e an^ fma^ R°man brafs, Englifh pennies, groats,
^ &c. with a few medals of the more valuable kind, and
may be fuppofed to incur an expence of from 200 to
1000I. The fmalleft kind is called a cajhct of medals,
and does not conlift of above a thoufand at moll of
various kinds ; and confequently the expence mull de¬
pend on the pleafure of the proprietor.
In the formation of the grand cabinet, it mull be
obferved that the Greek medals of every denomina¬
tion do not admit of any arrangement by the metals
like the Roman ; not any regular feries of this kind
being met with even in the moll opulent cabinets.
Hence in all colle&ions the civic coins are ranged ac¬
cording to an alphabetical order; and the monarchic
in a chronological one. The fame rule is to be ob¬
ferved in the Roman confular medals; they are ranged,
like the coins of the Greek cities, in an alphabetical
feries of the families. The Roman imperial coins are
only thofe capable of being arranged according to fizes
and metals. Even from this mull be excepted the
minimi, or very fmalleft coins ; which are fo fcarce,
that the only regular feries of them in the world is
that belonging to the king of Spain, which Was form¬
ed by a moll Ikilful French medallift, and confifts of
all the metals. The arrangement of a grand cabinet,
according to Mr Pinkerton, is as follows.
“ I. The coins of cities and of free Hates in alpha¬
betical order: whether ufmg Greek, Roman, Punic,
Etrufcan, or Spanifh characters.
“ II. Kings in chronological feries, both as to foun¬
dation of empire and feniority of reign.
“ III. Heroes, heroines, founders of empires, and
cities. *
“ IV. Other illuftrious perfons.
“ V. Roman afes.
“ VI. Coins of families, commonly called confular,
“ VII. Imperial medallions.
“ VIII. Imperial gold.
<c IX. Imperial minimi of all metals.
“ X. Imperial filver.
“ XI. Imperial firft brafs,
“ XII. Second brafs.
« XIII. Third brafs.
XIV. Colonial coins, which are all of brafs.
“ XV. Greek cities under the emperors, of all me¬
tals and fizes. ‘In a fmaller cabinet they may be put
with the Roman, according to their metal and fize.
Thofe without the emperor’s bead go to ciafs I. tho’
'ftruck in Roman times.
“ XVI. Egyptian coins ftruck under the Roman
emperors, of all metals and fizes. They are moftly of a
bafe metal called by the French patin ; it is a kind of
-pot metal or brittle brafs.
“ XVI I. Contorniati, or ticket medals.
“ XVIIF. Coins of Gothic princes, &c. inferibed
with Roman characters.
“ XIX. Coins of fouthern nations ufing uncommon
alphabets ; as the Perfian, Punic, Etrufcan, and Spa-
•>nifh.
‘ XX. Coins of northern nations ufing uncommon
charafters, as the Punic and German.
“ In Ae modern part no feries can be formed of
copper that will go back above two centuries; but fe-
K3 201.
The moft ancient coins, according to Froelich, arc
diftinguifhed by the following marks, which he ac
counts infallible. 1, Their oval circumference, and
globulouS fwelling fhape. i. Antiquity of alphabet,
3. The characters being retrograde, or the firft divi-
fion of the legend in the common flyle, while the next
is retrograde. 4. The indented fquare already deferi-
bcd. 5. The fimple ftruCture of the mintage. 6. Some
of
A L S. Sed. Xltj
quences (chronological feries) of gold and filver may Direftion*
be arranged of all the different empires, kingdoms, and for making 1
ftates, as far as their feveral coinages will allo^v. Thofe ca'1 Bct*- • 1
of England and France will be the moll perfect. Mo- v“'
dern filver is commonly arranged in three fequences j
the dollar, the groat, and the penny fizes. The me¬
dals of each modern country ought of courfe to be
feparated; though it is beft to arrange each fet in
chronological order, let their fize of metal be what
they will. It may be remarked here, that our modern
medals, of the fize of a tea-faucer, are only fo many mo¬
numents of barbarifm. The ancient medallions are
almoft univerfally but little larger than our crown-piece,
though three or four of them may extend to about two.
inches diameter, but very many modern -medals to four
inches and more. A large medal always declares an ig~-
norant prince or an ignorant artift. Into the fize of a
crown-piece the ancients threw more miracles in thi-s way
than Will ever appear in thefe monftrous productions.”
Thefe directions will likewife apply to the forma¬
tion of a cabinet of the fecond kind : but if the col¬
lector means to form a ferks of large Roman brafs, he
will find the coins of four or five emperors fo fcarce
as not to be attainable in that feries, even at any
price. He muft therefore fupply their places with
middle brafs, as is allowed with regard to Otho ; even
iti the beft cabinets, there not being above three coins
of that emperor in large brafs known in the world ;
whereas of the middle brafs, two or three hundred
may exift. For this reafon Mr Pinkerton concludes,
that in cabinets of the fecond clafs, the collector may
mingle the large and fecond brafs together as he
thinks proper, in order to fave expencc; though it
would not do fo well to unite fuch difproportionate
fizes as the large and fmall. “ In the fmall fequence,
however (fays he), there can be no harm in his mix¬
ing gold, filver, and brafs, as chance or curiofity may-
lead him to purchafe any of thefe metals. And tho'
your ftarched bigotted medallift may fneer becaufe fuch
a fequence would controvert his formal and narrow way
of thinking, common fenfe will authorife us to laugh
at the pedant in our turn, and to pronounce fuch *
feries more various, rich, and interefting, than if
the colle&or had arranged only one metal, and re¬
jected a curious article becaufe he did not colleCt gold
or filver. In like manner, if, in the modern part of
the fmaller cabinet, any coin of a feries is of high
price, or of bad iffipreflion, there can be no impro¬
priety in putting another of the fame reign, which h
cheaper, or better executed, though of a different de¬
nomination or of a little larger iize. In fhort, the
colkClor has no rules but in the Greek cities and Ro¬
man families, to obferve alphabetical order and chro¬
nology in every thing elfe.
Tables of Ancient Coins.
Tables. MED
Ancient 0f tlw very old coitis are hollowed on the reverfe, with
Coins, tfre image Imprefled on the front. 7. The drefs, fym-
* 13 v bols, &c. frequently of the rudeft defign and execu¬
tion.
T'able I. Ancient Greek Coins.
1. Thofe without imprefiion.
2. With one or more hollowindented marks on one
fide, and an impreflion in relief on the other.— Of Chal-
cedon on the Hellefpont, Lefbos, Abdera in Thrace,
Acanthus in Macedon, thofe faid to belong to Egium
in Achaia. This clafe continues from about 900 to
700 B.C.
3. With an indented fquare divided into fegments,
having a fmall figure in One of them ; the reft blank,
with a figure in relief on the obverfe.—Of Syracufe
and other places adjacent.—Continue from 700 to
600 B. C.
4. Coins hollow on the reverfe, with figures in relief
on the obverfe.- Of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum,
&c. Suppofed by fome to be a local coinage of Magna
Graecia; but probably of equal antiquity with the
former.
5. Coins in which a fquare dye is ufed on one or
both fides.—Of Athens, Cyrene, Argos, &c.—Of
Alexander I. and Archelaus I. of Macedon. Difufed
in the reign of the latter about 420 B. C.
6. Complete coins, both in obverfe and reverfe, oc¬
cur firft in Sicily in the time of Gelo, about 491
B. C.
7. Coins of Alexander the Great and his fucceflbrs.
About the time of this hero the Greek coins began to
attain to perfection, and were ftriick of uncommon
beauty. It is remarkable, that on the coins of this
monarch his own image feldom occurs. The only one
yet found of Alexander with his portrait upon it, and
ftruck during his reign, is a filver hemidrachm in Dr
Hunter’s cabinet, which is reprefented PlateCCXCII.
n' 3. After his death many coins bear his portrait.
Trebellius Pollio informs us, that fome coins, parti-
ticularly thofe of Alexander, ufed to be worn as amu¬
lets ; and many medals are met with in cabinets bo¬
red feemingly with that intention.
8. Coins, of the fucceffors of Alexander.—Thofe of
the Syrian monarchs almoft equal the coins of Alex¬
ander himfelf in beauty, Thofe of Antiochus VI.
are fuppofed to be the moft perfedf patterns of male
beauty to be met with anywhere. The Egyptian
Ptolemies are fomewhat inferior.
9. The coins of the Arfacidoe of Parthia done by
Greek workmen.
10. The Greek imperial coinsi being fuch as have
the head of an emperor or emprefs; fuch as have not
thefe impreflions being dafied with the civic coins,
though ftruck under the Roman power. None of the
imperial coins occur in gold. Of filver there are thofe
of Antioch, Tyre, Sidon, Tarfus, Berytus, Ctefarea.
Egyptian filver coins of bafe metal. Syrian filver coins,
which fometimes bear on the reverfe the club of Her¬
cules, or the Tyrian Ihell-filh. Thofe of Sidon bear
the image of the goddefs Aftarte, or her chariot.
Thofe of Csefarea in Cappadocia of better work than
the Syrian. Lycian coins of good workmanlhip : on
the reverfe; two harps and an owl fitting upon them.
Silver coins of Gelon in Sarmatia refembling the Sy-
Vol. XI. Part I. b '
A L S. 33
rian. The fituation of this town is very much un- Ancient
known. It feems to have been fituated on the north , t
of the Euxine fea, where fome Sarmatic or Sclavonic
tribes were mingled with the Scythians or Goths.
The Greek imperial brafs coins are very numerous.
A feries of almoft all the emperors may be had from
thofe of Antioch, with a Latin legend on the obverfe
jmd Greek on the reverfe. Thofe of Bithynia and
Phrygia remarkable for good workmanfhip. The coins
of Tarfus remarkable for their curious views of ob-
je&s, almoft in perfpeftive. The Egyptian coins,
from the time of Auguftus to Nero, are worfe ex¬
ecuted than afterwards. From Nero to Commo-
dus they are frequently of admirable workmanfhip,
and in a peculiar ftyle, diftinft both from the Greek
and Roman. From the time of Commodus they de¬
cline, and are loft after the reign of Conftantius I.
The Egyptian brafs coins of the Roman period are
likewife of excellent workmanfhip, efpecially in the
time of Antoninus Pius.
Table II. Roman Coins.
I. The confular coins, called alfo the coins of fami¬
lies, and arranged alphabetically in cabinets, accord¬
ing to the names of the families which appear on them.
They are,
1. Brajs Coins.—Thefe confift chiefly of large pieces
of rude workmanfhip without any interefting imagery.
In cabinets they are generally kept in boxes apart by
themfelves. The as bears the head of Janus; the fe-
mis of Jupiter with S ; the triens of Minerva with four
ciphers; the quadrans of Hercules with three ci¬
phers ; the fextans of Mercury with two cyphers;
and the uncia bears the head of Rome with one ci¬
pher. In all thefe pieces the prow of a fhip is con-
ilantly the figure on the reverfe, with very few excep¬
tions. Sometimes, indeed, they have a fhell, two heads
of barley, a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on the re¬
verfe. About the time of Julius Caefar both the ob-
verfes and the reverfes of the coins began to be al¬
tered.
2. Silver. Of this the denarius was the firft and
principal coin. It was ftamped originally with X,
denoting that the value was ten afes. On the reverfe
was Caftor and Pollux, or a chariot of Viftory. Af¬
terwards the bufts of various deities make their ap¬
pearance ; and in the feventh century of Rome the
portraits of illuftrious perfons deceafed are met with :
but till the time of Julius Cxfar no figure of any
living perfon is to be met with ; Julius himfelf being
the firft who afiumed that honour. The workmanfliip
on the beft and worft filver is much the fame. The
reverfes are very curious, and point out many remark¬
able events in Roman hiftory ; but none of thefe oc¬
cur till about a century before the Chriftian era. The
large denarii, with Roma, are the moft ancient ; and
fome of thefe bear the Pelafgic A, not the Roman.
The filver feftertii have a head of Mercurv, with a
caduceus on the reverfe. The quinarii have always
a head of Jupiter, with a Viftory on the reverie.
3. Gold. — Moft of thefe are of great value. The
number of thefe exceeds not 100 ; thofe of brafs 200;
and of filver 2000. The aureus is the general gold
coin; but two or three gold femifies of families like¬
wife occur.
E
II.
MEDALS.
Tables.
II. Roman imperial coins.
i. Brafs,—This is of three fizes; large, middle,
and fmall. The firft forms a moil beautiful feries,
but very expenfive. The various colours of the pati¬
na have the fineit effedl. It is the moil important of
all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in
value.
The middle brafs is next in value to the former;
and in it are many rare and curious coins, particular¬
ly interefting to Britons, as elucidating the hiftory of
the ifland. Of thefe are the triumphal arch of Clau¬
dius; the Exerc. Britannicus of Adrian; the
coins of Antoninus Pius, Commodus, Severus, with
a Vidlory, Victoria Britan. : but efpecially thofe
perfonifying the country Britannia. “ The num-
“ ber of Roman coins relating to Britain (fays Mr Pin¬
kerton) is remarkable, more than 20 having been (truck
at various times ; while thofe perfonifying Italy, Gaul,
Spain, and other regions of the empire, exceed not four
or fix at mod for each country. Only one country
vies with Britain, and that is Dacia on the extreme
north-eaft of the empire, as Britain on the extreme
north-weft. No doubt this cireumftance of rernste-
nefs in thefe two countries recommended them to this
particular attention, as more expreflive of the Roman
power.
The fmall brafs feries abounds alfo with curious
coins. They are fcarce till the time of Valerian and
Gallienus, but very common afterwards. Mr Pinker¬
ton recommends, therefore, to form a feries in filver
as well as brafs; both being the cheapeft of all
the Roman coins. “ In this feries (fays he),
it is a common fault to arrange many coins which
have been plated with gold or filver, the forgeries of
ancient times, but which time has worn off either
wholly or in part. All real brafs coins have the s. c.
till the time of Gallienus ; as the fenate alone had the
power of ftriking brafs, while the emperor himfelf had
that of gold and filver. When the s. c. therefore, is
wanting, the coin was certainly once plated; as, in
general, the different type and fabric, being thofe of
gold and filver, fufficiently (how themfelves. With
Pertinax, A. D. 192, there is a temporary ceffation
of fmall brafs; nor after him do any princes occur in
that feries till Valerian, A. D. 254, excepting Traja-
nus Decius, A. D. 250 only. After Valerian the fe-
ries is continuous and common. The brafs coinage
gradually declined in fize from the time of Severus;
fo that parts of the as could not be ftruck, or at leaft
it was held unneceffary to ftrike them. Trajanus De¬
cius attempted in vain to reftore the coinage ; and Va¬
lerian and Gallienus were forced to iffue denarii aerei
and fmall affaria. The feries of large and of middle
brafs are of two fixed and known fizes ; the former a-
-bout that of our crown, the latter of the half crown :
though after Severus they gradually leffen. But the
fmall brafs takes in all parts of the as ; and every brafs
coin not larger than our (hilling belongs to this feries.
The minimi., indeed, or very (mailed, it is proper to
keep apart. The coins of Julius Cefar in this fizeare
of peculiarly fine workmanlhtp. They bear his. por¬
trait reverfe of Auguftus, or the reverfe has a croco¬
dile Egypto capta. There are feveral with Mark
Anthony, and fome with Cleopatra ; but the more
common pieces are tbofe with only numerals on the Ancient
obverfe, which go the length of XIII; probably tic- c°!ns’
kets for the baths. A great many occur in the time ”"v
of Nero ; of which Mr Pinkerton particularifes one
which has “ on the reverfe a table ornamented with
griffins and other devices. Upon it is placed a wreath
of laurel, and a beautiful vafe, of which the emboffed
human figures are fo minute, and finiffied fo furprifing-
ly, as to (lamp thefe coins the mod exquifite produc¬
tions of the ancient mint.” From the time of Nero
to that of Vefpafian no fmall brafs occurs: but there
are many of this emperor and of his fon Titus ; while
Domitian has as many as Nero, and Domitia his wife
has almoft as many. Succeeding emperors to the time
of Pertinax have alfo many brafs coins ; but from his
time to that of Valerian there are no real fmall brafs,
excepting thofe of Trajanus Decius. After Gallienus
there are a great many coins of this kind; and Mr
Pinkerton mentions one in Dr Hunter’s cabinet, of
an unknown perfon named Nigrianus. The coin feems
to have been ftruck at Carthage ; and our author con¬
cludes that he was an African Ufurper, father to Ni-
grinianus.
2. Silver—This feries is very complete, and the
cheapeft of any ; efpecially as the fmall brafs be¬
comes a fi»e fupplement to it: the latter being had in
plenty when the filver becomes fcarce, and the filver
being plentiful when the brafs is fcarce.
3. Gold.—The Roman imperial gold coins form a
feries of great beauty and perfection ; but on account
of their great price are beyond the purchafe of private
perfon s.
4.. The colonial coins oqcut only in brafs, none,
excepting that of Nemaufus, having a right to coin
filver. They begin in Spain with Julius Caefar and
Anthony, and ceafe with Caligula, who took away
the privilege of coinage from the Spaniffi colonies^
The mod beautiful are thofe of Corinth. The other
remarkable colonial coins are thofe of Emerita, Ilice,
Terraco, Caffandria, Babba, Berytus, Caefarea, Pa¬
tras, Emifa, Heliopolis or Balbec, Ptolemais, Sidon,
Tyre, Deulton, Dium, Troas, Rhefaina, Neapolis
of Samaria, which bears a reprefentation of Mount
Gerizzim with the temple on it, Hippo in Africa,
&c. On many of thefe coins we meet with fine re-
prefentations of temples, triumphal arches, gods, god-
deffes, and illuftrious perfons. But coins with thole
reprefentations are by no means common ; the colonial
coins till the time of Trajan bearing only a plouglr,
or fome other fimple badge of a colony. Camelodu*
num is the only colony in, Britain of which we have
any coins.
5. The minimi.—This includes the (mailed coins of
all denominations, mod of which do not exceed the
fize of a filver penny. Th^y are the mod curious of
all; but no feries of them was ever formed by any per¬
fon except the Abbe Rothelin, whole collection form¬
ed of all metals paffed to the queen of Spain. The
reafon of the fcarcity of thefe fmall coins is probably
their diminutive fize ; by reafon of which they are
moftly loft.
It is furprifing that numbers of Roman coins are
found through all countries once fubjeft to that power¬
ful people. Some have been met with in the Ork-
6 neys.
Tables. MED
Ancient n«ys, and many in the moft remote parts of Europe>
^ Co‘ils- Alia, and Africa, known to the ancients.
Table 111. Coins of other ancient Nations.
1. The Lydians appear to have invented coinage;
though, perhaps, this honour may be difputed with
them by the Greeks.
2. The Aflyrians, Medes, Babylonians, Phenicians,
and Egyptians, had no coins. In the mouths of the
mummies are only thin, unftamped, and round pieces
of gold to pay Charon’s fare.
3. No Indian or Chinefe coins are to be met with
till a very late period ; and even then fo rude as fcarce
to be worth notice. Voltaire mentions a colleftion of
ancient Chinefe and Indian coins made by the emperor
of China in 1700; but Mr Pinkerton fuppofes it to
have confided only of the Greek and Roman' money
which had been introduced into thefe countries.
4. The Lydian coins have no legends ; fo that mere
conjefture only determines the ancient coins of eleftrum
and filver found in Afia, and different from the Per-
iian, to belong to Lydia. Croefus coined gold into
a form which he called Jiaters; and Mr Pinkerton
mentions a very ancient gold coin in Dr Hunter’s ca-
hinet, which he fuppofes to have been one of thefe.
It has a globous figure,with indented marks on one fide,
and on the other a man kneeling, with a fifh held out
in the left hand, and a fword depending in the right.
It weighs four drams; which Jofephus tells us was the
weight of the Lydian gold coins. In the fame col-
leftion are other gold coins little inferior in antiqui¬
ty ; the moft ancient of which, our author fuppofes,
may have been coined by the cities bf Afia Minor, as
coinage paffed through them to Greece. 'They are of
admirable workmanfhip, and as much fuperior to the
bell Sicilian coins, as the latter are to all the reft in
the world. Thefe gold coins are all extremely pale;
owdng to the want of knowledge in refining gold.
5. Perfian coins.—Thefe were firft ftruckby Darius
Hyftafpes, whence they had the name of Darks.
They are of gold, and generally have the figure of an
archer:, they weigh about four drachms; and fome
occur with the indented mark on one fide, while
others have figures upon both. The filver coins have
generally a king in a chariot of two horfes, with a
charioteer, and fometimes another figure on foot be¬
hind on the obverfe , while the reverfe prefents a ftiip,
fometimes a ram, bull, or other animal. The gold
coin^, w'hich only had the title of Darks, are ex¬
tremely fcarce, having been melted down, as is fup-
pofed, and recoined by Alexander the Great on his
conqueft of Afia.
There is a fecond feries of Perfian coins beginning
with Artaxares, or Artaxerxes, who overthrew the
Parthian monarchy about the year 210. Thefe are
large and thin, with the king’s buft on one .fide and
the altar of Mathras on the other ; generally with a
human figure on each fide. Thefe coins continue till
the year 636, when Perfia was conquered by the Sa-
# racens. Thefe have only Perfian letters upon them,
which have never been explained by any antiquaries.
Mr Pinkerton fays that they feem to partake of the
ancient Greek, Gothic,' and Alanic.
6. The Hebrew Ihekels, originally didrachms, but
A L S. 35
after the time of the Maccabees tetradrachms, are al- Ancient
moft all forgeries of modern Jews, as well as the brafs r-'°“ia' ,
coins with Samaritan charafters upon them. They
have all a fprig upon one fide and a vafe on the other.
Mr Pinkerton fays, that the admifiion of one of them
into a cabinet would almoft be a difgrace to it.
7. Phoenician and Punic coins are vary interefting
on account of the great power and wealth of thefe na¬
tions. The alphabets have been cleared by their re¬
lation to the Hebrew and Syriac languages.
8. The coins of Palmyra come under the fame de¬
nomination with the former, Palmyra being a Syrian
city.
9. The Etrufcan coins have the charafters of that
nation, which have been explained by their affinity
to the Pelafgic, or oldeft Greek and Latin.
10. The Spanifh coins are infcribed with two or three
alphabets allied to the old Greek or Punic ; but the
infcriptions have not been fufficiently explained.
11. Gauliffi coins.—Thefe are numerous; but the
moft ancient have no legends; and even after the
Greek letters were introduced into Gaul by a colony
at Marfeilles, the legends are very difficult to be ex¬
plained.
12. Britifti coins. From a paftage in Caefar’s com¬
mentaries, it has been inferred that the Britons ufed
fome kind of coins even in his time. Mr Pinkerton in¬
forms us, that fome rude coins of copper very much
mingled with tin are frequently found in England ;
which, he fuppofes, may be fome of the ancient Bri-
tifh money. They are of the fize of a didrachm, the
common form of the nummus aureus among the an¬
cients. After the time of Caefar, coinage increafed
among the Britons; and there are many found of Cu-
nobelinus mentioned in-the Roman hiftory. Moft of
thefe have on one fide cuno, with an ear of wheat, a
horfe, a kind of head of Janus, or other fymbol; and
have frequently alfo the letters camu ; fuppofed to
mean Camelodunum. Sometimes the word Tascia
occurs; the meaning of which has not yet been ex¬
plained.
13. Gothic coins of France, Italy, and Spain, to
the time of Charles the Great. Thefe have the Ro¬
man charafters upon them. The Italian coins are
moftly of the fize of fmall brafs; and in this way we
meet with coins of Athalaric, Theodahat, Witigez,
and other Gothic princes. Many others occur, the
infcriptions of which, though meant for Roman, are
fo perverted as to be illegible.
Table IV. Modern Coins.
1. Of Japan.—Thefe are thin plates of gold and
filver, of an oval figure, with fmall marks or figures
ftamped on them.
2. China.—Thefe are only copper, about the fize
of a farthing, with a fquare hole in the middle to
put them .on firings. The infcriptions on them do
not exprefs the name of the fovereign, but the year
of his reign ; as the happy year, the illujlrious year, See.
3. The Tartarian coins are rude, having only in¬
fcriptions upon them ; and they are all pofterior to
the time of Jenghiz khan.
4. Coins of Thibet, Pegu, and Siam, are much the
E 2 fame.
3(5 MED
Modem fame, prefenting only inferiptions without any figures.
. Coi'ng* . They are alfo of late date.
5. India.—Some old coins have been found in the
neighbourhood of Calcutta, of gold, filver, cop¬
per, and tin, all mixed together. Thefe have com¬
monly a warrior with- a fword on one fide and an In¬
dian female idol on the other, of the fame form with
the celebrated fculptures in the ifland of Elephanta; but
it is impofiible to tell what antiquity they are of. The
modern coins are the pagoda of gold,, worth little
more than fix {hillings; the r'oupee of filver upwards
of two {hillings ; and the cafh, of copper. There is
a remarkable let of roupees, which {how the twelve
figns; a lion on one, a bull on another, &e. but the
oecafion on which they were {truck is unknown. The
other coins of India have generally Ptrfian inferiptions
upon them.
6. Ptrfia.—The Perfic coins- fince its conqueft by
the Arabs continue on the Arabian model.
7. Arabia.—Some coins of the petty princes of
Arabia are met with as old as the imperial ages of
Rome ; but till the time of Haroun Alrafhid, no re*-
gular coinage appears in the vaft empire of the Sar
racens. Even then the reverfe has only an inferip-
tion, and the obverfe is copied from any Greek or
Syrian coin which happened to fall in the moneyer’s
way. 1 he later Arabian coins are moftly filver, with
the name and titles of the prince on one fide, and
feme infeription from the Koran on the other. The
more modern coins of this, country are in the {hape of
a fifli-hook, with Arabic inferiptions.
8- Turkey.—No regular coinage was formed by
the Turks till they became mafters of Conftantinoplc.
They refemble thofe of Perfia and Arabia, having
merely infeiptions on both fides.
9. The coins of the African ftates, at leaft fuch.as
profefs the Mohammedan religion, have merely inferip¬
tions without any figures: thofe of the internalflarts
are unknown; and no coinage was ufed among the
Mexicans and Peruvians, the only civilized nations in
America ; but La Hontan mentions an American fa-
rage who had a {Square medal of copper depending from
his neck. Mr Pinkerton fuppofes. it to have come
from Japan.
10. Modern Italic coins. Befides the Gothic prin¬
ces mentioned in the former table, the exarchs of Ra¬
venna coined money with the infeription Felix Ra-
venna, &c. The Lombards ifiued no coins, but there
are fome llil-l extant of Charlemagne. The follow¬
ing lift {hows the origin of the coinage in various Ita¬
lian ftates.
Rome. Papal coinage originates with Hadrian 1.
Size of filver pennies, with the Pope’s name on
one fide, and Scos Petrus on the other. No coins
appear from 975 to 1099, excepting of Leo IX. In
1303 appear pennies of the fenate and people of Rome,
with Peter on the one fide and Paul on the other.
There are groats of Clement V. with his portrait
three quarters length; but the fide-head begins with
Sixtus V, in 1470. Gold was firft coined by John
XXII. in 1316. The coins of Alexander VI.
Julius II. and Leo X. are remarkable for beauty and
elegance.
Milan. Coinage began with Charlemagne. The
A L S. Tables.
firft coin of the family of Vifconti occurs in 1330 un- Modem
der Azo. The fet finiflres with Louis XII. Coin?-
Naples. Coinage begins in 840 and 880, withv
Duke Sergius and Bifhop Athanafius. The next
coins are of Roger of Sicily, and Roger II. in 1130,
William I. II. and Tancred. Naples and Sicily were
fubdued in 1194. by the emperor of Germany; in
1255 Manfred appears ; in 1266 Charles of Provence j
and others till Joan in 1414: after which follow the
houfe of Arragon, and later kings.
Venice begins in the. 10th century. The firft coins
are filver pennies-marked Ve.neci. Then follow the
coins of Henrico Dandulo in 1192, of Ziani in 1205,.
&c. Gold was firft coined at Venice in 1280, and
copper in 1471 ; but the filver groats are as old as
1192.
Florence. Silver was coined here in the 1 2th cen-
tui*y, or before; but in 1252 the firft gold coins
ftruck in Europe after the 8th century made their ap¬
pearance, and were named Jlorins from the flower of
the lily upon them. They were imitated by the
popes, by France, and England. They have on one
fide St John the Baptiil Handing, on the other a large
Jleur de Its, and it is not doubted that the Frenchjleurs
df Us took their origin from thefe coins. They weigh
a drachm, and are no lefs than 24 carats fine accord¬
ing to Italian writers, and are worth about 12 {hil¬
lings.
firft began to coin money in 1129, under
the government of Conrad. Thofe of the dukes of
Savoy began in the fame century.
Aquileia. Coins were iffued from- this city by the
patriarchs from 1204 t() i4t0*
Ferrara. Coins of the marquifes from 1340.
ir. French coins During the race of Clovis,
from 490 till 751, the coins are chiefly gold trunksy
with iome (plidi and femiffh. The former are of good
workmanlhip, with the heads of kings. The reverfe
has a crofs, with the name of the town where they
were ftruck.
The coins of the fecond race begin with Pepin in
751, and continue till Hugh Capet in 987. 'five
coins of the firft race are elegant, but thofe of the fe¬
cond entirely the reverfe, being almoft all iilver pen¬
nies, and feldom bearing the portrait of the king.
Thofe of Charlemagne have only Carolus in the
field ; while the reverfe bears r. f. or fome fuch in-
feription ; though one piece ftruck at Rome has a
rude bull of him. '1 he coins of Louis le Debonuaire
are better done.
The third race begins with Hugh Capet in 987,
and extends to this time. The coinage did not begin
to improve till 1226 under St Louis, when the groat
appears. Its name in Italian is groffo, in French
in Englifh groat, or great coin j fo called from its fixe
in comparifon with the penny ; and it pafiedfrom Ita¬
ly to France, to Germany, and to England. After
the conqueft of France by the Englilh, bafe coins of
many kinds were introduced ; and in the year 1574*
in the time of Henry III. copper was firft introduced
into the French coinage. Befides thefe, the other re¬
markable coins of France are, the blancs or billon
groats, firft iflued in 1348 ; the ecus a la couronne, os
crowns of gold, fo called from the crown on one fide.
Tables. M E D
Modern and begun by Charles VI. in 13S4 ; thofe of Ann of
Coins. Bretagne in 1493: the teflon, or piece with the
king’s head, of Louis XII.; the Henri of Henry II.
with Gaul fitting in armour, and a Victory in her
Hand. There are many coins of cardinal Bourbon,
elected king in 1589,; and in (642, Louis XIV.
takes the title of Catalonia; Ppinceps. The firfl
Louis d'Or made its appearance in 1640 ; but fuch
was the poverty of France, if we believe certain au¬
thors, that in 1719 the duke of Orleans regent ftmck
copper for lilver.
12. Spanilh coins. The molt early feries of thefe
confifts almolt entirely of trientes, finely done. On
one fide they have the head of the king with his name,
and on the other a crofs, with the name of the town,
commonly in Boetica> or the fouth part of Spain,
where there were a great many Roman colonies, and
which was fertile to a proverb. The Mo.refque coins
of Spain, like thofe of the reft of the Mohammedan
ftates, prefent us only with infipid infcriptions on both
fides. Indeed the Mohammedan religion, by its abfo-
lute refufal to allow the reprefentation of any living
creature, has prevented the progrefs of coinage in any
degree throughout thofe regions which it has over-
fpread. The infcriptions on the ancient Spanilh
coins are in the Ciific or old Arabic characters.
13. Portugal. No defcription of the coins of this
kingdom has yet appeared.
14. Germany. No account of the German coins
lias been publilhed ; though it is well known that not
only the emperors, but many of the cities, particular¬
ly thofe called Han/e-towns, iflued money ; and many
of the coins iflued by the cities were fuperior in ele¬
gance even to thofe iflued by the emperors.
1 c. Denmark. Here the coinage begins with Ca¬
nute the Great in 1014. The pieces are at firft ex¬
tremely rude, ornamented only with rings and runic
charaifters. Thefe are fucceeded by copper pieces,
fome of which have a crofs, others a paitoral ftafF on
one fide, with the letter A on the other. Later coins
have ftrokes 1111, &c. all round them ; but thofe of
Harold, Hardicanute, and Magnus Bonus, in 1041,
are of neat workmanlhip, and have the portraits of the
princes at half length. The coins of Nicolas or Niel,
as he is called by the Dane , are mde, as well as thofe
of Waldemar I. and the celebrated Margaret. In
1376 Olaf caufed money to be ftruck with a grinning
full face, with a crowned O upon the other fide.
“ The Swedes (fays Mr Pinkerton) took thefe coins
extremely ill, as they thought they grinned at them.”
Silver was firft coined in Denmark by Philippa
queen of Eric, and daughter to Henry IV. of. Eng¬
land.
16, Sweden. The coinage of this kingdom began
in 818 under Biorno, on the plan of Charlemagne.
The coins are marked with a crofs. Next follow
thofe of Olaf in 1019 ; which Mr Pinkert#n fuppofes
to have been the firft true Swedifti coins ; and that
the art of coinage firft pafled from England into Den¬
mark in the time of Canute the Great, and from Den¬
mark into Sweden. Thefe coins were ftruck on the
Englifh model. During the time that Sweden was
lubjeft to Denmark, or miferably harafled by the
Danes, the coins of both kingdoms were the fame ;
but after the time of Guilavus Vafa many elegant pie-
A L S.
ces appear. In ■ 1634r dollars were coined with the Modern
portrait of Gnftavu. Adolphus, who was killed two f
years before: On the reverfe they have the arms
of Sweden, with the chemical marks of mercury and
fulphur. In 1716, 1717, and 1718, Charles XII.
being in extreme want of money, iffued fmall copper
coins with Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, &c. upon them, to
go for dollars; and on account of thisfcheme, Ba¬
ron Goerta, the fuggeftor of it, was brought to the
block.
17. Norway. The coins of this country begins
with Olaf in 1006} after which time there are vari¬
ous coins of other princes; but copper was not coined
till the year 1343.
Befides the coins already mentioned, there are ec-
clelialtic coins of France, Germany, Denmark, Swe¬
den, Norway, &c. Thofe of Denmark and Sweden
are numerous, but the Norwegian coins of this deno¬
mination are rare. Mr Pinkerton defcribes a filver
one in his pofieffion as having arms and a mitre, with
the infcription on one fide Sanctus Olaws Rex
Norvey ; on the reverfe Olaws Dei Gra. Arcef.
Nid’sen, meaning Nidrosiensis, or archbilhop of
Nu/ros, now Drontheim.,
18. Bohemia. The coinage of this kingdom ap¬
pears at a very early date, viz. in the year 909, under
duke Boleflaus 1. Thefe coins are followed by othera.
of Boleflaus II. and Emma his wife in 970 ; of Bo¬
leflaus III. in 1002 ; Jaromir in 1020 ; Udalrich iu-
1030, and other princes. The iraffeate money of Ot-
tocar I. was coined in 1197.
19. Poland. The coinage of this country is nearly
as ancient as that of Bohemia. The coins are on the
German model, but no particular account of them has
been publiftied.
20. Ruffia. None of the Ruffian money appears
to be more ancient than the 13th century. The firft
are the kopecks or filver pennies, which have upon them
rude figures of animals on one fide,, and a man Hand¬
ing with a bow or fpear on the other. There are like-
wife coins of-Mbfeow ftruak by Ariftoteles the archi¬
tect in 1482. The roubles or dollars and their halfs.
There are fome of the impoftor Demetrius in 1605,
which are very fcarce.
21- Pruffia. The firft Pruflian coins were ftruck .
at Culm by the Teutonic knights in 1230. They
were filver pennies, and upon the German plan. In
the, next century were ftruck fliillings,, groats, and
fchots; the laft were the largeft, and are extremely
rare. They have the Pruflian ftiield, an eagle fur¬
mounting a crofs, with a rofe-lhaped border, moneta
dominorum Prussije-.: on the reverfe is a crofs fleu-
rie, within a border of a fimilar kind, having the in¬
fcription HONOR MAGISTRI, JUSTITSAM DILIGIT. 
Gold coins were ftruck. in the fame century. In the
time of Copernicus the money was fo debafed,.
that t2 or 13. marks were worth but one of pure
filver.
22. England. The Englifh coins are of various kinds..
1 it. Heptarchic. Thefe are only of two forts, viz.
the Jkeatta or penny of filver, and theJlyca of copper.
Few of the pennies appear till after the year 700
though fome are met with which bear the name of
Ethelbert I. king of Kent, as old as 560. At firft
they had only rude figures of Jerpents, but in latter
5 timsa.-
g8 MED
Modern times 'legends were Kkewife added. Moft of thefe
, Coins- j pennies have pagan fymbols upon them. The ftyca
was only coined in Northumberland, and was a very
^mall piece about the value of half a farthing.
2d. Goins of the chief nwvarchs of England. Mr
■Pinkerton denies that an end was put to the heptar¬
chy by Egbert in 832, as is commonly fuppofed;
.though he owns that he was chief monarch of the coun¬
try, as feveral others had been before him. Edgar,
who reigned in 959, according to him was the firft
king of England ; and the coins of the chief monarchs
form almoft a complete feries from the time of Egr
bert to Edgar. The only chief monarch of whom
there are no coins is Ethel bald, who reigned in 857.
Moft of thefe coins bear rude portraits ; but the re-
- verfes are fometimes curious and interefting. Same
have view§,of cathedrals and other buildings ; particu-
' Jarly one of Edward the Elder in 900 ; which has the
cathedral of York with three rows of windows, round
arched as the other Saxon and Norman buildings,; the
Gothic arch being quite unknown till after the 12th
century. Some coins of Anlaf king of Northumber¬
land have the famous raven, the Daniih cnlign ; and
thofe of other princes have frequently very curious re-
verfes. >
3d. Ecclefqflic coins appear of the archbifhops of Can¬
terbury, Wulfred, in 804, Ceolnoth in 830, and Pleg-
mund in 889.
4th. Coins of the lings of England. The iilver pen¬
ny, which had begun dining the heptarchy, continued
to be the general coin after the kingdom had been
united under one head; and extends in a continued
feries from Egbert almoft to the prefent reign. The
-only kings wanting are Edmund Ironfide, Richard I.
and John. At firft the penny weighed 224- grains ;
but towards the clofe of the reign of Edward III. it
fell to 18 grains ; and in that of Edward IV. to 12.
In the time of Edward VI. it was diminifhed to eight
grains; and in Queen Elizabeth’s reign to yf-j-; at
which it ftill continues.
Halfpennies and farthings were firft ftruck in filver
by Edward I. in 1280 ; the former continued to the
time of the commonwealth, but the latter ceafed with
Edy/ard VI. The groat was introduced by Edward
III. in 1354, and continues to this day, though not
in common circulation. The half-groat or two¬
pence is of the fame date, and alfo continues to the
prefent time.
Shillings were firft coined by Henry VII. in 1503.
At firft it was called tejloon, from the tejle, tcte, or head
of the king upon it; the name Jhilling being derived
from the German fchelling; under which appellation
coins had been ftruck at Hamburgh in 1407. The
crown was firft coined in its prefent form by Henry
VIII. Formerly it had appeared only in gold, whence
the phrafe of crowns of gold; though thefe indeed
were the largeft gold coins known for a long time in
France and other countries on the continent, being
worth about 10s. fterliug. They had their name from
the crown ftamped on one fide, and were firft coined
by Charles VI. in 1384, and continued till the time
of Toms XIV. The half-crown, fixpence, and three¬
pence, were coined by Edward VI. In 15^8 Queen
Elizabeth coined three halfpenny, and in 1561 three
farthing, pieces ; but they were difcontinued in 1582.
A L S, Tables;
From the year 1601 to the prefent time the coins of Modern
England remain the fapie. Cu*n8, ?
Gold was coined in England by Henry III. in
1257 ; the piece was called ^ gold penny, and was lar¬
ger than the filver one ; and the execution is by no
means bad for the time. The feries of gold coinage,
however, commences properly from Edward III. In
1344 this monarch firft ftruck florins, in imitation of
thofe in Italy ; and it is remarkable, that though thefe
coins at the time they were firft iffued bore only fix
ftiilUngs value, they are now intrinfically worth *98. ;
fo much has the value of gold increafed fince that
time. The half and quarter florin were ftruck at the
fame time, but only the laft has been found. The
florin, however, beingYound inconvenient, gave place
to the noble, of 6s. 8d. value, and exaftly half a mark.
The latter had its name from being a limited fum in
accounts ; and was eight ounces in weight, two-thirds
of the money pound. It is fometimes alfo called feli-
bra, as being one half of the commercial pound of 16
ounces. The noble had its name from the nobility of
the metal; the gold of which it was coined being of
the fineft fort. Sometimes it is called Rofe Noble,
from both fides being impaled in an undulating circle.
It continued with the half and quarter noble to be the
only gold coin till the angels of Edward IV. appeared
in 1465. Thefe had their name from being ftamped
with the image of Michael and the dragon. The an-
gelites of 3 s. 4d. value were fubftituted in their place.
In 1527 Henry VIII. added to the gold coins the
crown and half-crown at their prefent value; and the
fame year he gave fovereigns of 22 s. 6d. and ryals of
ns. 3d. angels at 7 s. 6d. and nobles at their old value
of 6s. 8d. In 1546 Ije caufed fovereigns to be coined
of the value of 2os. and half fovereigns in proportion.
His gold crown is about the fize of our (hilling, and
the half-crown of fixpence, but thin. All his coins,
however, gold as well as filver, are much debafed ; and
it was not without much labour and trouble that Ed¬
ward VI. brought it back to its former ftandard. On
the union of the two crowns, James gave the fovereign
the name of unite; the value continuing of 20s. as
before. He coined alfo rofe-ryalsof 30s. value, fpur-
ryals of 15 s. angels of 10s. and angelets of 5 s. Un¬
der the commonwealth, the fovereign got the name of
the twenty-Jhilling piece, and continued current till the
coinage of guineas. Thefe were fo called from their
being coined of Guinea gold, and were at firft only to
go for 20s. though by an univerfal but tacit confent
they always pafled for 21s. Half-guineas, double
guineas, and five guinea pieces, were alfo coined du¬
ring the fame reign ; which ftill continue, though the
two latter are not in common circulation. Quarter
guineas were coined by George I. and likewife by his
prefent majefty ; but they were found fo trouble-
fome on account of their fmall fize, that they were (lop¬
ped within a year or two when received at the bank
of England ; and thus are not to be met with at pre-
fent. A few pieces of 7 s. value have likewife been
coined, and are known by the lion above the helmet;
but none have been iflfued. In 1688 the guinea rofe
to 2is. 6d. and continued to increafe in value till
1696, when if was as high as 30 s.; but after the re¬
coinage in 1697 and 169811 fell by degrees, and in 1717
was at its old ttandard of 21s. and at that time filver
Tables. MED
iModem was fixed at its prefent ftandard value, viz. as i to 15^
. Co^ns- in weight.
v Though the firft money coined in Britain, as we
have already obferved, was copper, yet, excepting the
Northumbrian ftycas, no copper coin was found in
England from the time of the Saxon conqueft till the
year 167.1. An averfion to a copper coinage it feems
was prevalent throughout the nation ; and Queen Eli¬
zabeth, who without hefitation ufed bafe money for
Ireland, yet fcrupled at coining copper for England.
This want of fmall coin occafioned fuch an increafe of
private tokens for halfpennies and farthings, that it be¬
came a ferious obje& to government; and in 1594a cop¬
per coinage was ferioufly thought of. This year a fmall
copper coin was ftruck about the fize of a filver two¬
pence, with the queen’s monogram on one fide, and a
rofe on the other; the running legend on both fides
being the pledge of a halfpenny. Of this there
are patterns both in copper and filver, but both of
them foon fell into difufe. On the 19th of May 1613,
King James by royal proclamation iffued farthing to¬
kens. They are generally of the fame fize with the
two pence, with two feeptres in faltier furmounted
with a crown, and the harp upon the other; with an
intention, as it would feem, that if they were refufed
in England they might pafs in Ireland. In 1635
Charles 1. coined thofe with the rofe inftead of the
harp ; but the circulation of thefe was entirely flopped
by the vaft number of counterfeits which appeared,
and by the king’s death in 1648. After this the pri¬
vate tokens began again to circulate, till put a flop to
by the coinage of farthings in 1672. The workman-
fhip of the tokens is quite contemptible. In 1672
the halfpence as well as the farthings which had been
ftruck two years before began to circulate. They
were of pure Swedilh copper, the dyes engraved by
Rocttier ; and they continued till the year 1684, when
fome difputes arofe about the copper lately obtained
from theEnglilh mines. Tin farthings were coined with
a ftud of copper in the centre, and inferibed round the
edge as the crown pieces, with nummorum famulus-,
1685 or 1686. In 1685 halfpence of the fame kind
were coined; and the tin coinage continued till the
year 1692, to the value of more than L. 65,000; but
next year the tin was all called in by government, and
the capper coinage recommenced. The farthings of
Queen Anne are all trial pieces excepting thofe
®f 1714, the laft. year of her reign. “ They are (fays
Mr Pinkerton) of exquifite workmanftiip, exceeding
moft copper coins either ancient or modern, and will
do honour to the engraver Mr Croker to the end of
time. The one, whofe reverie is Peace in a car, pax
missa per orbem, is the moft etteemed ; and next to
it the Britannia under a portal.. The other half-
pence and farthings are lefs valuable.
23. Scotland. Silver pennies of Alexander I. who
reigned in 1107, are believed to exift ; and there cer¬
tainly are fome of Alexander II. in 1214. There are
hkewife coins of David in 1124; but perhaps none of
Malcolm IV. his fucceffor, whofe reign was-very fhort;
There are many coins of William I. in. 1165; and
a large hoard of his pennies was found at Invernefs in
1780.
The money of Scotland continued to be of the fame
value with that of England till,tlie . country was drain.-
A L S. 3^
ed by the vaft ranfom of David II. after which it be- Modern:
came necefiary to reduce its fize ; and fo much did this
diminution affecl England, that Edward III. found
himfelf obliged to leffen the Engliih coin alfo. The
diminution of the Scottiih coin, however, continued
ftill to go on until it became imprailicable to keep-
par with that of England. In the firft year of Ro¬
bert III. it pafled only for one half its nominal value
in England : in 1393, Richard II. ordered it only to
go for the weight of the genuine metal it contained.
In 1600 it had funk to fuch a degree as to pafs only
for a twelfth part of the Englifh money, and conti¬
nued at that low ebb till the coinage of Scotland was
entirely cancelled by the Union of the two king¬
doms.
Of filver coins we have only pennies till the year
t 293, when Edward I. having coined halfpence and
farthings, Alexander III. of Scotland coined alfo
halfpence, of which we have a few, but no farthings
are to be met with ; but there are filver farthings of
Robert I. and David II. The latter introduced the
groat and half-groat, which completed the fet df Scbt-
ti(h filver. It continued unaltered till the time of
Queen Mary, when they all ceafed to be coined in
filver, on account of the high price of that metal.
In 1553 {hillings were firft coined, with the buft of
the queen on one fide and the arms of France and
Scotland on the other. The filver crown was firft
coined in 1565, which went for 30 s. Scots; lefftr
pieces of 20 s. and 10s. having likewife.beeij ftruck,.
and marks of filver, worth 3:8. 4 d. Englifii, were alfo
coined about the fame time. Thefe coins have upon
them the marks xxx. xx. x. to denote their value. -
They are commonly called Cruickftone. dollars, from
the palm-tree upon them, rniftaken for a remarkable
yew at Cruickfton near Glafgow, where Henry Darn-
ley refided. It is deferibed, however, m the aft as a
palm,, with a “ fhell-padoc” (a tortoife) crawling up;
This alludes to Darnley’s marriage with the queen, as
the motto from Propertius Dat Gloria Vires alfo
implies. The motto Nemo me Impune Laces set
firft appears on the Scottiftr coins in 1778,.and the in¬
vention isgiven to the celebrated Buchanan; In 1582,
the crown of an ounce weight went for 40 s. Scots*
and was accordingly marked XL. ; in 159-7 the mark
was L. the Scottifh money being then only one-tenth
of the Englilh : the mark was LX in 1601, the value
being then reduced to .one twelfth, at which it has
ever fince continued. In the time of Charles I. half
marks, 40 and 20 penny^pieces, were coined. In 1675
the Scottifh dollars firft appeared,. in value 56 s. Scots*
with, halves and quarters of proportional value. In
1686,. James VII. coined 60,. 40, 20, 10, and 5 Si
pieces; but only thofe of 4pand Tos. are known,,
with thefe numbers under the buft. At the Union of
the kingdoms, ail the Scottifti coins were called in*
and recoined at Edinburgh, with the mark, e under-
the buft to diftinguifti it;, fince which„there has been
no coinage in. Scotland. The Sccttifti-filver coins are
in .general equal, if not fuperior,. in the workmanfhip
to the Englilh.
Gold'was .firft. iffued by Robert II. about 30 years-
after Edward III. of England had coined the fame
metal in that country. The pieces were at firft called:
St Andrew’s, from the figure of that tutelar Saint
upon.
MEDAL S.
Tables,
upon the crdt's, and who appears on the obverfe with
the arms of Scotland, and on the reverfe a lion in a
Ihield. The lion was another name for the largeft gold
coin in Scotland, from the arms of the kingdom upon
it. The next was the unicorn, under-James HI.;
which were followed by the bonnet-pieces of James V.
Thefe laft are of admirable workman iliip, being almoft
equal to the ancient coins in. this refpedt. In imita¬
tion of the French, the monarch we fpeak of dimi-
niihed the fize of the coin without leflening its weight;
an improvement .not adopted by the Engliflt for a
•whole century. The laft gold coined in Scotland was
■ the piftole and half piftole, of twelve and fix pounds
Scots. Thefe coins have the fun under the head. The
gold coins of Scotland fell in the fame proportion
with the filver.
The copper coinage cf'Scotland is of more early
date than that, of England. It was preceded by mo¬
ney of billon, or, copper wafhed with filver, called black
; money. James III. firft coined black farthings in
1466 ; and this is recorded by hiftorians as one of his
greateft faults. This kind of coinage, however, con¬
tinued as late as the reign of James VI. In his time
the true copper coinage began ; but as the value, of
Scottifh money was now declined almoft to the ut-
moft, the pieces fuddenly affumed a form almoft re-
fembling that of the French coins. The bodle, fo
called from Bothwell the mintmafter, being equal in
fize to the Hard, and worth two pennies Scottifh, was
ftruck. The billon coin, formerly called bas-p'iece,
and worth fix pennies Scots, was now coined in cop¬
per, and termed the haw-bee. Thus it correfponded
with the French half fol and Englifh halfpenny, ;the
Scots penny being now equivalent to the French de¬
nier. Some pieces named Atkivfons were coined by
James VI. in 1582, when the Scottifh money was to
the Englifh as I to 8 ; but on its being flill farther
reduced, they went for 8 pennies, a third more than
the value of the baw~bee. Befides thefe there were
the hardie and plack, the former being worth three
and the latter four pennies Scots. This coinage con¬
tinued through the reigns of Charles I. and II. but
Scottish coins of the former are, perhaps, the fcarceft
of any.
24. Ireland. The firft coins introduced into this king¬
dom feem to have been tbofe of the Danes, and which
have only a number of ftrokes around them inftead of
letters. In the tenth century, however, this coinage
had been confiderably improved ; and in 930 and 994
there are pennies ftruck in Dublin, with the infcrip-
tion on Dvfli or Dyfli, Dujlin or Dyflin being the
Danifh name of that city. There are iikevvife coins
of the Irifh princes themfelves, and of the Englifh
monarchs, ftruck in Ireland as early as the ninth cen¬
tury ; and it i; aflerted by fome, that Irelan* even in
thefe days had been conquered by England ; of which,
indeed, thefe coins feem to be a proof. None of the
Inih coins of Henry II. are to be met with, but we
have fome of the coins of John ; and from his time
to that of Henry V. the Irifh coins are known by a
triangle inclofmg {.he king’s head, which;appears alio
upon the coins of other nations at this period- The
harp does not appear upon the Irifh coins till the time
of Henry VIII. Till the time of this monarch, the
Englifh and Iriih coins are the fame; but the fame de-
NJ 20!.
bafement of the coin which at that time took place in Modern
England extended alfo to Ireland ; but in 1601 copper ^"im.
halfpence and farthings were coined alfo for this king- " , " U
dom. Thefe circulated in Ireland when James VI.
iffued his farthing-tokens of copper, the latter being
of two fizes, that if they failed in England they might
be fent to Ireland as pennies and halfpence. In 1635
a mint was eftablifhed in Dublin by Charles I. but it
was flopped by the Irifh maflacre, and the many dif-
turbances which followed ; ftnce which time the fcheme
has not been refumed. After the maffacre, St Pa¬
trick’s halfpence and farthings were coined by the Pa-
pifts, bearing the legends Flore at Rex, and on the
reverfe Ecce Grex ; on the farthing Quiescat
Plebs. Copper-tokens were ftruck by towns and
tradefmen, as in England and Scotland. In 1680, half¬
pence and farthings were iffued by authority, with the
harp and date. In'1689, James II. having invaded
Ireland, inftituted a mint, and coined fhillings and
half-crowns of all the refufe metal he could find, par¬
ticularly fome brafs guns were employed, whence the
coinage is commonly called gun-money. Even this
metal, however, foon became fo fcarce, that a diminu¬
tion in its fize is quite apparent from June 1689 to
July 1690; and as the month of their mintage is
marked upon them, this decreafe is eafily perceived.
In March 1690, pennies of lead mixed with tin were
iffued ; and on the 15 th of June the fame year, crowns
of white metal were coined; but thefe are now very
fcarce. In 1722, the patent for coining halfpence and
farthings was given to William Wood, which excited
fuch difcontent in Ireland. From the fmall fize allow¬
ed by the patent to thefe pieces, it was fuppofed that
the patentee would have gained 60,0001. but as he
caufed them to be ftruck of a fize Hill fmaller, his
gains were eftimated at 100,000 1. The coins, how¬
ever, are of admirable workmanfhip, and very fine
copper, bearing the beft portrait of king George I.
to be found any where. Sir Ifaac Newton, at that
time at the head of the mint, declared that they were
fuperior to the Engliih coins in every thing except the
fize. In 1737 the Irifh halfpence and farthings, with
the harp on the reverfe, were coined, and continue to
the prefent time. In 1760, there was fuch a fcarcity
of copper coin, that fome private perfons applied for
leave to coin halfpence, which appeared with a very
bad portrait of George II. and the words Voce Pe¬
ru li around it. No gold or filver has been coined in
Ireland fince the maflacre of 1641.
Table V. Modern Medals, properly fo called.
1. Scottifh medals. Thefe take the lead in the pre¬
fent article, the firft modern medals of gold being
thofe of David II. ftruck between the years 1330304
1370. Only two of them now exift; one in the col-
le&ion of Mr Barker of Birmingham, and the other
in that of Dr Hunter. In 1478, there is a medai of
James III. fent to the flirine of St Amboife in France-.
It is deferibed as ;of two inches and a third in diame¬
ter ; the weight near two ounces ; having on the ob-
verfe a beardleB king, with long hair, fitting on a
throne, holding in one hand a naked fword in the
other a Afield, with the Scottifh arms. On the bor¬
ders of the canopy above the throne is an inferipuon
in Gothic letters, in mi deffen, being corrupt
French
Tables. MED
French for In my defence | a common motto in the
Medal?. Scottilh arms. Above the canopy is. Villa Ber-
‘--"“v—^rici : the reverfe bears St Andrew and his crofs,
SALVUM FAC POPULUM TUUM DOMINE. There IS
alfo a medal of James IV. in the collar of St Michael,
having on the reverfe a Doric pillar furmounted by a
young Janus, Handing on a hill, beyond which ii the
Pea, and land on either fide. This, however, is by
Pome fufpe&ed to be a forgery.
The moft remarkable Scottiih medals are thofe of
the unfortunate Mary. The firft is properly French,
having been iffued at her coronation as queen of
France, along with her hufband king Francis II.
On the obverfe of this piece there are portraits of
Francis and Mary, face to face, with three legends
around them, the outermoft containing their titles;
the middle one the following fentence: hora nona
dominus j. h. s. eipiravit belli clamans; the
innermoft the name of the city (Paris). On the
reverfe are the arms of France and Scotland. Fine
teftoons were alfo coined upon the fame plan, and are
now fo rare that Dr Hunter gave ten guineas for one he
has in his colle&ion. The fame portraits appear on
the fine crown of Mary and Henry, in 1565, which
is fo rare as to be dleemed a medal of the higheft va¬
lue ; and Mr Pinkerton imagines, that if brought to
a fale it would bring 40 or 50 guineas.
Another remarkable medal of Mary reprefent- her
full faced, and weeping, with the infeription, O God
GRANT PATIENCE IN THAT I SUFFER VRANG. The
reverfe has in the centre, Quho can compare with
ME IN GRIEF, I DIE AND DAR NOCH'T SEEK RE¬
LIEF; with this legend around, Hourt not the
(figure of a heart) quhais joy thou art. There
are alfo many counters of this unfortunate princefs,
being thin filver-pieces of the fize of a (hilling. “They
all appear (fays Mr Pinkerton) to have been done in
France by Mary’s direction, who wa fond of de¬
vices. Her cruel captivity could not debar her from
intercourfe with her friends in France, who muft with
pleafure have executed her orders, as affording her a
little confolation.”
The coronation medal of Charles I. ftruck at Edin¬
burgh for his inauguration, June 18. i66y, is remark¬
able as being the only one ever coined of Scottifh gold,
and the firft in Britain Itruck with a legend on the
edge. With refpeft to the workmanfhip, it is inferior
to Simon’s. Of thefe medals only three are known to
exift, of which one is in the Mufeum. It is not un¬
common in (liver; in which cafe it fometimes wants
the legend on the edge.
2. Italian medals. Thefe appear in the 15th cen¬
tury, and from that time fucceffively in moft Euro¬
pean countries. Vittore Pifano, a painter of Verona,
is celebrated as the reftorer of the art, but it remains
to be accounted for how the medals of king David al¬
ready mentioned came to exifl fo long before. Mr
Pinkerton confiders this artifl rather as an inventor
than a reftorer, his medals having no refemblance to
the ancient coins, as being large, and all call. They
were fit ft modelled in wax, then a mould taken from
the model in fine fand, and other ingredients. After
a good caft was procured, it was touched up, and
made a model for the reft. Thefe medals of Pifano
are almofl always inferibed Opus Ptfani Piaoris. The
Vol.XI. Parti.
A L S. 4*
portraits of a great number of illuflrious men were Modem
done by him in this manner ; .and in the Britifh Mu- a ~~
feum is a large brafs medal of Pifano by himfelf.— J
Other artifts were Boldu, Marefcotto, Matthsens de
Paftus, Sperandes, Mifaldone, &c. Towards the end
of the century, however, the medals began to affume
a more elegant appearance ; and the Papal ones are
not only the molt elegant but the mofl ancient feries
of all the modern medals. The improvement began
in the reign of Alexander V I. fo famous for his own
crimes, and thofe of his nephew Casfar Borgia. His
fucceffors, Julius II. Leo X. Hadrian VI. and Cle¬
ment VII. had many of their medals defigned by Ra¬
phael, Julio Romano, and other eminent painters,
and the engraving executed by artifls of equal merit.
Among thefe were the celebrated Cellini, and the noted
Paduan forgers of Roman coins, Cavino and Baffiano.
In 1644 Cormanni, a medallic artiit, was imprifoned
on account of a piece which reprefented the Pope upT
on one fide, and Olympia Maidalchina, the relation of
his holinefs, on" the other- The unfortunate Cor¬
manni poifoned himfelf. About this time the family
of the Hamerani, originally from Germany, began to
engrave the papal medals ; which they did with fur-
prifing merit for feveral generations. Each of the
daughters did a fine medal, as we are informed by
Venuti.
Befides the papal medals, there are many iflued by
the various Hates of Italy. There are medals o('
Frederic II. of Sicily in 1301, of feveral Venetian ge¬
nerals in 1509, of Alfonfo duke of Ferrara in 1511,
and of the celebrated Andrew Daria in 528.
3 French medals. Till the reign of Louis XIV.
the medals of this country are neither fine nor nume¬
rous ; but this monarch exceeds all modern princes in
this way. Many of his pieces are well defigned and
executed, though objectionable on account of their
falfehood.
4. Danifli medals. Thefe appear of ChriHian II.
in ij 16, of Frederic' and Sophia in 1542, of Frede¬
ric I. and ChriHian III. in bonnets worn in the 16th
century. The elephant of the houfe of Oldenburg is
frequent upon Danifh medals.
5. Swedifii medals ''hefe begin with GuHavus
Vafa ; and feveral of ChriHina are likewife to be met
with. There are alfo fome curious ones of Charles XIL
6. Dutch medals Thefe begin in < 566; and many
of them are remarkable for maps and plans, which muH
be very intereHing to poilerity. “ Had the Greeks and
Romans (fays Mr Pinkerton) given us maps and plans,
what a fine fyllem of ancient geography and topo¬
graphy a cabinet of medals muH have been!’’
7. Medals of Spain, Portugal, and Germany. The
Spanifh medals began with Gonfalo in 503, many
of which are curious and intereHing. Under Cha V.
there are many curious'Spanifh medals; but thofe of
Germany begin with Frederic in 14J4. :'hey are ex¬
tremely numerous ; as we may eafily fuppofe from the
greatnefs of the empire, and the various Hates which
compofe it. There is a famous medial of SebaHian
king of Portugal, famous for his unfortunate expedi¬
tion into Africa in 1578; with his bull, full face, and
three quarters in length. On the reverfe is a (hell-fi(h
in the fea, with the moon and (even Hars, bearing the
infeription Serena Calsa pavent. There is alfo a
F curioua
42 > M E D
Modern curious !o^engc-(Ti?.pccl coin of the fame with tlie arms
Medals. of portUgal, and the king’s name and title : On the
^ reverfe is a crofs with the infciiption In hoc signo
VINCES, 1578.
8. Satyric medals Thefe began almoft as foon as
the knowledge of the art of coining medals was revived.
They feem to have been almoft unknown to the an¬
cients. One indeed of the Emperor Gallienus is fup-
pofed to have been fatyric. It has on the front the
emperor’s butt, with the infcription Gallien.e aug.
the reverfe is Peace in a car. Pax Ubique; but this
has been proved to be only a blundered coin. Some
other ancient medals, however, are not liable to this
obje&ion. The firft modern fatyric medal publifhed
was that of Frederic king of Sicily in. 1501 againft
his antagonift Ferdinand king of Spain. It has on
one fide the head of Ferdinand, with the infcription
Ferdinandus r. ar. vetus vulpes orbis ; on
the reverfe a wolf carrying off a ftieep, Jvgvm mjevm
svave est et onvs mevm leve. Many others have
been ftruck, of which the wit would now perhaps be
difficult to be found out: but of all nation- the Dutch
have moft diftinguifhed themfelves in this way j and
paid very dear for their condmft, as they brought upon
themfelves by one or two fatyric medals the whole
power of France under Louis XIV.
q Engliih medals. The firft of thefe is in the duke
ef Devonffiire’s colleftion. It is of a large fize, and
done on the plan of the early Italian medals. It has
on the reverfe the arms of Kendal, with the infcrip¬
tion TEMPORE OBS1DION1S TURCORUM, MCCCCLXXX.
On the other fide is a portrait with 10. kendal rhodi
t v r c V p e l l e r I v s It wa found laft century in Knaref*
borough foreft; but Mr Pinkerton has no doubt of
its having been done in Italy. The next is that of
Henry VIII. in 1545, and is of gold, larger than the
erown-piece, with the king’s head upon the obverfe,
and three legends within each other, including his
titles, See. The reverfe contains two inferiptions, de¬
claring him to be the head of the church ; the one in
Hebrew, the other in Greek. It was imitated exa&ly
by Edward VI. whole coronation-medal is the firft we
have. There are two medals of Philip and Mary,
whofe execution is tolerably good; but thofe of Eli¬
zabeth are very poor. There are good medals of
James I. and his queen ; with a fine one of Charles I.
and Henrietta, though the workmanlhip is much in¬
ferior to the antique. There are many good medals
of Charles, with various devices upon their reverfes.
Under the commonwealth the celebrated Simon pro¬
duced medals which are defervedly reckoned the moft
admirable pieces of modern workmanihip. There are
many good medals of Charles 11. James II. and .Wil¬
liam III. Some are alfo found of James after his ab¬
dication. Some fine gold, filver, and copper medals,
were iffued in the time of Queen Anne ; the two laft
affording a feries of all the great a&ions of the duke
of Marlborough. About the year 1740, a feries of
medals was engraved in London by Daffier, a native of
Geneva, containing all the kings of England; being
36 in number. They are done upon fine copper, and
executed with great tafte. There are befides many
A L S. Tables.
medals of private perfons in England; fa thafit may Ahbrevia-
juftly be faid, that this country for medals exceeds al- tions-
moft every other in Europe. " * ""l-
To this account of modern coins and medals we
lhall add that of another fet called Jitge piecesy and
which were iffued during the time of a fiege in cafes
of urgent neceffity. Thefe were formed of any kind
of metal; fometimes of no metal; and Patin mentions
a remarkable one ftruck at Leyden in 1 ^74, when the
place was befieged by the Spaniards. It was of thick
paper or pafteboard, having a lion rampant, with this
infcription, pvgno pro patria, 1574; and on the
reverfe, Lvgdvnvm Batavorvm. There are various
fiege-pieces of Charles I. both in gold and filver, fome
of the latter being of the value of zo ftiillings
The nummi brafteati are a fpecies of modern coins
fomewhat between counters and money; and have their
name from the word bractea, a fpangle or thin
bit of metal. They are commonly little thin plates of"
filver, ftamped as would feem with wooden dies upon
one fide only, with the rude impreffion of various fi¬
gures and inferiptions. Moft of them are ecclefiaftic,
and were ftruck in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark,
Sweden, Norway, and a few in Poland. They con¬
tinued to be in ufe in Germany till the end of the 15th
century; and fome are ftill ufedin Switzerland at this
day.
Table of Abbreviations vfed in the Legends of
Medals ; from Mr Pinkerton.
A. Athens, Argos, Aulus, A-
fylum; pi imi or firit; as
Eptcnav A. Atritz;, “ Kphe-
fians, firft people of Alia”
A. Abbaffus, Abdera, Abydus
on Hcllefpont
AB. Abydns in Egypt
ABT. Abydus on Heliefpont,
A0. A<3E. Athens
Air. Aegina
Airosno. Aigofpotamos
AIA. Aelius, Aelia Capitolina
AIN. Aenos
AK.-AKPATAN. Agrigentum
AKI. Aciliupi
AKT. AdHum
AAE. Alexandria
AM. Amyntas
AMBP. Ambracia
AM<J>!. Amphilochia
AN0. AvbvTruTov, Proconful
ANTI2. Antiffa
ANA. Ana&oria
ANTI. Antium
AN. Ancyra
ANT, Antoninus, Antioch
AT. Axu- in Crete
AON. Aonitae
AoTE. Avenio, fell.
ATI. Appiu i
AHA. Apamea.
AITOi Apollonia
AIITA. Aptara
AP. Aradus, Harma
APrE. Argennos
APT. Argos
API. Aric.mda
APIM Ariminum
AP2I. Arfinoe
APT. Aryca.
APX. Apxugtvs or high
priett or niagiftrate ,
A2IAPX. Afiarchs, prefidents
of the games of Afiii(B)
AT. Afylum
A. T. UpoToi 'Xvpia.c, Firft of
Syria
ATK. Afcalon
AT. Atabyrium
aTAP. Atari];®
ATT. Auguftus
ATPHA. Aurelius
AT. ATT. AuTOxparop, Emp*»
ATTON. Avroioftoi, enjoying
their own laws
A<t>l. Aphyta
A<l>P. Afncarus
AX. Achaii
B
B. Bouxnr, Council: Berytus:
Bithynia
BATH A AO. Bagadaonia
BAA. Valerius
BH. Berytus
BITON. Bitontum-
BOI. Boeoria
BPTN. Brundufmm
BT. Byzantium
r
r. TP. TP AM. Grammaticus, or
keeper of the records
T. Gaius, or Caius
FA. Gailus, Galerius, Gallienus
r. rtapipaw, Ihuftrious
TEA.
(b) There were alfo Syriarchte, Lyciarcbse, Gahtarchse, Bithyniarchse, Cappadociarchse, &c. Morel Spec.
Tables.
Abbrevia TEA, Gelas
TEP. GermaiiicAii
, FN. Gneius
roPTT- Gortyna
FPA. Gravifca
A
A. Decimuo, Dymat
AAK. Oacicus
A AM. Damafcu*
AAP. Dai danum
AH. Anpoi, the people
AHMAPX. ESOT2. with Tli-
bunitian power
AE. Dccelia
AEK Decius
AEP. Derbe in Lyoaonia
AH, Delos
AI. Diofpoiis
APE- Drepanum
ATP. Dyrrachiuni
E
E Eryce
E. EPE2. Erefus
FAET. Eleufis
EAET0. EAivSfpoi, Free
Em. Epidaurus
EPI Enza in Caria
EPX- firchia
EPT. Erythras
ET. ETO. Erouf, Year
ET. Etennain Pamphylia
EX. Exova-ia, Power
ET.ETBO. Euboea
ETE. Evo-i^r, Pious
ETT. Happy
E4>. E<»E. Ephefus
Z
ZA. Zacynthus
ZANKA. Zancle, Meffana an-
ciently fo called
H
H. Eliutn
irr. H >.(«»»,-, Prefident
hPAK. Heraclea
&
©A. Thafiis
©E. ThefpLae
©E2. Theffalonica
©E. ©HB. Thebaj
I. IEP. Itpx;, Sacred
JEPAPT. Hverapytha
IKAP. Hiccara
I At. Ilium
tor. Julis a city, or Julius
IOTA. Julia
mA. Hippana
IP. Irene Inf. Pellerin.
IX. U'us, Iftisea
K
K. Cains; Kou<vtoc, Quintus
K. KAIX. Caefar
K. K. Ko,v« K«A<ia*f, Commu¬
nity of Cilicia
KAIA. Gaelius
KAA. Chalcedon ,
KAAAI. Callipolis
KAMA. Camara
KAN. Canata
KAIT. Capua
KAnn. Cappadocia
KAP. Carrhce
KAPT. Carthago '
FAT. Caulonia
KE. Ceos
KE<t>. Cephalajilis
KI. Cianus, CibiEum
KIA. Cilbiani
KA. C'.ao: x, Claudius
KAA. Olazomene
Km. Cmdus
MED
KO, Corinth
koin. Kcuvov, Community
KOA. Komvix(, Colony, Colo*
phon
Kom. Commodus
KOP. Corcyra
KP. Cragus in Lycia
KPA. Cranos
KPH. Crete
Kth. Gtemenae, Pell.
KT. Cuma, Cydonium, Cyoa
KT©. Cythnus
KTET. Cyprus
KTP. Cyrene
A. or L. Aux«C«»rof, Year
A. Lucius
AA. Lacedaemon
AAM. Lamea; Lampfacus
AAP. Lariffa
AAPI. Larinum
AE. AET. Leucas
AEON. Leontium
AH M. Lemnos
Ain. Lipara
AITI. Liviopolis
AO. AX1K. Locri
AOF, Longone
ATF. ATK. Lydus
M
M. Marcus, Malea, Megalopo¬
lis, Mazaka
’ MA. Maronea, Maflilia, Mace¬
donia
MAT. Maguefia
MAKPO. Macrocephali
MAM. Mamertini
MAXX. Maflilia
MAZ. Mazara
ME. Menelais, on Syrian regal
MENEK. Menecrates
ME. MET. Megara, Megalopo¬
lis Melite
MET. MtyxMf, Great
MEX. Meflana
META. Metapontum
M. MHTPO. Metropolis
MI. Miietus
MK. Mazaka of Cappadocia, on
coins of Mithridates VI.
MOP. Morgantia
MT. Mycenae
MTP. Mj rlea
MTTI. Mytilene
N
N. Naupados
NA3. Naxos
N A T A PX. 'Navapxitoi, enjoying
a fea-port
NE. Nemea
N. NfiriK. Neocori
NEOn. Neopolis.
NEP. Nerva
NIK. Nicaeum, Nicomedia
NTE. Nyfaei, on coins of Scy-
thopolis, Pell.
o
Ol. Oethaei
ON. p»T»f, being.
onEA. Opelius
on. Opus
OPT. Orycus
OPX. Orchomenus
OTn.orTn. OuTarOfor Trce-
rof, Conful
OTEP, Verus
OTH. Verus
OTEXII. Vefpafianus
OTITEA. Vitellius
©<tPT. Ophryniup
A L S.
n
n. Tlxpec, Upoc, upon
n. nonA. Publius
n. FIA. Paphos or Paros
XIA1X. Paeftum
FIAn. Panormas
IlAp. Paropinum
HApi. Paros
IiAp©, Parthicus
HE. Perinthus
IIEA. Pella
HEP, Fergus
IIEPT. Pertinax.
IIEXK. Pefcennius
FI. IIH. Pelufium
I1IN. Pinamytae
IIAA. Plateas
no. Pontus
noAT. Polyrrhenum
noX. Pofidonia
HPAX. Pralfus
n. HPT. UpuTavof, Praefedk
HP. 1IPEX. npta-Siof, Legate
HPO. Procounefus
IIPOAI. npaSi,.o(, Curator
n. npnr. ripoTOf, Firtl
FIT. Ptolemais
I1T. Pylos
P
PO. Rhodes
X
X. XA. Salamis, Samos, Syria
XA. Sa'nofate
XAAAn. Salapia
XAP. >ardu
XE. Seriphus, Segefte
XEB. Xf^arTof, Auguftus
XEA. Selinus, Seleucia
XEnr. Septimius
XI. Siphnos.
XIA. Side
XlNn. Sinope
43
XMT. Smyrna Abbrevia-
XTP. XTPA. Xrfarsysf, Prx- tions.
2TB. Sybaris *
XT. Xtpa. Syracufe
XTP. Syria
XIF. Solx.
r
T. Titus
TABAA. Tabala
T’A. TANA. Tanagra
TAP. Tai-entum, Tarfut
Tatp. Tauromenum
TE. Tementis
TEP. Terina
TH. Tenus
TI. TIB. Tiberiu*
TPA. Trallis
TPI. Tripolis
TPO. Troizene
TTAN. Tyana
TT. Tyndaris.
TTP. Tyre (monogram)
T
TE. TEA, Velia
Til. that. Tir.ror, Conful
<u
d>. Philip; Phceflus, Philun*
<I>A. Phafelis
OAP. Pharfalus
•SI. Vibius, Philippopolis
•PINE. Phineium
<I>A. Flavius
«I>OK. Phocxum
<I>OTA. Fulvia
<t>T. Phycus in Cyrene.
X
X. Chios
XAA. Ghalcis
XEP. Cherfonefus
XI. Chytri in Crete.
•r Oi 6
7
q or q 90.
poo.
Examples. I is 10: add A or I, and IA makes it: folB, m
ir, 13, &c. K is 20, KA, ax, &c. PI A makes m. The ling*
lilh word air marks tlie grand initial numerals. On coins the.
numeral- are often placed in retrograde Older;, which makes no
difference in the value, as every leiret is appropriated to its num¬
ber. Thus TAF or FAT imply the fame, 333. iiut this advan¬
tage being unknown to he Roman numerals and Arabic ciphers,
is apt to puzzle the beginnei.
Roman Coins.
A. aulus: in the exergue
it implies the firu mint,
as an t. A. coined at An¬
tioch in the firft mint.
A. A. A. F. F. Auro,: argen-
to, uEre, Flando, Feri-
undo.
A. or an. Annus.
a. a. Apollo Augufti.
a. f. A. n. Auli filius, Auli
nepos.
abn. Abnepos.
act. Adiacus, or A&ium.
AD FRV. EMV, Ad flUgCS
emundas.
adiab. Adiabenicus.
adop. Adoptatus.
ADQ^ Adquihta.
adv Adventus.
A ed. Aides.
aed. p. Aidilitiapoteftatc.
aed. s. Aides facrag.
aed. cvr. Aidilis Curulis.
aed. pl. Aidilis Plebis.
a el. ALlius.
AEM.
44
Abbrevia-
AEM. or A!MiL. jF.milius.
aet. Kternitas.
APR. Africa, orAfricanus.
A lb in. Albinus.
ALiM.iTAL.Alimenta Ita¬
lic.
Ann. avg. Aniiona Au-
gufti.
A. n. p. p. Annum Novum
Fauftum Felicem.
anic. Anicius.
ANN. DCCCL^JIII. NAT.
vrb. p. cir. con. An¬
no 864Natali Urbis Po-
puloCircenfesconuituti.
ant. avg. Antonius Au¬
gur.
ant. Antonius,, or Anto-
ap. Appius.
A. p. f. Argento Publico
Feriundo.
A POP. FRVG. AC. A Po-
pulo Fruges Accepts.
AQiOr aqx. Aquiliu .
aqva mar. Aqua Martia.
arab. ADQ;, Arabia Ad-
quifita.
arr. Arrius.
avg. Augur, Auguftus,
Augufta.
AVG. d. 7. Auguflus Divi
Filius.
AVGG. Two, Augufti.
avggg. Three Augufti.
avr. or avrel. Aurelius.
B
B. The mark of the fecond
mint in any. city.
bon. event. BosusEven-
tus.
b. r.p.nat. Bono Reipub-
licae Nato.
brit. Britannieus.
brvt. Brutus.
C
c. Caius, Colonia.
c. a. Caefarea Augufta.
c. cae. or cabs. Casfar.
caess. Caefares.
carth. Carthage.
cen. Cenfor.
e e n s. p. Cenfor Perpetuus.
cest. Ceftius, or Ceftia-
nus.
cir. con. Circum Condi-
dit, or Circenfes Con--
cefiit.
CIVIB. ET SIGN. MILIT. A.
PARTH. RECVP. CivibuS
et Signis Militaribus a
Parthi' Recuperatis.
cn Cneius.
eeEL. Ccelius,.
M E D
CON. ob. Conftantinopoli
Obfignata, or Comtan-
tinopoli Ofticina fecun-
da, or Conflata Obryzo.
col. Colonia.
c o n . s v o. Confervatori fuo.
concord. Concordia.
cl. v. Clypem Votivus.
comm. Commodus.
clod. Clodius.
cl. or cl a vd. Claudius,
cos. Conful.
coss. Confules.
corn. Cornelius.
cvr. x. f. Curavit Dena-
rium Faciendum.
D
d. Decimus, Divus, De-
ftgnatu.s.
sac. Dacicus.
d. f. Dacia felix.
s. m. Diis Manibus.
DEs.orDEsiG. Defignatus.
dict. Diftator.
dom it. Domitianus.
s. n. Dominus nofter.
did. Didius.
d. p. Dii Penates.
dv. Divus.
E
eid. mar. Idus Martiae.
ex. cons. d. Ex Confenfu
Decuriorum.
ex. s. c. Ex Senatus Con-
fulto.
eq^ ordin. Equeftris Or-
dinis.
ex. a. pv. Ex Argento, or
P^blica.
EXER.
etr. Etrufcus.
F
F. Filius, or Filia, or Felix,
or Faciundum, orFecit.
fel. Felix.
felic. Felicitas.
fl. Flavius.
flam. Flamen.
fort. red. Fortunae Re-
duci.
fovri. Eourius forFurius,
fontj Fonteius.
frvgif. Frugiferae (Cere-
ri).
fvl. Fulvins.
fvlg. Fulgerator.
G
G. Gneius, Genius, Gau-
dium.
ga. Gaditanus.
G. d. Gerraanious Dacicus.
gen. Genius.
germ. Germanic us.
gl. e. r. Gloria Exercitus
Ramani.
A L S.
GL. P. R. Gloria Populi
Romani.
goth. Gothicus.
g. p. r. Genio Populi Ro¬
mani.
G. t. a. Genius Tutelaria
JEgypti, or Africae.
H
hel. Helvius.
hel. Heliopolis.
her. Herennius, or He-
rennia.
ho. Honos.
hs. Seftertius.
I
i. Imperator, Jovi, Julius.
ian. clv. Janum clulit for
clauftt.
imp. Imperator.
impp. Imperatores.
i. s. m. r. Juno Sofpita,
Mater or Magna Re¬
gina.
it. Italia, Iterum.
iTe. Iterum.
ivl. Julius or Julia.
IVST. Juftus.
i-i. s. Seftertius.
l. O. M. SACR. Jovi Opti¬
mo, Maximo, Sacrum.
u. vir. Duumvir.
m. vir. r. p. c. Triumvir
Reipublicae Conftituen-
dae.
mi. vir. a. p. f. Quatu-
orvir, or Quatuorviri,
Auro, or Argento, or
^Ere, Publico Feriundo.
ivn. Junior.
L
L. Lucius.
lat. Lr^-'nus.
leg. propr. J /'gatusPro-
praetoris.
leg. i. &c. Legio Prima,
See.
lep. Lepidus.
LENT. CVR. k. F. LentU-
lus Curavit Denarium
Faciundum.
libero p. Libero Patri.
l i b . p v b . Libertas Publica.
Lie. Licinius.
l. s. den. Lucius Sieinius
Dentatus.
lvc. Lucifera.
lvd. cir. Ludi Circenfes.
lvd. Eq. Ludi Equeftres.
lvd. sae-c. f. Ludos S«-
cularss Fecit.
M
m. Marcus, or Marius.
mar. cl. Marcellus Clo¬
dius.
H, f. Maroi Filius.
Tabless''
M. OTAClfc, Marcia Ota- Abbreviaji-
cilia. tlons* 1;
mag. or magn. Magnus.
mac. Macellum.
max. Maximus.
mar. Martia (aqua).
mar. vlt. Marti Ultori.
mes. Melfius.
metal. Metallum.
min at. Minatius.
miner. Minerva.
m. m. i. v. MunicipesMu-
nicipii Julii Uticenfis.
mon. or monet. Moneta.
N
N. Nepos or Nofter.
n. c. Nobiliffimus Csefar.
nat. vrb. Natalis Urbis.
nep. N^pos.
nep. red. Neptuno Re-
duci.
O
o. Optimo.
ob. c. s. Ob Gives Serva-
tos. *
of. Officina.
opel. Opelius.
orb. terr. Orbis Terra-
rum.
P
p. or pot. Poteftafe.
pac. orb. ter. Pacatori
Orbis Terrarum.
papi. Papius or Papirius.
parth. Parthicus.
perp. Perpetuu .'
pert, or pertin. Pertinax.
pesc. Pefcennius.
p. f. Pius Felix.
PL aet. Pketonius.
p. l. n. Pecunia Londiiii
Notata.
p,lon. s. Pecuaia Londini
p. m. or font. max. Pon-
tifex Maximus.
pomp. Pompeius.
p. p. Pater Patriae.
pr. Praetor.
p. r. Populus Romanus.
PRAEF. CLAS. ET. OR. MA-
rit. Praefedtus Claffis
et Orae Maritimae.
princ. ivvent. Princeps
Juventutis.
priv. Privernum.,
proc. Proconful.
prOn. Pronepos..
prop. Propraetor.
PROQi Proquaeftor.
prov. deor. Providentia
Deprum.
pvpien. Pupienus.
Quintus, or Quaeftor.
/£.
t Ms/Ar™, .//<'&/<■«/or/erJ.
MEDALS.
/£.
Plate CCXCjr.
/.
'
MEDALS.
Elate C OXeUL
2(3.
A A TJiA^AA.n tt A
TOT O /v A A
b ^ e ^ d
ccfcFircv
i>dpbDr,jt>>
£ E£6EG«e
f /=■ r
G G 9 <> S L b 5-U G
H h.H.li.
I I E
K.
-U. i. U 4.^
2<$
A.. . 'fc .-€. .
CR.C^ .
HE.FE .
MA£* VY E .
/AO. <5 .'o'.
M./w, n. m-1. rn.'T0. m. xi*. rn.
1H.S0. »Af. w. va . h . u •
ivr.p. iv.v^.H.w.n.ii.
p.
r. r./* . i>. /?.^ y2. n. 4.
$. v^.^.-v.S.Z-A.E.X
T. T. r.
v. v. v. 11. vc. u. y-
w. w.P.YT. b.f. P- p V •
X . +. no zz.yc.<£. t- •
y. y.
2 0.
KG- he .
TSJ w . |sp .
REX . Tic •
Rua\ . vc .
T/t .
T H • ©.!>.•»;). y .v.jy
4-3.P.
thb.* .
■ Tables. MED
AMrevia- c. M. V. I. Quintus C'X-
tll>ns . cilius Metellus Pius Im-
'' *v perator.
q,. desig. Qunsftor Defig-
natus.
<2^ p. Quasftor Praetorius.
^ pr. Qiiseftor Provincia-
lis.
R
r. Roma, Reftituit.
recep. Receptis, or Re-
ceptus.
rest. Reftituit.
rom. et avg. Romas et
Augufto.
r. p. Refpublica.
S
SAEC. AVR. Sasculum Au-
reum.-
saec.fel. SseculiFelicitas.
sal. Salus.
sall. Salluftia.
sarm. Sarmaticus.
s. c. Senatus Confulto.
sc ip. asia. Scipio Afiati-
cus.
Sec. orb. Securitas Orbis
sec. perp. Securitas Per-
petua.
sec. temp. Securitas Tern-
porum.
sen. Senior.
sept. Septimius.
ser. Servius.
sev. Severus.
sex. Sextus.
sic. v. sic x. Sicut Quin-
quennalia, fic Decenna-
lia.
sig. Signis.
s. m. Signata Moneta.
s. p. q^r. Senatus Popu-
lufque Romanus.
stabil. Stabilita (terra).
svl. Sulla.
T
T. Titus, Tribunus.
ter. Terentius, or Terti-
um.
temp. Temporum.
ti. Tiberius.
tr. or trev. Treveris.
treb. Trebonianus.
tr. mil. Tribunus Milita-
ris.
TR. P. or TRIB. POT. Tri-
bunicia Poteftate.
V
v. Quintum.
v. c. Vir Clariflimus.
vesp. Vefpafianus.
vib. Vibius.
viCt. Viftoria.
vn. vir. epvl. Septem-
vir Epulonum.
vil. pvb. Villa Publica.
virt. Virtu;.
vn. mr. Venerandse Me¬
moriae.
VOT. X. MVLT. XX. VotlS
Decennalibus Multipli-
catis Vicennalibus.
X
x. Decern, Denarius.
XV. VIR. SACR. FAQ., Qum-
decim Vir Sacris Faci-
undis.
Abbreviations on the Exergue; from Banduri and Mo-
naldini. Pinkerton.
a. Officina Prima.
ale. Alexandria.
amb. Antioehenfis Mone¬
ta Secundse Officinae.
an. ant. anti. Antiochia.
ANB. Antiochiae Secunda
OfF-ina : to anu. An-
tiochiae OAava Officina.
A. p. l. (In officina) Prima
percufla Lugduni.
aq^ aql. Aquileiae.
Aq. o. b. f. Aquileiae Of¬
ficinae Secundae Fabrica.
aq. p. s. Aquileiae Pecunia
Signata.
Aq. s. Aquileiae Signata.
a. ar. arl. Arelate.
A. sisc. Prima (in officina)
Sifciae.
B. sirm. Secunda Sirmii.
*. s. L. c. Secunda. Signa¬
ta Lugduni.
c. ©• Conftantinopoli No-
comob. Conflata Moneta
Obryzo. Only on gold
or filver from a gold
dye.
con. Conftantinopoli.
conob. Conflata Obryzo.
Only on gold.
cons. Conftarntinopoli.
kart. Carthago
k. ,o. Carthaginenfis Offi¬
cina.
l. lc. lvc lvg. Lucduni,
Lugduni.
L. lon. Londini.
l. p. Lugdunenfis vel Lon-
dinenfis Pecunia.
lvc p. s. Lugduni Pecu¬
nia Signata
mops Mediolani Pecunia
Signata.
A L S.
M. k. v. t.. Moneta Karta.
ginenfis Urbis (in offici¬
na) Tertia.
M. l. Moneta Lugdunenfis
vel Londinenfis.
mostt. Moneta Officinse
Secundae Treverorum.
mstr. Moneta SignataTre-
veris.
o. Officina.
off. in. const. Officina
Tertia Conftantinopoli.
parl. Percufla or Pecunia
Arelate.
plon. PecuniaLondinenfis.
plvg. Pecunia Lugdunen¬
fis.
p. r. Pecunia Romana, or
Percufla Romae.
p. t. Pecunia Treverenfis.
q. ar. Quindta Arelatenfis
(officina).
r. ro. rom. Romse.
ra. Ravennoe.
4*
ROPS. Rom* Pecunia Sigw AtibrevU-
uata. tions.
s. ar. Signata Arelate. v 1
s.. const. Signata Con¬
ftantinopoli.
sis, Sifcise.
ss. p. Sifcienfis Pecunia.
sisc. v. Sifcia Urbs.
sma. Signata Moneta An-
tiochiae.
s. m. her. Signata Moneta.
Heracleae.
s. m n. Signata Moneta
Nicomedise.
s. m. r. Signata Moneta
Romae.
s. t. Signata Treveris.
tesob, i’eflalonicae Offici¬
na Secunda.
theopo. Theopoli.
tr. Treveris.
trob. Treveris Officina
Secunda.
A Idft of Roman Colonies avhofe Coins remain ; and Ab¬
breviations on thefe Coins,
Abdera in Spain.
Acci in Spain.
Achulla in Africa.
iElia Capitolina in Judaea.
Agrippina in Germany.
Antiochia in Pifidia.
in Syria.
Apamea in Bithynia.
Arna in Theflaly.
Aftigi in Spain.
Babba in Mauritania Tin-
gitana.
Berytus in Phoenicia.
Bilbilis in Spain.
Boftra in Arabia.
Bracara Augufta in Spain.
Buthrotum in Epirus.
Cabellio in Gaul.
Caefar-Augufta in Spain.
Caefarea in Paleftine.
Calagurris in Spain.
Calpe in Spain.
Camalodunum in Britaim
Carrhae in Mefopotamia.
Carteia in Spain.
Carthago in Africa.
Carthago Nova in Spain.
Cafcantum in Spain.
Caflandria in Macedon.
Celfa in Spain.
Clunia in Spain.
Coillu in Numidia.
Comana in Cappadocia.
Corinthus in Greece.
Cremna in Pifidia.
Culla in Thrace.,
Damafcus in Celefyria.
Dertofa in Spain.
Deulton in Thrace.
Dium in Macedon.
Ebora in Spain.
Edefla in Mefopotamia.
Emerita in Spain.
Emefa in Phoenicia.
Ergavica in Spain.
Germe in Galatia.
Graccuris in Spain.
Hadrumetum in Africa.
Heliopolis in Celefyria.
Hippo Regius in Africa.
Iconium in Lycaonia.
Ilerda in Spain.
Illergavonia in Spain,
Illeci in Spain,
lol in Mauritania.
Italica in Spain.
Laelia in Spain.
Laodicea in Syria
Leptis in Africa.
Lugdunum in Gaul.
Neapolis in Paleftine.
Nemaufu; in Gaul.
Nefibis in Mefopotamia.
Norba Caefarea in Mauri
tanica.
Obulco in Spain
Oea in Africa.
Olba in Pamphylia.
Ofca iu Spain.
Oficarda in Spain.
Panormus in Sicily..
Pariuai in Myfia.
Farlaia
46
.rtbbrevts. Parlais in Lycaom'a,
. tl°n8, Patricia (Corduba) in
- Pella in Macedon.
Philippi in Macedon.
Philippopolis in Arabia.
Ptolemais in Phoenicia.
Rufcino in Gaul.'
Romula (Hifpalis) in
Spain.
Rhefasna in Mefopotamia.
Sabaria in Hungary.
Saguntum in Spain.
Sebafte in Paleftine.
Segobriga in Spam.
Abbreviations
MED
Sidon in Phoenicia.
Singara in Mefopotamia.
Sinope in Pontus.
Stobi in Macedon.
Tarraco in Spain.
Theflalonica in Macedon.
Tradu&a (Julia) in Spain.
Troas in Phrygia.
Turiafo in Spain.
Tyana in Cappadocia.
Tyrusin Phoenicia.
Valentia in Spain.
Vienna in Gaul.
Viminacium in Mcefia.
Utica in Africa.
Colonial Coins.
acci. Accitana Colonia, Guadix in Spain.
adi. Adjutrix legio.
ael. mvn. coel. ./Elium Municipium Coela, near Sef-
ios on the Hellefpont.
AST. Aftigitana, Eceja in Andalufia.
Ti. a. Braccara Augufti, Brague in Portugal.
c. A. Csefaria Antiochiae.
c. a. a. p. or patr. Colonia Augufta Aroe Patrenfis.
cab. Cabellio.
c. A. bvt. Colonia Augufti Buthrotum, in Epirus.
■c. A. c. Colonia Augufta Caefarea.
c. A. i. Colonia Augufta Julia, Cadiz.
c. A. E. Colonia Aug. Emerita, Merida.
cal. Calagurris, Calahorra in Spain.
c. A. o. A. f. Colonia Antoniana Oea Aug. Felix, Tri¬
poli in Africa.
-c. A. pi. met. sid. Colonia Amelia Pia Metropolis
Sidon.
>c. A. r. Colonia Augufta Rauracorum, or Colonia
Afta Regia: Augft in Switzerland, or Aft near
Xeres de la Frontera in Spain.
•c. c. A. Colonia Csefarea Augufta, Saragoffain Spain.
'C. c. col. lug. Claudia Copia Colonia Lugdunenfis.
c. c. i. B. Colonia Campeftris Julia Babba, in Mau¬
ritania.
-c. c. i. b. d. d. Colonia Campeftris Julia Babba, De-
creto Decurionum.
c. c. i. h. p. a. Colonia Concordia Julia, Hadrume-
tina, Pia Augufta.
c. civ. d. d. p. Corona Civica data Decreto Publico,
•c. c. n. a. Colonia Carthago Nova Augufta.
rc. c. n» c. d. d. Colonia Concordia, Norba Caefarea-
na, Decreto Decurionum.
-c. cor. Colonia Corinthus.
c. c. t. Ducentefima Remiffa.
c. g» s. Golonia Claudia Sabaria, in Hungary,.
c. f. p. d. Colonia Flavia Pacenfis Develtum, DeveL
turn in Thrace.
c. c. i. h. p. a. Colonia Gemella Julia Hadriana, Pa-
riana, Augufta.
c. i. c. a. Colonia Julia Concordia, Apamea.
•c. i. a. d. Colonia Julia Augufta Dertona, Tortona
near Milan.
c. i. av. Colonia Julia Aug. Cadiz.
c. i. avg. f. sin. Colonia Julia Augufta Felix Sinope.
e. i. B. Colonia Julia Baiba, in Mauritania.
c. i. c. a. p. a. Colonia Julia Carthago Augufta Pi
A L S. Tables.
Antiqua, or Corinth, or Carthago Nova, AbbVevij-
c. i. cal. Colonia Julia Calpe, Gibraltar. bout.
C; i. f. Colonia Julia Felix, Cadiz. ^
c. i. g. a. Colonia Julia Gemella (c) Augufta.
c4 i. i. A. Colonia Immunis Mice Augufta, E/cle in
Spain.
c. i. n. c. Colonia Julia Norba Csfareana, or Alcan¬
tara : fometimes it means Col. Julia Nova Carthago,
c. i. v. Colonia Julia Valentia, Valencia in Spain.
c. v. t. Colonia Vi&rix Varraco.
c. l. i. cor. Colonia Laus Julia Corinthus.
c. l. i. n. avg. Colonia Laus Julia Nova Augufta,
Laus or Lodi in Lucania.
c. m. l. Colonia Metropolis Laodicea, in Ccelefyria.
co. dam. metro. Colonia Damafcus Metropolis.
cohh. pret, vii. p. vx. f. Cohortes Pnetorianae Septi-
mum Pise, Sextum Felices.
coh. i. cr. Cohors prima Cretenfis.
con. pret. phil. Cohors Praetoriana Philippenfium.
col. ael. a. h. met. Colonia iElia Augufta Hadru-
metina Metropolis, in Africa
col. ael. cap. comm. p. f. Colonia iElia Capitolina
Commodiana Pia Felix.
col. alex. troas. Colonia Alexandriana Troas.
col. amas. or ams. Colonia Amaftriana, in Paphlago-
COL. ant. Antioch in Pifidia.
col. arelat. sextan. Colonia Arelate Sextanorum,
Arles.
col. ast. avg. Colonia Aftigitana Augufta, Eceja in
Spain.
col. a,vg. fel. ber. Colonia Augufta Felix Berytus.
col. avg. fir. Celonia Aug. firma, Eceja.
col. avg. ivl. Philip. Colonia Augufta Julia Philip-
penfis.
cOl. avg. pat. trevir. Colonia Augufta Paterna Tre-
virorum, Treves in Germany, fenl from Paternum in
Italy.
col. avr. kar. comm. p. f. Golonia Aurelia Karrhae
, Commodiana Pia Felix, or Carneatum Commagene,
or Carrhte in ffia.
col. b. a. Colonia Braccara Augufta, Prague.
col. bryt. l v. Colonia Berytus Legio Quinta.
col. cabe. Colonia Cabellio.
col. caes. avg. Colonia Caefarea Augufta, in Pale-
JHne.
col. camalodvn- Colonia Camalbdunum, England.
COL. Gasilin. Colonia Cafilinum, Caflellazo in Italy.
col. cl. ptol. Colonia Claudia Ptolemais, Acre in
Phcenicia.
col. -damas. metro. Colonia Damafcus Metropolis.
col. f. i. a. p. barcin. Colonia Flavia Julia Augufta
Pia, Barcino or Barcelona.
col. fl. pac. devlt. Colonia Flavia Pacenfis Deul-
tum, Develtum in Thrace.
col. ha. me. t. Colonia Hadriana .Mercurialis Thae-
nitana, Mercuriali, Fermo in Italy, and Thenes in
Africa. . . .
col h. (or hel. ) leg. h. Colonia Heliopolis Legio
Heliopolitana.
Col, hel. i. o. m. h. Colonia Heliopolis Jovi Optimo
Maximo Heliopolitano.
col. ivl. avg. c. i. f. coman. Colonia Julia Augufta
Concordia Invi&a Felix Comanorum, drawn from
Cow
(c) Gemella implies a colony drawn from two others.
■5 Tables# M E D
If^hhreyia- Concordia in Italy, andfenl to Comana in Cappadocia.
i| col. ivL, avg. fel. cremna. Colpnia Julia Augufta
j” v Felix Cremna, in Pampbylia.
COL. IVL; CER. SAC. AVG. FEL. CAP. OECVM. ISE. HEL. Co-
lonia Julia Certamen Sacrum Auguftum Felix Ca-
pitolinumOecumenicum Ifelafticum Heliopolitanum.
col. ivl. conc. apam. avg. d. d. Colonia Julia Con¬
cordia Apamea Augufta Decreto Decurionum.
COL. ivl. pater, nar. Colonia Julia Paterna Narbo-
nenfis.
col. nem. Colonia Nemaufus.
col. niceph. cond. Colonia Nicephorium Condita}. in
Mefopotamia.
COL. PATR. Colonia Patrenfis or Patricia, Patras in
Greece, or Cordova in Spain.
col. p. f. avg. f. caes. met. Colonia Prima Flavia
Aug. Felix Caefarea Metropolis, in Pakjline.
col. p. fl. avg. caes. METRO? p. s. p, fame as above,
p. s. p. is Provinciae Syriae Paleftinre.
col. pr. f. a. caesar. Colonia Prima Flavia Augufta
Ciefarea, in Palejline.
col. R. f. avg. fl. c. metrop. Colonia Romana Felix
Aug. Flavia Caefarea Metropolis The fame.
col. rom. Colonia Romulea, or Seville.
col. rom. lvg. Colohia Romana Lugdunum.
col. rvs. leg. vi. Colonia Rufcino Legio Sexta, Rouf-
1 , flIlon in France.
col. sabar. Colonia Saburiae.
col. sabas. Sebafte in Palejline.
I col. ser. g. neafol. Colonia Servii Galbie Neapolis,
in Palejline.
col. v i. celsa, orcoL. vic. ivl. celsa. Colonia Vic-
trix Julia Celfa, Kelfa in Spain.
col. vie. ivl. lep. Colonia Viftrix Julia Leptis, in
Africa.
col. vim. an. i. or ii, &c. Colonia Viminacium Anno
prime, Widtn in Servia.
col. vlp. tra. Colonia Ulpia Trajana: Kellen, or
, Warhal in Tranftlvania.
co. p. f. coe. metro. Colonia Prima Flavia Caefarea
Metropolis.
co. p. i. a. Colonia Pacenfis Julia Augufta, or Col.
O&aviana.
c. r. i. f. s. Colonia Romana Julia Felix Sinope.
c. t. t. Colonia Togata Tarraco.
c v. il. Colonia Vicftrix Mice, Elche in Spain.
o. Decurioneg.
d. c. a. Divus Cief. Aug.
pert. Dertofa.
gen. col. ner. patr. Genio Coloniae Neroniame Pa¬
trenfis.
A L S. 4.
g* l. s. Genio Loci Sacrum. Exp!ana-
m. h. illergavonia dyrt. Municipium Hibera filer- t!.on
gavonia Dertofa, Tortofa in Catalonia. lJ ates' ,
m. m. 1. v. Municipes Municipii Julii Uticenfis.
M. r. Municipium Ravennatium.
mvn, cal. ivl. Municipium Calagurris Julia, in Spain.
mvn. clvn. Municipium Clunia, Crunna in Spain-
mvn, fane. jei.. Municipium Faneftre Aelium. Fano.
mvn. stob. Municipium Stobenfe, Sobi in Macedon.
mv. tv. Municipium Turiafo, in Spain.
n. tr. alexandrianae col. bostr. Nerviae Trojan*
Alexandrian* Goloni* Boftrse, in Palefline.
sep. col. lavd. Septimia Colonia Laudicea, or Lao-
dicea.
sep. tyr. met. Septima Tyrus Metropolis,
Explanation of the Plates.
Fig. I. A Perfian Daric. Plates
2. A drachm of Egina. CCXCII,
3. A filver hemidrachm of Alexander the Great; rianpI
4. Tigranes the younger of Armenia, with his CCX
ftfter.
5. One of the coins of the Arfacidae of Parthia.
6. A coin of the Safianidae of Perfia. Firft pub-
lifhed by Mr Pinkerton.
7. Denarius of Cneius Pompey from Mr Pinker¬
ton,. reverfe. Received by Spain.
8. A brafs coin of Cunobelinus.
9. Pefcennius Niger. Struck at Antioch ; u-
nlque. In Dr Hunter’s cabinet; publilhcd by Mr
Pinkerton.
10. A filver coin of Caraufius. *
11. Reverfe of Claudius in ftrft brafs.
12. Reverfe of Adrian.
13. Of Antoninus Pius.
14. Of Commodus.
15. Of Severus.
16. A Saxon penny.
17. A Saxon ftyca.
^8. 19. Ancient pennies, fuppofed to be Scottifii.
20. A penny of William of Scotland.
21. A penny of Robert the Great.
22. An Irifti penny.
23. The gold penny of Henry III.
24. The large noble of the firft coinage of Ed*
ward III.
25. The gold medal of David II. of Scotland.
26. The ryal of Queen Mary of Scotland.
27. Letters on Anglo-Saxon coins.
28. Abbreviations on ditto.
29. Monetarius.
MED
(Vfeda'lior.
  v '
I
ImpreJJions of Medals. See Casting.
MEDALLION, or Medalion, a medal of an ex¬
traordinary fize, fuppofed to be anciently ftruck by
the emperors for their friends, and for foreign princes
and ambaifadors. But, that the fmallnefs of their num¬
ber might not endanger the lofs of the devices they
bore, the Romans generally took care to ftamp the
fubjeft of them upon their ordinary coins.
Medallions, iri refpeft -of the- other coins, wer.e the
fame as modern medals in refpedf of modern money :
they were exempted from all commerce, and had no
7
MED
other value than what was fet upon them by the fancy
of the owner. Medallions are fo fcarce, that there ^''
cannot be any fet made of them, even though the me¬
tals and fixes fliould be mixed promifeuoufty.
MEDE (Jofeph), a very learned Englifli divine of
the 17th century, was educated at Cambridge, and
foon diftinguiflied himfelf to great advantage ; for by
the time he had taken the degree of mailer of arts in
16' o, he had made an uncommon progrefs in all aca¬
demical ftudies. His firft appearance as a writer was-
by an addrefs to Dr Andrews, then biihop of Ely, in
a
M K d [ 48 ] MED
a Latin traft De Sanditate Relative/, whicli was higli-
ly approved of by that prelate, who deiired him to be
his domeftic chaplain. This Mr Mede very civilly re-
fufed; vahring die liberty of his ftudies above any
hopes of preferment, and efteeming that freedom which
he enjoyed in his cell, fo he ufed to call it, as the ha¬
ven of all his willies And indeed thefe thoughts had
pofleffed him betimes; for when he was a fchool-boy,
he was fent to by his uncle, Mr Richard Mede, a mer¬
chant, who, being then without children, offered to
adopt him for his fon if he would live with him: but
he refufed the offer, preferring, as it fhould feem, a
life of fiudy to a life of gain.
He was not chofen fellow of his college till after he
was mafter of arts, and then not without the affiitance
of his friend bifhop Andrews: for he had been paffed
over at feveral ele&ions, on account of a caufelefs fuf-
picion which Dr Caiy, then mafter of the college, af
terwards bifhop of Exeter, had conceived of him, that
“ he looked too much towards Geneva.” Being made
fellow, he became an eminent and faithful tutor. Af¬
ter he had well grounded his pupils in humanity, lo¬
gic, and philafophy, fo that they were able to walk
ns it were alone, he ufed to fet every one his daily
talk ; which he rather chofe, than to confine himfelf
and them to precife hours for leisures. In the evening
they all came to his chamber; and the firft queftion
he put to each was, £>uid dubitai ? “ What doubts
have you met with in your ftudies to-day 1” For he
J'uppofed, that to doubt nothing and to underftand
nothing was juft the fame thing. This was right, and
the beft method to make young men exercife their ra¬
tional powers, and not acquiefce in what they learn
mechanically, and by rote, with an indolence of fpirit
which prepares them to receive and fwallow implicitly
whatever is offered to them. As to himfelf,he was fo en¬
tirely devoted to the ftudy of all excellent knowledge,
that he made even the time he fpent in his amufements
ferviceable to his purpofe. He allowed himfelf little
no exercife hut walking ; and often, in the fields or
college garden, would take occafion to fpeak of the
heauty, fignatures, virtues, or properties of the plants
then in view. for he was a curious florift, an accurate
herbalift, and thoroughly verfed in the book of na¬
ture. The chief delight he took in company was to
difeourfe with learned friends.
Mr Mede was a curious inquirer into the moft ab-
ftrufe parts of learning, and endeavoured after the
knowledge of thofe things which were moft remote
from the vulgar track- Among other things, he fpent
no fmall pains and time in founding the depths of a-
ftrology, and blotted much paper in calculating the
nativities of his near relations and fellow-ftudents: but
this was in his younger years, and he afterwards dif-
•covered the vanity and weaknefs of this fanciful art.
He applied himfelf to the more ufeful ftudy of hiftory
and antiquities; particularly to thofe myfterious fei-
ences which made the ancient Chaldeans, Egyptians,
and other nations, fo famous ; tracing them as far as
he could have any light to guide him in their oriental
fchemes and figurative expreffions, as likewife in their
hieroglyphics, not forgetting to inquire alfo into the
oneirocritics of the ancients : which he did the rather,
becaufe of that affinity he conceived they might have
N‘zo2. 7
with the language of the prophets. He was a curious Meleij
and laborious fearcher of antiquities relating to reli- —v—*
gion, ethnic, Jewifh, Chriftian, and Mahometan : to
which he added other attendants, neceffary for under-
ftanding the more difficult parts of Scripture.
In 1620, he refufed the provoftftn'p of Trinity-col¬
lege, Dublin, into which he had been elefted at the
recommendation of archbifliop Uffier, who was his par¬
ticular friend; as he did alfo when it was offered to
him a fecond time, in 1630. The height of his am¬
bition was, only, to have had fome fmall donative fine-
cure added to his fellowlhip, or to have been thrown
into fome place of quiet; where, retired from the noife . |
and tumults of the world, and poffeffed of a compe¬
tency of fortune, he might have been entirely at leifure
for ftudy and afts of piety. In the mean time, al¬
though his circumftances were fcanty, for he had no¬
thing but his fellowlhip and a college ledhire, his cha¬
rity was diffufive and uncommon ; and, ftrange as it
may now feem, he devoted the tenth of his income to
pious and charitable ufes. But his frugality and tempe¬
rance always afforded him plenty. His prudence or
moderation, either in declaring or defending his pri¬
vate opinions, was very remarkable; as was alfo his free¬
dom from partiality, prejudice or prepoffeffion, pride,
anger, felfilhnefs, flattery, and ambition. He was meek,
patient, equally remote from fuperftition and licentiouf-
nefs of thinking ; and, in Ihort, poffeffed every virtue.
This great and good man died in 1638, in his 52d year,
having fpent above two-thirds of his time in college.
MEDEA, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated forcerefs,
daughter of JEetes king of Colchis. Her mother’s
name, according to the more received opinion of He-
fiod and Hyginus, was Idyia, or, according to others,
Ephyre, Hecate, Afterodia, Antiope, and Neaera. She
was the niece of Circe. When Jafon came to Colchis
in queft of the golden fleece, Medea became enamoured
of him, and it was to her well-direfted labours that
the Argonauts owed their prefervation. Medea had
an interview with her lover in the temple of Hecate;
where they bound themfelves by the moft folemn oaths
to eternal fidelity. No fooner had Jafon overcome all
the difficulties which iEetes had placed in his way,
than Medea embarked with the conquerors for
Greece. To flop the purfuit of her father, Ihe tore
to pieces her brother A bfyrtus, and left his mangled
limbs in the way through which iEetes was to pafs.
This adt of barbarity, fome have attributed to Jafon,
and not to her. When Jafon reached lolchos his na¬
tive country, the return and victories of the Argo¬
nauts were celebrated with univerfal rejoicings; but
JEfon the father of Jafon was unable to affift at the
folemnity on account of the infirmities of his age.
Medea, at her hulband’s requeft, removed the weak¬
nefs of JEfon ; and by drawing away the blood from
his veins, ^nd filling them again with the juice of cer¬
tain herbs, ihe reftored him to the vigour and fpright-
linefs of youth. This fudden change in iEfon afto-
niihed the inhabitants of lolchos ; and the daughter*
of Pelias were alfo defirous to fee their father reftored
by the fa,me power to the vigour of youth. Medea,
willing to revenge the injuries which her huiband’s fa¬
mily had fuffered from Pelias, increafed their curi-
oiity ; and betrayed them into the murder of their fa-
' thet
MED
ther as preparatory to his rejuvenefcence, which (he
afterwards refufed to accompliih. This adtion great-
j ly irritated the people of lokhos ; and Medea with
her hu/band fled to Corinth to avoid their refentment.
Here they lived^for 10 years with mutual attachment,
when the love of Jafon for Glauce the king’s daugh¬
ter interrupted their harmony, and Medea was divor¬
ced. Medea revenged the infidelity of Jafon, by cau-
[ 49 3
MED
cording to Ptolemy, on the north by part of the Caf-
pian Sea ; on the fouth by Perfis, Sufiana, and Afl’yria}
on the eaft by Parfhia and Hyrcania; and on the weft
by Armenia Major. It was anciently divided into fe-
veral provinces, v'vz. Tropatene, Charomithrene, Da>
rites, Marciane, Amariace, and Syro-Media. By a
later divifion, however, all thefewere reduced to two;
the one called Media Magna, the other Media Atrer-
fing the death of Glauce, and the deltrudtion of her patia, or Amply Atropatene. Media Magna was bound
family. She alfo killed two of her children in their
father’s prefence ; and when Jafon attempted to punifh
the barbarity of the mother, (he fled through the air
upon a chariot drawn by winged dragons. From Co¬
rinth Medea came to Athens, where, after ihe had un¬
dergone the neceflary purification of her murder, fhe
married king iEgeus, or (according to others) lived
in an adulterous manner with him. From her condudf
■with vEgeus, Medea had a fon who was called Medus.
Soon after, when Thefeus wilhed to make, himfelf
known to his father, Medea, jealous of his fame and
fearful of his power, attempted to poifon him at a
feaft which had been prepared for his entertainment.
Her attempts, however, failed of fuccefs, and the fight
of the fword which Thefeus wore by his fide convin¬
ced iEgeus that the ftranger againft whofe life he had
fo bafely confpired was his own fon. The father and
the fon were reconciled ; and Medea, to avoid the
puniihment which her wickednefs deferved, mount¬
ed her fiery chariot and difappeared through the air.
She came to Colchis ; where, according to fome, ihe
ed by Perfis, Parthia, Hyrcania, the Hyrcanian Sea
and Atropatene, and contained the cities of Ecbatan
Laodicea, Apamea, Raga, Rageia or Ragea, &c.
Atropatene lay between the Cafpian mountains and
the Cafpian Sea.
This country originally took its name from Madai,
the third fon of Japhet ; as is plain from Saripture,
where the Medes are conftantly called Madai. Among
profane authors, fome derive the name Media, from
one Medus the fon of Jafon and Medea ; others from
a city called Media. Sextus Rufus tells us that in his
time it was called Medena, and from others we learn
that it was alfo called Aria. The moft probable hi-
ftory of the Medes is as follows.
This people lived in fubje&ion to the Affyrians till
the reign of Sennacherib, when they threw off the yoke,
and lived for fome time in a ftate of anarchy. But at
laft, rapine and violence, the natural confequences of
fuch a fituation, prevailed fo much that they were con-
ftrained to have recourfe to fome kind of government,
that they might be enabled to live in fafety. Accord-
was reconciled to Jafon, who had fought her in her na- ingly, about 699 B. C. one Dejoces having procured
tive country after her fudden departure from Corinth.
She died at Colchis, as Juftin mentions, when Ihe had
been reftored to the confidence of her family. After
death fhe married Achilles in the £lyfian fields, ac¬
cording to the traditions mentioned by Simonides.
The murder of Mermerus and Pheres, the youngeft of
Jafou’s children by Medea, is not to be attributed to
the mother, according to Elian ; but to the Corin¬
thians, who affaflinated them in the temple of Juno
Acrsea. To avoid the refentment of the gods, and
to deliver themfelves from the peftilence which vifited
himfelf to be chofen king, united the fcattered tribes
into which the Medes were at that time divided; and
having applied himfelf as much as poflible to the civi¬
lization of his barbarous fubjeCts, left the throne to
his fon Phraortes, after a reign of 53 years.
. The new king, who was of a warlike and enterpri-
fing difpofition, fubdued almoft all the Upper Afia ly¬
ing between Mount Taurus and the river Halys which
runs through Cappadocia into the Euxine Sea. Elated
with this good fuccefs, he invaded Affyria, the empire
of which was now much declined, and greatly weak-
their country after fo horrid a maflacre, they engaged ened by the revolt of many nations which had follow-
the poet Euripides for five talents to write a tragedy,
which cleared them of the murder, and reprefented
Medea as the cruel affaffin of her own children. And
befides, that this opinion might be the better credit¬
ed the example of the Medes. Nebuchodonofor <
Chyniladan, however, the reigning prince, having af-
fembled what forces he could, engaged Phraorte", de¬
feated, took him prifoner, and put him to death ; af-
ed, feftivals were appointed, in which the mother was ter which, entering Media, he laid wafte the country,
reprefented with all the barbarity of a fury murdering took the metropolis of Ecbatan kfelf, and levelled it
her own fons.
MEDEOLA, climbing African asparagus,
in botany : A genus of the hexandria order, belong¬
ing to the trigynia clafs of plants; and in the natural
method ranking under the nth order, Sarmentacece.
with the ground.
On the death of Phraortes, his fon Cyaxares was pla¬
ced on the throne. He was no lefs valiant and enter-
prifing than his father, and had better fuccefs againft
the Aflyrians. With the remains of that army which
There is no calyx; the corolla is fexpartite and revolu- had been defeated under his father, he not only drove
ted ; the berry trrfpermous. Its charafters are thefe:
The flower has no empalement; it has fix oblong oval
petals, and fix awl-lhaped. ftamina terminated by in¬
cumbent fummits; and three horned germina termi¬
nating the ftyle ; the germina afterward turn to a
roundifh trifid berry with three cells, each contain¬
ing one heart-ihaped feed. There are two fpe-
cies.
MEDIA, now the province of Ghilan in Perfia,
once the feat of a potent empire, was bounded, ao
V-ol. XI. Part L
the conquerors out of Media, but obliged Chyniladan
to fhut himfelf up in Nineveh. To this place he im¬
mediately laid dofe fiege; but was obliged to give over
the enterprize on account of an irruption of the Scy¬
thians into his own country. Cyaxares engaged thefe
new enemies with great refolution; but was utterly
defeated; and the conquerors over-ran not only all Me¬
dia, but the greateft part of Upper Afia, extending
their conquefts into Syria, and as far as the confines
of Egypt. They continued mailers of all this vaft
0 tradl
MED
[ 50 ]
MED
Media traft of country for 28 years, till at laid Media was
, II .. delivered from their yoke by a general maflacre at the
inftigation of Cyaxares.
» -i After this deliverance, the Medes foon repofleffed
themfelves of the territories they had loft ; and once
more extended their frontiers to the river Halys, their
ancient boundary to the weftward. After this we find
the Medes engaged in a war with the Lydians ; which,
however, ended without any remarkable tranfaftion :
but on the conclufion of it, Cyaxares having entered
into a ftrict alliance with Nebuchadnezzar king of Ba¬
bylon, returned in conjunction with the Babylonians
before Nineveh j which they took and levelled with
the ground, putting moft of the inhabitants, to the
fword.
After this victory the Babylonian and Median em¬
pires feem to have been united : however, after, the
death of Nebuchadnezzar, or rather in his lifetime,
a war enfued, which was not extinguifhed but by the
diffolution of the Babylonian empire. The Medes, un¬
der Aftyages the fon of Cyaxares I. withftood the
power of the Babylonian monarchs; and under Cyrus
and Cyaxares II. utterly deftroyed their empire by the
taking of Babylon, as is related under that article.
After the death of Cyaxares, the kingdom fell to Cy¬
rus, by whom the feat of the empire was transferred to
Persia, under which article the hiftory of Media now
falls to be confidered, as alfo the manners, &c. of the
inhabitants.
MEDIANA, the name of a vein or little veffel,
made by the union of the cephalic and bafilic, in the
bend of the elbow.
MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy, a double mem¬
brane, formed by a duplicature of the pleura ; ferving
to divide the thorax and the lungs into two parts, and Mediat
to fuftain the vifeera, and prevent their falling from Mecj;'|ins
one fide of the thorax to the other. See Anatomy,
n° IM¬
MEDIATE, or Intermediate^ fomething that
Hands betwixt and connects two or more terms confi-
dcred as extremes; in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to
immediate.
MEDIATOR, a perfon that manages or tranfafts
between two parties at variance in order to reconcile
them. The word, in Scripture, is applied, 1.T0 Jefus
Chrift, who is the only interceflbr and peace-maker
between God and man, (1 Tim. ii. 5.) 2. To Mofea*
who interpofed between the Lord and his people, to
declare unto them his word; (Deut. v. 5. iii. 19.)
MEDICAGO, Snail-trefoil, in botany: A
genus of the decandria order, belonging to the diadel-
phia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 3 2d order, Papilionacea. The legumen
is compreffed and fere wed ; the carina of the corolla
luring down from the vexillum. There are nine fpe-
cies, though only five are commonly cultivated in this
country. They are low trailing plants, adorned with
fmall yellow flowers, fucceeded by fmall, round, fnaii-
(haped fruit, which are downy, and armed with a few
fhort fpines. They are all eafily propagated by feeds.
For the properties and culture of Lucern, a fpecies
of this genus, fee Agriculture, n° 183.
MEDICINAL, any thing belonging to medi-
Medicinal Springs, a general name for any foun¬
tain, the waters of which are of ufe for removing cer¬
tain diforders. They are commonly either chalybeate
or fulphureous. See Springs and Water.
M E D I
MEDICINE is the art of preventing, curing, or
alleviating, thofe difeafes to which the human
fpecies are fubje&ed.
History of Medicine.
t J
Oriein of T h e fabulous hiftory of the ancients derives this art
medicine Jmmeci;ately from their gods; and, even among the
Tews; moderns, tome are or opinion that it may juitly be
confidered as of divine revelation. But without adopt¬
ing any fuppofition of which no probable evidence
can be given, we may conclude that mankind were
naturally led tQ it from cafual obfervations on the dif¬
eafes to which they found themfelves fubje&ed ; and
that therefore, in one fenfe at leaft, it is as Ancient as
the human race. But at what period it began to be
practifed as an art, by particular individuals following
it as a profeffion, is not known. The moft ancient
phyficians we read of were thofe who embalmed the
patriarch Jacob by order of his fon Jofeph. The facred
writer ftyles thefe phyficians fer-vants to Jofeph :
whence we may be allured that they were not priejls,
as the firft phyficians are generally fuppofed to have
been ; for in that age we know the Egyptian priefts
were in fuch high favour, that they retained their li¬
CINE.
berty, when, through a public calamity, all the reft
of the people were made Haves to the prince.
It is not probable, therefore, that among the E-
gyptians religion and medicine were originally con¬
joined ; and if we fuppofe the Jews not to have in¬
vented the art, but received it from feme other nation,
it is as little probable that the priefts of that nation
were their phyficians as thofe of Egypt.
That the Jewilh phyficians were abfolutely diftinct
from their priefts, is very certain. Yet as the Jews re-
fided for fuch a long time in Egypt, it is probable
they would retain many of the Egyptian cuftoms,
from which it would be very difficult to free them.
We read, however, that when king Afa was difeafed
in his feet, “ he fought not to the Lord, but to the
phyficians.” Hence *we may conclude, that among1
the Jews the medicinal art was looked upon as a mere
human invention ; and it was thought that the Deity
never cured difeafes by making people acquainted
with the virtues of this or that herb, but only by his
miraculous power. That the fame opinion prevail¬
ed among the heathens who were neighbours to the
Jews, is alfo probable from what we read of Ahaziah
king of Judah, who having fent mefleogers to inquire
3
iHiftory. M E D I
9 'Origin of of Baal-zebub god of Ekron concerning his difeafe,
* Medic ne. jje not defire any remedy from him or his priefts*
’i ’ but limply to know whether he fhould recover or not.
What feems moll probable on this fubjeft therefore
is, that religion and medicine came to be mixed toge*
ther only in confequence of that degeneracy into ig¬
norance and fuperftition which took place among all
nations. The Egyptians, we know, came at lall to
be funk in the moft ridiculous and abfurd fuperlli-
tion ; and then, indeed, it is not wonderful to find
their priefts commencing phyficians, and mingling
charms, incantations, &c. with their remedies. That
this was the cafe, though long after the days of
Jofeph, we are very certain ; and indeed it feems as
natural for ignorance and barbarifm to combine, reli¬
gion with phyfic, as it is for a civilized and enlighten¬
ed people to keep them feparate. Hence we fee, that
j)~ * among all modern barbarians their prielts or conjurors
I, are their only phyficians.
tnong the We are fo little acquainted with the Hate of phyfic
gyptians; among the Egyptians, that it is needlefs to fay much 1
concerning them. They attributed the invention of
medicine, as they did alfo that of many other arts, to
Thoth, the Hermes or Mercury of the Greeks. He
is faid to have written many things in hieroglyphic
characters upon certain pillars, in order to perpetuate
his knowledge, and render it ufeful to others. Thefe
were tranfcribed by Agathodemon, or the fecond Mer¬
cury, the father of Tat, who is faid to have compofed
books' of them, that were kept in the moll facred
places of the Egyptian temples. T’he exiltence of
fuch a perfon, however, is very dubious, and many of
the books afcribed to him were accounted forgeries as
long ago as the days of Galen ; there is alfo great rea-
fon to fufpedt that thofe books were written many
ages after Hermes, and when phyfic had/inade confi-
derable advances. Many of the books attributed to
him are trifling and ridiculous; and though fometimes
he is allowed to have all the honour of inventing the
art, he is on other occafions obliged to lhare it with
Ofiris, Ills, and Apis or Serapis.
After all, the Egyptian phyfic appears to have been
little elfe than a cofie&ion of abfurd iiiperllitions. Ori-
gen informs us, that they believed there were 3b de¬
mons, or gods of the air, who divided the human body
among them ; that they had names for all of them; and
that by invoking them according to (the part affecled,
the patient was cured. Of natural medicines we hear
of none recommended by the father of Egyptian phy¬
fic ; except the herb moty, which he gave to Ulyfles in
order to fecure him from the enchantments of Circe }
and the herb mercury, of which he firll difcovered the
life. Hio fucceflbrs made ufe of venefe&ion, cathartics,
emetics, and, clyllers. There is no proof, however, that
this praftice was ellablilhed by Hermes ; on the con¬
trary, the Egyptians themfelves pretended that the
firll hint ,of thofe rerpedies was taken from fome ob-
fervations on brute animals. Venefedtion was taught
them by the hippopotamus, which is faid to perform
this operation upon itfelf. On thefe occafions, he
comes out of the river, and ftrikes his leg againll a
lharp-pointed reed. As he takes care to diredt the
llroke againll a vein, the contequence mull be a con-
fiderable effufion of blood'; and this being fuffered to
run as long as the creature thinks proper, he at lall
CINE. 51
flops up the orifice with mtfd. The bint of clyflers Origin of
was taken from the ibis a bird which is faid to give ■'ie(iicine-,
itfelf clyfters with its bill, &c. They ufed venefec- '
tion, however, but very little, probably on account
of the warmth of the climate ; and the exhibition of
the remedies above mentioned, joined with abllinence,
formed the moft of their pradlice. 3
The Greeks too had feveral perfons to whom they Among tbs
attributed the invention of phyfic, particularly Pro-0165*13,
metheus, Apollo or Prean, and iEfculapius ; which
lall was the moft celebrated of any. But here we mull
obferve, that as the Greeks were a very w arlike people,
their phyfic feems to have been little elfe than what
is now called furgery, or the cure of wounds, frac¬
tures, &c. Hence VEfculapius, and his pupils Chi¬
ron, Machaon, and Podalirius, are celebrated by Ho¬
mer only for their Hull in curing thefe, without any
mention of their attempting the cures of internal dif-
eafes. We are not, however, to fuppofe that they
confined themfelves entirely to furgery. They no
doubt would occafionally preferibe for internal difor-
ders ; but as they were moft frequently converfant with
wounds, we may naturally fuppofe the greatell part of
their fkill to have confifted in knowing how to cure
thefe. If we may believe the poets, indeed, the know¬
ledge of medicine feems to have been very generally
diffufed. Almoll all the heroes of antiquity are re¬
ported to have been phyficians as well as warriors.
Moll of them were taught phyfic by the centaur Chi¬
ron. From him Hercules received inftrudlions in the
medicinal art, in which he is faid to have been no lefs
expert than in feats of arms. Several plants were
called by his name 5 whence fome think it pro¬
bable that he found out their virtues, though others
are of opinion that they bore the name of this re¬
nowned hero on account of their great efficacy in re¬
moving difeafes. Ariftasus king of Arcadia was alfo
one of Chiron’s fcholars; and is fuppofed to have dif¬
covered the ufe of the drug called jilph'ium, by fome
thought to be afafastida. Thefeus, Telamon, Jafon,
Peleus, and his fon Achilles, were all renowned for
their knowledge in the art of phyfic. The laft is
faid to have difcovered the ufe of verdegrife in clean-
fing foul ulcers. All of them, however, feem to have
been inferior in knowledge to Palamedes, who hinder¬
ed the plague from coming into the Grecian camp af¬
ter it had ravaged moft of the cities of Hellefpont,
and even Troy itfelf. His method was to confine his
foldiers to a dpare diet, and to oblige them to ufe much
exercife.
The praflice of thefe ancient Greek phyficians, not-
withftanding the praifes bellowed on them by their
poets, feems to have been very limited, and in fome cafes
even pernicious. All the external remedies applied
to Homer’s wounded heroes were fomentations ; while
inwardly their phyficians gave them wine, fometimes.
mingled with cheefe feraped down. A great deal of
their phyfic alfo confifted in charms, incantations, a-
mulets, &c. of which, as they are common to all fu-
perftitious and ignorant nations, it is fuperfluous to
take any farther notice.
In this way the art of medicine continued among
the Greeks for many ages. As its firft profeffors knew
nothing of the animal oeconomy, and as little of the
theory of difeafes, it is plain, that whatever they did
G 2 mult
52 M E D I
4 muft have been in confequence of mere random trials,
yfcrcui..pni-.or ejnpincifm, in the moll ftridl and proper fenfeof the
'' ' word. Indeed, it is evidently impoflible that this or
almoft any other art could originate from another
fource than trials of this kind. Accordingly, we find,
that fome ancient nations were accuflomed to expofe
their fick in temples, and by the fides of highways,
that they might receive the advice of every one who
paffed. Among the Greeks, however, iEfculapius
was reckoned the moll eminent pradlitioner of his
time, and his name continued to be*revered after his
death. He was ranked amongft the gods; and the prin¬
cipal knowledge of the medicinal art remained with
his family to the time of Hippocrates, who reckoned
himfelf the feventeenth in a lineal defeent from JEfcu-
lapius, and vrho was truly the firll who treated of me-
§ dicine in a regular and rational manner.
JhppQ- Hippocrates, who is fuppofed to have lived 400
traces. years before the birth of Chrill, is the moll ancient
author whofe writings exprefsly on the fubjeft of the
medical art are preferred ; and he is therefore jullly
confidered as the father of phyfic. All the accounts
which we have prior to this time, if riot evidently fa¬
bulous, are at the utmoll highly conjedlural. Even
the medical knowledge of Pythagoras, fo much cele¬
brated as a philofopher, can hardly be confidered as
relling on any other foundation. But from the time
of Hippocrates, medicine, feparated from phflofophy
and religion, feems to have a (fumed the form of a fei-
ence, and to have been pra£lifed as a profeffion. It
may not, therefore, be improper to give a particular
account of the Hate of medical knowledge as tranfmit-
ted to us in his writings. The writings of Hippo¬
crates, however, it may be remarked, are even more
than preferred. Nor is it wonderful that attempts
^ fhould have been made to increafe the value of manu-
IT.S Wri- fcnPts> by attributing them to a name of fuch emi-
tings. nence. But although what are tranfmitted to us un¬
der the title of his works may' have been written by
different hands, yet the prefumption is, that moll, if
not all of them, are of nearly as early a date, and con¬
tain the prevailing opinions of thofe times.
According to the moll authentic accounts, Hippo¬
crates was a native of the iiland of Cos, and born in
the beginning of the 88th Olympiad. In the writings
tranfmitted to us as his, we find a general principle
adopted, to which he gives the name of Nature. To
■this principle he aferibes a mighty power. “ Nature
(fays he) is of itfelf fufficient to every animal. She
performs every thing that is neceffary to them, with¬
out needing the leaft inllruftion from any one how to
do it.’* Upon this footing, as if Nature had been a
principle endowed with knowledge, he gives her the
title of ju/?; and aferibes virtues or powers to her,
which are het fervants, and by means of which fhe
performs all her operations in the bodies of animals :
and dillributes the blood, fpirits, and heat, through
all parts of the body, which by thefe means receive life
and fenfation. And in other places he tells us, that it
is this faculty which gives nourilhment, prefervation,
? and growth, to all things.
His idea The manner in which nature adls, or commands her
•fnatuie. fubfervient power to aft, is by attra&ing what is
good and agreeable to each fpecies, and by retaining,
preparing, and changing it; and on the other fide in.
CINE. Hiftory.
rejefting whatever is fuperfluous or hurtful, after Ihe has Hippo- |
feparated it from the good. This is the foundation of ciatg;l' J
the dodlrine of depuration, concoflion^ and crilis in *"
fevers, fo much infilled upon by Hippocrates and moll
other phyficians. He fuppqfes alfo, that every thing
has an inclination to be joined to what agrees with it,
and to remove/from every thing contrary to it; and
likewife that there is an affinity between the feveral
parts of the body, by which they mutually fympa-
thize with each other. When he comes to explain
what this principle called nature is, he is obliged to
refolve it into heat, which, he fays, appears to have
fomething immortal in it. 8 I
As far as he attempts to explain the caufes pf dif-°f tb6
cafe, he refers much to the humours of the body, par- ^ ll
ticularly to the blood and the bile. He treats alfo of ’ ,j
the effebls of lleep, watchings, exercife, and relt, and
all the benefit or mifehief we may receive from them.
Of all the caufes of difeafes, however, mentioned by
Hippocrates, the moll general are diet and air. On
'the fubjefl of diet he has compofed feveral books, and
in the choice of this he was exa&ly careful; and the
more fo, as his praftice turned almoll wholly upon it.
He alfo confidered the air very much ; he examined
what w inds blew ordinarily or extraordinarily ; he con¬
fidered the irregularity of the feafons, the riling and
fetting of liars, or the time of certain conllellations ;
alfo the time of the folllices, and of the equinoxes ;
thofe days, in his opinion, producing great alterations
in certain dillempers. 9
He does not, however, pretend to explain how, His divi. 1
from thefe caufes, that variety of dillempers arifes ®®ns j
which is daily to be obferved. All that can be ga- ‘ ^ i
thered from him with regard to this is, that the diffe¬
rent caufes above-mentioned, when applied to the
different parts of the body, produce a great va¬
riety of dillempers. Some of thefe dillempers he
accounted mortal, others dangerous, and the retl eafily
curable, according to the caufe from whence they
fpring, and the parts on wffiich they fall. In feveral
places alfo he dillinguiffies difeafes, from the time of
their duration, into acute or Jhort, and chronical or
long. He likewife dillinguilhes difeafes by the par¬
ticular places where" they prevail, whether ordi¬
nary or extraordinary. The firll, that is, thofe
that are frequent and familiar to certain places,,
he called endemic difeafes; and the latter, which
ravaged extraordinarily fometimes in one place,, |
fometimes in another, wdiich feized great numbers at
certain times, he called epidemic, that is, popular
difeafes; and of this kind the moll terrible is the
plague. He likewife mentions a third kind, the
oppofite of the former; and thefe he calls fporadic,.
6r llraggling difeafes: thefe lall include all the diffe¬
rent forts of diltempers which invade at any one feafon,
which are fometimes of one fort, and fometimes of
another. He dillinguilhed between thofe difeafes
which are hereditary, or born with us, and thofe
which are contracted afterwards; and likewife be¬
tween thofe of a kindly and fuch as are of a malignant
nature, the former of which are eafily and frequently
cured, hut the latter give the phyficians a great
deal of trouble, and are feldom overcome by all
their care.
Hippocrates remarked four ftages in dillempers.;.
viz*.
Hiftory. MED]
, Hippo- viz. the beginning of the difeafe, its augmentation,
cratca' ft^te or height, and its declination. In fuch
difeafes as terminate fatally, death comes in place of
the declination. In the third ftage, therefore, the
change is molt confiderable, as it determines the fate
of the fick perron ; and this is moft commonly done
by means of a cr'ifu. By this word he underftood any
fudden change in ficknefs, whether for the better or
for the worfe, whether health or death fucceed im¬
mediately. Such a change, he fays, is made at that
time by nature either abfolving or condemning the
patient. Hence we may conclude, that Hippocrates
imagined difeafes to be only a difturbance of the ani¬
mal economy, with which Nature was perpetually at
variance, and uling her utmoil endeavours to expel the
I offending caufe. Her manner of adling on thefe occa-
fions is to reduce to their natural ftate thofe humours
whofe difcord occafions the diftuihance of the whole
body, whether in relation to their quantity, quality,
mixture, motion, or any other way in which they
become offenfive. The principal means employed by
I io nature for this end is what Hippocrates calls concoSion.
HU opinion Jgy this he underftood the bringing the morbific
©f a crifls. matter lodged in the humours to fuch a ftate, as to
be eafily fitted for expulfion by whatever means nature
might think moft proper. When matters are brought
to this pafs, whatever is fuperfluous or hurtful imme¬
diately empties itfelf, or nature points out to phy-
ficians the way by which fuch an evacuation is to
be accompliihed. The crifis takes place either by
bleeding, ftool, vomit, fweat, urine, tumors or abf-
cefles, fcabs, pimples, fpots, &c. But thefe evacutions
are not to be looked upon as the effedls of a true crifis,
unlefs they are in confiderable quantity •> fmall difchar-
ges not being fufficient to make a crifis. Oh the contra¬
ry, fmall difcharges are a fign that nature isdeprefied by
the load of humours, and that (he lets them go thro’
weaknefs and continual irritation. What comes fortb
in this manner is crude, becaufe the diftemper is yet
too ftrong; and while matters remain in this ftate,.
nothing but a bad or imperfect crifis is to be expedted.
This ihows that the diftemper triumphs, or at leaft
is equal in ftrength to nature, which prognofticates
death, or a prolongation of the difeafe. In this-
laft cafe, however, nature often has an opportunity
of attempting a new crifis more happy than the for¬
mer, after having made freih efforts to advance the
concodtion of the humours. — It muft here be obfe’rved,
however, that, according to Hippocrates, concodtion
cannot be made but in a certain time, as every fruit
has a limited time to ripen ; for he compares the
humours which nature has digefted to fruits come to
maturity.
The time required for eoncodlion depends on the
differences among diftempers mentioned above. In
thofe which Hippocrates call -very acute, the digeftion
or crifis happens by the fourth- day; in thofe which
are only tfcate, it happens on the feventh, nth, or
14th day ; which laft is the longeft period generally
allowed by Hippocrates in dillempers that are truly
acute: though in fome places he ftretches it to
the 20th, or 21 ft, nay, fometimas to the 40th
or 6cth days. All difeafes that exceed this laft term
ate called chronica!. And while in thofe difeafes that
CINE.
exceed 14 days, he confiders every fourth day as cn- Hq
tical, or at leaft remarkable, by which we may judge
whether the crifis on the following fourth day will be v
favourable or not; fo in thofe which run from 20 to
40 he reckons only the fevenths, and in thofe that ex¬
ceed 40 he begins to reckon by 20. Beyond the
120th he thinks that the number of days has no power
over the crifis. They are then referred to the general
changes of the feafons ; fome terminating about the
equinoxes ; others about the folftices ; others about
the rifing or fetting of the ftars of certain conftella-
tions; or if numbers have yet any place, he reckons
by months, or even whole years Thus (he fays),,
certain difeafes in children have their crifis in the
feventh month after their birth, and others in their
feventh or even their 14th year.
Though Hippocrates mentions the 21ft as one
of the critical days in acute diftempers, as already
noticed; yet, in other places of his works, he
mentions alfd the 20th. The reafon he gives for
thh in one of thofe places of his works is, that the
days of ficknefs were not quite entire. In general,
however, he is much attached to the odd days:
infomuch that in one of his aphorifms he tells
uj, “ The fweats that come out upon the 3d, jth,
7th, 9th, nth, 14th, 17th, 2ift,. 27th, 31ft, or
3-4111 day. , are beneficial ; but tbofe that come out
upon other days fignify that the fick ftiall be brought
l@w, that his difeafe ftiall be very tedious, and that he
ftiall be fubjeft to relapfes.” He further fays, “ That
the fever which leaves the fick upon any but an odd
day is ufually apt to relapfe.” Sometimes, however,
he confeffes that it is otherwife ; and he gives an in-
ftance of a falutary crifis happening on the fixth
day. But thefe are very rare inftanees, and there¬
fore cannot, in his opinion, overthrow the geveral
rule.
Befides the crifis, however, or the change which
determines the fate of the patient, Hippocrates often
fpeaks of another, which only change; the fpecies of
the diftemper, without reftoring the patient to health ;
as when a vertigo is turned to an epilepfy, a tertian
fever to a quartan, or to a continual, &c. Ir
But what has chiefly contributed to procure the
vaft refpeft generally paid to Hippocrates,, is his in- Uoftics •
duftry in. obferving the moft minute circumftances of
difeafes, and his exaftnefs in nicely deferibing every
thing that happened before* and every accident that
appeared at the fame time with them ; and likewife
what appeared to give eafe, and what to increafe the
malady : which is what we call rw> king the hijlory cf a
difeafe.—Thus he not only diftinguifhed one difeafir
ff om another by the figns which properly belonged to
each ; but by comparing the fame fort of diftemper
which happened to feveral perfons, and the accidents-
which ufually appeared before and after, he could,
often foretel a difeafe before it came, and afterwards
give a right judgment of the event of it. By this
way of prognofticating, he came to be exceedingly
admired: and this he carried to fuch a height, that,
it may juftly be faid to be his mafter-piece ;. and Cel-
fus, who lived after him, remarks, that fucceeding
phyficians, though they found out feveral new things-
relating to the management of difeafes, yet were obli-
4. *
^ o
54
Hippo¬
crates.
From the
look;
Trom the
fofture in
ed;
MEDICINE. Hi doty*
get! to the writings of Hippocrates for all that they of thofe that rah upoft fnoarnfal fubjecls, than fuch as Hippo-
knew of figns. are accompanied with mirth. crates- t
The firft thing Hippocrates confidered, when called When a patient breathes fall, and is oppreffed, it is Fromvr<._
to a patient, was his looks. — It was a good fign with a fign that he is in pain, and that the parts above the fpiration 5
him to have a vifage refembling that of a perfon in diaphragm are inflamed. Breathing long, or when
health, and the fame with what the fick man had be- the patient is a great while in taking his breath,
fore he was attacked by the difeafe. As it varied (hows him to be delirious; but eafy and natural re-
from this, fo much the greater danger was appre- fpiration is always a good fign in acute difeafes. Hip-
hended. The following is the defcription which he pocrates depended much on refpiration in making his
gives of the looks of a dying man.—“ When a pa- prognoflics ; and therefore has taken care in feveral
tient (fays he) has his note fliarp, his eyes funk, his places to defcribe the different manner of a patient’s
temples hollow, his ears cold and contracted, the Ikin breathing. Continual watchings in acute difeafes,
of his forehead tenfe and dry, and the colour of his are figns of prefent pain, or a delirium near at
face tending to a pale-green, or lead colour, one may hand.
. give out for certain that death is very near at hand ; Hippocrates alfo drew figns from all excrements, From ex-
unlefs the ftrength of the patient has been exhaufted whatever they are, that are feparated from the body cremenciti-
all at once by long watchings, or by a loofenefs, or of man. His mofi remarkable prognoflics, however, ou3 dlfcly*
being a long time without eating.” This obfervatioft were from the urine. The patient’s urine, in his opi-^ei'
has been confirmed by thofe of fucceeding phyficians, nion, is bell when the fediment is white, foft to the
who have, from him, denominated it the Hippocratic touch, and of an equal confiftence. If it continue fo
face. The lips hanging relaxed and *:old, are like- during the courfe of the diflemper, and till the time of
wife looked upon by this author as a confirmation of the crifis, the patient is in no danger, and will foon be
the foregoing prognoflic. He took alfo his figns well. This is what Hippocrates called concoQed urine, Urine,
from the difpofition of the eyes in particular. When or what denotes the concoction of the humours ; and
a patient cannot bear the light; when he fheds tears he obferved, that this concoftion of the urine feldom
involuntarily; when, in fleeping, fome pare of the appeared thoroughly, but on the days of the crifis
white of the eye is feen, unlefs he ufually fleeps after which happily put an end to the diftemper. “ We
that manner, or has a loofenefs: upon him : thefe figns, Ought (faid Hippocrate ) to compare the urine with
as well as the foregoing ones, prognoflicate danger, the purulent matter which runs from ulcers. As the
The eyes deadened, as it were with a mill fpread over pus, which is white, and of the fame quality with the
them, or their brightnefs loft, likewife prefages death, fediment of the urine we are now fpeaking of, is a
or great weaknefs. The eyes fparkling, fierce, and fign that the. ulcer is on the point of clofing ; fo that
fixed, denote the patient to be delirious, or that which is clear, and of another colour than white*
he foon will be feized with a frenzy. When the and of an ill fmell, is a fign that the ulcer is virulent,
patient fees any thing red, and like fparks of fire and in the fame manner difficult to be cured: the
and lightning pafs before his eyes, you may ex- urines that are like this we have deferibed are only
peft an haimorrhagy ; and this often happens before thofe which may be named good; all the reft are
thofe crifes which are to be attended by a lofs of ill, and differ from one another only in the degrees of
blood. more and lefs. The firft never appear but when na-
The Condition of the patient is alfo ftiown by his ture has overcome the difeafe ; and are a fign of the
1 pofture in bed. If you find him lying on one fide, concoClion of humours, without which you cannot hope
his body, neck, legs, and arms, a little contracted, for a certain cure. On the contrary, the laft are made
which is the pofture of a man in health, it is a good as long as the crudity remains, and the humours con-
fign : on the contrary, if he lies on his back, his arms tinue unconco&ed. Among the urines of this laft
ftretched out, and his legs hanging down, it is a fign fort, the beft are reddifti, with a fediment that is foft,
of great weaknefs; and particularly when the patient and of an equal confiftence ; which denotes, that the
Aides or lets himfelf fall down towards the feet, it de- difeafe will be fomewhat tedious, but without danger,
notes the approach of death. When a patient in a The ivorft are thofe which are very red; and at the
burning fever is continually feeling about with his fame time clear and without fediment; or that are
hands and fingers, and moves them up before his face muddy and troubled in the making. In urine there is
and eyes as it he was going to take away fomething often a fort of cloud hanging in the veffel in which it
that paffed before them ; or on his bed-covering, as if is received ; the higher this rifes, or the farther diftant
he was picking or fearching for little ftraws, or taking it is from the bottom, or the more different from the
away fome filth, or drawing out little flocks of wool; colour of the laudable fediment abovementioned, the
all this is a fign that he is delirious, and that he will more there is of crudity. That which is yellow, or of
die. Amongft the other figns of a prefent or ap- a fandy colour, denotes abundance of bile; that which
proaching delirium, he alfo adds this: When a patient is black is the worft, efpecially if it has an ill fmell,
who naturally fpeaks little begins to talk more than and is either altogether muddy or altogether clear,
he ufed to do, or when one that talks much becomes That whofe fediment is like large ground wheat, or
filent, this change is to be reckoned a fort of delirium, little flakes or feales fpread one upon another, or bran,
or is a fign that the patient will foon fall into one. prefages ill, efpecially the laft. The fat or oil that
The freqi ”• -... - ..... . .. .
the wrift,
rent forts
itnt tremoung or itamng 01 the tendons or iometimes Iwims upon the top or the urine, and ap-
prefage likewife a delirium. As to the diffe- pears in a form fomething like a fpider’s web, is a fign
of delirium, Hippocrates is much more afraid of a confumption of the flefir and folid parts. The ma»
, Hi (lory. M E D I
i Hippo- king of a great quantity of urine is the fign of a cri-
tl'att:8- and fometimes the quality of it fhows how the blad-
* " *' ' der is affefted. We muft alfo obferve, that Hippo¬
crates compared the ftate of the tongue with the urine;
that is to fay, when the tongue was yellow, and char¬
ged with bile, the urine he knew mull of courfe be
of the fame colour ; and when the tongue was red
and moift, the urine was of its natural colour.
His prognoftics from the excretions by ftool are as
follow. Thofe that are foft, yellowilh, of fome con-
fiftence, and not of an extraordinary ill fmell, that an-
fwer to the quantity of what is taken inwardly, and
that are voided at the ufital hours, are the bell of all.
They ought alfo to be of a thicker confiftence when
the diftemper is near the crifis; and it ought to be ta¬
ken for a good prognoftic, when fome worms, round
and long, are evacuated at the fame time with them.
The prognofis, however, may ftill be favourable, though
the matter excreted be thin and liquid, provided it
make not too much noife in coming out, and the eva¬
cuation be not in a fmall quantity nor too often ; nor
in fo great abundance, nor fo often, as to make the pa¬
tient faint. All matter that is watery, white, of a pale
green, or red, or frothy and vifcous, is bad. That
which is blackilh, or of a livid hue, is the moll
pernicious. That which is pure black, and no¬
thing elfe but a difcharge of black bile, always
prognolticates very ill; this humour, from what
part foever it comes, (howing the ill difpofition of the
inteftines. The matter that is of feveral different co¬
lours, denotes the length of the diftemper; and, at the
fame time, that it may be of dangerous confequence.
Hippocrates places in the fame clafs the matter that is
bilious or yellow, and mixed with blood, or gr-een
and black, or like the dregs or fcrapings of the guts.
The ftools that confift of pure bile, or entirely of
phlegm, he alfo looks upon to be very bad.
Matter caft up by vomiting ought to be mixed with,
bile and phlegm; where one of thefe humours only
is obferved, it is worfe. That which is black, livid,
green, or of the colour of a leek, indicates alarming
confequences. The fame is to be faid of that which
-fmells very ill; and if at the fame time ft be livid,
death is not far off. The vomiting of blood is very
often mortal.
^Expe&ora- The fpittings which give eafe in difeafes of the lungs
and in pleurifies, are thofe that come up readily and,
without difficulty ; and it is good if they be mix¬
ed at the beginning with much yellow: but if
they appear of the fame colour, or are red, a great
while after the beginning of the diftemper, are fait
and acrimonious, and caufe violent coughings, they
are not good. Spittings purely yellow are bad ; and
thofe that are white, vifcous, and frothy, give no eafe.
" Whitenefs is a good ftgn of concoftion in regard
to fpittings; but they ought not at all to be vif¬
cous, nor too thick, nor too clear. We may make
the fame judgment of the excrements of the nofe ac¬
cording to their concoftion and crudity. Spittings
that are black, green, and red, are of very bad confe¬
quence. In inflammations of the lungs, thofe that are
mixed with bile and blood prefage well if they ap¬
pear at the beginning, but are bad if they arife not
about the feventh day. But the worft fign in thefe
diftempers is, when there is no expe&oration at all,
CINE. 55
and the too great quantity of matter that is ready to Hippo-
be difcharged this way makes a rattling in the fcreaft. crates~ .
After fpitting of blood, the difcharge of purulent mat- v
ter often follows, which brings oh a confumption, and
at laft death.
A kind good fweat is that which arifes on the day Sweat,
of the crifis, and is difcharged in abundance all over
the body, and at the fame time from all parts of the
body, and thus carries off the fever : A cold fweat is
alarming, efpecially in acute fevers, for in others it is
only a fign of long continuance. When the patient
fweats no where but on the head and neck, it is a
'fign that the difeafe will be long and dangerous.
A gentle fweat in fome particular part, of the head
and breaft, for. inftance, gives no relief, but de¬
notes the feat of the diftemper, or the weaknefs of
the part. This kind of iweat was called by Hippo¬
crates ephidrofis.
The hypochondria, or the abdomen in general, From th$*
ought always to be foft and even, as well on the rightPul^c'
fide as on the left. When there is any hardnefs or un-
evennefs in thofe parts, or heat and fwellings, or when
the patient cannot endure to have it touched, it is a
fign the inteftines are indifpofed.
Hippocrates alfo inquired into the ftate of the pulfe,
or the beating of the arteries. The moft ancient phy-
ficians, however, and even Hippocrates himfelf, for a
long time, by this word underftood the violent pulfa-
tion that is felt in an inflamed part, without putting
the fingers to it. It is obferved by Galen, and other
phyficians, that Hippocrates touches on the fubjeft of
the pulfe more llightly than any other on which he
treats. But that our celebrated phyfician underftood
fomething even on this fubjeft, is eafily gathered from
feveral paffages in his writings; as when he obferves,
that in acute fevers the pulfe is very quick and very
great; and when he makes mention, in the fame place,
of trembling pulfes, and thofe that beat flowly ; when
he obferves, that in fome difeafes incident to women,
when the pulfe ftrikes the finger faintly, and in a lan-
guifhing manner, it is a fign of approaching death.
He remarks alfo, in the Coaca Pranotiones, that he
whofe vein, that is to fay, whofe artery of the elbow,
beats, is juft going to run mad, or elfe that the
perfon is at that time very much under the influ¬
ence of anger.
From this account of Hippocrates, it will appear,
that he was not near fo much taken up with reafoning
on the phenomena of difeafes, as with reporting them.
He was content to obferve thefe phenomena accurate¬
ly, to diftinguifh difeafes by them, and judged of the
event by comparing them exa&ly together. For his
Ikill in prognoftics he was indeed very remarkable, as
we have already mentioned, infomuch that he and his
pupils were looked upon by the vulgar as prophets.
What adds very much to his reputation is, that he li¬
ved in an age when phyfic was altogether buried in fu-
perftition, and yet he did not fuffer himfelf to be carried
away by it; on the contrary, on many occafions, he ex-
preffes his abhorrence of it.
Having thus feen in what Hippocrates makes the
difference between health and ficknefs to confift, and
likewife the moft remarkable figns from whence he
drew his prognoftics, we muft now confider the means
he preferibed for the prefervation of health, and the
cure
5$ . M E D I
■«- cure of difeafcs. ©nc of his principal maxims was
. Cf3.rs- this, That, to preferve health, we ought not to over¬
charge ourfelves with too much eating, nor negledl
Misma-cm!, the ufe of exercife and labour. In the next place, That
f>- he pre- we ought by no means to accullom ourfelves to too
fervation nice and exaft a method of living ; becaufe thofe who
ct health. yave orjce begun to aft by this rule, if they vary in the
leafl. from it, find themfelves very ill; which does not
happen to thofe who take a little more liberty, and
live fomewhat more irregularly. Notwithftanding this,
he does not negleft to inquire diligently into what
thofe who were in health ufed for food in his time.
Diet. Here we cannot help taking notice of the prodigious
difparity between the delicacy of the people in our
days and in thofe of Hippocrates : for he takes great
pains to tell the difference between the fifth of a dog,
a fox, a horfe, and an afs $ which he would not have
done if at that time they had not been ufed for vic¬
tuals, at leaft by the common people. Befides thefe,
however, Hippocrates {peaks of all other kinds of pro-
vifion that are now in ufe ; for example, falads,
milk, whey, cheefe, flefh as well of birds as of four-
footed beafts, frfth and fait fifh, eggs, all kinds of
pulfe, and the different kinds of grain we feed on, as
well as the different forts of bread that are made of it.
He alfo fpeaks very often of a fort of liquid food, or
broth, made of barley-meal, or feme other grain,
which they fteeped for fome time, and then boiled in
water. With regard to drink, he takes a great deal
•of pains to diltinguifh the good waters from the bad.
The bed, in his opinion, ought to be clear, fight,
without fmell or talle, and taken out of the fountains
that turn towards the eaft. The falt-waters, thofe
that he calls hard, and thofe that rife out of fenny
ground, are the worft of all; he condemns alfo thofe
that come from melted fnow. But though Hippo¬
crates makes all thofe diftiffftions, he advifes thofe .' ho
are in health to drink of the firft water that comes in
their way. He fpeaks alfo of alum waters, and thofe
that are hot; but does not enlarge upon their quali¬
ties. He advifes to mix wine with an equal quan¬
tity of water: and this (he fays) is the juft pro¬
portion ; by ufing which the wine will expel what
is hurtful to the body, and the water will ferve to
temper the acrimony of the humours.
Exercife. For thofe that are in health, and likewife for fuch
as are fick, Hippocrates advifes exercife. The books,
however, which treat on this fubjeft, M. Le Clerc
conjeftures to have been written by Herodicus, who
firft introduced gymnaftic exercife into medicine, and
who is faid by Hippocrates himfelf to have killed feve-
ral people by forcing them to walk while they were af-
flifted with fevers and other inflammatory diforders.
The advices given, in them eonfift moftly in direftions
for the times in which we ought to walk, and the con¬
dition we ought to be in before it; when we ought to
walk flowly, and when to run, &c.; and all this with
refpeft-to different ages and temperaments, and with
defign to bring the body down, or diffipate the hu¬
mours. Wreftling, although a violent exercife, is
numbered with the reft. In the fame place alfo
mention is made of a play of the hands and fingers,
which was thought good for health, and called chl-
ronomie ; and of an®ther diverfion which was perform¬
ed round a fort of ball hung up, which they called
N0 202.
CINE. Hiftory*
corycus, and which they flruck forward with both Hippo-;
their hands. cr»es. I ■
With regard to thofe things which ought to be ]
feparated from, or retained in the human body, *C 6 l0j
Hippocrates obferves, that people ought to take great
care- not to load themfelves with excrements, or
keep them in too long ; and befides the exercife
above-mentioned, which carries off one part of them,
and which he preferibed chiefly on this account, he
advifes people to excite and roufe up nature when
file flagged, and did not endeavour to expel the
reft, or take care of the impediments by which fhe
was refifted. For this reafon he preferibed meats
proper for loofening the belly; and when thefe
were not fufficient, he direfted the ufe of clyfters and
fuppofitories. For thin and emaciated perfons he di¬
refted clyfters compofed only of milk and oily unftu-
ous fubftances, which they mixed with a decoftion of
chick-peafe ; but for fuch as were plethoric, they only-
made ufe of fait or fea-water.
As a prefervative againft diftempers, Hippocrates
alfo advifed the ufe of vdmits, which he direfted to be
taken once or twice a month during the time of winter
and fpring. The moft fimple of thefe were made of a
decoftion of hyffop, with an addition of a little vine¬
gar and fait. He made thofe that were of a ftrong and
vigorous conftbution take this liquor in a morning fall,
ing ; hue fuch as were thin and weakly took it after
fupper.—Venery, in his opinion, is wholefome, pro¬
vided people confult their ftrength, and do not pur-
fue it to excefs ; which he finds fault with on all occa-
fions, and would have excefs avoided alfo in relation to
fleep and watching. In his writings are likewife to
be found feveral remarks concerning good and bad air j
and he makes it appear that the good or bad difpofi-
tion of this element does not depend folely on the dif¬
ference of the climate, but on the fituation of every
place in particular. He fpeaks alfo of the good and
bad effefts of the paflions, and recommends moderation
in regard to them.
From what we have already related concerning the
opinions of Hippocrates, it may naturally be. con¬
cluded, that for the moft part he would be contented
with obferving w hat the ftrength of nature is able to
accompfifh without being aflifted by the phyfician.
That this -was really the cafe, may be eafily perceived
from a perufal of his books entitled, “ Of epidemical
diftempers which are, as it were, journals of the
praftice of Hippocrates: for there we find him often
doing nothing more than defdribing the fymptoms of a
diftemper, and informing us what has happened to the
patient day after day, even to his death or recovery,
without fpeaking word of any kind of remedy.
Sometimes, however, he did indeed make ufe of rt- |
medics ; but thefe were exceedingly fimple and few,
in comparifon of what have been given by fucceed- 1
ing praftitioners. Thefe remedies we fhall prefently
confider, after we have given an abridgement of .J;
the principal maxims on which his praftice is
founded. 13 _ J
Hippocrates afferted in the firft place, That contra- Hismaiia*»
ries, or oppofites, are the remedies for each other; ^
and this maxim he explains by an aphorifm ; in w-hich eafCi
he fays, that’evacuations cure thofe diftempers which
come from repletion, and repletion thofe that are caa-
fed
Hrftory. M E D I
Hippo - fed by evacuation. So heat Is deftroyed by cold, and
t cr:‘te;‘ cold by heat, &c. In the fecond place, he afferted,
* ' that phylic Is an addition of what is wanting, and a
■fubtra&Ion or retrenchment of what is fuperfluous: an
axiom which is explained by this, viz. that there are
fome juices or humours, which in particular cafes
ought to be evacuated, or driven out of the body, or
dried up ; and fome others which ought to be reftored
to the body, or caufed to be produced there again. As
to the method to be tahen for this addition or retrench¬
ment, he gives this general caution. That you ought
vto be careful how you fill up, or evacuate, all at once,
or too quickly, or-too much; and that it is equally dan¬
gerous to heat or cool again on a hidden ; or rather,
you cught not to do it: every thing that runs to an
«xcefs being an enemy to nature. In the fourth place,
Hippocrates allowed that we ought fometimes to di¬
late, and fometitnes to lock up: to dilate, or open the
palfages by which the humours are voided naturally,
when they are not fufSciently opened, or when they
are clofed ; and, rm the contrary, to lock up orllraiten
the paffages that are rdaxed,when the juices that pafs
there ought not to pafs, or when they pafs in too
great quantity. He adds, that we ought fometimes
to fmooth, and fometimes to make roughs fometimes
to harden, and fometimes to foften again; fometimes
to make more fine or fupple; fometimes to thicken ;
fometimes to roufe up, and at other times to ftupify
or take away the fenfe; all in relation to the folid
■parts of the body, or-to the humours. He gives alfo
this farther leffon, That we ought to have regard to the
courfe the humours take, from whence they come, and
whither they go ; and in confequence of thar, when
they go where they ought not, that we make them
-take a turn about, or carry them another way, almofl
l^ce the turning the courfe of a river: or, upon other
J , occafions, that we endeavour if pofiible to recal, or
make the fame humour^ return back again ; drawing
upward fuch as have a tendency downward, and draw¬
ing downward fuch as tend upward. We ought alfo
to carry off, by convenient ways, that which is necef-
■fary to be carried off ; and not let the humours once
evacuated enter into the veffels again. Hippocrates
gives alfo the following inftru&ion, That when we do
any thing according to reafon, though the fuccefs be
not anfwerable, we ought not too eafily, or too haftily,
to alter the manner of atffing, as long as the reafons for
it are yet good. But as this maxim might fometimes
prove deceitful, he gives the following as a corrector
to it-: “ We ought (fay^s he) to mind with a great
deal of attention what gives eafe, and what creates
pain ; what is eafily fupported, and what cannot be
endured.” We ought not to do any thing rafiily; but
ought often to paufe, or wait, without doing any
thing: by this way, if you do the patient no good,
you will at leaft do him no hurt.
Thefe are the principal and moil general maxims
of the pra&ice of Hippocrates, and which proceed up¬
on the fuppoiition laid down at the beginning, viz.
that nature cures difeafes. We next proceed to con-
fider particularly the remedies employed by him, which
will ferve to give us further inftru&ions concerning his
pra&ice.
! His max- ^iet was the firft, the principal, and often the only
it ims refpe(3-rerne^)r mSc^e °f by this great phyfician to anfwer
ing diet) Vot. XL Part I.
CINE.
the greateft part of the intentions above mentioned :
by means of it he oppofed moift to dry, hot to cold, cr:
Src.; and what he looked upon to be the moft con-
fiderable point was, that thus he fupported nature,
and affifted her to overcome the malady. The diete¬
tic part of medicine was fo much the invention of
Hippocrates himfelf, that he was very defirous to be
accounted the author of it; and the better to make it
appear that it was a new remedy in his days, he fays,
exprefsly, that the ancients had wrote almoff nothing
concerning the diet of the fick, having omitted this,
point, though it was one of the moft effential parts of
the art.
The diet preferibed by Hippocrates for patients la-j-,^1
bouring under acute diftempers, differed from tliat!lcute
which he ordered for thofe afflifted with chronicaleafes.
ones. In the former, which require a more particular
exactnefs in relation to diet, he preferred liquid food
to that which was folid, efpecrally in fevers. For thefe
he ufed a fort of broth made of cleanfed barley ; and
to this he gave the name of ptifaiu The manner in
which the ancients prepared a ptifan was as follows
They firft fteeped the barley iu water till it was plump¬
ed up ; and afterwards they dried it in the fun, and
beat it to take off the hulk. They next ground it j.
and having let the flour boil a long time in the wa¬
ter, they put it out into the fun, and when it was dry
they preffed it clofe. It is properly this flour fo pre¬
pared that is called ptifan. They did almoft the fame
thing with wheat, rice,, lentils, and other grain : but
they gave thefe ptifans the name of the grain from,
whence they were extracted, as ptfan of lentils, rice, Ike*
whereas the ptifan of barley was called Amply ptifany
on account of the excellency of it. When they wanted
to ufe it, they boiled one part of it in xo or 15 of wa->
ter; and when it began to grow plump in boiling,,
they added a little vinegar, and a very fmall quantity
of anife or leek, ta keep it from clogging or filling
the ftomach with wind. Hippocrates preferibes this
broth for women that have pains in their belly after-
delivery. “ Boil fome of this ptifan ffays he), with
fome leek, and the fat of a goat, and give it to the
woman in bed.” This will not be thought very
Angular, if we refleA on w-hat has been hinted above
concerning the indelicate manner of living in thofe
times. He preferred the ptifan to all other food in
fevers, becaufe it foftened and moiftened much, and
was befides of eafy digeftion. If he was concerned in
a continual fever, he would have the patient begin
with a ptifan of a pretty thick coniiftence, and go on
by little and little, leffening the quantity of barley-
flour as the height of the diftemper approached ; fa
that he did not feed the patient but with what he
called the juice of the ptifan; that is, the ptifan ftrained,
where there was but very little of the flour remaining,
in order that nature being difeharged in part from
the care of digefting the aliments, fhe might the more
eafily hold out to the end, and overcome the diftem¬
per, or the caufe of it. With regard to the quantity,
he caufed the ptifan to be taken twice a-day by fuch
patients as in health ufed to take two meals a-day, not
thinking it convenient that thofe who were Tick fhould
eat oftener than when they were well. He alfo would,
not allow eating twice a-day to thofe who eat but once
in that time when in health. In the paroxyfm of a
H fever ,
j8 ' M E D I
H:pro- fever he gave nothing at all; and in all diftempers
t crates» where there are exacerbations, he forbid nourithment
v while the exacerbations continued. He let children
eat more; but thofe who were grown up to man’s
eftate, or were of an advanced age, lefs; making al¬
lowance, however, for the cuftom of each particular
perfon, or for that of the country.
But though he was of opinion that too much food
ought not to be allowed to the fick, he was not of the
mind of fome phyficians who prefcribed long abfti-
nence, efpecially in the beginning of fevers. The rea-
fon he gave for this was, that the contrary pra&ice
weakened the patients too much during the firft days
of the diftemper, by which means their phyficians were
obliged to allow them more food when the illnefs was
at its height, which in his opinion was improper. Be-
fides, in acute diftempers, and particularly in fevers,
Hippocrates made choice of refrelhing and moiftening
nouriihment; and amongft other things prefcribed
orange, melon, fpinach, gourd, and dock. This fort
of food he gave to thofe that were in a condition to
eat,-or could take fomething more than a ptifan.
Drink ^ie he commonly gave to his patients was
made of eight parts of water and one of honey. In
fome diftempers they added a little vinegar; but be-
fides thefe, they had another fort named *-vr.iv,, 0r mix¬
ture. One prefcription of this fort we find intended
for a confumptive perfon ; it confifted of rue, anife,
celery, coriander, juice of pomegranate, the rougheft
red wine, water, flour of wheat and barley, with old
cheefe made of goats milk. Hippocrates did not ap¬
prove of giving plain water to the fick ; but though
he generally prefcribed the drinks above mentioned,
he did not abfolutely forbid the ufe of wine, even in
acute diftempers and fevers, provided the patients were
rot delirious nor had pains in their head. Befides,
he took care to diftinguifti the wines proper in thefe
cafes: preferring to all other forts white-wine that is
clear and has a great deal of water, with neither fweet-
nefs nor flavour.
16 Thefe are the moft remarkable particulars concern-
Dletischro Jng the diet prefcribed by Hippocrates in acute di¬
nk dikafcs. ftempers. ;,•> chronical ones he made very much ufe
of milk and whey; though we are not certain whe¬
ther this was done on account of the nourifliment
expe&ed from them, or that he accounted them me¬
dicines.
There were many difeafes for which he judged the
His maxims bath was a proper remedy ; and he takes notice of
all the circumftances that are necefiary in order to
' caufe the patient receive benefit from it, among which
the following are the principal. The patient that
bathes himfelf muft remain ftill and quiet in his place
without fpeaking while the affiftants throw water oven
his head or are wiping him dry t for which laft pur-
pofe he defired them to keep fponges, inftead of that
inftrument called by the ancients Jlrigil, which ferved
to rub off from the fkin the dirt and naftinefs left upon
it by the unguents and oils with which they anointed
themfelves. He mull alfo take care not to catch cold;
and muft not bathe immediately after eating and
drinking, nor eat or drink immediately after coming
cut of the bath. Regard muft alfo be had whether
the patient has been accuRomed to bathe while in
C I N E.
Hiftory..
health, and whether he has been benefited or hurt by
it Laftly, he muft; abftain from the bath when the —-- ,
body is too open, or too coftive, or when he is toa ~ v'"**";
weak; or if he has an inclination to vomit, a great
lofs of appetite, or bleeds at the nofe. The advantage
of the bath, according to Hippocrates, confifts in moi¬
ftening and refrefhing, taking away wearinefs, making
the fkin foft and the joints pliant; in provoking urine,
making the noftrils open, and opening the other ex-
cretories. He allows two baths in a day to thofe who
have been accuftomed to it in health. ,3
In chronical diftempers Hippocrates approved very Hk maxim#!
much of exercife, though he did not allow it in acute refpodting
ones: but even in thefe he did not think that a pa-exere‘fe.
tient ought always to lie a-bed; but tells us, that “we
muft fometimes pufh the timorous out of bed, and roufe
up the lazy.”
When he found that diet and exercife were not 19 ;
fiifficient to eafe nature of a burden of corrupted hu- His maxims-
mours, he was obliged to make ufe of other means, 0f r' fi,ea‘nS
which purgation was one. By this word he underftood tlur£aaun•
all the contrivances that are made ufe of to difeharge
the ftomach and bowels ; though it commonly fignifies
only the evacuation by the belly by ftool. This eva¬
cuation he imagined to be occafioned by the purgative
medicines attracting the humours to themfelves. When,
firft taken into the body, he thought they attradied
that humour which was moft fimilar to them, and then-
the others, one after another.—Moft of the purgatives
ufed in his time were emetics alfo, or at leaft were very
violent in their operation downwards. Thefe were
the white and black hellebore; the firft of which is
now reckoned among the poifons. He ufed alfo the
Cnidian berries, which are nothing elfe but the feeds
of thymelea or chamaelea ; cneorum peplium, which
is a fort of milk-thiftle ; thapfia ; the juice of hippo-
phae, a fort of rhamnus ; elaterium, or juice of the
wild cucumber; flowers of brafs, coloquintida, fcam-
mony the magnefian ftone, &c.
As thefe purgatives were all very ftrong, Hippo¬
crates was extremely cautious in their exhibition. He
did not preferibe them in the dog-daysnor did he
ever purge women with child, and very feldom chil¬
dren or old people. He principally ufed purgatives in-
chronical diftempers ; but was much more wary in
acute ones. In his books intitled “ Of Epidemical
Hiftempers,” there are very few patients mentioned lo¬
wborn he gave purgative medicines. He alfo takes
notice exprefsly, that thefe medicines having been given
in cafes of the diftempers of which he was treating,,
had produced very bad effefts. We are not, however,
from this to conclude, that Hippocrates abfolutely con¬
demned purging in acute diftempers; for in fome places
he exprefsly mentions his having given them with fuc-
cefs. He was of opinion, for inftance, that purging
was good in a pleurify when, the pain was feated be¬
low the diaphragm.; and in this cafe he gave black
hellebore, or fome peplium mixed with the juice of la-
ferpitium, which is fuppofed to have been our afafstida.
The principal rule Hippocrates gives with relation,
to purging is, that we ought only to purge off the
humours that are conco&ed, and not thofe that are
yet crude, taking particular care not to do it at the
beginning of the diftemper, left the humours fhould
Hiftory. M E D I
Hippo- be dlfturbed or ftirred upi which happens pretty often.
crates. j^e was not> however, the firft: who remarked tlpt
^ it would be of ill confequence to ftir the humours in
the beginning of an acute diftemper. The Egyptian
phyficians had before obferved the fame thing. By
the beginning of a diftemper, Hippocrates underftood
all the time from the firft day to the fourth complete.
Hippocrates imagined that each purgative medicine
waS adapted to the carrying off fome particular hu¬
mour; and hence the diftinftion of purgatives intohy-
dragogue, cholagogue, &c. which is now juftly explo¬
ded. In confequence of this notion, which prevailed
long after his time, he pretended that we knew if a pur¬
gative had drawn from the body what was fit to be eva¬
cuated according as we found ourfelves well or ill upon
it. If we found ourfelves well, it was a fign that the
medicine had effe&ually expelled the offending humour.
On the contrary, if we were ill, he imagined, whatever
quantity of humour came away, that the humour which
caufed the illnefs ftill remained ; not judging of the
goodnefs or badnefs of a purge by the quantity of
matters that were voided by it, but by their quality
and the effeft that followed after it.
Vomits were alfo pretty much ufed as medicines by
Hippocrates. We have already feen what thofe were
which he prefcribed to people in health by way of
preventives. With regard to the fick, he fometimes
advifed them to the fame, when his intentions were
only to cleanfe the ftomach. But when he had a mind
to recal the humours', as he termed it, from the inmoft
receffes of the body, he made ufe of brifker remedies.
Among thefe was white hellebore ; and this indeed he
moft frequently ufed to excite vomiting. He gave
this root particularly to melancholy and mad people ;
and from the great ufe made of it in thefe cafes by
Hippocrates and other ancient phyficians, the phrafe
to have need of hellebore, became a proverbial expreffion
for being out of one’s fenfes. He gave it alfo in de¬
fluxions, which come, according to him, from the
brain, and throw themfelves on the noftrils or ears, or
fill the mouth with faliva, or that caufe ftubborn pains
in the head, and a wearinefs or an extraordinary hea-
vinefs, or a weaknefs of the knees, or a fwelling all over
the body. He gave it to confumptive perfons in broth
of lentils, to fuch as were afflidted with the dropfy
< ailed leucophlegmatia, and in other chronical diforders.
But we do not find that he made ufe of it in acute di-
ftempers, except in the cholera morbus, where he fays
he preft ribed it with benefit. Some took this medi¬
cine falling; but moft took it after fupper, as was com¬
monly pra&ifed with regard to vomits taken by way
of prevention. Thereafon why he gave this medicine
moft commonly after eating was, that by mixing with
the aliments, its acrimony might be fomewhat abated,
and it might operate with lefs violence on the mem¬
branes of the ftomach. With the.fame intention alfo
he fometimes gave a plant called Jefamoides^ and fome¬
times mixed it with hellebore. Laftly, in certain
cafes he gave what he called foft or fweet hellebore.
This term had fome relation to the quality of the hel¬
lebore, or perhaps to the quantity he gave of it.
When Hippocrates intended only to keep the body
open, or evacuate the contents of the inteftines, he
made ufe of fimples ; as for example, the herb mer¬
cury, or cabbage ; the juice or decodiion of which he
CINE. 59
ordered to be drank. For the fame purpofe he ufed Hippo-
whey, and alfo cows and afles milk; adding a little fait, cratt8, ,
to it, and fometimes letting it boil a little. If he gave “"-v
affes milk alone, he caufed a great quantity of it to be
taken, fo that it muft of neceffity loofen the body. In
one place he prefcribes no lefs than nine pounds of it
to be taken as a laxative, but does not fpecify the
time in which it was to be taken. With the fame in¬
tention he made ufe of fuppofitories and clyfters. The
former were compounded of honey, the juice of the
herb mercury, of nitre, powderof colocynth, and other
fliarp ingredients, to irritate the anus. Thefe they
formed into a ball, or into a long cylindrical mafs like
a finger. The clyfters he made ufe of for fick people
were fometimes the fame with thofe already mention¬
ed as preventives for.people in health. At other times
he mixed the deco&ion of herbs with nitre, honey, and
oil, or other ingredients, according as he imagined he
could by that means attradl, waih, irritate, or foften.
The quantity of liquor he ordered was about 36ounces;
from which it is probable he did not intend that it
fhould all be ufed at one time.
On fome occafions Hippocrates propofed to purge
the head alone. This pradtice he employed, after pur¬
ging the reft of the body, in an apoplexy, inveterate
pains of the head, a certain fort of jaundice, a con-
fumption, and the greateft part of chronical diftem-
pers. For that purpofe he made ufe of the juices of
feveral plants, as celery; to which he fometimes added
aromatic drugs, making the patients fnuff up this mix¬
ture into their noftrils. He ufed alfo powders com¬
pounded of myrrh, the flowers of brafs, and white
hellebore, which he caufed them put up into the nofe,
to make them fneeze, and to draw the phlegm from
the brain. For the fame purpofe alfo he ufed what
he calls tetragonon, that is, “ fomething having four
angles;” but what this was, is now altogether un¬
known, and was fo even in the days of Galen. The
latter phyfician, however, conjedlures it to be antimo¬
ny, or certain flakes found in it.
In the diftemper called empyema (or a co'ledlion of
matter in the breaft), he made ufe of a very rough me¬
dicine. He commanded the patient to draw in his
tongue as much as he was able; and when that was done,
he endeavoured to put into the hollow of the lungs a
liquor that irritated the part, which, railing a violent
cough, forced the lungs to difeharge the purulent
matter contained in them. The materials that he ufed
for this purpofe were of different forts; fometimes
he took the root of arum, which he ordered to be
boiled with a little fait, in a fufficient quantity of wa¬
ter and oil ; diffolving a little honey in it At other
times, when he intended to purge more ftrongly, he
took the flowers of copper and hellebore ; after that
he (hook the patient violently by the (boulders, the
better to loofen the pus. This remedy, according to
Galen, he received from the Cnidian phyficians ; and <
it has never been ufed by the fucceeding ones, probably
becaufe the patients could not fuffer it. 20
Blood-letting was another method of evacuation His maxim*
pretty much ufod by Hippocrates. Another aim he i^fpedting
had in this, befides the mere evacuation, was to divert b.loo<1 ^et'
or recal the courfe of the blood when he imagined itUns‘
was going where it ought not. A third end of bleed¬
ing was to procure a free motion of the blood and fpi-
H 2 rits,
O X
M E D I C I N E. Hiftory*
ifpo- ths, as we may gather from the following paffage : be taken from the parts farthell off, with a Jefign to Hippo-
cratei' “ When any one becomes fpeechlefs of a fudden divert the blood infenfibly from the feat of pain. The crates* .
(fays he), it is caufed by the (hutting of the veins, higheft buniing fevers^ which (how neither iigns.of in- ' >
especially when it happens to perfons otherwife in ^animation nor pain,, he does not rank among thofe
good health, without any outward violence. In thiV diftempers that require, bleeding. On the contrary,
cafe the inward vein of the right-arm mud be opened, he maintains that aTever itfelf is in fome cafes a reaforv
and more or lefs blood taken away, according to the
age or conftitution of the patient. Thofe that lofe
their fpeech thus have great flufhings in their face,
their eyes are (tiff, their arms are diftended, their teeth
gnafli, they have palpitations of the arteries, cannot
open their jaws, the extremities are cold, and the fpi-
rits are intercepted in the veins. If pain enfues, it is
by the acceffion of the black bile and (harp humours.
For the internal', parts being vellicated or irritated by
thefe humours,,fuffer very much: and the veins, being
alfo irritated and. dried, diftend themfelves extraordi¬
narily, and are inflamed, and draw all that chn flow, to
them; fo that the blood corrupting, and the fpirits
not being able to pafs through the blbod by . their or¬
dinary paflages, the parts grow cold by reafon of this
ftagnation of the fpirits. Hence come giddinefs, lofe
of fpeeeh, and convulfions, if this difdrder reaches to the
heart, the liver, or to the great veins. From hence
arife alfo epilepfies and palfies, if the defluxions fall
upon the parts laft mentioned ; and that they dry up,
becaufe the fprrits are denied a paffage through them.
In this cafe, after fomentation, a vein muff be opened,
while the fpirits and humours are yet fufpended and
unfettled. ”
Hippocrates had alfo a fourth intention for bleed¬
ing, and this was refrefhment. So in the iliac paffion,
he orders bleeding in the arm and in the head; to the
end, fays he, that the fuperior venter, or the bread,
may ceafe ta be overheated. With regard to this eva¬
cuation, his conduct was much the fame as to purging,
in refpeft of time and perfons. We ought, fays he,
to let blood in acute difeafes, when they are violent,
if the party be lufty and in the flower of his age. We
ought alfo to have regard to the time, both in refpeft
to the difeafe and to the feafon in which we let blood.
He alfo informs us, that blood ought to be let in great
pains, and particularly in inflammations. Among thefe
he reckons fiich as fall upon the principal vifcera, as
the liver,, lungs, and fpken, as alfo the quinfy and
pleurify, if the pain of the latter be above the dia¬
phragm. In thefe cafes he would have the patients
blooded till they faint, efpecially if the pain be very
acute; or rather he advifes that the orifice (hould not
be clofed till the colour of the blood alters, fo that from
livid it turn red, or from red livid. In a quinfey he
blooded in both arms at once.. Difficulty of breathing
he alfo reckons among the diftempers that require
bleeding; and he mentions another fort of inflamma¬
tion of the lungs, which he calls a fwellisg or tumor
of the lungs ariiing from heat; in which cafe he ad¬
vifes to bleed in all parts of the body; and dire&s par¬
ticularly to the arms, tongue, and noftrils. To make
bleeding the more ufeful in all pains, he dire&ed to
open the vein neareft the part affe&ed; in a pleurify
he direfts to take blood from the arm of the fide affec¬
ted; and for the lame reafon, in pains of the head, he
diredfs the veins of the nofe and forehead to be opened.
When the pain was not urgent, and bleeding was ad-
vifcd by way of prevention, he direded the blood to
againft bleeding. If any one, fays he, has an ulcer in
the head, he muft‘ bleed, .unlefs he has a fever. He fays
further, thofe that lofe their fpeech - of a fudden muft
be blooded,, unlefs they have a fever. Perhaps he was
afraid of bleeding in fevers, becaufe he fuppofed thatr
they were produced by the bile and pkuita, which
grew hot, and. afterwards heated the whole body,
which is, fays he, what we call fever, and which, in
his opinion, cannot well be. evacuated by bleeding. In
other places alio be looks upon the prefence or abun¬
dance of bile to bean objection to bleeding; and he
orders to forbear venefedtion even in a pleurify, if there
be bile. To this we muft add, that Hippocrates di-
ftinguilhed very particularly between a fever which
followed no other diftemper, but was itfelf the original
malady, and a fever which came upon i nil am mu t ion.
In the early ages of phyfic, the firft were only proper¬
ly called fevers: the others took their names from the.
parts affedted; as pleurify, peripneumony, hepatitis, ne¬
phritis, &c. which names fignify that the pleura, the
lungs, the liver, or the kidneys, are difeafed, but da
not intimate the fever which accompanies the difeafe.
In. this latter fort of fever Hippocrates conftantly or-
dered bleeding, but not in the former. Hence, in his
books Of Epidemic Diftempers, we find but few di-
redtions for bleeding in the acute diftempers, and par¬
ticularly in the great number of continual and burning
fevers there treated of. In the firft and third book
we find but one iingle inftance of bleeding, and that
in a pleurify ; in which, too, he ftaid till the eighth
day of the diftemper. Galen, however, and moft o-
ther commentators on Hippocrates, are of opinion
that he generally blooded his patients plentifully in the
beginning of acute diforders, though he takes no no¬
tice of it in his writings. But had this been the cafe,' he
would not perhaps have had the opportunity of feeing
fo many fevers terminate by crifes, or natural evacua¬
tions, which happen of themfelves on certain days*
Hippocrates, in fadf, laid fo much weight upon the
affiftance of nature and the method of diet, which was
his favourite medicine, that he thought if they took
care to diet the patients before mentioned, according
to rule, they might leave the reft to nature. Thefe
are his principles, from which he never deviates; fo
that his pieces Of Epidemical Difeafes feem to have
been compofed only with an intention to leave to po-
fterky an exadt model of management in purfuance of
thefe principles.
With regard to the rules laid down by Hippocrates
for bleeding, we muft further take notice, that in a l
difeafes winch had their feat above the liver, he blood¬
ed in the arm, or in fome of the upper parts of the
body ; but for thofe that were fituated below’ it he
opened the veins of the foot, ankle, or ham. If the
belly was too laxative; and bleeding was at the fame
time thought neceffary, he ordered the loofenefs to be
flopped before bleeding.
Almoft all thefe inftances, however, regard fcarce
any thing but acute diftempers; but we find feveral
Hiftory, M E D I
Hippo- concernrng chronical dlfeafes. “ A young man com
. crate!i- plained of great pain in his belly, with a rumbling
' ~ while he was falling, which ceafed after eating: this
pain and rumbling continuing, his meat did him no
! good; but, on the contrary, he daily wafted and grew
lean. Several medicines, as well purges as vomits,
were given him in vain. At length it was refolved to
bleed him by intervals, firftin one arm and then in the
other, till he had fcarce any blood left, and by this
method he w'as perfedtly cured.”
Hippocrates let blood" alfo in a dropfy, even in a
tympany -r and in both cafes he prefcribes bleeding in
the arm. In- a dileafe occalioned by an overgrown
fpleeh, he propofes bleeding feveral times repeated at
a vein of the arm which he calls the 'fphmetic; and in
a hind of jaundice, he propofes bleeding under the
tongue. On fome occalions he took away great quan¬
tities of blood, as appears from what we have already
obferved. Sometimes he continued the blooding till
the patient fainted : at other times he would bloody in
both arms at once ; at others, he did it in feveral pla¬
ces of the body, and at feveral times. The veins he
opened were thofe of the arm, the hands, the ankles
onvboth fid'es, the hams, the forehead, behind the head,
the tongue, the nofe, behind the ears, under the breafts,
and thofe of the arms; befides which, he burnt others,
and opened feveral arteries. He likewife ufed cup-
ping-vcftels, with intent to recal or withdraw the
humours which fell upon any part. Sometimes he
contented hinrfelf with the bare attraflion made by
the cupping-vedels, but fometimes alfo he made fcari-
fications.
ax When bleeding and purging, which were the prin-
Hismaximscipal and moft general means ufed by Hippocrates
diuretics^ ^or tak'ng off a plethora, proved infufficient for that
and i'udori- purpofe, he had recourfe to diuretics and fudorifics.
£cs. The former were of different forts, according to the
eonftitution of the perfons: fometimes baths, and
fometimes fweet wine, were employed to provoke
urine; fometimes the nourifhment which we take con¬
tributes to it: and among ft thofe herbs which are
commonly eaten, Hippocrates recommends garlic, leeks,
onions, c ucumbers, melons, gourds, fennel, and all other
things which have a biting talle and a ftrong fmell.
With thefe he numbers honey, mixed with water or
vinegar, and all fait meats. But, on fome occafions,
he took four cantharides, and, pulling off their wings
and feet, gave them in wine and honey. Thefe reme¬
dies were given in a great number of chronical di-
ftempers after purging, when he thought the blood
was overcharged with a fort of moifture which he calls
ichor; or in fuppreffions of urine, and when it was
made in lefs quantity than it ought. There were alfo
fome cafes in which he would force fweat- as well as.
uriHe ; but he neither mentions the difeafes in which
fudorifics are proper, nor lets us know what medicines
are to be ufed for this purpofe, except in one iingle
paffage, where he mentions fweating, by pouring upon
the head a great quantity of water till the feet fweat;
that is, till the fweat diffufes itfelf over the whole body,
running from head to foot. After this he would have
them eat boiled meat, and drink pure wine, and being
well covered with clothes, lay themfelves down to reft.
The difeafe for which he propofes the above mention¬
ed remedy is a fever; which is not, according to him,.
CINE.
produced by bile or pituita, bpt by mere laffilude, or
fome other fimilar caufe; from whence we may con¬
clude that he did not approve of fweating in any other
kind of fever.
Other remedies which Hippocrates tells us he made
ufe of were thofe that purged neither bile nor phlegm,
but a6t bv cooling, drying, heating, moiftening, or by
doling and thickening, refolving and diffipating. Thefe
medicines, however, he does not particularly mention ;
and it is probable they were only fome particular kinds
of food. To thefe he joined hypnotics., or fuch things
as procure fleep; hut thefe laft were ufed very ftldom,
and, it is moft probable, were only different prepara¬
tions of poppies.
Laftly, befides the medicines already mentioned,ufe ho
which adied in a fenfible manner, Hippocrates ^
ufe of others called fpecifics ; whofe adtion he did not
underftand, and for the ufe of which he could give no
reafon befides his own experience," or that of other
phyficians. Thefe he had learned from his prede-
ceffors the defeendanfs of ALfculapius, who, being
empirics, did not trouble themfelves about inquiring
into the operation of their remedies, provided their
patients were cured. 23
Of the external remedies preferibed by Hippos His exter-
crates, fomentations were the chief. Thefe were.of
two kinds. The one was a fort of bath, in which the
patient fat in a veffel full of a decoction of fimples
appropriated to his malady ; fo that the part affected
was foaked in the decodtion. This was chiefly ufed
in diffempers of the womb,, of the arms, the bladder,
the reins, and generally all the parts, below the dia¬
phragm. The fecond way of fomenting was, to take pom^ta„
warm water and put it into a fkin or bladder, or even -ion,,
into a copper or earthen veffel,. and to apply it to the
part affected ; as, for example, in a pleurify. They
ufed likevvife a. larg.e fponge, which they dipped in
the water, or other hot liquor, and fqueezed out part
of the liquor before they applied it. The fame ufe
they made of barley, vetches, or. bran, which were
boiled in fome proper liquor, and applied in a linen
bag. Thefe are called mo'jl fomentations. The dry
ones were made of fait or millet, heated confiderably,.
and applied to the part. Another kind of fomenta¬
tion was the vapour of fome hot liquor; an inftance.
of which we find in his firft hook .of Womens Diftern-
pers. He call, at feveral times, bits of red-hot iron
into urine, and, covering up theqratient clofe, caufed
her to receive the fleam below. His defign in thtfe
kinds of fomentations was to warm the part, to re-
folve or diflipate, and draw out the peccant matter, to
mollify and affuage pain, to open the paffages, or even
to fhut them, according as the fomentations were emol¬
lient or aftringent.
Fumigations were likewife very often ufed by-Hip-Himiga*
pocrates. In the quinfey, he burned hyflop with’10”8'
fulphur and pitch, aifo caufed the fmoke to be drawn
into the. throat by a funnel; and by this means he
brought away abundance of phlegm through the
mouth and through the nofe. For this purpofe he
took nitre, maijoram, and crefs-feeds, which he boiled
in water, vinegar, and oil, and, while it was on the
fire, caufed the patient to draw in the fleam by a pipe-
In his works we find a great number of fumigants for
the diftempers of women, to promote the menftrual
flux;,
Colly,::
MED!
flmr,to check It, to help conception, and to cafe pains
in the matrix, or the fuffocation of it. On thefe oc-
cafions he ufed fitch aromatics as were then known,
viz. cinnamon, caffia, myrrh, and feveral odoriferous
plants; likewife fome minerals, fuch as nitre, fulphur,
and pitch, and canted them to receive the vapours
through a funnel into the uterus.
Gargles, a kind of fomentations for the mouth,
were alfo known to Hippocrates. In the quinfey he
ufed a gargle made of marjoram, favory, celery, mint,
and nitre, boiled with water and a little vinegar.
When this was {trained, they added honey to it, and
walked their mouths frequently with it.
Oils and ointments were likewife much ufed by
Hippocrates, with a view to mollify and abate pain,
to ripen boils, refolve tumors, refrefh after wearinefs,
make the body fupple, &e. For this purpofe, fome-
times pure oil of olives was ufed ; fometimes certain
fimples were infufed in it, as the leave's of myrtle and
rofes ; and the latter kind of oil was in much requeil
among the ancients. There were other forts of oils
fometimes in ufe, however, which were much more
compounded. Hippocrates fpeaks of one called/w/f-
tmm, which was made of the flowers of the iris, of fome
aromatics, and of an ointment of narciflus made with
the flowers of narciflus and aromatics infufed in oil.
But the mofl compounded of all his ointments was
that called netopum, which he made particularly for
women ; and confided, according to Hefychius, of a
great number of ingredients. Another ointment, to
which he gave the name of ceratum, was cempofed of
oil and wax. An ointment which he recommends for
the foftening of a tumor, and the cleanfing of a
wound, was made by the following receipt: “ Take
the quantity of a nut of the marrow or fat of a {beep,'
of maftic or turpentine the quantity of a bean, and as
much wax; melt thefe over a fire, with oil of rofes, for
a ceratum.” • Sometimes he added pitch and wax,
and, v>nth a fufficient quantity of oil, made a compo-
jition fomewhat more confident than the former, which
he called cerapi/fm. .
Cataplafms were a fort of remedies lefs confident
"■ than the two former. They were made of powders
or herbs deeped or boiled in water or fome other li¬
quor, to which fometimes they added oil. They were
tiled with a view to foften or refolve tumors, ripen
abfcefics, &c . though they had alfo cooling cataplafms
made of the leaves of beets or oak, fig or olive-trees,
boiled in water.
Ladly, to complete the catalogue of the external
^remedies ufed by Hippocrates, we diall mention a fort
of medicine called collyrium. It was compounded of
powders, to which was added a fmall quantity of
feme ointment, or juice of a plant, to make a folid or
•dry mafs; the form of which was long and round,
which was kept for ufe. Another compofition of
much the fame nature was a fort of lozenge of the
bignefs of a fmall piece of money, which was burnt
upon coals for a perfume, and powdered for par-
t cular ufes. In his works we find likewife deferip-
tions of powders for feveral ufes, to tifke off fungous
fleff, and to blow into the eyes in opthalmies, &c.
k hefe were almoft all the medicines ufed by Hip¬
pocrates for external purpofes. The compound me¬
dicines given inwardly were either liquid, folid, or
lambative. The liquid ones were prepared either by
CINE.
Hl^orj
decoftion or infufion in a proper liquor, which, when Hippo-j
{trained, was kept for ufe ; or by macerating certain
powders in fuch liquors, and fo taking them toge¬
ther-, or By mixing different kinds of liquors toge¬
ther. The folid medicines confifted of juices infpif-
fated ; of gums, refins, or powders, made up with
them or. with honey, or fomething proper to give the
neceffary confillence to the medicine. Thefe were
made up in a form and quantity fit to be fwallowed
with eafe. The lambative was of a confiftence bet
tween folid and fluid; and the patients were obliged
to keep it for fome time to diffolve in the mouth, that
they might fwallow it leifurely. This remedy was
ufed to take off the acrimony of thofe humours which
fometimes fall upon this part, and provoke coughing
and other inconveniences. The bafis of this lait com-
pofition was honey. *It is worth our obfervati’on, that
the compound medicines of Hippocrates were but very
few, and cempofed only of four or five ingredients at
moft; and that he not only underftood pharmacy, or
the art of compounding medicines, but prepared fuch
as he ufed himfelf, or caufcd his fervants prepare them
in his houfe by his directions.
We have thus given fome account of the ftate of
medicine as pra&ifed and taught by Hippocrates, who,
as we have already obferved, has for many ages been
juftly confidered as the father of phyfic. For when
we attend to the flute in which he found medicine, and
the condition in which he left it, we can hardly be.
flow fufficient admiration on the judgment and ac¬
curacy of his obfl-rvatious. After a life fpent in un¬
wearied indiGry, he is faid to have died at Lariffa,
a city in Theffaly, in the ioift year of his age, 361
years before the birth of Chrift.
After the days of Hippocrates, medicine in ancient
Greece gradually derived improvement from the la¬
bour of other phyficians of eminence. And we may
particularly mention three to whom its future progrefs
feems to have been not a little indebted, viz. Praxa-
goras, Erafiftratus, and.Herophilus.
The firft phyfician of eminence who differed confi. p 33
derably in his practice from Hippocrates was Praxa- “ "
goras. Codius Aurelianus acquaints us, that he
made great ufe of vomits in his pradtice, infomuch
as to exhibit them in the iliac palfion till the ex¬
crements were difeharged by the mouth. In this di-
flemper he alfo advifed, when all other means failed,
to open ^he belly, cut the intefline, take out the in¬
durated fasces, and then to few up all again; but this
praifice has not probably .been followed by any fub-
fequent phyfician.
Eraflltratus was a phyfician of great eminence,
and flouriflied in the time of Seleucns, one of the Erafiflratn*n'
fucceffors of Alexander the Great. According to
Galen, he entirely baniflied venefe&ion from medi¬
cine ; though fome affirm that he did not totally dif-
card it, but only ufed it lefs frequently than other
phyficians. His reafons for difapproving of venefec-
tion are as follow-: It is difficult to fucceed in vene-
feftion, becaufe we cannot always fee the vein we in¬
tend to open, and becaufe we are not fure but we
may open an artery inftead of a vein. We cannot
afeertain the true quantity to be taken. If we take
too little, the intention is by no means anfwered: if
we take too much, we run a rifle of deftroying the
patient. The evacuation of the venous blood alfo is
' 6 fuc-
'liflory. M E D I
' rafiftratus. fucceeded by that of the fpirits, which on that oc-
—>— cafion pafs from the arteries into the veins. It mu!l
Kkewife be obferved, that as the inflammation is
formed in the arteries by the blood coagulated in their
orifices, venefeftion muft of courfe be ufelefs and of
no effeft.
As Erafiftratus did not approve of venefe&ion, fo
neither did he of purgatives, excepting very rarely,
but exhibited clyfters and vomits ; as did alfo his ma¬
tter Chryfippus. He was of opinion, however, that
the clyfters Ihould be mild ; and condemned tke large
quantity and acrid quality of thofe ufed by the an¬
cients. The reafon why purgatives were not much
nfed by him was, that he imagined purging and vene-
feftion could anfwet no other purpofe than diminilh-
1 ing the fulnefs of the veffcls ; and for this purpofe he
afferted that there were more effe&ual means than ei¬
ther phlebotomy or purging. He afl'erted that the
humours difcharged by cathartics were not the fame in
the body that they appeared after the difcharge-; but
that the medicines changed their nature, and produced
a kind of corruption in them. This opinion has lince
been embraced by a great number of phyficians. He
did not believe' that purgatives adled by attra&ion ;
but fubftituted in the place of this principle what Mr
Le Clerc imagines to be the fame with Ariftotle’s
fug a vacui. The principal remedy fubftituted by him
in place of purging and venefection was abftinence.
I When this, in conjuft&ion with clyfters and vomits,
was not fufficient to eradicate the difeafe, he then had
recourfe to exercife. All this was done with a view
to diminiih the plenitude, which, according to him,
was the mo'l frequent caufe of all difeafcs. Galen
alfo informs us, that Erafiftratus had fo great ah opi-
fcion of the virtues of fuccory in difeafes of the vifcera
and lower belly, and efpecially in thofe of the liver,
that he took particular pains to defcribe the method
of boiling it, which was, to boil it in water till it
I was tender; then to put it into boiling water a fecond
time, in order to ddiroy its bitternefs; afterwards to
take it out of the water, and preferve it in a vefiel with
oil; and laftly, when it is to be ufed, add a little weak
vinegar to it. Nay, fo minute and circumftantial was
Erafiftratus with regard to the preparation of his fa¬
vourite fuccory, that he gave orders to tie feveral of
the plants together, becaufe that was the more com¬
modious method of boiling them. The reft of Era-
fiftratus’s medicines corififted almoft entirely of regi¬
men ; to which he added fome topical remedies, fuch
as cataplafrhs, fomentations, and un&ions. In Ihort,
as he could neither endure compounded medicines,
nor fuperftitious and fine-fpun reafonings, he reduced
medicine tb a very fimple and compendious art.
With regard to furgery, Erafiftratus appears to
hav.e been very bold; and as an anatomift he is faid to
have been exceedingly cruel, infomuch that he is re-
prefented by fome as having diffetbed criminals while
v* * £Tyct aftve *• In a fcirrhous liver, or in tumors of
that organ, Ccelius Aurelianus obferves, that Erafiftra-
| tus made an incifion through the Ikin and integu-
ments, and having opened the abdomen he applied
medicines immediately to the part affedted. But tho*
he was thus bold in performing operations on the liver,
yet he did not approve of the paracentefis or tapping in
the dropfy j becaufe (faid he} the waters being eva-
C I N E. ^
cuated, the liver, which is inflamed and become hard .fiftratus,
like a ftone, is more preffed by the adjacent parts ”'“'v
which the waters kept at a diftance from it, fo that
by this means the patient dies. He declared alfo
againft drawing teeth which were not loofe; and ufed
to tell thofe who talked with him on this operation,
That in the temple of Apollo there was to be feen an
inftrument of lead for drawing teeth ; in order to in-
finuate that we muft not attempt the extirpation of
any but fuch as are loofe, and call for no greater force
for their extirpation than what may be fuppofed in an
inftrument of lead.
Herophilus, the difciple of Praxagoras, and cotem- 34
porary of Erafiftratus, followed a lefs fimple praftice: Herophb
he made fo great ufe of .medicines both limple andlu’’
compound, that neither he nor his difciples would
undertake the cure of any diforder without them. He
feems alfo to have been the firft who treated accurate¬
ly of the dodtrine of pulfes, of which Hippocrates
had but a fuperficial knowledge. Galen, however,
affirms, that on this fubjedt he involved himfelf
in difficulties and advanced abfurdities ; which in¬
deed we are not greatly to wonder at, confidering
the time in which he lived. He took notice
of a difeafe at that time pretty rare, and to which
he aferibes certain fudden deaths. He calls it a pa//v
of the heart; and perhaps it may be the fame difeafe
with what is now termed the angina pe it oris.
According to Celfus, it was about this time that
medicine was firft divided into three branches viz. the
dietetic, the pharmaceutical, and the chirurgical medi¬
cine. The firft of thefe employed a proper regimen
in the cure of difeafes; the fecond, medicines; and
the third, the operation of the hands: and the fame
author informs us, that thefe three branches became
now the bufinefs of as many diftifnft: claffes of men ;.
fo that from this time we may date the origin of the
three profeflions of phyficians, apothecaries, and fur-
geons.—Before this divifion, thofe called phgficians
difcharged all the feveral offices belonging to the three
profeflions ; and there were only two kinds of them,
viz. one called who only gave their advice
to the patients, and directions to thofe of an inferior
clafs, who were called and worked with their
hands either in the performing operations, or in the
compofition and application of remedies. ^
The firft grand revolution which happened,in the The iimp*.
medicinal art after the days of Herophilus and Era- iics.
fiftratus was occafioned by thefounding of the empiric
feCt by Serapion of Alexandria about 287 years before
Chrift. The divifion into dogmatifts and empirics
had indeed fubfifted before ; but about this time the 34
latter party began to grow ftrong, and to have cham- Serai ion,
pions publicly afferting its-caufe. Galen informs us,
that Serapion ufed Hippocrates very ill in his wri¬
tings, in which he difeovered an excefs of pride, felf-
fufficiency, and contempt for all the phylicians that
went before him*. ■ We have fome fketebes of his
praCftice in Ceelius Aurelianus, from which we may
infer that he retained the medicines of Hippocrates
and tire other phyficians who went before him, thor
he rejeCted their reafoning. We know not what ar¬
guments he advanced for the fupport of has fentiments,
fince his works are loft, as well as thoft of the other
empirics j and we flrould know nothing at all ©f any
<aS
64 M E D I
■ Serapion. of them, if their jadverfaries had not quoted them ia
order to confute them.
' The empirics admitted only one general method of
obtaining drill in the medical art, which was by ex¬
perience, called by the Greeks From this
word they took-their name, and refufed to be called
after the founder or any champion of their feft.
They defined experience a knowledge derived from
the evidence of fenfe. It was either fortuitous, or
acquired by defign. For acquiring practical fir ill they
recommended what they called rn^na-i;, or one’s own
obfervation, and the reading of hiftories or cafes faith¬
fully related by others. Hence they thought that
we are enabled to know a difeafe by its refemblance
to others ; and, when new difeafes occurred, to con¬
clude what was proper, to be done from the fymptoms
they had in common with others that were before
known. They aflerted, that obfervation ought princi¬
pally to be employed in two different ways.; firft in
difcovering what things are falutary, and what are of
an indifferent nature ; and, fecondly, what particular
difeafe is produced by a certain concurrence of fymp¬
toms ; for they did not call every fymptom n difeafe,
but only fuch a combination of them as from long
experience they found to accompany each other, and
produced fuch diforders as began and terminated in
the fame manner.
On the other hand, the dogmatift affirmed, that
there was a neceffity for knowing the latent as Well
as the evident caufes of difeafes, and that the phyfi-
cian ought to underhand the natural aCtiocs and func¬
tions of the human body, which neceffarily prefup-
pofes a knowledge of the internal parts. By fecret
or latent caufes they meant fuch as related to the ele¬
ments or principles of which our bodies are compofed,
and which are the origin of a good or bad Hate of
health. They afferted that it was impoffible to know
how to cure a difeafe without knowing the caufe
whence it proceeded ; bccaufe undoubtedly it behoved
them to vary prodigioufly in themfelves according to
the different caufes by which they were produced.
;ZS The next remarkable perfon in the hiltory of phyfic
Afdcpi- js Afclepiades, who ffouriflied in the century immedi¬
ately preceding the birth of Chritl. He introduced
the philofophy of Democritus and Epicurus into me¬
dicine, and ridiculed the doctrines of Hippocrates.
He afferted, that matter confidered in itfelf was of an
unchangeable nature ; and that all perceptible bodies
were compofed of a number of fmaller ones, between
which there were interfperfed an infinity of fmall fpaces
totally void of all matter. He thought that the foul
itfelf was compofed of thefe fmall bodies. He laughed
at the principle called Nature by Hippocrates, and
alfo at the imaginary faculties faid by him to be fub-
fervient to her; and ftill more at what he called Slt-
traciion. This laft principle Afclepiades denied in
every inftance, even in that of the loadftone and fteel,
imagining that this phenomenon proceeded from a
concourfe of corpufcles, and a particular difpofition or
modification of their pores. He alfo maintained, that
nothing happened or was produced vvithoutdome caufe;
and that what was called nature was in reality no
more than matter and motion. From this lafl: prin¬
ciple he inferred that Hippocrates knew not what he
faid when he fpoke of Nature as an intelligent being,
CINE. Hifton
and aferibed qualities of different kinds to her. For
the fame reafon he ridiculed the doctrine of Hippo- ades.-.f*
crates with regard to crifes ; and afferted that the ~~ v {
termination of difeafes might be as well accounted for
froni mere matter and motion. He maintained, that
we were deceived if we imagined that nature always
did good ; fince it was evident that fire often did a |
great deal of harm. As for the days particularly
fixed upon by Hippocrates for crifes, or thofe on
which we ufually obferve a change either for the bet¬
ter or the worfe, Afclepiades denied that fuch altera¬
tions happened on thofe days rather than on others.
Nay, he aflerted that the crifis did not happen at any
time of its own accord, or by the particular determi¬
nation of nature for the cure of the diforder, but that
k depended rather on the addrefs and dexterity of the
phyficiati;’ that we ought never to wait till a diftem-
per terminates of its own accord, but that the phyfi-
cian by his care and medicines muff haften on and ad¬
vance the cure According to him, Hippocrates and
other ancient phyficians attended their patients rather
with a view to obferve in what manner they died than
in order to cure them ; and this under pretence that
Nature ought to do allherfelf, without any affiftarce.
According to Afclepiades, the particular affemblage
of the various corpufcles abovementioned, and repre-
fented as of different figures, is the reafon why there
are feveral pores or interftices within the common
mafs, formed by thefe corpufcles; and why thefe pores
are of a different fize. This being taken for granted,
as thefe pores are in all the bodies we obferve, it mull
of courfe follow that the human body has fome pecu¬
liar to itfelf, which, as well as thofe of all other bo¬
dies, contain other minute bodies, which pafs and ve-
pafs by thofe pores that communicate with each other.;
ancj as thefe pores or interftices are larger or fmaller,
fo the corpufcles which pafs through them differ pro-
portionably as to largenefs and minutenefs. The
blood confifts of the largeft of thefe, corpufcles, and
the fpirits, or the heat, of the fmalleft.
From thefe principles he infers, that as long as the cor¬
pufcles are freely received by the pores,the body remains
in its natural Hate ; and on the contrary, it begins to
recede from that ftate, when the corpufcles find any
obftacle to their paffage. Health therefore depends
on the juft proportion between the pores and the cor¬
pufcles they are deftined to receive and tranfmit; as
difeafes, on the contrary, proceed from a difproportioa
between thefe pores and the corpufcles. The moft
ufual obftacle on this occafion proceeds from the cor¬
pufcles embracing each other, and being retained in
fome of their ordinary paffages, whether thefe corpuf¬
cles arrive in too large a number, are of irregular fi¬
gures, move too fall or too flow, See.
Among the diforders produced by the corpufcles
flopping of their own accord, Afclepiades reckoned
phrenfies, lethargies, pleurlfies and burning fevers.
Pains, in particular, are claffed among the accidents
which derive their origin from a ftagnation of the
largeft of all the corpufcles of which the blood con-
ii.ls. Among the diforders produced by the bad ftate
and difpofition of the pores, he placed deliquiums, lan¬
guors, extenuations, leannefs, and dropfies. Thefe
laft diforders he thought proceeded from the pores
being too much relaxed and opened ; the dropfy in
5 Pai>
Hiftory. M E D I
j ATclepiades particular, he thinks, proceeds from the fielh being
| perforated with various fmall holes, which convert the
nouri/hment received into them into water. Hunger,
and efpecially that fpecies of it called fames canina,
proceeds from an opening the of large pores of the
flomach and belly ; and thiift from an opening of
their fmall ones. Upon the fame principles he ac¬
counted for intermittent fevers. Quotidian fevers are
caufed by a retention of the largeft corpufcles, thofe
of the tertian kind by a retention of corpufcules fome-
what fmaller, and quartan fevers are produced by a
retention of the fmalleft corpufcles of all.
The praftice of Afclepiades was fuited to remove
thefe imaginary caufes of diforders. He compofed a
book concerning common remedies, which he princi¬
pally reduced to three, viz. geftation, friftion, and
the ufe of wine. By various exercifes he prbpofed to
render the pores more open, and to make the juices
and fmall bodies, which caufe difeafes by their reten¬
tion, pafs more freely; and while the former phy-
ficians had not recourfe to geftation till towards the
end of long continued diforders, and when the pa¬
tients, tho’ entirely free from fever, were yet too weak
to take fufficient exercife by walking, Afclepiades ufed
geftation from the very beginning 6f the moft burn¬
ing fevers. He laid it down as a maxim, that one fever
was to be cured by another; that the ftrength of the
patient was to be exhaufted by making him watch and
endure thirft to fuch a degree, that, for the two firft
days of the diforder, he would not allow them to cool
their mouths With a drop of water. Celfus alfo pbferves,
that though Afclepiades treated his patients like a
butcher during the firft days of the diforder, he indul¬
ged them fo far afterwards as even to give diredtions
for making their beds in the lofteft manner. On fe-
veral occafions Afclepiades ufed fridtions to open the
pores. The dropfy was one of the diftempers in which
this remedy was ufed ; but the moft fmgular attempt
was, by this means, to lull phrenetic patients afleep.
But though he enjoined exercife fo much to the lick,
he denied it to thofe in health ; a piece of condudt not
a little furprifing and extraordinary. He allowed wine
freely to patients in fevers, provided the violence of the
diftemper was fomewhat abated. Nor did he forbid
it to thofe who were afflidted with a phrenzy: nay,
he ordered them to drink it till they were intoxicated,
pretending by that means to make them fleep; be-
caufe, he faid, wine had a narcotic quality and procured
fleep, which he thought abfolutely neceffary for thofe
who laboured under that diforder. To lethargic pa¬
tients he ufed it on purpofe to excite them, and roufe
their fenfes: he alfo made them fmell ftrong-feented
fubftances, fuch as vinegar, caftor, and rue, in order to
make them fneeze; and applied to their heads cata-
plafms of muftard made up with vinegar.
Befides thefe remedies,' Afclepiades enjoined his pa¬
tients abftinence to an extreme degree. For the firft;
three days, according to Celfus, he allowed them no
aliment whatever ; but on the fourth began to give
them vi&uals. According to Caelius Aurelianus, how¬
ever, he began to nourifti his patients as foon as the
acceflion of the difeafe was diminilhed, not waiting
till an entire remiSon; giving to feme aliments on
the firft, to others on the fecond, to others on the
third, and fo on to the feventh day. It feems almoft
incredible to us, that people ihould be able to fail till
Vol. XL Part I.
CINE. 65
this laft mentioned term ; but Celfus aiTures us, that Afclerudv*
abftinence till the feventh day was enjoined by the v——v**—-'
predeceffors of Afclepiades, and by Heraclides Taren-
tinus.
The next great revolution which happened in the
medicinal art, was brought about by Themifon, the
difciple of Afclepiades, who lived not long before the
time of Celfus, during the end of the reign of Augu-
ftus, or beginning of that of Tiberius. . The fe6t ^
founded by him was called methrdic, becaufe he endea-'\yet£0'];c
voured to find a method of rendering medicine, more feift.
eafy than formerly. < .
He maintained, that a knowledge of the caufes of rhemifun.
difeafes was not neceffary, provided we have a due re¬
gard to what difeafes have in common and analogous
to one another. In confequence of this principle, he
divided all difeafes into two, or at moft three, kinds.
The firft included difeafes arifing from ftridhire ; the
fecond, thofe ariling from relaxation ; and the third,
thofe of a mixed nature, or fuch as partook both of
ftrifture and relaxation.
Themifon alfo afferted, that difeafes are fometimes
acute, and fometimes chronical; that for a certain time
they increafe; that at a certain time they are at their
height; and that at laft they were obferved to dimi-
flifh. Acute difeafes, therefore, according to him,
miift be treated in one way, and chronical ones in an¬
other ; one method muft be followed with fuch as are
in their augmentation, another with fuch as are at
their height, and a third with fuch as are fn their de-
clenfion. He afferted, that the whole of medicine con-
fifted in the obfervation of that fmall number of rules
which are founded upon things altogether evident. He
faid, that all diforders, whatever their nature was, if
included under any of the kinds above mentioned,
ought to be treated precifely in the fame way, in what¬
ever country and with whatever fymptoms they hap¬
pen to arife. Upon thefe principles, he defined me¬
dicine to be a method of conducing to the knowledge
of what difeafes have in common with each other, and
which at the fame time is evident.
Themifon was old when he laid the foundation of
the Methodic fe& ; and it was only brought to perfec-
tion by Theffalus, who lived under the emperor Nero. Thelfalus.
Galen and Pliny accufe this phyfician of intolerable in -
folence and vanity, and report that he gave himfelf
the air of defpifing all other phyficians; and fo intole¬
rable was his vanity, that he affumed the title of the
conqueror of phyjiciatis, which he caufed to be put up¬
on his tomb in the Appian way. Never was moun¬
tebank (fays Pliny) attended by a greater number of
fpedlators than Theffalus had generally about him ;
and this circumftance is the lefs to be wondered at, if
we confider that he promifed to teach the whol£ art of
medicine in. lefs than fix months. In reality, the art
might be learned much fooner if it comprehended no
more than what the methodifts thought neceffary : for
they cut off the examination of the caufes of difeafes
followed by the dogmatics; and fubftituted in the room
of the laborious obfervations of the empirics, indica¬
tions drawn from the analogy of difeafes, and the mu¬
tual refemblance they bear to each other. The moft
fkilful of all the methodic feft, and he who put the laft
hand to it, was Soranus. He lived under the emperors
Trajan and Adrian, and was a native of Ephefus.
One of the moft celebrated medical writers of an- Celius.
I tiquity
66 M E D I
Celfi.'p. t'quity was Celfus, whom we have already had oc-
cafion to mention. Moft writers agree that he lived
in the time of Tiberius, but his country is uncertain.
It is even difputcd whether or not he was a profeffed
phyfician. Certain it is, however, that his b(^oks on
medicine are the moft valuable of all the ancients next
to thofe of Hippocrates. From the latter, indeed, he
has taken fo much, as to acquire the name of the La¬
tin Hippocrates; but he has not attached himfelf to
him fo clofely as to rejeft the afliftance of other au¬
thors. In many particulars he has preferred Afcle-
piades. With him he laughs at the critical days of
Hippocrates, and afcribes the invention of them to
a foolifh and fuperftitious attachment to the Pythago¬
rean do&rine of numbers. He alfo rejected the doc¬
trine-of Hippocrates with regard to venefeftion, of
which he made a much more general ufe ; but did not
take away fo much at a time, thinking it mueh better
to repeat the operation than weaken the patient by too
great an evacuation at one time. Fie ufed cupping
alfo much more frequently, and differed from him
with regard to purgatives. In the beginning of dif-
orders, he faid, the patients ought to endure hunger
and third:: but afterwards they were to be nouridied
with good aliments; of which, however, they were not
to take too much, nor fill themfelves all of a fudden,
after having faffed. He does not fpecify how long
the patient ought to praftife abftinence ; but affirms,
that in this particular it is rieceffary to have a regard
to the difeafe, the patient, the feafon, the climate, and
other circumftances of a like nature. The figns drawn
from the pulfe he looked upon.to be very precarious
and uncertain. “ Some (fays he) lay great ftrefs up¬
on the beating of the veins or the arteries ; which is a
deceitful circumftance, fince that beating is flow or
quick, and varies very much, according to the age, fex,
and conftitution of the patient. It even fometimes
happens that the pulfe is weak and languid when the
ftomach is difordered, or in the beginning of a fever,
though in other refpetfts the body be in a good date ;
fo that we might, in this latter cafe, be induced to be¬
lieve, that a man is very weak, when he is juft enter¬
ing into a violent paroxyfm, has ftrength enough left,
and may be eafily recovered from it. On the con¬
trary, the pulfe is often high, and in a violent com¬
motion, when one has been expofed to thj fun, or
comes out of a bath, or from ufingexercife ; or when
one is under the influence of anger, fear, or any other
paflion. Befides, the pulfe ,is eafily changed by the
arr ived of the phyircian, in confequence of the patient’s
anxiety to know what judgement he will pafs upon his
cafe. To prevent this, the phyfician muft not feel the
patient’s pulfe on his firft arrival: he muft firft fit down
by him, affume a chearful air, inform himfelf of his con¬
dition ; and if he is under any dread, endeavour to re¬
move it by encouraging difeourfe ; after which he may
examine the beating of the artery. This neverthelefs
does not hinder us from concluding, that if the fight
of the phyiician alone can produce fo remarkable a
change in the pulfe, a thoufand other caufes may pro¬
duce the fame efferft.” But although Celfus thought
tor himfelf, and in not a few particulars differed from
his predeceffors, yet in his writings, which are not only
dill preferred, but have gone through almoft innu¬
merable editions, we have a compendious view of the
practice of almoft all his predeceffors : and he treats.
3
CINE. Hiftory.
of the healing art in all its branches, whether per- Celfu-.
formed manu, viftu, vel medicamentis. His writings,  v
therefore, will naturally be had recourfe to by every
one who wifhes either to become acquainted with the
pra&ice of the ancients prior to the fall of the Roman
empire, or to read medical Latin in its greateft pu-
rit^' 4r
About the 131ft year after Chrift, in the reign of Galen-
the emperor Adrian, lived the celebrated Galen, a na¬
tive of Pergamus, whofe name makes fuch a confpicu-
ous figure in the hiftory of phyfic. At this time the
dogmatic, empiric, methodic, and other fefts, had
each their abettors. The methodics were held in
great efteem, and looked upon to be fuperior to the
dogmatics, who were ftrangely divided among them¬
felves, fome of them following Hippocrates, others
Erafiftratus, and others Afclepiades. The empirics
made the leaft confiderable figure of any. Galen un¬
dertook the reformation of medicine, and reftored
dogmatifm. He feems to have been of that feet
which was called eclectic, from their choofing out of
different authors what they efteemed good in them,
without being particularly attached to any one more
than the reft. This declaration he indeed fets out
with; but, notwithftanding this, he~ follows Hippo-
crates much more than any of the reft, or rather fol¬
lows nobody elfe but him. Though before his time
feveral phylicians had commented on the works of
Hippocrates, yet Galen pretends that none of them
had underftood his meaning. His firft attempt there¬
fore was to explain the works of Flippocrates ; with
which view he wrote a great deal, and after this fet
about compofing a fyftem of his own- In one of his
books entitled, “ Of the eftablifliment of medicine,”
he defines the art to be one which teaches to pre-
ferve health and cure difeafes. In another book,
however, he propofes the following definition : “ Me¬
dicine (fays he) is a fcience which teaches what is
found, and what is not fo ; and what is of an indiffe¬
rent nature, or holds a medium between what is found
and what is the reverie.” He affirmed, that there are
three things which conftitute the objeft of medicine,
and which the phyiician ought to confider as found, as
not found, or of a neutral and indifferent nature.
Thefe are the body itfelf, the figns, and' the caufes
He efleems the human body found, when it is in a
good ftate or habit with regard to the Ample parts of
which it is compofed, and when beiides there is a juft
proportion between the organs formed of thefe Ample
parts. On the contrary, the body is reckoned to be
unfound, when it recedes from this ftate, and the julf
proportion above mentioned. It -is in a ftate of neu¬
trality or indifference, when it is in a medium between
foundnefs and its oppofite ftate. The falutary figns
are fuch as indicate prefent health, and prognofticater
that the man may remain in that ftate for £bme time to
come. The infalubrious’figns, on the contrary, indi¬
cate a prefent diforder, or lay a foundation forfufpec-
ting the approach of one: The neutral, figns, or fuch
as are,of an indifferent nature, denote neither health
nor indifpofition, either for the prefent, or for the time
to. come. In like manner he fpeaks of caufes falutary,
unfalutary,, and indifferent.
Thefe three difpofitions of the human body, that is,
foundnefs, its reverfe, and a neutral ftate, comprehend
all the differences between health and diforder or in-
difpo-
Hiftory. MEDICINE.
Galen, difpofition : and each of thefe three ftates or difpo-
tions has a certain extent peculiar to itfejf. A found
habit of body, according to the definition of it already
given, is very rare, and perhaps never to be met with ;
but this does not hinder us to fuppofe fuch a model for
regulating our judgment with refpeft to different con-
flitutions. On this principle Galen eftablifhes eight
other principal conftitutiens, all of' which differ more
or lefs from the perfeft model abovementioned. The
four firft are fuch as have one of the four qualities of
hot, cold, moift, or dry, prevailing in too great a
degree ; and accordingly receive their denomination
from that quality which prevails over the reft. The
four other fpecies of conftitutions receive their deno¬
minations from a combination of the abovementioned ;
fo that, according to his definition, there may be a hot
and dry, a hot and moift, a cold and moift, and a
cold and dry, conftitution. Befides thefe differences,
there are certain others which refult from ocult and
latent caufes, and which, by Galen, are faid to arife
from an idiofyncrafy of conftitution. It is owing to this
idiofyncrafy that fome have an averfion to one kind
of aliment and fome to another ; that fome cannot en¬
dure particular fmells, &c. But though thefe eight
laft-mentioned conftitutions fall fhort of the perfec¬
tion of the firft, it does not thence follow, that thofe
to whom they belong are to be claffed among the va¬
letudinary and difeafed. A difeafe only begins when
the deviation becomes fo great as to hinder the a£tion
of the parts. *
Galen defcribes at great length the figns of a good
or bad conftitution, as well as thofe of what he calls a
neutral habit. Thefe figns are drawn from the origi¬
nal qualities of cold, hot, moift, and dry, and from
their juft proportion or difproportion with refpeft to
the bulk, figure, and fituation, of the organical parts.
With Hippocrates he eftablifhes three principles of an
animal body ; the parts, the humours, and the fpirits.
By the parts he properly meant no more than the fo-
lid parts ; and thefe he divided into fimilar and orga-
nical. Like Hippocrates, he alfo acknowledged four
humours ; the bloocl, the phlegm, the yellow bile and
black bile. He eftablifhed three different kinds of
fpirits; the vital, the animal, and the natural. The
firft of thefe are, according to him, nothing elfe but
a fubtle vapour arifing from the blood, which draws its
origin from the liver, the organ or inftrument of fan-
guification. After thefe fpirits are conveyed to the
heart, they, in eonjun&ion with the air we draw into
the lungs, become the matter of the fecond fpecies,
that is, of the vital fpirits, which are again changed
into thofe of the animal kind inthebrSin. He fuppo-
fed that thefg three fpecies of fpirits ferved as inftru-
ments to three kinds cf faculties, which refide in the
refpeftive parts where thefe faculties are formed. The
natural faculty is the firft of thefe, which he placed in
the liver, and imagined to prefide over the nutrition,
growth, and generation, of the animal. The vital fa¬
culty he lodged in the heart, and fuppofed that by
means of the arteries it communicated w armth and life
to all the body. The animal faculty, the nobleft of
all the three, and with which the reafoning or go¬
verning faculty was joined, according to him, has its
feat in the brain ; and, by means cf the nerves, dif-
tributes a power of motion and fenfation to all the
parts, and prefides ever all the other faculties. The
original fource or principle of motion in all thefe fa¬
culties, Galen, as well as Hippocrates, defines to be
Nature.
Upon thefe principles Galen defined a difeafe to be
“ fuch a preternatural difpofition or affe&ion of the
parts of the body, as primarily, and of itfelf, hinders
their natural and proper aftion.” He eftablifhed three
principal kinds of difeafes : the firft relates te the fi¬
milar parts; the fecond, to the organical; and the
third is common to both thefe parts. The firft kind
of difeafes confifts in the intemperature of the fimilar
parts ; and this is divided into an intemperature with¬
out matter, and an intemperature with matter. The
firft difeovers itfelf when a part has more or lefs heat
or cold than it ought to have without that change of
quality in the part being fupported and maintained by
any matter. Thus, for inftance, a perfon’s head may
be overheated and indifpofed by being expofed to the
heat of the fun, without that heat being maintained by
the continuance or congeftion of any hot humour in
the part. The fecond fort of intemperature is when
any part is not only rendered hot or cold, but alfo fill¬
ed with a hot or cold humour, which are the caufes
of the heat or cold felt in the part. Galen alfo ac¬
knowledged a Ample intemperature : that is, when one
of the original qualities, fuch as heat or cold, exceeds
alone and feparately ; and a compound intemperature,
when two qualities are joined together, fuch as heat
and drynefs, or coldnefs and humidity. He alfo efta-
blilhed an equal and unequal temperature. The for¬
mer is that which is equally in all the body, or in any
particular part of it, and whrdr creates no pain, be-
caufe it is become habitual, fuch as drynefs in the hec¬
tic conftitution. The latter is diftinguifhed from the
former, in that it docs not equally fubfift in the whole
of the body, or in the whole of a part. Of this kind
of intemperature we have examples in certain fevers,
where heat and cold, equally, and almoft at the fame
time, attack the fame part; or in other fevers, which
render the furface of the body cold as ice, while the
internal parts burn with heat; or laftly, in cafes where
the ftomach is cold and the liver hot.
The fecond kind of diforders, relating to the orga¬
nical parts, refults from irregularities of thefe parts,
with refpeft to the number, bulk, figure, fituation,
&e.; as when one has fix fingers, or only four ; when
one has any part larger or fmaller than it ought to be,
&c. The third kind, which is common both to the
fimilar and the organical parts, is a folution of conti¬
nuity, which happens when any fimilar or compound
part is cut, bruited, or corroded.
Like Hippocrates, Galen diftinguifhed difeafes into
acute and chronical; and, with refpedf to their nature
and genius, into benign and malignant; alfo into epi¬
demic, endemic, and fporadic.
After having diftinguifhed the kinds of difeafes, Ga¬
len comes to explain the caufes ; which he divides into
external and internal. The external caufes of difeafes,
according to him, are fix things, whi.h contribute to
the prefervation of health when they are well difpofed
and properly ufed, but produce a contrary effect
when they are imprudently ufed or ill difpofed. Thefe
fix things are, the air, aliments and drink, motion
and reft, fleeping and watching, retention and excre¬
tion, and laftly the paffions. All thefe are called
the procatardic or beginning caufes, becaufe they put
I 2 in
68
which prevails over the reft. According to thefe prin-
ciples, there may he a fanguine, a bilious, a pituitous,
or a melancholy plenitude : but there is this difference
between the fanguine and the three other plenitudes,
MEDICINE. Hiftory^jU
in motion the internal caufes ; which are of two kinds, Galen’s method of teaching the medical art, it is evi- Galen-
the antecedent and the conjunil. The former is dif- dent that his fyftem was little elfe than a colle&ion of v——
covered, only by reafoning ; and confifts for the moft fpeculations, diftinftions, and reafonings ; whereas that
part in a peccancy of the humours, either by pleni- of Hippocrates was founded immediately upon fafts,
tude or cacochymy, i. e. a bad Hate of them. When which he had either obferved himfelf, or had learned
the humours are in too large a quantity, the cafe is from the obfervation of others.
called a plethora ; but we muft obferve, that this word The fyftem of Galen, however, notwithftanding its
equally denotes too large a quantity of all the humours defefts and abfurdities, remained almoft uncontradift-
together, or a redundance of one particular humour ed for a very long period. Indeedit may be consider¬
ed as having been the prevailing fyftem till the inun¬
dation of the Goths aud Vandals put an almoft entire
flop to the cultivation of letters in Europe. But du¬
ring the general prevalence of the fyftem of Galen,
that the blood, which is the matter of the former, may there appealed fome writers to whom medicine was in-
far furpafs the reft : whereas, if any of the three laft debted for improvements, at leaft in certain particulars,
mentioned ones do fo, the cafe is no longer called p/eni- Among the moft diftinguiftied of thefe we may men-
tude, but cacochymy; becaufe thefe humours, abound- tion Oribafius, JEtius, Alexander, and Paulus.
ing more than they ought, corrupt the blood. The Oribafms flouriftied about the year 360, and was0r;bafius.
caufes he alfo divides into fuch as are manifeft and evi- phyfician to the emperor Julian. He fpeaks very
dent, and fuch as are latent and obfcure. The firft are fully of the effefts of bleeding by way of fcarification,
fuch as fpontaneoufly come under the cognizance of a thing little taken notice of by former writers ; from
our fenfes when they aft or produce their effefts: the his own experience he aflures us that he had found it
lecond are not of themfelves perceptible, but may be fuccefsful in a fuppreffion of the menfes, defluxions
difcovered by reafoning: the third fort, i. e. fuch as of the eyes, headach, and ftraitnefs of breathing even
he calls occult or concealed, ^cannot be difcovered at all. when the perfon was extremely old. He tells his own
Among this laft he places the caufe of the hydro- cafe particularly, when the plague raged in Afia,
phobia. . and he himfelf was taken ill, that the fecond day he
He next proceeds to confider the fymptoms of dif- fcarified his leg, and took away two pounds of blood;
eafes. A fymptom he defines to be “ a preternatural by which means he entirely recovered, as did feveral
affeftion depending upon a difeafe, or which follows it others who ufed it. In this author alfo we find the
as a fhadow does a body.” He acknowledged three firft defcription of a furprifing and terrible diftemper,
kinds of fymptoms : the firft and moft confiderable of which he termed *v*.cvib(tu*a., a fpecies of melancholy
thefe confifted in the aftidn of the parts being injured and madnefs, which he defcribes thus. “ The per-
or hindered ; the fecond in a change of the quality of fons affefted get out of their houfes in the night-time*
the parts, their aftions in the mean time remaining and in every thing imitate wolves, and wander among
entire ; the third related to defefts in point of excre- the fepulchres of the dead till day -break. You may
tion and retention. know them by thefe fymptoms : i'heir looks are pale ;
After having treated of fymptoms, Galen treats of their eyes heavy, hollow, diy, without the leaft moif-
the ftgns of difeafes. Thefe are divided into diag- ture of a tear; their tongue exceedingly parched and
nojlic and prognojlic. The firft are fo called becaufe dry, no fpittle in their mouth, extreme thirft ; their
they enable us to know difeafes, and diftinguifti them legs, from the falls and the bruifes they receive, full
from each other. They are of two {arts, pathognomonic of incurable fores and ulcers.”
and adjunct. The firft are peculiar to every difeafe, iEtius lived very near the end of the fifth, or in the^.^^5
make known its precife fpecies, and always accom- beginning of the fixth century. Many paflages in
pany it, fo that they begin and end with it. The his writings ferve to ftiow us how much the aftual and
fecond are common to feveral difeafes, and only ferve potential cautery were ufed by the phyficians of that
to point out the difference between difeafes of the age. In a palfy, he fays, that he fliould not at all
fame fpecies. In a pleurify, for inftance, the pathog- hefitate to make an efchar either way, and this in fe-
nomonic figns are a cough, a difficulty of breathing, a veral places ; one in the nape, where the fpinal mar-
pain of the fide, and a continued fever; the adjunft row takes its rife, two on each fide of it; three or
figns are the various forts of matter expeftorated, four on the top of the head, one juft in the middle,,
whirn lOmPtrmPS Klonrlv. ■TnTYlPtim^Q Kilir\no Rrr> ortrl til****** WMinrl if* T-Tn nAAo f-Vanf’ in f-V»»<*
which are fometimes bloody, fometimes bilious, &c. and three others round it. He adds, that in this
—The diagnoftic fig/ls were drawn from the defeftive cafe, if the ulcers continue running a good while, he
or difordered difpofition of the parts, or from the ftiould not doubt of a perfeft recovery. He is ftill
difeafes themfelves ; fecondly, from the caufes of dif- more particular when he comes to order this applica-
eafes; thirdly, from their fymptoms; and laftly, from tion for an inveterate afthma, after all other remedies-
the particular difpofitions of each body, from things have been tried in vain. One, he fays, fliould bemade
which prove prejudicial and thofe that do fervice, on each fide near the middle of the joining of the cla-
and from epidemical difeafes.—The proghoftic figns vide, taking care not to touch the wind-pipe : two.
he gathered from the fpecies, virulence, and peculiar other little ones are then to be made near the carotids
genius of the difeafe : but as we have already foken fo under the chin, one on each fide, fo that the cauftic
largely concerning the pr.ognoftics of Hippocrates, may penetrate no further than the fldn ; two others
it is fuperfluous to be particular on thofe of Galen.— under the breafts, between the third and fourth ribs ;
His method of cure differed little from that of Hip- and again, two more backwards towards the fifth and
pocrates ; but from the fpecimen already given of fixth ribs. Befides thefe there ought to be one in the
I middle
iftory. M E D I
'lEtius. middle of the thorax near the beginning of the xi-
phoid cartilage over the orifice of the ftomach; one
on each fide between the eighth and ninth ribs ; and
three others in the back, one in the middle, and the
two others juft below it, on each fide of the vertebrae.
Thofe below the neck ought to be pretty large, not
very fuperficial, not very deep : and all thefe ulcers
ftiould be kept open for a very long time.
.5£tius takes notice of the worms bred in different
parts of the body called dracunculi, which were un¬
known to Galen. He feems alfo to be the firft Greek
writer among the Chriftians, who gives us any fpeci-
men of medicinal fpells and charms; fuch as that of
a finger of St Blafius for removing a bone which fticks
in the throat, and another in relation to a fiftula.
He gives a remedy for the gout, which he calls the
grand drier ; the patient is to ufe it for a whole year,
and obferve the following diet each month. “ in
September, he muft eat and drink milk : In Oftober,
he muft eat garlic; in November, abftain from ba¬
thing ; in December, he muft eat no cabbage; in
January, he is to take a glafs of pure wine in the
morning; in February, to eat no beet; in March, to
mix fweet things both in eatables and drinkables ; in
I April, not to eat horfe-radilh, nor in May the fifh
called polypus ; in June, he is to drink cold water in
a morning ; in July, to avoid venery ; and laftly, in
Auguft, to eat no mallows.” This may fuffi-
ciently ftiow the quackery of thofe times, and
how fuperftition was beginning to mix itfelf with
I the art.
UV.. Alexander, who flourilhed in the reign of Juftinianr
is a more original author than either of the two for¬
mer. He confines himfelf direftly to the defcribing
the figns of difeafes, and the methods of cure, with¬
out meddling with anatomy, the materia medica, or
furgery, as all the reft did. He employs a whole
book in treating of the gout. One method he takes
of relieving this difeafe is by purging ; and in moft of
the purges he recommends hermeda&yls, of which he
has a great opinion. In a caufus, or burning fever,
where the bile is predominant, the matter fit for eva¬
cuation, and the fever not violent, he prefers purging
to bleeding, and fays that he has often ordered purging
in acute fevers with furprifing fuccefs. In the caufus
alfo, if a fyncope happens from crude and redundant
humours, he recommends bleeding. 1 n a fyncope fuc-
eeeding the fuppreffion of any ufual evacuation, he re¬
commends bleeding, with fridlions. The diagnoftics
upon which he founds this practice are the following
viz. a face paler and more fwelled than ufual, a bloated
habit of body, with a little fluggilh pulfe, having long
intervals between the ftrokes. In tertian, and much
more in quartan fevers, he recommends vomits above
all other remedies, and affirms that by this remedy
I alone he has cured the moft inveterate quartans. On
the bulimus, or canine appetite, he makes a new ob-
fervation, viz. that it is fometimes caufed by worms.
He mentions the cafe of a woman who laboured un¬
der this ravenous appetite, and had a perpetual gnaw¬
ing at her ftomach and pain in her head after taking
hiera, Are voided a worm above a do?err of cubits
long, and was entirely cured of her complaints.—He
is alfo the firft author who takes notice of rhubarb ;
which he recommends in a weaknefs of the liver and
CINE.
dyfentery.—Alexander is recommended by Dr Freiqd Alexander,
as one of the beft pradlical writers among the ancients, ——v——^
and well worthy the perufal of any modern. 4J
Paulus was born in the ifland iEgina, and lived in Paulas,
the 7th century. He tranfcribes a great deal from
Alexander and other phyficians. His defcriptions
are fhort and accurate. He treats particularly of wo¬
mens diforders ; and feems to be the firft inftance up¬
on record of a profeffed man-midwife, for fo he was
called by the Arabians : and accordingly he begins
his book with the diforders incident to pregnant wo¬
men. He treats alfo very fully of furgery ; and gives
fome dire&ions, according to Dr Freind, not to be
found in the more ancient writers..
After the downfal of the Roman empire, and when Arabian
the inundation of Goths andJ Vandals had almoft Phyfi<:un*-
completely exterminated literature of every kind in
Europe, medicine, though a pra&ical art, ftiared
the fame fate with more abftrad fciences. Learning
in general, banifhed from the feat of arms, took refuge
among the eaftern nations, where the arts of peace
Hill continued to be cultivated. To the Arabian phy¬
ficians, as they have been called, we are indebted both
for the prefervation of medical fcience, as it fubfifted
among the Greeks and Romans, and likewife for the j
defcription of fome new difeafes, particularly the
fmall-pox. Among the moft eminent of the Arabians,
we may mention Rhafes, Avicenna, Albucafis, and
Avenzoar. ^lutof their writings it would be tedious,
and is unneceffary to give any particular account 
They were for the moft part, indeed, only copiers of
the Greeks j we are, however, indebted to them for
fome improvements. They were the firft who intro¬
duced chemical remedies, though of thefe they ufed
but few, nor did they make any confiderable progrefs
in the chemical art. Anatomy was not in the lealt im¬
proved by them, nor did forgery receive any advance¬
ment till the time of Albucafis, who lived probably in
the 12th century. They added a great deal to botany
and the materia medica, by the introduftion of new:
drugs, of the aromatic kind efpecially, from the eaft,
many of which are of confiderable ufe. They alfo
found out the way of making fugar ; and by help of
that, fyrups ; which two new materials are of great
ufe in mixing up compound medicines.
With regard to their pra&ice, in fome few particu¬
lars they deviated from the Greeks. Their purging
medicines were much milder than thofe formerly in
ufe ; and even when they did prefcribe the old ones,
they gave them in a much lefs dofe than formerly.
The fame reflection may be made concerning their
manner of bleedi*^, which was never to that exceffive
degree pradlifed by the Greeks. They deviated from
Hippocrates, however,, in one very trivial circum-
ftance, which produced a violent controverfy. The
queftion was, Whether blood in a pleurify ought to
be drawn from the arm of the affefted fide or the
oppofite ? Hippocrates had direfted it to be drawn
from the arm of the affe&ed fide; but the Arabians,
following fome other ancient phyficians, ordered it to
be drawn from the oppofite one. Such was the igno¬
rance of thofe ages, that the univerfity of Salamanca
in Spain made a decree, that no one ftiould dare to
let blood but in the contrary arm ; and endeavoured to
procure an edift from the emperor Charles V. to fecoud
it 3.
70 M E D I
Arabian it ; alleging that the other method was of no lefs per-
Phyficiam. i]icious confequenee to medicine, than Luther’s herefy
v " had been to religion.
In confequence of the general decay of learning in
the wellern parts of the world, the Greek writers be¬
came totally forgot, becaufe nobody could read the lan¬
guage ; and the Arabians, though moftly copiers from
them, enjoyed all the reputation that was due to the
others. The Arabian phyfic was introduced into
Europe veiy early, with the moft extravagant ap-
plaufe : and not only this, but other branches of their
learning, came into repute in the weft; infomuchthat
in the nth century, the ftudies of natural philofophy
and the liberal arts were called the Jiudies of the Sara-
cens. This was owing partly to the crufades under-
48 taken againft them by the European princes ; and
College of partly to the fettlement of the Moors in Spain, and
fca ernum. ^ intercourfe they and other Arabians had with the
Italians. For, long before the time of the crufades,
probably in the middle of the 7th century, there were
. Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin profeffors of phyfic fettled
at Salernum : which place foon grew into fuch credit,
that Charles the Great thought proper to found a
49 college there in the year 802 ; the only one at that
tine^an" t^me Europe. Conftantine the African flourifhed
here towards the latter end of the 11 th century. He
was a native .of Carthage ; but travelled into the call,
and fpent 30 yjears in Babylon and Bagdad, by which
means he became mafter of the oriental languages and
learning. He returned to Carthage; but being in¬
formed of an attempt againft Ins' life, made his
efcape into Apulia, where he was recommended to
Rfiftert Guifcard, created in 1060 duke of that coun¬
try, who made him his fecretary. Fie w’as reputed to
be very well verfed in the Greek, as well as the eaftern
-State of tongues ; and feems to have been the firft who intro-
•incdicir.e in duced either the Greek or Arabian phyfic into Italy,
the 15th His works, however, contain nothing that is new, or
Centuries mater‘a^ > though he was then counted a very learned
man, and for that age no doubt was fo.
From this time to the end of the 1 5th and begin¬
ning of the 16th century, the hiftory of phyfic fur-
nilhes us with no interefting particulars. This period,
however, is famous for the introdu&ion of chemiftry
into medicine, and the defeription of three new dif-
tempers, the fweating ficknefs, the venereal difeafe,
and the feurvy. The fweating ficknefs began in 1483,
in the army of Henry VII. upon his landing at Mil-
Swearing ford-haven, and fpread itfelf at London from the 21ft
.ficknefs in of September to the end of Oftober. It returned here
England, five times, and always in fummer ; firft in 1485, then
in 1506, afterwards in 1517, when, it was fo violent
that it killed marry in the fpace of three hours, fo that
numbers of the nobility died, and of the commonalty
in feveral towns often the one-half periftred. It ap¬
peared the fourth time in 1528, and then proved mor¬
tal in fix hours ; many of the courtiers died of it, and
Henry VIII. himfelf was in danger. In 1529, and
Only then, it infefted the Netherlands and Germany,
in which laft country it did much mifehief. The laft
return of it was in 1551, and in Weftminfterit carried
off 120 in a day. Dr Cains deferibes it as a peftilent
contagious fever, of the duration of one natural day ;
the fweat he reckoned to be only a natural fymptom,
or crifis of the diltemper. . It firft afic&ed fume par-
C I N E. HifUv.
ticular part, attended with inward heat and burning, MojlWs.
unquenchable thirft, reftleffnefs, ficknefs at ftomach,
but feldom vomiting, headach, delirium, then faint-
nefs, and exceffive drowfinefs. The pulfe was quick j
and vehement, and the breath ftiort and laborious.—
Children, poor and old people, were lefs fubjeft to it.
Of others, fcarce any efcaped the attack, and moft of |
them died. Even by travelling into France or Flan¬
ders they did not efcape ; and what is ftill more ftrange, j
the Scots were faid not to be affected: abroad the
Englifh only were feized, and foreigners in England
were free. At firft the phyficians were much puzzled
how to treat this difeafe. The only cure they ever |
found, however, was to carry on the fweat for a long
time ; for, if ftopped, it was dangerous or fatal. The j |
way, therefore, was for the patient to lie ftill, and not
expofe himfelf to cold. If nature was not ftrong j j
enough to force out the fweat, it was ueceflary to af- \ j j
fill her by art, with cloaths, wine, &c. The violence ’ | ’
of the diltemper was over in 15 hours ; but there was
no fecurity for the patient till 24 were palled. In j :
fome ftrong conftitutions there was a neceffity to re- |
peat the fweating, even to 13 times. The removing
out of bed was attended with great danger; fome
who had not fweated enough fell into very ill fevers.—.
No flelh-meat was to be allowed in all the time of the 1
diftemper; nor drink for the firft five hours. In the
feventh, the diftemper increafed ; in the ninth the
delirium came on, and lleep was by all means to be
avoided. However terrible this diftemper appeared at j
firft, it feldom proved obllinate, if treated in the a-
bove-mentioned manner. ,
In the beginning oY the 16th century, the famous paracelf >
chemift Paracelfus introduced a new fyllem into me¬
dicine, founded on the principles of his att. The
Galenical fyftem had prevailed till his time ; but the
practice had greatly degenerated, and was become
quite trifling and frivolous. The phyficians rejected
the ufe of opium, mercury, and other efficacious re- ]
medics. Paiacelfus, who made ufe of thefe, had
therefore greatly the advantage over them ; and now
all things relating to medicine were explained on ima¬
ginary chemical principles. It will eafily be con¬
ceived that a practice founded in this manner could
be no other than the moft dangerous quackery. At
this time, however, it was neceffary; for now a new
difeafe over-ran the world, and threatened greater de-
ftrufilion than almoft all the old ones put together,
both by the violence of its fymptoms, and its baffling
the moft powerful remedies at that time known.—
This was the venereal difeafe, which is faid to have been
imported from the Weft-Indies by the companions of
Chriftopher Columbus. Its firft remarkable appear- \
ance was at the fiege of Naples in 1494, from whence
it was foon after propagated through Europe, Afia, App/a^.
and Africa. The fymptoms with which it made the ance of the
attack at that time were exceedingly violent, much venereal
more fo than they are at prefent; and confequently dlfeafe.
were utterly unconquerable by the Galeaifts. The
quacks and chemiils, who boldly ventured on mer¬
cury, though they no doubt deftroyed numbers by
their exceffive ufe of it, yet ihowed that a remedy for
this terrible diftemper was at laft found out, and that
a proper method of treating it might fo.on be fallei*
upon. Shortly after, the Weft-Indiao fpecific, guaia-
cum,
jiftory. M E D I
tod cm-, cum. was difcovered: the materia medica was enriched
i—y 1 and many ©ther valuable medicines, both
from the Eaft and Weft-Indies: which contributed
confiderably to the improvement of the praftice of
phytic. At this period, as fea voyages of confide-
rable duration became more frequent, the fcurvy be-
'i came a more frequent diftemper, and was of courfe
more accurately defcribed. But probably, from fup-
pofed analogy to the contagions which at that time
were new in Europe, very erroneous ideas were enter¬
tained with regard to its being of an infeftious nature:
» And it is not impoflible, that from its being attended
alfo with ulcers, it-was on fome occafions confounded
| . with fyphilitic complaints.
' ^fsof The revival of learning, which now took place
ildne in throughout Europe, the appearance of thefe new dif-
u-th tempers, and the natural fondnefs of mankind for
■ftSth novelty, contributed greatly to promote the advance-
series. ment 0f medicine as well as other fciences. While
at the fame time, the introduftion of the art of print-
| ing rendered the communication of new opinions as
well as new practices fo eafy a matter, that to enume-
r rate even the names of thofe who have been juftly ren¬
dered eminent for medical knowledge would be a very
tedious talk. It was not, however, till 1628 that Dr
| William Harvey of London demonftrated and commu-
I nicated to the public one of the moft important dif-
coveries refpefting the animal economy, the circula¬
tion of the blood. This difeovery, more effeftually
JSJ than any reafoning, overturned all the fyftems which
Loir- kad fubfifted prior to that time. It may jultly be rec-
dion. koned the moft important difeovery that has hitherto
been made in the healing art: for there can be no
doubt that it puts the explanation of the phenomena
] ' of the animal body, both in a ftate of health and dif-
eafe, on a more folid and rational footing than for¬
merly. It has not, however, prevented the rife of
numerous fanciful and abfurd fyfteras. Thefe, though
fafhionable for a Ihort time, and ftrenuoufly fupported
by blind adherents, have yet in no long period fallen
into deferved contempt. And notwithftanding the
J| abilities and induftry of Stahl, Hoffman, Boerhaave,
and Cullen, we may eafily venture to affert that no
a general lyftem has yet been propofed which is not
d liable to innumerable and unfurmountable objeftions. -
Very great progrefs has indeed been made in explain-
| ing the philofophy of the. human body,, from afeer-
C I N E.
taining by decifive experiment the influence of the cir- Modems,
culating, the nervous, and the lymphatic fyftems in
the animal economy. But every attempt hitherto
made to eftablifh any general theory in medicinb, that
is to conduit the cure of every difeafe on a few gene¬
ral principles, has equally deviated from truth with
71
thofe of Hippocrates and Galen ; and has equally
tended to miflead thofe who have adopted it. Indeed
we may with confidence venture to affert, that from
the very nature of the fubjeit itfelf, medicine does not
admit of fuch fimplicity. No one can deny that the
human body confiits of a very great number of diffe¬
rent parts, both folids and fluids. It is, however,
equally certain, that each of thefe is from many diffe¬
rent caufes liable to deviations from the found ftate.
And although fome flight changes may take place
without what can be called a morbid affeition, yet
we well know, that every change taking place to a
certain degree in any one part will neceffarily and
unavoidably produce an affeftion of the whole. Hence
we may without hefitation venture to affirm, that eve¬
ry general theory which can be propofed, attempting
to explain the phenomena,- and conduft the cure of
all difeafes on a few general principles, though for
fome time it may have ftrenuous advocates, will yet
in the end be found to be both ill-grounded and per¬
nicious.
The art of medicine has been much more ufefully
improved by careful attention to the hiftory, theory,
and pra&iee of particular difeafes, and by endeavour¬
ing to afeertain from cautious obfervation the fymp-
toms by which they are to be diftinguifhed, the caufes
by which they are induced, and the means by which
they are to be prevented, alleviated, or cured. On
this footing, therefore, we (hall endeavour to give a
brief account of at leaft the moft important affe&ions
to which the human body is fubjefted, delivering what
appear to: us to be the beft eftahliftied fadls and obfer-
vations refpe&ing each.
But before entering on the confideration of parti¬
cular difeafes, or what has commonly been ftyled the
practice of medicine, it is neceffary to give a gene¬
ral view of the moft important fundtions of the animal '
body, and of the cljief morbid affedtions to which they
are fubjected; a branch which has ufually been named -
the ’Theory ox Injlitutions of Medicine.
Theory of Medicine, or an Account of the principal Functions of the
Animal Body.
WHILE thefun&Ions of living animals, but par¬
ticularly of the human fpecies, are. very nume¬
rous, the accounts given of thefe both in a ftate of health
and difeafe are very various. Without, therefore, pre¬
tending to enumerate the' cOntradidlory opinions of
different authors,, we ftiall here prefent the reader with
a view of this fubjedt, extradled from one of the lateft:
and beft publications refpediing it, the Confpedus Me¬
dian a Theoretics of Dr James Gregory, formerly pro-
feffor of the inftitutions-of medicine in the univerfity;
of Edinburgh, and now profeffor of pradtice.
In this work, which was firft publiflied in 178c,
and. afterwards reprinted under an enlarged form in
rySs, Dr Gregory introduces' his fubjedl by obfer-D'vUi. n of ■
ving, that fome fundtions of thehumanbody.relatethefunc-
to itfelf only, and'others to external'things. To thetions’: t0 a"
latter clafs belong thofe which by phyfioians are call- ™'
ed the animal fvndions ; to- which are to be referred alltural,
our fenfes, as well as the power of voluntary motion,
by which We become acquainted'with the univerfe,
and enjoy this earth. Among the fundtions* which
relate to the body, only fome have been named ’vital,
fuch as the circulation, of the blood and refpiration ;
becaufe, without the conftant continuance of thefe
life cannot fubfift. Others, intended for repairing the
wafts of the fyftera, have been turned the natural func-
twm -
M E T) I
tlons; for by the conflant attrition of the folids,
and the evaporation of the fluid parts of the body, we
ftand in need of nouriihment to fupply this walle ;
after which the putrid and excrementitious parts
muft be thrown out by the proper paffages. The
digeftion of the food, fecretion of the humours, and
excretion of the putrid parts of the food, are referred
to this clafs ; which, though neceffary to life, may
yet be interrupted for a confxderable time without
danger.
Diftin<ft!on A difeafe takes place, when the body has fo far
of direafes declined from a found Hate, that its funftions are
into Ample either quite impeded, or performed with difficulty,
.poundm' ^ therefore may happen to any part of the
‘ body either folid or fluid, or to any one of the func¬
tions : and thofe may occur either Angle, or feveral
of them joined together; whence the diftinttion of
difeafes into Jtmple and compound.
We have examples of the moft Ample kinds of
difeafes, in the rupture or other injury of any of the
corporeal .organs, lay w'hich means they become lefs
At for performing their offices ; or, though the organs
themfelves ftiould remain found, if the folids or fluids
have degenerated from a healthy ftate; or if, having
loft their proper qualities, they have acquired others
of a different, perhaps of a noxious nature ; or laftly,
if the moving powers (hall become too weak or too
ftrong, or direft their force in a way contrary to what
g nature requires.
Symptom. The moft Ample difeafes are either produftive of
others, or of fymptoms, by which alone they become
known to us.—Every thing in which a Ack per-
fon is obferved to differ from one in health is called
a fymptom; and the moft remarkable of thefe fymp-
toms, and which moft conftantly appear, deftne and
conftitute the difeafe.
The caufes of difeafes are various; often obfcure,
and fometimes totally unknown. The moft full and
perfeft proximate caufe is that which, when pre-
Predfno ^ent’ Pr0(^uces a difeafe, when taken away removes
nent caufc. *t> an^ when changed alfo changes it.—There are
alfo remote caufes, which phyAcians have been ac-
cuftomed to divide into the predifponent and exciting
ones. The former are thofe which only render the
60 body At for a difeafe, or which put it into fuch a
fxciting ftate that it will readily receive one. The exciting
oufe. caufe is that which immediately produces the difeafe
in-a body already difpofed to receive it.
The predifponent caufe is always inherent in the
body itfelf, though perhaps it originally came from
without; but the exciting caufe may either come from
within or from without.
From the combined aftion of the predifponent and
exciting caufes comes the proximate caufe, which nei-
61 ther of the two taken flngly is able to produce ; feeing
Proximate neither every exciting caufe will produce a difeafe in
<:aa e’ every perfon, nor will every one predifpofed to a
difeafe fall into it without an exciting caufe.—A
body predifpofed to difeafe therefore has already
declined fomewhat from a ftate of perfeft health,
although none of its functions are impeded in fuch a
manner that we can truly fay the perfon is difeafed.
Yet fometimes the predifponent caufe, by continuing
long, may. arrive at fuch an height, that it alone,
without the addition of any exciting caufe, may pro-
N1* 202.
CINE. Thefy,
duce a real difeafe.—Of this we have examples in the- Orig if
debility of the Ample folids, the mobility of the,ljllg;]
living folids, and in plethora.—The exciting caufe ^"
alfo, though it (hould not be able immediately to
bring on a difeafe ; yet if it continues long, will by 1 ]
degrees deftroy the ftrongeft conftitution, and render
it liable to various difeafes ; becaufe it either pro- i I
duces a predifponent caufe, or is converted into it, j |1
fo that the fame thing may fometimes be an exciting , j j
caufe, fometimes a predifponent one; of which the
inclemencies of the weather, lloth, luxury, &c. are
examples. , J 1
Difeafes, however, feem undoubtedly to have their Herej;
origin from the very conftitution of the animal ma-difeafe! ^
chine ; and hence many difeafes are common to every
body when a proper exciting caufe occurs, though ]
fome people are1 much more liable to certain difeafes ■;
than others. Some are hereditary ; for as healthy pa- |
rents naturally produce healthy children, fo difeafed
parents as naturally produce a difeafed offspring. Some
of thefe difeafes appear in the earlieft infancy ; others j
occur equally at all ages; nor are there wanting fome j
which lurk unfufpecfed, even to the lateft old age, at ’
laft breaking out with the utmoft violence on a proper |
occaAon. Some difeafes are born with us, even though
they have no proper foundation in our conftitution, as
when a foetus receives feme hurt by an injury done to
the mother; while others, neither born with us nor
having any foundation in the conftitution, are fucked ;
in with the nurfe’s milk. Many difeafes accompany Dlfea(fi
the different ftages of life ; and hence fome are proper from ag
to infancy, youth, and old age. Some alfo are proper and fex.;
to each of the fexes : especially the weaker fex, pro¬
ceeding, no doubt, from the general conftitution of the
body, but particularly from the ftate of the parts fub- ; j
fervient to generation. Hence the difeafes peculiar
to virgins, to menftruating women, to women with 1
child, to lying-in women, to nurfes, and tp old wo- ^
men. The climate itfelf, under which people live, Difealesl
produces fome difeafes; and every climate hath a ten-fromdjj
dency to produce a particular difeafe, either from its111*16, t
excefs of heat or cold, or from the mutability of the
weather. An immenfe number of difeafes alfo may be m
produced by impure air, or fuch as is loaded with pu- j
trid, marlhy, and other noxious vapours. The fame :■
thing may happen likewife from corrupted aliment, 1
whether meat or drink; though even the beft and moft ■ |S
nutritious aliment will hurt if taken in too great quan- |
tity ; not to mention poifons, which are endowed with j
fuch pernicious qualities, that even when taken in a |
very fmall quantity they produce the moft grievous j
difeafes, or perhaps even death itfelf. Laftly, from gy :
innumerable accidents and dangers to which mankind Difeafe*^
are expofed, they frequently come off with broken
limbs, wounds, and contuAons, fometimes quite incu-Ci el ;|
table ; and thefe misfortunes, though proceeding from
an external caufe at flrft, often terminate in internal
difeafes.
Hitherto we have mentioned only the dangers which
come from without; but thofe are not lefs, nor fewer j
in number, which come from within. At every breath,
man pours forth a deadly poifon both to himfelf and
others. Neither are the effluvia of the lungs alone hurt- 9
ful: there flows out from every pore of the body a
moft fubtile and poifonous matter, perhaps of a putre-
fcent
Theory, MED!
Oriyi- <'l feent nature, which being long accumulated, and not
IMfeafts. allowed to difFufe itfelf through the air, infedts the
tu body with moft grievous difeafes ^ nor does it ftop
here, but produces a contagion which fpreads devafta-
tion far and wide among mankind. From too much
or too little exercife of our animal-powers alfo no
fmall danger enfues. By inadlivity either of body or
mind, the vigour of both is impaired j nor is the dan¬
ger much lefs from too great employment. By mode¬
rate life, all the faculties of the mind, as well as all the
parts of the body, are improved and ftrengthened ;
and here nature has appointed certain limits, fo that
exercife can neither be too much neglefted, nor too
much increafed, with impunity. Hence thofe who ufe
violent exercife, as well as thofe who fpend their time
in doth and idlenefs, are equally liable to difeafes; but
each to difeafes of a different kind : and hence alfo thft
bad efFefts of too great or too little employment of the
56 mental powers.
a-fcs Befides the dangers arifing from thofe actions of the
iconsofthe body and mind which are in our own power, there are
uinuud. others arifing from thofe which are quite involuntary.
Thus, pafiions of the mind, either when carried to too
great excefs, or when long continued, equally deftroy
I the health j nay, will even fometimes bring on fudden
death. Sleep alfo, which is of the greateft fervice in
reftoring the exhaufled flrength of the body, proves
noxious either by its too great or too little quantity.
In the moft healthy body, alfo, many things always
require to be evacuated. The retention of thefe is
hurtful, as well as too profufe anevacution, or the ex¬
cretion of thofe things either fpontaneoufty or artifi¬
cially which nature directs to be retained. As the
folid parts fometimes become flabby, foft, almeft dif-
-folved, and unfit for their proper offices; fo the fluids
are fometimes infpiflated, and formed even into the
hardeft folid mafles. Hence impeded actions of the
organs, vehement pain, various and grievous difeafes.
JLaftly, feme animals are to be reckoned among the
caufes of difeafes: namely, fuch as fupport their life at
the expence of others: and thefe either invade us
from without, or take up their refidence within
I _ the body, gnawing the bowels while the perfon
is yet alive, not only with great danger and diftrefs
to the patient, but fometimes even producing death
M «7 itfelf.
mPts vtcdica- Man, however, is not left without defence againft
"*tura‘ fo many and fo great dangers. The human body is pof-
feffed of a moft wonderful power, by which it preferves
itfelf from difeafes, keeps oft" mar*, and in a very ftiort
time cures fome already begun, while others are by
the fame means more flowiy brought to a happy con-
I clufion. This power, called the antocrateia, or vis me-
dicatrix naUira-, 'is well known both to phylicians and
philofophers, by wffiom it is moft juftly celebrated ;
this alone is fufficient for curing many difeafes, and
is of fervice in all. Nay, even the beft medicines ope¬
rate only by exciting and properly dire&ing.this force}
for no medicine will a<ft on a dead carcafe. But though
phyficians juftly put confidence in this power, and
though it generally cures difeafes of a flighter nature,
it is not to be thought that thofe of the mere grievous
kind are to be left to the unaffifted eft'orts of the vis
medicatrix. Phyficians therefore have a twofold error
to avoid, namely, either dtfpifmg the powers of na-
- VO L. XI. Parti.
CINE. 73
ture too much, or putting too gteat confidence In Origin of
them ; becaufe in many difeafes thefe efforts are .either DjP'a-e9-
too feeble or too violent, infomuch that fometimeg v J
they are more to be dreaded than even the dileafe itfelf.
So far therefore is it from being the duty of a phyfi-
cian always to follow the footfteps of Nature, that it is
often neceffary for him to take a dire&Iy contrary
courfe, and oppofe her efforts with all his might. 68
After this general view of the functions of the ani-Chemical
mal body, of the nature and caufes of difeafe, and of a‘ia'yn.s of,
the powers by which thefe are to be combated,
Gregory proceeds to treat of the folid materials of
which the body is formed. He tells us, that the
animal folid, when chemically examined, yields earth,
oil, fait, water, phlogifton or inflammable air, and a
great quantity of mephitic air. Thefe elements are
found in various proportions in the different parts of
the body; and hence thefe parts are endowed with
very different mechanical powers, from the hardeft
and moft folid bone to the foft and almoft fluid
retina. Nay, it is principally in this difference of
proportion between the quantities of the different
elements, that the difference between the folid and
fluid parts of the animal coniift', the former ha¬
ving much more earth and lefs water in their compo-
fition than the latter. The cohefion, he thinks, is
owing to fometliing like a chemical attra&ion of the
elements for one another; and its caufe is neither to
be fought for in the gluten, fixed air, nor earth. This
attra&ion, however, is not fo ftrong but that even
during life the body tends to diffolution ; and imme¬
diately after death putrefaftion commences, provided
only there be as much moifture iii it as will allow an
inteftine motion to go on. The greater the heat, the
fooner does pqtrefaftion take place, and with the great¬
er rapidity does it proceed; the mephitic air flies off,
and together with it certain faline particles; after
which, the cohefion of the body being totally deftroyed,
the whole falls into a putrid colluvies, of which at
length all the volatile parts being diffipated, nothing
but the earth is left behind.
This analyfis, he owns, is far from being perfed;
becaufe nobody has ever been able, by combining the
chemical principles of flefh, to reproduce a compound
any thing like what the flefli originally was: but, how¬
ever imperfed the analyfis may be, it ftill has the ad¬
vantage of Ihowing jn fome meafure the nature and
caufes of certain difeafes, and thus leads phyficians to
the knowledge of proper remedies. 6
The folid parts are fitted for the purpofes of life in Qualinc*
three feveral ways; namely, by their cohefion, theirof the Rn:-
fiexibility, and their elafticity, all of which are various mal folWs*
in the various parts of the body. Moft of the fundions
of life confift in various motions. In fome the moft
violent and powerful motions are required ; and there¬
fore fuch a degree of cohefion is neceffary in thefe
parts as will be fufficient for allowing them to perform
their oflicts without any danger of laceration. It is
therefore neceffary that fome of the folid parts fltould
be more flexible than others ; and it is likewife necef¬
fary that thefe parts, along with their flexibility, flrould
have a power of recovering their former fliape and
fituation, after the removal of the force by which they
were altered.
Thefe variations in flexibility, within certain li-
K mits.
74 M E D I
Quallne* mks, fcldam produce any material confequence with
mal SoHds reSarc^ to t^ie : though fometimes, by exceed-
. ing the proper bounds, they may bring on real and
very dangerous difeafes; and this either by an exctfs or
diminution of their cohefion, flexibility, or elafticity.
By augmenting the cohefion, the elafticity is alfo for
the moft part augmented, but the flexibility di-
miniihed; by diminifhing the cohefion, the flexibi¬
lity becomes greater, but the elafticity is diminiftied.
The caufes of thefe affe&ions, though various, may
be reduced to the following heads. Either the che- •
mical compofition of the matter itfelf is changed ; or,
the compofition remaining the fame, the particles of
the folid may be fo difpofed, that they fhall more or lefs
ftrongly attraft one another. As to the compofition,
almoft all the elements may cxift in the body in an un¬
due proportion, and thus each contribute its {hare to
the general diforder. But of many of thefe things we
know very little ; only it is apparent, that the fluid
parts, which confift chiefly of water, and the folid,
which are made up of various elements, are often in
very different proportions : the more water, the lefs is
the cohefion or elafticity, but the greater the flexibi¬
lity ; and the reverfe happens, if the folid or earthy
jo part predominates.
Cavfes af- The remote caufes of thefe different ftates, whether
ftdhng the predifponent or exciting, are very various. In the firft
5’ place, idiofyncrafy itfelf, or the innate conftitution of
the body, contributes very much to produce the above-
mentioned effects. Some have naturally a much harder
and drier temperament of the body than others ; men,
for inftance, more than women ; which can with the
utmoft difficulty,'indeed fcarce by any means what¬
ever, admit of an alteration. The fame thing takes
place at different periods of life; for, from firft to laft,
the human body becomes always drier and more rigid.
Much alfo depends on the diet made ufe of, which al¬
ways produces a correfponding ftate of the folids in pro¬
portion to its being more or lefs watery. Neither are
there wanting ftrong reafons for believing, that not
only the habit of the body, but even the difpofi-
tion of the mind, depends very much on the diet we
make ufe of. The good or bad concoftion of the ali-
pient alfo, the application of the nouriftiment prepated
from it, and likew’ife the ftate of the air with regard to
moifture or drynefs, affeft the temperament of the
body not a little; and hence thofe who inhabit
, mountains or dry countries, are very different from
the inhabitants of low marfhy places. Laftly, the
manner of living contributes fomewhat to this effedt:
Exercife preffes out and exhales the moifture of the
body, if in too great quantity ; on the contrary, floth
and lazinefs produce an eft eft directly oppofite, and
caufe a redundancy of humour.
But, putting the chemical compofition of the folid
parts out of the queftion altogether, they may be af-
fedted by many other caufes. The condenfation, for
inftance, or compreffion of the particles, whether by
mechanical caufes or by means of cold or heat, makes
a confiderable alteration in the ftrength and elafticity
of every folid body. How much mechanical preffure
contributes to this may be underftood from.the expe¬
riments of Sir Clifton Wintringham : and hence alfo
are we to deduce the reafon of many fadts of the high-
aft importance in the animal economy j namely, the
C J N E. Theory >
growth, ftate, decreafe of the body; its rigidity Qualitietl J
■daily increafing; and at laft the unavoidable death of the I
incident to old age from a continuance of the fame mal So“cl*T;ilT
caufes. * 'i" 1
Perhaps the different denfity of the folids is in fome
meafure owing to Nature herfelf; but it feems rather to
depend more on the powers of exercife or inadlivity in
changing the ftate of the folids, the effedts of which
on the body, whether good or bad, may hence be ea-
fily underftood.
Heat relaxes and expands all bodies, but cold ren¬
ders them more denfe and hard ; the effedts of which
on the human body are well known to moft people.
Though the body is found to preferve a certain de- „ ||.] j
gree of heat almoft in every fituation, it is impoflible
but that its furface muff be affedted by the tempera¬
ture of the ambient atmofphere; and we have hot the
leaft reafon to doubt that every part of the body may
thus feel the effedts of that temperature. What a dif¬
ference is there between one who, expofed to the fouth-
wind, becomes lazy and languid, fcarce able to drag
along his limbs; and one who feels the force of the
cold north-wind, which renders the whole body alert,
ftrong, and fit for adtion ?
That thefe various caufes, each of which is capable
of affedting the conftitution of the body when take#
fingly, will produce much greater effedts when com-
binedr is fufficiently evident. The experiments of . j
Bryan Robinfon, the effedts of the warm bath, and in¬
deed daily experience, ftiow it fully.
It is not yet certainly known what is the ultimate
ftrudture of the minuteft parts of the animal-folid %
whether it confifts of ftraight fibres or threads, whofe
length is very confiderable in proportion to their
breadth, varioufly interwoven with one another, as
Boerhaave fuppofes ; or of fpiral ones, admirably con¬
voluted and interwoven with one another, as fome mi-
crofcopical experiments feem to ftiow ; or whether the
cellular texture be formed of fibres and lamina, and
from thence the greateft part of the body, as the ce¬
lebrated Haller hath endeavoured to prove.
The cellular texture is obferved throughout the 0ej|uiar I
whole body: it furrounds and connedts the fibres texture- 1
themfelves, which are fufficiently apparent in many of
the organs; and flightly joins the different parts which
ought to have any kind of motion upon the neighbour¬
ing ones. By a condenfation of the fame fubftance
alfo, the ftrongeft, and what feem the thinneft, mem¬
branes are formed; the moft fimple of which, being
accurately examined, difeover the cellular ftrudture..
This cellular fubftance fometimes increafes to a furprr*
fing degree, and cdl parts formed of it, membranes,
veflels, &c. efpecially by a gentle diftenfion ; for %
fudden and violent diftenlion either breaks it altoge¬
ther, or renders it thinner. Sometimes alfo it grows
between neighbouring parts, and joins thofe which na¬
ture has left free. Preternatural concretions of this
kind are often obferved after an inflammation of the
lungs or of the abdominal vifeera; and thefe new
membranes are found to be truly cellular. This fub¬
ftance, when cut, or by any other means di vided, grows
together of its own accord ; but if, by reafon of very
great inflammation and fuppurat:on, a large portion of
the cellular texture has been deftroyed, it is never
again renewed, and an. ugly fear is left. It,is even-
Theory. M E D I
Cellular fald, that this fubflanee, in certain cafes, is capable
'^Texture. 0f joining the parts either of the fame body with one
another, or of a foreign body with them ; and upon
this, if on any foundation, refts the art of Taliacotius
and that of tranfplanting teeth, lately fo much talk-
^ ed of.
The cellular texture is in fome places merely a kind
of net-work, In others filled w ith fat. Wherever too
great bulk or compreffion would have been inconve¬
nient or dangerous, as in the head, lungs, eyes, eye-
I brows, penis, fcrotum, &c. there it coUefts no fat,
but is lax, and purely reticulated; but between
the mufcles of the body and limbs below the Ikin,
in the abdomen, efpecially in the omentum and
about the kidneys, very much fat is fecreted and
colle&ed.
Animal fat. The fat is a pure animal oil, not very different from
the expreffed and mild vegetable ones ; during life it
is fluid, but of different degrees of thicknefs in dif¬
ferent parts of the body. It is fecreted from the blood,
and is often fuddenly reabforbed into it, though pure
oil is very rarely obferved in the blood. It is indeed
very probable, that oil, by digeflion, partly in the
primjE vise, and partly in the lungs, is converted into
gluten, and this again into oil by means of feeretion ;
though no organs fecreting the fat can be fhown by
anatomifts. It is, however, probable, that there are
fuch organs ; and that the cellular texture has fome
peculiar ftrufture in thofe parts which are deftined to
contain the fat already fecreted, without fuffering it
to pafs into other places; for it never pafles into thefe
parts which are purely reticulated, although the cel¬
lular texture is eafily permeable by air or water over
the whole body from head to foot.
The fat is augmented by .the ufe of much animal-
food, or of any other that is oily and nourifhing, pro¬
vided the digeftion be good; by the ufe of flrong
drink, efpecially malt-liquor; by much reft of body
and mind, much fleep and inactivity, caftration, cold,
repeated bloodletting, and in general by whatever di-
minifhes the vital and animal powers. Much, how¬
ever, depends on the conftitution of the body itfelf;
nor is it pofiible to fatten a human creature at pleafure
like an ox. A certain degree of fatnefs, according to
the age of the perfon, is a fign and effeft of good
health ; but when too great, it becomes a difeafe of
itfelf, and the caufe of other difeafes. It may al¬
ways be very certainly removed by ftrong exercife,
little fleep, and a fpare and folid diet. The fat al¬
ways makes up a confiderable part of the bulk of the
body, and very often by far the greateft part. Its ufe
feems to be to make the motion of the body more eafy
and free by leffening the friCtion of the moving parts,
and thus preventing the abrafion of the folids, which
would otherwife happen. It is alfo of ufe to hinder
the parts from growing together, which fometimes
happens, when by an ulcer or any other accident a
part of the cellular texture containing the fat is de-
ftroyed. Befides all this, the fat contributes not a
little to the beauty of the body, by filling up the
large interftices between the mufcles, which would
-otherwife give the perfon a deformed and Stocking ap¬
pearance. It is thought to be nutritious, when ab-
forbed from its cells by the blood; but of this we
have no great certainty. It feems to have feme power
C I N E; 75
of defending from the cold, fteing nature has beftow- Animal
ed it in very great quantity on thofe animals which in- Fat' .
habit the colder regions.
Thofe parts of the body which enjoy fenfe and mo-Vital fo-
bility, are called living or vital folids. They are the hd*.
brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, fpinal marrow,
the nerves ariflng from thefc and diffufed throughout
the whole body, and which are diftributed through tire
various organs of fenfe and through the mufcles, and
laftly the mufcles themfelves. Senfation is much more
general than mobility, as being common to all the
parts already mentioned. Mobility is proper to the
nrufcular fibres alone : wherever there is fenfation,
therefore, we may believe that there are nerves; and
wherever there is mobility, we may believe that muf-
cular fibres exift. Nay, even mobility itfelf feems to
originate from the comre&ion which the mufcles have
with the nerves; for foon after the nerves are com-
prefled, or tied, or cut, the mufcles to which they are
diftributed lofe their faculties; which happens, too,
when the brain itfelf, or the origin of the nerves, is
affe&ed. Some reckon that the mufcles are produced
from the nerves, and confift of the fame kind of mat¬
ter. Both indeed have a fimilar fthnfture, as being
fibrous and of a white colour: for the mufcles when well
freed from the blood, of which they contain a great
abundance, are of this colour as well as the nerves; nei¬
ther can the nervous fibres by any means be diftin-
guifhed from the mufcular fibres themfelves. Both have
alfo fenfation ; and both ftimulants and fedatives ail in
the fame manner, whether they be applied to the
mufcles themfelves or to the nerves.
It is difficult for us to difeover the origin of many
parts of the body, or to afeertain whether they are
produced all at the fame time or one after another :
yet it muft be owned, that many of the mufcular parts,
are obferved to have attained a remarkable degree of
ftrength, while the brain is ftill foft and almoft fluid ;
and that the action of thefe mufcular parts is required
for the adfion and growth of the brain. The nuifcles
are alfo of a much firmer contexture than the nerves;
and enjoy a power of their own, namely, that of irri¬
tability, of which the nerves never participate. Of ne-
ceflity, therefore, either the mufcles muft be conftruc-
ted of fome kind of matter different from that of the
nerves ; or if both are made of the fame materials,
their organization muff be exceedingly different. But
if the fubftance of the mufdes and nerves be totally dif¬
ferent, we may eafily be convinced that much of the
one is always mixed with the other; for it is impof-
fible to prick a mufcle even with the fmalleft needle,
without wounding or lacerating many nervous fibres
at the fame time. Since, therefore, there is fuch a
clofe conne&ion between the mufcles and nerves both
as to their fun&ions and ilru&ure, they are defer-
vedly reckoned by phyfiologifts to be parts of the
fame genus, called the genus nervofum, or nervous
fxftem.
After treating of fenfe in general, Dr Gregory senrltf
proceeds to confider particularly each of the fenfes feeling.
both external and internal. He begins with the
fenfe of feeling, as being the moft Ample, and at
the fame time in common to every part of the ner¬
vous fyftem. In fome places, however, it is much
more acitfe than in others; iij the ikin, for in-
£ 2 ftance.
76 M E D I
Externa] ftanee, and efpeclally In the points of the fingers.
, Senfe^ Thefe are' reckoned to have nervous papilLe, which
v by the influx of the blood are fomewhat erefted in.
the aftion of contact, in order to give a more acute
fenfation ; though indeed this opinion feems rather to
be founded on a conjefture derived from the ftrufture
of the tongue, which is not only the organ of tafte, but
alfo a moft delicate organ of touch, than upon any
certain obfervations.
Tain- From the fenfe of feeling, as well as all the othei fenfes,
either pain or pleafure may arife; nay, to this fenfe we
commonly refer both pain and almoft all other trouble-
fhme fenfations, tho’ in truth pain may arife from every
vehement fenfation. It is brought on by any great
force applied to the fentient part; whether this force
comes from within or from without. Whatever,
therefore, pricks, cuts, lacerates, diftends, compreffes,
bruifes, ftrikes, gnaws, burns, or in any manner of
way ftimulates, may create pain. Hence it is fo fre¬
quently conjoined with fo many difeafes, and is often
more intolerable even than the difeafe itfelf. A mo¬
derate degree of pain ilimulates the affe&ed part, and
by degrees the whole body; produces a greater flux of
blood and nervous power to the part affe&ed; and of¬
ten ftimulates to fuch motions as are both neceflary
and healthful. Hence, pain is fometimes to be rec¬
koned among thofe thi ngs which guard our life. When
very violent, however, it produces too great irritation,
inflammation and its confequences, fever, and all thofe
evils which flow from too great force of the circula¬
tion ; it diforders the whole nervous fyftem, and pro¬
duces fpafms, watching, convulfions, delirium, debi¬
lity, and fainting. Neither the mind nor body can
long bear very vehement pain; and indeed Nature has
appointed certain limits, beyond which <he will not
permit pain to be carried, without bringing on deliri¬
um, convulfions, fyncope, or even death, to refcue the
miferable fuiferer from his torments.
Long continued pain, even though in a more gentle
degree, often brings on debility, torpor, palfy, and
* rigidity of the affe&ed part. But if not too violent,
nor accompanied with fever, ficknefs, or anxiety, it
fometimes feems to contribute to the clearnefs and
acutenefs of the judgment, as fome people teftify who
76 have been afflicted with the gout.
Anxiety. Anxiety is another difagreeable fenfation,. quite dif¬
ferent from pain, as being more obtufe and lefs ca¬
pable of being referred to any particular part, though
frequently more intolerable than any pain.. But we
muft take care to diftinguifti between this anxiety of
which we treat in a medical fenfe, and that which is
fpoken of in common difcourfe. The latter does not
at all depend on the ftate of the body, but belongs en¬
tirely to the mind ; and arifes from a fenfe of danger,
or a forefight of any misfortune. The former is truly
corporeal; and derives, no lefs than pain, its origin from
a certain ftate of the body. Notwrthftanding this diffe¬
rence, however, it is very poflible for both thefe kinds
of anxiety to be prefent at the fame time, or for the
one to be the caufe of the other. Avery great bodily
anxiety will ftrike fear and defpondency into the
moft refolute mind; and mental anxiety* on the
contrary, if very violent and long-continued, may in¬
duce the former, by deftroying the powers of the
C I N E. Theory
body, efpecially thofe which promote the circulation External
of the blood. Sei fes- ^
Anxiety, in the medical fenfe of the word, arifes in v
the firft place from every caufe difturbing or impeding
the motion of the blood through the heart and large
veffels near it. Anxiety, therefore, may arile from
many difeafes of the heart and its veffels, fuch as its
enlargement, too great conftri&ion, ©ififfcation, poly¬
pus, palpitation, fyncope, inflammation, debility, and
alfo fome affections of the mind. It is like wife produced
by every difficulty of breathing, from whatever caufe
it may arife ; becaufe then the blood paffes lefs freely
through the lungs : anxiety of this kind is felt deep in
the breaft. It is faid alfo to arife from the difficult
paffage of tire blood through the liver or other abdo¬
minal vifeera.
A certain kind of anxiety is very common and
troublefome to hypochondriacal peopte ; and arifes
from the ftomach and inteftines being either loaded,
with indigefted and corrupted food, or diftended with;
air produced by fermentation and extricated from the
aliments. By fuch a load, or diftenfion, the ftomach*
which is a very delicate organ, becomes greatly af-
fefted. Befides, the free defeent of the diaphragm is
thus hindered, and refpiration obftrufted. Anxiety
of this kind is ufually very much and fuddenly relieved
by the expulfion of the air; by which, as well as by
other figns of a bad digeftion, it is ealtly known. In
thefe cafes the anxiety is ufually, though with little
accuracy, referred to the ftomach.
Anxiety alfo frequently accompanies fevers of every
kind, fometimes in a greater and fometimes in a lef-
fer degree. In this cafe it arifes as well from the ge¬
neral debility as “from the blood being driven from
the furface of the body and accumulated in the large
veffels ; as in the beginning of an intermittent fever.
Or it may arife from an affection of the ftomach,
when overloaded with crude, corrupted aliment; or di¬
ftended and naufeated with too much drink, efpe¬
cially medicated drink. As the fever increafes, the
anxiety of the patient becomes greater and greater ;
remarkably fo, according to the teftimony of phyfi—
cians, either immediately before the crifis or on the
night preceding it; as before the breaking out of ex-.
anthemata, haemorrhagy, fweat, or diarrhoea, which
fometimes remove fevers. The patient feels like wife an
anxiety from the ftriking in of any eruption or critical
metaftafis. This fenfation alfo accompanies fevers and
moft other difeafes, when the vital power is exhaufted,
and death approaches, of which it is the forerunner
and the fign. It happens at that time, becaufe the
vital powers, unable to perform their functions, cannot
make the blood circulate. - But what kind of anxiety
this is, the other figns of approaching death (hows very
evidently. Moreover, even in the time of fleep, anxie¬
ty may arife from the fame caufes : hence frightful
dreams, which frequently difturb our repofe with fur-
prife and terror. ^
Itching, an uneafy fenfation, with a defire of fcratch- Itching'#
ing the place afiefted, is often very troublefome, al-
tho’ it feems to be more a-kin to pleafure than to pam.
As pain proceeds from too great an irritation, either-
chemical or mechanical, fo does itching proceed from
a fiight one. Titillation, or fri&ion, of a woollen ftiirt,
foe
■heory. M E D I
• i lixtfrnal for mlfance, upon the /hin of a perfon unaccuftamed
tilSenfct. to ,'*■ an(4 0f a delicate conftitution, excites itchiner;
to it, and of a delicate conftitution, excites itching;
as do alfo many acrid foffils, vegetables, and animals.
Hence an itching is the firft fenfation after the appli¬
cation of cantharides, although the fame, wlien aug¬
mented, becomes painful. The fame eft’eft is produ¬
ced by any tiring acrid thrown out upon the Ikin; as in
exanthematicfevers, the difeafe called the itch, .See. Lice,
worms, efpecially afearides, irritating either the fit in
or the inteftines, excite a troublefome itching. Cer¬
tain fpecies of internal itching excites people to many
neceftary aft ions both in a difeafed and healthy ftate ;
£uch as the excretion of the faeces and urine, cough¬
ing, freezing, and the like.
Too acute a fenfation over the whole body is very
rarely if ever obferved. In a particular part the fenfe
of feeling is often more acute than it ought to be, either
from the cuticle itfelf being too thin and foft, or being
removed; or from the part itfelf being inflamed, or ex-
pofed to too great heat. It becomes obtufe, or is even
quite deftroyed over the whole body, or in great part
of it, from various affe&ions of the brain and nerves;
as when they are wounded, comprefled, or defe&ive in
vital power. This is called anaejlhefia, and fometimes
accompanies palfy.
This fenfe may be deficient in a particular part, ei¬
ther from the nerve being difeafed, or from its being
compreffed or wounded, or from the part itfelf being
expofed to too great a degree of cold ;—or from the
fearf-lkin which covers it being vitiated, either beco¬
ming too thick or hard, by the handling of too rough,
Or hard, or hot bodies, as is the cafe with glafs-makers
and fmiths; or from the elevation of the cuticle from
the fubjaceht cutis, or true Ikin itfelf, by the interpo-
fition of blood, ferum, or pus; or from the cutis be¬
ing macerated, relaxed, or become torpid, which fome¬
times happens to hydropic perfons; or laftly, from the
whole organ being corrupted by gangrene, burning,
cold, or contufion. This fenfe is very rarely depraved,
unlefs perhaps in the cafe of delirium, when all the
fii nations of the brain are difturbed in a furprifing
manner.
The fenfe next to be confidered is that of tafte, the
principal organ of which is the tongue; the nearer the
tip of it, the more acute is the fenfe, and the nearer
the glottis fo much the more obtufe. It muft be
owned, however, that fome kind of acrid fubftances,
the tafte of which is fcarce perceived upon the tip of
the tongue, excite a moft vehement fenfation about its
roots, or even in the throat itfelf. "1 he tongue is en¬
dowed with many large and beautiful nervous papilla:,
which feem to be the chief feat of this fenfe, and in
the ad! of tailing are elevated and eredled, imorder to
give the more acute fenfation-
Nothing can be tailed which is not foluble in the fa-
liva, that, being applied in . a fluid form, it may per¬
vade the involucra of the tongue, and affedl its nervous
pulp ; and hence infoluble earths are quite. infipid.
Neither is it fufficient for a body to be foluble that it
maybe tailed: it mull alfo have fomething in it faline,
or at leaft aicrid, in order to ftimulate the nervous fub-
fiance ; and hence, whatever has lefs fait than the fa-
liva is totally infipid.
The tafte is rarely found to be too acute* unlefs
through a fault in the epidermis which covers the
CINE. 77
tongue. If this be removed or wounded, or covered External
with ulcers, aphthae, &c. then the tafte, becoming too Senfes-
acute, is painful: or fometimes no other fenfation *
than that of pain is felt. It may be impaired, as well
as the fenfe of feeling, from various difeafes of the
brain and nerves; of which, however, the inftances are
but rare. In fome people it is much more dull than in
others; and in fuch the fenfe of fmelling is tifually de¬
ficient alfo. The tafte is moft commonly deficient on
account of the want of faliva; for a dry tongue cannot
perceive any tafte: hence this fenfe is very dull in many
difeafes, efpecially in fevers, catarrhs. See. as well on
account of the defedl of faliva as of appetite, which
is of fo much fervice in a ftate of health; or by reafon
of the tongue being covered with a vifeid mucus.
The talle is frequently depraved; when, for ex¬
ample, we have a perception of tafte without the ap¬
plication of any thing to the tongue; or, if any thing
be applied to it, when we perceive a tafte different
from what it ought to be. This happens for the moil
part from a vitiated condition of the faliva, which is
itfelf tafted in the mouth. Hence we may perceive a
fweet, faline, bitter, putrid, or rancid tafte, according
to the ftate of the faliva :' which may be corrupted ei¬
ther from the general vitiated condition of the mafs of
humours, or the glands which fecrete it; of the mouth,
itfelf; or even of the ftomach, the vapours and eruc¬
tations of which rife into the mouth, efpecially when
the ftomach is difeafed.
Befides the faults of the faliva, however, the tafte
may be vitiated from other caufes ; as, for inftance,
the condition of the nervous papilke. This, however,
is as yet but little known to us; for the tafte is
fometimes plainly vitiated when at the fame time
the faliva appears quite infipid when tafted by other
people.
Phyficians, in almoft every difeafe, but efpecially in
fevers, inquire into the ftate of the tongue; not, indeed, -
without the greateft reafon : for from this they can
judge of the condition of the ftomach; of the thirft, or
rather the occafion the patient has for drink, when, on
account of his delirium or ftupor, he neither feels his
thirft nor is able to call for drink. And, laftly, from
an infpedlion of the tongue, phyiicians endeavour to
form fome judgment concerning the nature, increafe,
and remiffion of the fever.
After the fenfe of tafte, Dr Gregory next treats of q
that of fmell. Its feat is in that very foft and delicate m
membrane, filled with nerves and blood-veffels, which
covers the internal parts of the nofe, and the various
finufes and cavities proceeding .from thence. This
fenfe is more acute about the middle of the feptum,-
and the tjfa fpongiofa, where the membrane is thicker
and fofter, than in the deeper cavities, where the
membrane is thinner, lefs nervous, and lefs filled with
blood-veffels; although even thefe do not feeem to be
altogether deftitute of the fenfe of fmelling.
As by our tafte we judge of the foluble parts of bo¬
dies, fo by our fmell we judge of thofe very volatile
and fubtile parts which fly off into the air; and like
the organ of tafte, that of fmell is kept moift, that
it may have the more exquifite fenfation, partly by its
proper mucus, and partly by the tears which defeend
from the eyes.
Some kinds of odours greatly affe6l the nervous fy-
fttuny
h
MEDICINE.
Hearing.
External ftem, and produce the moil furpriilng effe£|s. Some
Senfes' gratefully excite it, and immediately recruit the fpirits
’* when almoft finking; while fome produce fainting,
nay, as it is alleged, even fudden death. To this head
alfo are we to refer thofe antipathies, which, though
truly ridiculous, are often not to be fubdued by any
force of mind.
This fenfe is fometimes too acute, as well from
fome difeafe in the organ itfelf, which happens more
rarely, as from the too great fenfibility of the nervous
fyftem in general, as is fometimes obferved in nervous
fevers, phrenitis, and hyfteiia. It is more frequent¬
ly, however, too dull, either from difeafes of the brain
and nerves, as from fome violence done to the head, or
from fome internal caufe; or it may proceed from a
drynefs of the organ itfelf, either on account of the
cuilomary humours being fuppreffed or turned another
way, or from the membranes being oppreffed with too
great a quantity of mucus or of tears. Of both thefe
cafes we have inftances in the catarrh, where at firft
the noftrils are dry, but afterwards are deluged with a
thin humour, or flopped up with a thick one. But
in thefe, and many other examples, the membrane of
the nofe itfelf is affedted with inflammation, relaxation,
or too great tenfion, by which it is impoffible but the
nerves, which conftitute a great part of it, muft be vi¬
tiated. It is evident alfo, that whatever obftrufts the
free entrance of the air into the noftrils, or impedes its
pafiage through them, muft prove detrimental to the
fenfe of fmelhng.
° _ 'I'he fenfe of hearing is more frequently vitiated than
almoft any of the reft, as having a moft delicate or¬
gan, and one compofed of many and very fmall parts,
of which an account is given under the article Ana¬
tomy.—It frequently becomes too acute; either from
the general habit of the body being too irritable, fuch
as often happens to hyfterical and lying-in-women; or
from too great a fenfibility of the brain itfelf, which is
not unfrequently obferved in foyers, as well as in phre¬
nitis, and fometimes in the true mania; or it may be
from a difeafe of the ear itfelf, as when it is affe&ed
with inflammation, pain, or too great tenfion.—It may
be rendered dull, or even be altogether deftroyed, fo
that the perfon fhall become totally deaf from the fame
caufes afting with different degrees of force. This
happens efpecially from the want of the external ear;
or from the meatus auditorius being flopped up with
mucus, wax, or other matters; or from the fides of
the canal growing together, as fometimes happens af¬
ter fuppuration or the fmall-pox; or by the membrane
of the tympanum becoming rigid or relaxed, or being
eroded or ruptured ; or the tympanum itfelf, or the
Euftachian tube, may from certain caufes be obftru&ed;
or fome of the little bones or membranes, or fome of
the mufcles of the labyrinth itfelf, may be affected
with concretion, fpafm, palfy, or torpor; or laftly,
it may happen from difeafes of the brain and nerves,
all the organs of hearing remaining found. Hence
deafnefs is often a nervous difeafe, coming fuddenly
on, and going off of its own accord. Hence alfo it
is common in old people, all of whofe folid parts are
too rigid, while their nervous parts have too little fen¬
fibility.
Perfons labouring under fevers, efpecially of the
typhous kind, ofteahecome deaf. When this comes on
Theoi,
along with other figns of an oppreffed brain, and 3 Exteriji
great proftration of ftrength, it may be a very bad Senfef
fign ; but for the moft part it is a very good one, even 'r*"
though accompanied with fome degree of torpor or
fleepinefs.
A very common difeafe in the fenfe of hearing is
when certain founds, like thofe of a drum, a bell, the
falling of water, &c. are heard without any tremor
in the air, or without a found perfon’s hearing any
thing. This difeafe is called tinnitus aurium, of which
various kinds have been obferved. For the moft part
it is a very flight tranfient diforder; but fometimes it
is moft obftinate, long-continued, and troublefome. It
fometimes arifes from the fiighteft caufe, fuch as any
thing partially flopping up the meatus auditorius or
Euftachian tube itfelf, fo that accefs is in part denied
to the air; whence it happens that the latter ftrikes
the membrane of the tympanum, or perhaps the inte¬
rior parts, unequally, and with too much force. Hence
bombi, a kind of tinnitus, are heard even by the moft
healthy when they yawn.
A much more frequent and troublefome fpecies of
tinnitus accompanies many difeafes both of the febrile
and nervous kind. This is occafioned partly by the
increafed impetus of the blood towards the head, with
an increafe of fenfibility in the nervous fyftem itfelf,
fo that the very beatings of the arteries are heard ;
and partly from the increafed fenfation and mobility
of the nerves and mufcles of the labyrinth : whence it
happens, that the parts which ought to be at reft un¬
til excited by the tremor of the air, begin to move of
their own accord, and impart their motion to other
parts which are already in a morbid ftate of too great
fenfibility.
A tinnitus fometimes arifes from any vehement af¬
fection of the mind ; fometimes from a diforder in the
ftomach ; fometimes from a rheumatic diforder affe6t-
ing the ears and head; or from a catarrh, which com¬
monly affedts the tube. Sometimes, however, the
tinnitus alone affedls the patient; and even this is a
difeafe of no fmall confequence. Thefe various cau¬
fes, however, both of this and other diforders of the
hearing, are often very difficult to be diftinguiflied,
as well on account of the inacceffible fituation of
the organ, as on account of the little knowledge
we have of its action. But from whatever caufe
it arifes, both this and the other various affedtions
of the hearing can neither be cured certainly nor ea-
%• tt
Concerning the nature of the fenfe of fight, the sight,
reader may confiilt the articles Anatomy and Optics.
Of this fenfe fome flight diforders, or rather varieties,
are often obferved. Thofe perfons are called Jhort-
fighted who cannot fee diftindtly unlefs the objedl be
very near them. This diforder arifes from too great
a refradtion of the rays by reafon of their being too
foon colledled into a focus by the cryftalline lens, and
diverging again before they fall upon the retina, by
which means they make an indiftindl pidlure upon it.
The moft ufual caufe is too great a convexity of the
eye or fome of its humours, as too prominent a cor¬
nea. It is a diforder common to young people, which
is fometimes removed when they grow older. As foon
as the firft approaches of fliort-fightednefs are obfer¬
ved, it is fuppofed it may be obviated by the perfou’*,
4 aeca.
fheory. MED
,'gxwnal accuftoming hlmfelf to view remote objects, and keep-
Senfe*. j'ng eyeg 0g- very fmaU and near ones . aS} on
contrary, it may be brought on by the oppofite cu-
ftom ; bepaufe the eye accommodates itfelf fomewhat
to the diftances of thofe objects which it is accuftomed
to view. But a concave glafs, which caufes the rays
of light to diverge more than naturally they would be¬
fore falling upon the cornea, is the molt Ample and
certain remedy.
Long-Jighted people are thofe who cannot fee an
tobjedt diftindtly unlefs it be at a conliderable diltance
from them. This arifes from caufes contrary to the
Termer; namely, the eye being too flat, fo that there
is no room for refracting the rays and bringing them
into a focus. Hence this defedt is common in old
people, and remedied by the ufe of convex glafies.
Thofe are called nySalopes who fee better with a very
weak than with a ftrong light. It is a defedt very
feldom to be met with in the human race, though
every perfon is fenfible of it who hath been long kept
in the dark and is then fuddenly brought into the
| light. The difeafe arifes from too great a fenfibility
of the retina, and the pupil being too open.
The fight is liable to many and grievous diforders.
It is lharpened beyond meafure, lo that the perfon
either perceives nothing diftindtly, or with great pain,
from the fame caufes that induce a fimilar diforder
in the other fenfes ; namely, exceflive fenfibility in
the general habit of body ; or a particular ftate of the
brain common in phrenitis, or even in thofe afflidted
| with fevers arifing from inflammation or too great ex¬
citement ; though more frequently from the condition
of the eye itfelf, one becomes unable to bear the light.
The inflammation of the tunica adnata, and the fore¬
part of the fclerotica, is communicated to the back
parts of it, and from theftce to the choroides and re¬
tina itfelf. Hence the light becomes intolerable, and
vifion is attended with pain and great irritation, fome-
times inducing or augmenting a delirium.
The fenfe of feeing is made dull, or even totally
abolirtied, by age; the aqueous humour not being
fupplied in fufficient quantity, and the cornea and
lens, or the vitreous humour, becoming ihrivelled or
decayed. It may likewife happen from the cornea
becomingdry and opaque ; which is to be imputed to
the languid motion of the blood, and to great numbers
of the fmall veflels being obftru&ed or having their
fides concreted or from the cryltalline lens becoming
yellow like amber, and the retina itfelf lefs fenfible,
for old age diminilhes every fenfation. It is totally
aboliflied by injuries of the brain, the optic nerve, or
the retina, even though the ftrudfure of the organ
Ihould remain found. This difeafe is called an amau-
rofrs; and is eafily known by the dilatation and im¬
mobility of the pupil, the humours of the eye remain¬
ing clear. It is commonly owing to congeftion of
blood ; and fometimes, where no congeftion of blood
can be Ihown, to mere torpor of the nerves. If it be
only a torpor of part of the retina, we fee black fpots
in thofe things at which we look; or flies feem to
pafs before our eyes, a very bad fign in fevers, and
almoft always mortal. The fight is aboliftied alfo by
the obfcurity or opacity of any of the parts through
which the rays ought to pafs and be refra&ed ; as if
tbc cornea lofe its tranfparency by being covered with
[CINE. 7^
fpots; or the aqueous humours become corrupted with External,
blood, ferum, or pus; or the lens (which often hap- Senfes' ,
pens and which is called a cataraS) becomes of a
grey or brown colour, or the vitreous humour be in
like manner corrupted; orlaftly, when all the humours,
being diflblved, confufed, and mixed together, by in¬
flammation and fuppuration, either do not fuffer the
light to pafs at all, or to pafs imperfe£tly and un¬
equally ; whence either no image is formed on the
retina, or it appears obfeure, diftorted, imperfedt, and
ill-coloured.
The fight is alfo depraved, when things appear to
it of a colour different from their own, or even in an¬
other ficuation and of another Ihape than they ought
.to have. This happens from the humours being tinc¬
tured with any unufual colour, as is faid to happen in
fome inftances of jaundice 'r or from an extravafation
and mixture of the blood with the aqueous humour.
A furprifing depravation alfo, or conftant and perpe¬
tual defedl of vifion, is not Unfrequently obferved in
men otherwife very healthy, and'who fee quite clear¬
ly ; namely, that they cannot diftinguifli certain co¬
lours, green, for example, from red*. Another de-# see tj!.,
pravation is, when, without any light being admitted article Go¬
to the eyes, fparks, fmall drops of a flame or gold co- lours
lour, and various other colours, are obferved to float caf.ac,ty.!!-f
before us. This is generally a very flight- and tran-^Jf“^ '
fient diforder, common to thofe whofe conftitutions
are very irritable; and arifes from the flight impulfe,
as it would feera, on the retina, by the veffels beating
more vehemently than ufual. A fiery circle is ob¬
ferved by prefiing the eye with the finger after the
eye-lids are Ihut. The fame reafon, perhaps, may be
given for thofe fparks which are feen by perfons la¬
bouring under the falling-ficknefs, and increafing to
the fize of an immenfe and luminous beam before they
fall down in convulfions. A fimilar beam thofe who
have recovered from hanging or drowning teftify that
they have obferved: for by reafon of the refpiratkm.
being fuppreffed, the veffels of the head fwell and com-
prefs the whole brain and nervous parts of the head.
Sparks of the fame kind, and thefe too of no good
omen, are obferved in patients labouring under a fever,
where a phrenitis or fierce delirum is at hand: and
likewife in thofe who are threatened with palfy, apo¬
plexy, or epilepfy.—A diftind but falfe perception,
namely of vifible things which do not exift, is to be
imputed to fome injury of the brain, to madnefs or 3
delirium, not to any difeafe of the eye.
A very frequent defect of vifion remains to be men¬
tioned ; namely, fquinting. A perfon is faid to fquint
who has the axes of the eyes more oblique than ufual,
and direfted to different points. Hence a great de¬
formity, and often an imperfed and confufed vifion by
which the objeds are fometimes feen double. It is an
evil for the moft part born with the perfon, and often
correded by. thofe attempts which an infant makes to
fee more pleafantly and diftindly; and this even with¬
out being confcious of its own defects. It is alfo eafi¬
ly learned, efpecially in infants, even without their own
knowledge, by that kind of imitation which has a
great influence over the human race, efpecially in their-
tender years.—It is by no means, however, fo eafily*
unlearned.
Squinting is frequently occafxoned by a fpafm, palfy,
rig;-
8a M E D I
^Senr’l^ r's^ity, &e. of the mufcles which manage the eye; by
^ otn es. gpilepfy. by certain difeafes of the head, the hydro-
*• cephalus efpecially ; or by any great injury dene to
the head. Sometimes, though very rarely, it comes
on fuddenly without any known caufe. It is very pro-
' hable, however, that fquinting often arifesfrom a fault
of the retinas, when their central points, for inftance,
and thofe fimiiarly placed with refpedt to the centre,
do not agree. In this cafe there mult be a contortion
of the eye, that the objedl may not be feen double.
This feems alfo to be the reafon why fquinting is hor¬
ribly increafed when the perfon brings the objeA near
his eye in order to view it more perfe&ly. Or if the
central point of either, or both, of the retinae be in-
fenfible, or nearly fo, it is neceflary for the perfon
to diftort his eyes that he may have any diftinft
vifion of objedts. If the optic nerve had not enter¬
ed the retina obliquely, but palled dire&ly through
its centre, we would all either have fquinted or feen
double.
ertige. Phyficians have referred to the fenfe of vifion that
moft troublefome fenfation which we call a vertigo:
though it feems rather to belong to that of feeling, or
of confcioufnefs ; for in many inftances the diforder is
not removed either in the dark or by Ihutting the eye¬
lids. The vertigo takes place when external objects
really at reft feem to reel, to whirl round, to tremble,
or to move in any manner of way. If the diforder
be very violent, the peffon is neither able to fee, on
account of a dimnefs of fight; nor can he ftand, as
the powers Tail which ought to govern the limbs. A
jiaufea alfo ufually accompanies the vertigo, and the
one generally produces the other.
This diforder is obferved to be both the fymptom
and forerunner of fome dangerous difeafes ; fuch as
apoplexy, epilepfy, hyfteria ; hremorrhages from the
nofe and other parts; fuppreffions of the menfes;
plethora; fevess, as well fiach as are accompanied with
debility as thofe in which there is an increafed impe¬
tus of the blood towards the head. An injury done to
the head alfo, but rarely one done to the eyes unlefs
in fo far as it affedls the whole head, brings on a ver¬
tigo. A vertigo may be likewife produced by a very
great and fudden lofs of blood or other fluid ; by de¬
bility ; fyncope’; various difeafes of the alimentary
canal, of the ftomach efpecially; poifons admitted in¬
to the body, particularly of the narcotic kind, as
opium, wine, See. and hence vertigo is a fympton of
-every kind of - drunkennefe. Various motions alfo,
cither of the head or the whole body, being tofled in
"a fliip, efpecially if the veflel be fmall and the fea runs
iiigh, produce a vertigo. In thefe and fimilar ex-
-amples, the unufual and inordinate motions of the
blood are communicated to the nervous parts which
nre in the head ; or thefe being affefted by fympathy
from the neighbouring parts, produce a confufed fen-
Tation as if of a rotatory motion. Nay, it is often
produced from an affection of the mind itfelf, as from
beholding any thing turned fwiftly *ound, or a great
cataraft, or looking down a precipice, or even by in-
tenfe thought without looking at any thing.
Though a vertigo be for the molt part a fymptom
and concomitant of other difeafes, yet it is fometimes
a primary difeafe, returning at intervals, increafing
■N0 204.
CINE. The* t
gradually, and equally impeding nnd deftroyfhg the
functions of the body and mind.
After having treated of the external fenfes, doctor ~"g;~
Gregory next proceeds to confider thofe properly call- Mewy..
ed interna/; which are, tire memoryt the imagination, jj!
and the judgment. The firft is leflened, difturbed, or
even totally deftroyed, in many difeafes, efpecially thofe
which affedt the brain; as the apoplexy, palfy, inter¬
nal tutnors of the head, external violence applied, fe¬
vers, efpecially thofe in which there is an increafed fi
motion of the blood towards the head, of where the
brain is any other way very much uffeded. ,It is very
rarely, however, depraved in fuch a manner that.ideas
are not reprefented to the mind in their proper order; ,
or if at any time fuch a diforder occurs, it is confider- j
ed rather as a diforder of the imagination, or as a de* |
lirium, than a failure of the memory. The mind is faid I;
to be difordered when the perceptions of memory or
imagination are confounded with thofe of fenfe, and i
of confequcnce thofe things believed to be now pre»
fent which are really pall or which never exifted ; or i
when the fenfe of the perfon concerning ordinary things
is different from that of other people. The general
name for fuch diforders is vefania ; if from fever, it is
called delirium. A general fury without a fever, is
called mania, or madnefs; but a partial madnefs, on
one or two points, the judgment remaining found in
all other refpefts, is called melancholia. There is, how¬
ever, no exa6t and accurate limits between a found
mind and madnefs. All immoderate vivacity borders ' I
upon madnefs; and, on the other hand, a forrowful and j!
gloomy difpofition approaches to melancholy. g4 • .3
Delirium accompanies fevers of many different kinds. Ddiriiij u
Sometimes it is flight, eafily removed, and fcarce to
be accounted a bad fign. Often, however, it is very
violent, and one of the very worft of figns, requiring
the utmoft care and attention.
A delirium is either fierce or mild. The fierce de¬
lirium is preceded and accompanied by -a rednefs of
the countenance, a pain of the head, a great beating
of the arteries, and noife in the ears; the eyes in the
mean time looking red, inflamed, fierce, fhining, and ;
unable to bear the light; there is either no fleep at :
all, or fleep troubled with horrid dreams; the wonted
manners are changed ; an unufual pcevifnnefs and ill-
nature prevail. The depravation of judgment is firft |
obferved between fleep and waking, and by the per¬
fon’s crediting his imagination, while the perceptions
of fenfe are negle&ed, and the ideas of memory occur
in an irregular manner. Fury at lift takes place, and
fometimes an unufual and incredible degree of bodily
ftrength, fo that feveral people can fcarcc keep a
Angle patient in his bed.
The mild delirium, on the contrary, is often accom- ;
panied with a weak pulfe, a pale collapfed counte¬
nance, and a vertigo when the patient fits-in an ereft
potture ; he is feldom angry, but often ftupid, and
fometimes remarkably grieved and fearful. The lofs of
judgment, as in the former kind, is firft perceived when
the patient is half awake ; but a temporary recovery
enfues upon the admiffion of the light and the con-
verfation of his friends. The patient mutters much to
himfelf, and attends little to the things around him ;
at laft, becoming quite ftupid, he neither feels the
iTheory.
M E D I
- Delirium- fenfations of hunger or thirft, nor any of the other
  propenfities of nature, by which means the urine
and excrements are voided involuntarily. An the
diforder increafes, it terminates in fubfultus tendi-
fium, tremors, convulfions, fainting, and death. The
ether fpecies of delirium alfo frequently terminates in
this, when the fpirits and ftrength of the patient be-
i gin to fail.
The fymptoms accompanying either of thefe kinds
of delirium Ihow an unufual, inordinate,' and unequal
motion of the blood through the brain, and a great
change in that ftate of it which is neceffary to the ex-
ercife of the mental powers. It is fufficiently pro¬
bable, that an inflammation of the brain, more or lefs
violent and general, fometimes takes place, although
the figns of univerfal inflammation are frequently flight.
This we learn from the difleftion of dead bodies, which
often fhow an unufual rednefs of the brain or of fome
of its parts, or fometimes an effufion or fuppuration.
The ftate of the brain, however, may be much af-
fedled, and a delirium induced, by many other caufes
befides the motion of the blood. In many fevers, ty¬
phus, for inftance, the nervous fyftem itfelf is much
fooner and more affe&ed than the blood; and though
the morbid affe&ions of the nervous fyftem are as in-
vifible to the fenfes as the healthy ftate of it, the
fymptoms of its injuries plainly fliow that its aftion,
or excitement as fome call it, is unequal and inordinate.
In this way, too, a delirium is produced by feveral
, -« poifons.
IMelancho- pathology of melancholy and mania is much
if/ and ma- more obfcure ; as coming on without any fever, or dif-
aia. turbance in the blood’s motion. Often alfo they are
hereditary, depending on the original ftiufture of the
body, efpecially of the brain; the fault of which, how¬
ever, cannot be detected by the niceft anatomift. But
it is well known, that various difeafes of the brain,
obftrudtions, tumors, either of the brain itfelf, or of
the cranium preffing upon it, any injury done to the
head, and, as fome phyficians relate, the hardnefsand
drynefs of the brain, and fome peculiar irritations af-
fefting the nervous fyftem, are capable of bringing on
this malady. And indeed fo great are the irritations
affe&ing the nervous fyftem in mad people, that they
often fleep little or none for a long time.—Yet even
this fo defeftive and imperfeft knowledge of the dif¬
eafes of the brain and nerves, is by no means free
from difficulties. For though we know that the brain,
or a certain part of it, is hurt, or that it is irritated
by a Iwelling, or a pointed bone growing into it, no¬
body can foretel how great, or what may be the na¬
ture of the malady from fuch a hurt: for examples
are not wanting of people who, after lofing a large
part of the brain, have recovered and lived a long
time; or of thofe who have perceived no inconve¬
nience from a large portion of that vifcus being cor¬
rupted, until at length they have fallen fuddenly down
^ and died in convulflons.
iutdiotifm. Another difeafe of the internal fenfes, quite diffe¬
rent from thefe, is fatuity or idictifm. Thofe are call¬
ed idiots who are deftitute either of judgment or me¬
mory, or elfe have thefe faculties unequal to the com¬
mon offices of life. A kind of idiotifm is natural and
common to all infants; neither is it to be accounted a
difeafe : but if it lafts beyond the ftate of infancy,
Von. XI. Part I.
CINE. Si
it is a real difeafe, and for the moft part incurable. Wiotlfm.
It has the fame caufes with t»he other difeafes of the ' v
internal fenfes: although thefe can fcarcely be detec¬
ted by the eye or by the knife of the anatomift. It
frequently accompanies, or is the effeft of, epilepfy.
Hence, if the epilepfy derives its origin from caufes
not feated in the head, as from worms lodging in the
inteftines, the fatuity may be cured by diflodging thefe,
and removing the epilepfy. It is not unlikely that the
fatuity of children, and the dotage of old men, may arife
from the brain being in the former too foft and in the
latter too hard.
The mufcular power may be difeafed in a great num- Dif-0^ers
ber of ways. The mobility itfelf may be too great ;in the nwC.
but this muft be carefully diftinguilhed from vigour, cuhr pow-
By mobility is meant the cafe with which the muf-**-
cular fibres are excited into contra&ion. The vigour,
on the other hand, is that power with which the con-
traftion is performed. They are fometimes joined,
but more frequently feparate, and for the moft part
the excefles of each are owing to contrary caufes.
Too great mobility is when motions are excited by 88
too flight a ftimulus, or when too violent motions are Mobilty.
produced by the cuftomary ftimulus. A certain ha¬
bit of body, jfometimes hereditary, renders people
liable to this difeafe. Women have a greater fhare of
mobility than men have. Infants have a great deal
of mobility, often too great; youth has lefs than in¬
fancy, but more than man’s eftate; though old age
has commonly too little. A lazy, fedentary life, full
diet, a fuppreffion of the ufual evacuations, fulnefs of
the blood-veffels, and fometimes their being fuddenly
emptied, laxity, flaccidity of the folids in general, but
fometimes too great a tenfion of the moving fibres, the
ufe of diluents, efpecially when warm, or heat applied
in any manner, produce too great mobility. And this
may be either general or particular, according as the
caufes have been applied to the whole body or only
to a part of it.
Vigour in general is rarely morbid; although fome-v. 89
times certain mufcular parts appear to have too great “
ftrength. In maniacs and phrenitics, an immenfe
ftrength is obferved in all the mufcles, efpecially in
thofe that ferve for voluntary motitin ; which is not
unjuftly reckoned morbid. The reafon of this excefs
is very obfcure ; however, it is plainly to be referred
to a difeafed ftate of the brain.
A more frequent and more important excefs of vi¬
gour is obferved in thofe mufcular fibres that do not
obey the will, fuch as thofe which move the blood. Its
circulation is thus often increafed, not without great
inconvenience and danger to the patient. But a {lighter
excefs of this kind, pervading the whole body, ren¬
ders people apt to receive inflammatory difeafes, and is
ufually called a phlogi/lic diathefis. But this is better
obferved when local, as in inflammation itfelf.
Too great vigour of the mufcular fibres may arife
from the nervous power increafed beyond meafure,
as in mania, phrenitis, or violent affeftions of the
mind ; from too great a tenfion of the fibres, by
which they more eafily and vehemently conceive mo¬
tions, as of the arteries when filled with too much
blood 5 from catching cold, by being expofed either to
cold or heat, as ufually happens in the fpring; or laft-
ly, though the nervous power and tenfion of the fibres
L fhsuld
82 M E D I
Didrders {hould not at all be changed, their adtion may be*
eularPuwer come t0° great» b'om a ftimulus more violent than ufual
. being applied, or from the ufual ftimulus if the fibres
themfelves have already acquired too great a fhare of
90 mobility.
Terpor. The oppofite to too great mobility is torpor, and
to too great vigour is debility. Torpor is fuch a di¬
minution of mobility as renders the parts une¬
qual to their fun&ions. It arifes from caufes diredt-
ly oppofite to mobility ; fuch as, in the firft place, a
harder and more rigid contexture of the parts them¬
felves,-or even fometimes from one too lax and flaccid;
from old age; from fome peculiar temperament of bo¬
dy, fuch as one phlegmatic, frigid, or infenfible ; too
great and inceflant labour, cold, fpare diet, and an
exhaufted body. This evil is the more to be dread¬
ed, becaufe, the powers of the body being deficient,
nature is neither able to make any effort of herfelf, nor
are the remedies, in other cafes the moft efficacious,
capable of affording her any affiftance.
JDebility. Debility takes place, when the motion of the
mufcles, either voluntary or involuntary, is not per¬
formed with fufficient ftrength. A greater or leffer
ffiare of debility, either general or of fome particular
part, accompanies almoft all difeafes, and is indeed no
fmall part of them : for it is hardly poffible that a
difeafe can fubfift for any length of time without in¬
ducing fome degree of debility. When a ftate of de¬
bility is induced, it renders a man obnoxious to innu¬
merable diforders, and throws him as it were defence-
lefs in their way. It often depends on the original
ftrudture of the body, fo that it can be corre&ed
neither by tegimen nor medicines of any kind. A
different degree of ftrength alfo accompanies the dif¬
ferent ages of mankind ; and thus, in fome cafes, de¬
bility cannot be reckoned morbid. But a truly mor¬
bid and unwonted debility arifes from the nervous
force being dirniniffied; from difeafes of the brain and
nerves, or of the mufcles through which they are di-
ftributed; from a decay of the nerves themfelves; from
a want of the due tenfion of the fibres, or the fibres
themfelves becoming torpid ; from the body exhaufted
by fpare diet, want, evacuations; or laftly, from difeafes
affedling the whole body, or fome particular parts
of it.
t 9* The higheft degree of debility, namely, when the
Pally. ftrength of the mufcles is altogether or nearly deftroy-
ed, is called paralyjls or palfy ; and is either univerfal,
or belonging only to fome particular mufcles. An
univerfal palfy arifes from difeafes of the brain and
nerves, fometimes very obfeure, and not to be difeo-
vered by the anatomift ; for the nervous power itfelf
is often defiicent, even when the ftru&ure of the nerves
remains unhurt: yet often a compreffion, obftruc-
tion, or injury of the veffels, extravafation of blood, or
ferum, collections of pus, fwellings, &c. are difeover-
ed. It frequently arifes from certain poifons acting on
the nerves ; from the fumes of metals ; from the dif¬
eafes of parts, and affections of the mufcles, very re¬
mote from the brain, as in the colic of Poictou. A
palfy of Angle mufcles, but lefs perfect, often arifes
without any defect. of the brain or nerves, from any
■violent and continued pain, inflammation, too great
tenfion, relaxation, reft, or deftruction of the contex¬
ture of the parts, fuch as commonly happens after the
CINE. Theoi
rheumatifm, gout, luxations, fratures of the bones, D'fon
and ifehuria. inithpP
An umverjal palfy, however, as it is called, fel-cu arP‘
dom affects the whole body, even though it ffiould
originate from a difeafe of the brain. We molt
commonly fee thofe who are paralytic affected only
on one fide, which is called an hemiplegia. It is faid
that the fide of the body oppofite to the difeafed
fide of the brain is moft commonly affected. If all
the parts below the head become paralytic, it i»
called a paraplegia. In thefe difeafes the fenfes for
the moft part remain; though fometimes they are abo-
lilhed, and at others rendered dull. Sometimes, tho’
rarely, and which is an exceeding bad fymptom, the
motion, fenfation, pulfe, and heat of the paralytic
limbs are loft ; in which cafe the arteries themfeves
become paralytic. A palfy of the whole body, as far
as regards the voluntary motions, with anasfthefia and
fleep, is called an apoplexy. This proceeds from fome
injury of the brain : though a ftate very fimilar to it is
induced by narcotics, opium, wine itfelf, or any gene¬
rous liquor taken to excefs; and laftly, by breathing in
air corrupted by noxious impregnations, fuch as a large
proportion of carbonic acid, hydrogenous gas, or any
fimilar active aeriform fluid.
Another difeafe to which mufcular motion is liable, <- 'r^
and that neither flight nor unfrequent, is called fpafm.
This is a violent and irregular motion of the mufcles.
Of fpafms there are two kinds, the tonic and clonic.
The latter is frequently called a convulfion ; in order
to diftinguiffi it from the other, which is more pecu¬
liarly called fpafm.
Spafm therefore is a violent, conftant, and preterna¬
tural contraftion of the mufcular fibres ; but a convul¬
fion is an unufual and violent contra&ion alternated
with relaxation. People are rendered liable to fpafin
by too fenfible an habit of body, or too great mobi¬
lity ; and hence it is a difeafe common in women, ins
infants, and in weak, luxurious, lazy, and plethoric
people. It is brought on thofe already predifpofed to
it, by any kind of ftimulus applied to the brain, or to
any nerve, mufcle, or nervous part connected with it;
of which we have examples in dentition ; worms lodged
in the inteftines, and irritating them ; any acrid mat¬
ter infe&ing the blood, or much affe&ing the ftomach
and inteftines ; the irritation of any nerve, or of the
brain itfelf, by an exoftofis, fwelling, too great fulnefs-
of the veffels, pain, vehement affedlions of the mind*
fudden evacuation, or poifons admitted into the body.
Frequently, however, the malady originates from
flight caufes, little known, and not eafily obferved.
Spafm is both the caufe and effeft, and frequently
conftitutes the greateft part, of moft difeafes. It is of¬
ten very difficult either to be known or cured; becaufe
it is fo multiform, and produces as many different
fymptoms as there are organs affefted ; of which it
furprifingly difturbs, impedes, or increafes the func¬
tions. It is a difeafe feated in the original ftamina of
the conftitution ; and neither to be removed by flight
remedies, nor in a fhort time. qq
With regard to fleep. Dr Gregory obferves, that its Sleep,
ufe is fufficiently apparent from the effedts which it
produces in the body. It reftores the powers both of
mind and body when exhaufted by exercife, giving vi¬
gour to the one, and reftoring its wonted alacrity to
the
Theory. M E D I
■Ciforders the other. It renSerB the mufclee again aftive and
, ofsle jP- moveable, after they have become wearied, rigid, pain-
ful} ancl trembling by hard labour. It moderates the
quicknefs of the pulfe, which ufually increafes at night,
and brings it back to its morning ftandard. It feems
alfo to affift the digeftion of the aliment; leflens both
the fecretions and excretions; and renders the fluids
thicker than otherwife they would be, efpecially in a
body endowed with little fenfibility or mobility. Hence
fleep is not only ufeful, but abfolutely neceflary for pre-
ferving life and health ; and is a mdft excellent remedy
both for alleviating, and totally removing, a great
|| many difeafes.
Want of fleep is hurtful in a great many different
ways, efpecially to the nervous fyftem. It renders
the organs of fenfe both external and internal, as well
as thofe of every kind of motion, unfit for performing
their offices. Hence the fenfations are either abolifh-
ed, or become imperfeft or depraved ; and hence im¬
becility of mind, defe& of memory, a kind of de¬
lirium, mania itfelf, pain of the head, weaknefs of
the joints, an imperfeft or inordinate a&ion of the
vital organs, quicknefs of pulfe, heat, fever, depra¬
ved digeftion, atrophy, leannefs, and an increafe or
perturbation of the fecretions and excretions.
Sleep may be prevented both in healthy and fick
people from various caufes; fuch as ftrong light,
noife, pain, anger, joy, grief, fear, anxiety, hunger,
thirft, vehement defire, motion of the body, memory,
imagination, intenfe thought, &c. On the other hand,
fleep is brought on by a flight impreflion on the organs
of fenfe, or none at all; by the humming of bees,
the noife of falling water, cold and infipid difcourfe ;
or laftly, by fuch an exercife of the memory as is
neither too laborious nor difturbing to the mind.—
Too great an impulfe of the blood towards the head,
fuch as often happens in fevers, prevents fleep ; but a
free and equal diftribution of the blood through the
ivhole body, efpecially the extreme parts, frequently
brings it on. Whatever weakens the body alfo fa¬
vours fleep; and hence various kinds of evacuations,
the warm bath, fomentations, fometimes heat itfelf, are
ufeful for promoting it. It alfo comes on eafily after
taking food, or indulging venery ; the violent fen-
fation being then quieted, and the body itfelf fome-
whst weakened. Cold produces a deep fleep of long
continuance, not eafily difturbed, and often termina¬
ting in death. Laftly, there are certain fubftances
which, when applied to the body, not only do not ex¬
cite the nervous fyftem, but plainly lay us afleep, and
render us unfit for fenfation : of this kind are thofe
called narcotics, as opium and the like; among which
alfo we may reckon wine taken in too great quantity.
Laftly, watching itfelf is often the caufe of fleep-;
•becaufe while a man is awake he always more or lefs
exercifes the organs of his body, by which the nervous
influence is diminifhed, and thus the more violently
the body is exercifed, in the fame proportion is the
perfon under a neceflity of fleeping.
Sleep is deficient in many difeafes; for there are
few which do not excite pain, anxiety, or uneafinefs,
fufficient to prevent the approach of fleep, or to
difturb it. Fevers generally caufe thofe who labour
under them to fleep ill ; as well on account of the
uneafinefs which accompanies this kind of difeafes,
CINE.
as by reafon of the Impetus of the blood towards Dlforders
the head being frequently increafed ; and likewife , of sigep'.
from the ftomach being difordered, loaded with meat, ^
or diftended with drink. Hence alfo we may fee the
reafon why many hypochondriac and hyfteric patients
fleep fo ill; becaufe they have a bad digeftion, and
their ftomach is difpofed to receive many though fre¬
quently flight diforders; the flighteft of'which, how¬
ever, is fufficient to deprive the patient of reft, provided
the body be already irritable, and endowed with too
great a (hare of mobility.
Want of fleep will hurt in difeafes as well as in health;
and for the fame reafon; but in a greater degree,
and more quickly, in the former than in the latter;
and is therefore not only a very troublefome fymptom
of itfelf, but often produces other very dangerous
ones.
loo much fleep, on the other hand,produces many
mifehiefs, rendering the whole body weak, torpid, and
lazy; and it even almoft takes away the judgment. It
alfo difturbs the circulation, and diminiflies moft of
the fecretions and excretions. Hence plethora, fat-
nefs, flaccidity, and an inability for the common of¬
fices of life.—The caufes of this excefs are, either the
ufual caufes of fleep above-mentioned increafed beyond
meafure, or fome fault in the brain, or a compreflion
of it by an extravafation of the humours; or fome¬
times, as it would feem, from great debility produced
by an unufual cjufe, as in thofe who are recovering
from typhous fevers and other difeafes. In thefe ex¬
amples, however, this excefs of fleep is by no means
hurtful; nor even, perhaps, in th fe cafes where an
excefs of grief continued for a long time, or a great
fright, have produced a furprifirig and unexpeded fom-
nolency. Laftly, many people have accuftomed them-
felves, and that not without a great deal of hurt to
their conftitutions, to fleep too much. Nor are there
examples wanting of fome who have palled whole days,
and even months, in fleep almoft uninterrupted.
With regard to the manner in which the circulation . 9S
of the blood is performed, and the various principles C!rcula’
of which it is compofed, fee the articles Blood, and'10"'
Anatomy. As for the diforders to which the blood
and its circulation are fubjed, Dr Gregory obferves,
that in our younger years the veins are much more
denfe, firm, and ftrong, than the arteries ; but the
latter, by rea-fon of the continual preflure upon them,
and the ftrength which they exert, become daily more
firm, hard, and ftrong, until at laft they equal -or ex¬
ceed the veins themfelves in ftrength ; and it is not un¬
common in old men to find fome part of the arteries
converted into an horny fubftance, or even into a folid
bone. Hence in the ftate of infancy the greateft part
of the blood is contained in the arteries, and in old
age in the veins; an affair indeed of no fthall moment,
as it fhows the reafon in fome meafure of the ftate of
increafe and decreafe of the body. Befides, if any
difeafe happens from too great a .quantity of blood, it
thence appears that it muft Ihow itfelf in young fub-
jei^s in the arteries, and in old ones in the veins; and
this is the reafon of many difeafes which accompany
certain periods of life.
In moft, if not in all fpecies of animals, the arteries
of the females are much more lax and capacious when
compared with the veins, and the veins much lefs, than
Lz ia
u
M E D i
Difo^ers in the males of the fame genus. The defign of na-
Theorjjc
ci Cl!
ture in this conformation, is probably that they may
^ ' be the better able to nourifh the foetus in their womb.
The fame likewife feems to be the reafon why women
are more inclined to plethora than men and to this
greater capacity of the arteries and fmallnefs of the
reins are we to aferibe that beauty and elegant drape
of the arms in women, not disfigured or livid with
veins as in men.
The blood is alfo diftributed in various proportions
to the different parts of the body, and that proportion
too differs at different periods of our lives. At fir ft
an imrr.enfe quantity is fent to the head, becaefe that
part of the body is firll to be evolved and fitted for its
offices : but as foon as the parts begin to make a confi-
derable refiftance to the efforts of the blood, and the
veffels cannot eafily be further dilated, it is neceffarily
fent off to other parts ; by which means the reft of the
body increafes in bulk, and becomes fitted for per¬
forming its proper funbtions. The effett of this change
is alfo very foon obferved,. namely,, when none of the
blood palfes through the navel, and of confequence a
greater quantity is lent by the iliac arteries to the in¬
ferior extremities. Thefe, though fo fmall and fien-
der in the foetus, increafe very fuddenly ■, fo that of¬
ten in not many months the child can not only ftand
on its feet,, but even walk tolerably well.
^ Phyficiarrs are wont to judge of the ftate of thecir-
Pulfation culation by the pulfe ; which indeed is very various,
•f ‘he arte- as W£qi wJth regard to its frequency, as to the ftrength
ne8’ and equality of its ftrokesand intervals.—Its common
quicknefs in a healthy grown-up perfon is about 70
Itrokes in a minute. In a fcctus, perhaps, it is more
than double and in an infant a few months old,
hardly lefs than 120- As we grow up, this quicknefs
gradually diminifties ; fo that in extreme old age it
fometimes does not exceed 50,.or is even flower. This
rule, however,, is not without exceptions for many,
efpecially thofe of an irritable habit, have the pulfe
much quicker; while others, even in the vigour of
their age, have the pulfe remarkably flow. It is for the
moft part fomevvhat quicker in women than in men.
The pulfe is alfo rendered quicker,.both in a healthy
and difeafed body, by the application of ftimuli of
many different kinds. Exercife .efpecially, by acce¬
lerating the return of the blood through the veins,
increafes the quicknefs of the pulfe to a furprifing de¬
gree. Various kinds of irritations affedting the ner¬
vous fyftem, as intenfe thinking, paffions of the mind,
pain, heat, ftimulating medicines, wine, fpices, See.
likewife produce the fame effeft. The acrimony
of the blood itfelf alfo is thought to quicken the
pulfe.
When a perfon firft awakes in the morning,, the
pulfe is flow, but becomes quicker by degrees on ac¬
count of the many irritating matters applied to the
body. Its quicknefs is increafed after taking food,
efpecially of the animal kind, or fuch as is hot or fea-
foned with fpices. In the evening a flight fever comes
on, for which reft and fleep are the remedy. Thefe
things, however, are fcarce to be obferved in a healthy
perfon, but are very evident in one that is feverilh,
efpecially when the difeafe is a he&ic.—Again, even
debility itfejf often renders the pulfe quicker than
CINE.
ufual; becaufe the ventricle of the heart not being IWonleiB^
quite emptied, it is the fooner dilated again, and of 0
confequence contradls the fooner. For this realon a _
phyfician can never judge of the ftrength of the cir¬
culation from the frequency of the pulfe.
Laftly, in all fevers, however different from one an¬
other, the pulfe is found to be too quick, partly per¬
haps from debility, partly from the acrimony of the
fluids, and partly from the repulfion of the blood
from the furface of the body, and the accumulation of
it in the large vedels where it adls as a ftimulus ;
though it muft be owned,, that a great deal of this is
obfeure, if not totally unknown ; nor in truth are we
able to underftand in what manner the autocrateia acts
with regard to the frequency of the pulie.
The pulfe is feldom obferved too flow, unlefs vvhe<*
the mobility of the body is much diminifhed, as in
decrepid old age, or from a compreffion or difeafe of
the brain ; but a. greater comprellion- of the brain
ufually produces a ftill more remarkable flownefs of
the pulfe, as in the hydrocephalus, apoplexy, &c.—
Sometimes alfo the pulfe is too flow in thofe who are
recovering from tedious fevers. But this is a matter
of little moment, and feems to be owing to fomekind
of torpor. Indeed it has generally been confidered as
a mark of a thorough and complete folution of the
fever; for it is commonly obferved, that when this
ftate of the pulfe takes place, the patient feldom fuffers
a relapfe.
While the frequency of the pulfe continues the fame,
its ftrokes may be either full, great, ftrongr and hard ;
or foft, fmall, and weak. A full, great, and ftrong
pulfe takes place when the ventricle ftrongly and com¬
pletely empties itfelf; throwing out a great quantity
of blood into the arteries, which fully diftends them
and ftimulates them to a ftrong contraction. A pulfe
of this kind is common in ftrong healthy men, and is
feldom to be accounted a fymptom of difeafe. But if
it be too ftrong, and ftrike the finger of the perfon
who feels it violently and fharply, it is called a hard
pulfe. This hardnefs is produced by a hidden and vio¬
lent contraction of the heart and arteries^ which diftends
even the remote branches, as thofe of the wrift, to®
fuddenly and fmartly, and excites them alfo to hidden
and violent contractions.
A hard pulfe therefore denotes too great an at ion
of the heart and arteries. It may arife from various
caufes : in the firft place, from too great a tenfion of
the veffels; for inftance,from their being too full, and^
by that means more prone to motion,, and the more
fit for receiving violent motions. It may arife all®
from, too great a denfity and firmnefs of the folids;
and hence it is moft. frequent in cold countries, among
ftrong robuft people, and fuch as are accuftomed to
hard labour. It may likewife arife from various caufes-
irritating the whole nervous fyftem, or only the heart
and arteries. Laftly, it accompanies many fevers, as
well as moft inflammatory diforders, whether the in¬
flammation arifes from a general ftimulus applied t©
the whole body, or from the irritation of particnlar
parts, by degrees extended over the whole body. In
fuch a ftate of the circulation, the patient frequently
Hands in need of blood-letting, and almoft always bears
it well
Theory. 1VT E D I
Diftrdtrs A fmall, weak, and foft pulfe is generally owing
- of Circula-to caufes oppofite to the foregoing, and indicates a
^ contrary ftate of the circulation and nervous fyilem.
It frequently requires ftimulants ; nor does it generally
i;r require blood-letting, or eafily bear it. Sometimes,
however, a pulfe of this kind is obferved even in the
cafe of a dangerous inflammation, of the ftomaeh for
in dance, or intedines. But in thefe and the like ex¬
amples, we ought to attend to the nature of the ma-
| lady, much more thamto the date of the pUlfe.
The pulfe is faid to intermit, when the ftroke does
not return after the ufual interval, and perhaps not
till after twice, thrice, or four times the ufual fpace.
A pulfe of this kind feems to be aimed natural and
condant in fome animals, and is common to feme men
even in the mofi perfedl health ; and if thefe happen
to be feized with a fever, the pulfe fometimes becomes
equal nor can the difeafe be removed before the inter-
miffion has returned.
Moreover, in fome people, though their pulfe beats
equally while in health, yet the flighted illnefs makes
it intermit ; and in others, efpecially thofe who have a
great deal of mobility in their conditution, fuch ashy-
pochrondriac and hyderic people, the intermiffion of
the pulfe is felt, without applying the finger to the ar¬
tery, merely by the uneafinefs which they perceive in
their breads during thofe intervals in which the pulfe
is deficient. An intermittent pulfe likewife occurs in
many difeafes of the bread, efpecially when water is
colleided in it; and the like happens in the end of all
difeafes, efpecially fevers, when the drength is nearly
exhauded, and death approaches, of which it is fre¬
quently the forerunner.
An intermitting pulfe therefore feems to arife from
an unequal influx of the nervous power into the heart,
or from the decay and exhaudion of the nervous power,
by which means the heart is not able to contract till
it has been didended beyond its due pitch. Or ladly,
it may arife from difeafes of the organ itfelf, or the
neighbouring parts ; from fwellings, water, &c. prefs-
ing upon them, and impeding the aftion of the heart :
which indeed is a very dangerous diforder, and almod
always mortal.
Many other variations of the pulfe are enumerated
by phyiicians, but mod of them uncertain, and not
confirmed by experience. We fhall therefore now con-
fider the motion of the blood, which may be either
too great, too fmall, or irregular.
A quick pulfe, cateris paribus, produces a more ra¬
pid circulation, becaufe the fooner that the ventricle
of the heart is emptied, the more quickly is the blood
thrown into the arteries ; and their aftions mud an-
fwer to this dronger dimulus. Hence exercife, heat,
dimulants, plethora, every kind of irritation, padions
of the mind, and fever, increafe the circulation. The
efteft of this increafe is a didenfion of the veflels, a fti-
mulus applied to the whole body, an increafe of heat,
and often a debility. The fecretion of fweat is inerea-
fed while the other fecretions are diminidied, and the
various fundfions of the body impeded ; third comes
on, the appetite is lod, the fat confumed, and a difpo-
fition to putrefcency introduced. Sometimes the fmaller
veffels are burd ; whence effuiions of blood and hae¬
morrhages. But we are by, no means to forget, that
this violent motion of the blood, however hurtful it
CINE. t;
may feem, is among the bed remedies made ufe of by Aer»
nature in curing many difeafea. < ot ^“la*
The motion of the blood is diminiihed, efr ecially  ^ . f
by debility, torpor, the want of irritation or of exer¬
cife : the fame thing happens to all the humours, if
there be any obdruidion in the vtflels, or any caufe by
which their return is hindered or rendered more diflt-
cult. Thus, from the very weight of the blood itfelf,
if a perfon has dood long on his feet, the humours
return more flowly from the inferior extremities. Any
difeafe of the heart and arteries alio, as an aneurifm, .
contra&ion, offification, mud necedarily obdrudb the
circulation. The fame thing happens from obdru&ions.
of the veins, or interrupted refpiratibn, by which the
paffage of the blood through the lungs to the left fide
of the heart is impeded.
But, from whatever cauf s this diminution of the
circulation takes place, the bad confequences are per¬
ceived chiefly in the veins, becaufe in them the blood
always moves more flowly than in the arteries. Hence
varices, and congedions of blood, efpecially in thofe
parts of the body where the veins are deditute of
valves, and of confequence where the motion of the
mufcles cannot aflid the circulation. Hence alfo arife
dropfies from an impeded or languid motion of the
blood ; becaufe the refidance of the veins being increa-
fed, the blood is received into them with the greater
difficulty, and more of the thin humour is driven into
the exhaling veffels, and by them depofited in fuch
quantities as cannot be reabforbed by the lymphatics..
Thefe difeafes, as well as all others proceeding from
defe&s of the circulation, are alfo more difficult of cure
than others, becaufe all the vital powers are weakened
at the fame time.
Another diforder of the circulation is where the
blood is carried to one part of the body in too great
quantity, by which means the other parts are depri¬
ved of their due proportion. This irregular didribution
of the vital fluid frequently arifes from a dimulus ap¬
plied to the part itfelf,. or to the brain, or at length
aiding on the mind, which, according to the laws of
fympathy, produces a certain and definite didribution
of the blood. It arifes alfo not unfrequently from a
fpafm taking place in fome other parts, which drives
the blood, out of its ordinary courfe.
In proportion to this irregularity of the circula¬
tion are the confequences ; heat, fwelling, rednefs, in¬
flammation, rupture of veflels, hsemorrhages, effulions,
deftrudtion, corruption, and fuppuration of the cellular
texture and adjoining parts, &c. Even this evil,
however, .nature often converts into an excellent reme¬
dy ; and phyficians, following her deps, frequently
attempt to direft the didribution of the blood in par¬
ticular difeafes, well knowing that a change in the dif-
tribution of the blood is frequently efficacious either
for radically curing fome- difeafes or relieving their
mod urgent fymptoms
Ladly, fome diforders in the motion of the heart ^-pjpftation*.
felf, and thofe of no fmall confequence, remain yet to
be taken notice of, namely, palpitation and fyncope.
A palpitation is a violent and irregular aftion of the
heart, fuch as for the mod part is perceived by the pa¬
tient himfelf, and that not without ajjreat deal of un¬
eafinefs and oppreffion at his bread ; and is alfo ma-
nifed to the by-iianders if they apply their hands, or.
look-
m M E D I
THfurders "look at Tils naked bread ; the pulfe of the arteries in
0 the mean time being weak, unequal, and intermit-
t,—ting. This is a fpafmodic diforder ; and is induced by
‘ various caufes affe&ing either the nervous fyftem in
general, or the heart in particular. Every difeafe of the
organ itfdf, fuch as a conftriftion of its valves and
blood-veffels, an offification, enlargement, or polypus,
hindering the free aftiqn of the heart, and evacuation
of blood from it, are capable of exciting it to violent
and unufual contradfions. The fame effedl will alfo
follow plethora, or too violent an impulfe of the blood,
&c. The heart will likewife frequently palpitate from
a violent excitement of the nervous fyftem, efpecially
where the conftitution is endowed with a great deal of
mobility. Hence palpitations from any affedtion of
the mind, and in hyfteric women. Palpitation may
likewife arife from an affedtion of the ftomach, occa-
foned by worms, a furfeit, flatus, or ftimulation by
various acrid fubftances. It frequently alfo accompa¬
nies the gout when driven back, or even when a fit is
•coming on. Sometimes it arifes from debility, what¬
ever may be the caufe ; frequently from any difficulty
in breathing ; and many of thefe caufes may be joined
at the fame time, or fome of them produce others.
I Hence we may fee why the evil is fometimes flight
and of fliort continuance; at other times altogether
incurable, and certainly mortal in a longer or ffiorter
time ; why it fometimes returns at intervals, often
coming on and being increafed by every kind of irri¬
tation and exercife, and fometimes relieved or totally
removed by ftimulants or exercife.
A fyncope is when the a&ion of the heart, and,
along with it that of the arteries, is fuddenly and
. very much lefiened; whence the animal-powers, the
fenfes, and voluntary motions, immediately ceafe. This
may be produced by almoft all the caufes of palpita¬
tion ; becaufe whatever can difturb and diforder the
motion of the heart, may alfo weaken or fufpend it.
The vitiated ftrudture of the heart itfelf therefore, vio¬
lent paffions of the mind, whether of the depreffing
kind, or thofe which fuddenly and vehemently excite,
various kinds of nervous difeafes, thofe of the ftomach,
every kind of debility and evacuation, efpecially a
great lofs of blood, exceffive and unremitting labour,
long watching, heat, pain, many kinds of poifons, &c.
produce fainting.
Hence we fee, that whatever weakens the motion
of the blood through the brain tends to produce faint¬
ing ; and, on the contrary, whatever ^ends to aug¬
ment that motion, alfo tends to refrefh, and prevent
the perfon from fainting. Hence alfo we fee how the
mere pofture of the body may either bring on or keep
off fainting, or remove it after it has already come on.
We likewife fee how this diforder may fometimes be
of little confequence and eafily removed ; at others
very dangerous, not only as a fymptom, but in even it¬
felf, as fometimes terminating in death ; and laftly,
how it may be ufed as a remedy by a Ikilful phyfician,
and artificially induced, either to free the patient from
violent pain, or to flop an immoderate effufion of blood
fcarce to bq reftrained by any other method.
With regard to the diforders of the blood itfelf, Dr
louredc'uft Gregory obferves, that the glutinous part of it produces
on the that buff-coloured appearance often feen upon blood
bleed.
CINE. Theory.
drawn from people affli&ed with inflammatory dif- Diforder*
orders, and even fometimes when no fuch difeafes are
prefent. This cruft indeed is nothing elfe than the ‘ ‘
pure gluten of the blood taking longer time than nfu-
al to coagulate, by which means the red particles have
an opportunity of falling to the bottom. This indi¬
cates no lentor, denftty, thicknefs, or tenacity of the
blood, as was formerly thought; but rather its thin-
nefs, or at leaft a lefs tendency in it to coagulate. It
arifes for the moft part from a violent agitation and
conquaffation of the blood within the body ; and hence
it accompanies many fevers, all inflammations, fome¬
times haemorrhages, exanthemata, plethora, pain, and
many irritations. It muft however be allowed, that
in feveral of thefe difeafes it is rendered highly pro¬
bable, at leaft from experiments apparently accurate,
that the quantity of the gluten of the blood is really
encreafed in the proportion which it bears to the other
parts. This cruft, however, is not always to be ac¬
counted morbid, as it often happens to the moft heal¬
thy ; and may even be produced or deftroyed by the
flighteft caufes while the blood is running from the
vein, fo that frequently we ffiall fee a very thick and
tenacious cruft on the blood flowing into one cup,
while that which runs into another has little or none
at all. In general, however, the appearance of this
cruft {hows, that the patient will bear bloodletting well,
though thofe have been in a great miftake who direc¬
ted this operation to be repeated till' no more cruft ap¬
peared on the blood.
The glutinous part of the blood alfo frequently pro¬
duces thofe maffes called polypi, which fometimes take
place during life, but more frequently after death, in
the large veffels near the heart, or even in the cavities
of that organ. Similar maffes alfo are frequently
formed in the uterus, and are called moles.
The quantity of blood contained in a healthy body
is very various, and difficult to be afeertained. Many
difeafes, however, may arife from its being either too
fcanty or too abundant. Too great a quantity of
blood is produced by the ufe of rich, nouriftiing diet,
ftrong drink, accompanied with a good digeftion;
from a lazy, fedentary life, or much fleep, efpecially
in thofe who have been formerly accuftomed to much
exercife ; with many other caufes of the fame kind.
It renders the perfon dull, weak, and languid, and
fometimes almoft totally oppreffes him; nor are thofe
organs deftined for moving the blood fufficient for
driving forward fuch a load. The pulfe finks; and
fometimes a fyncope, vertigo, or palpitation takes
place. More frequently, however, the veffels are too
much diftended, and ready to be thrown into violent
and irregular motions. Hence a difpofition to fevers,
inflammations, an unequal diftribution of the blood,
unufual congeftions, rupture of the veffels, and hae¬
morrhages. Moreover, by reafon of the clofe connec¬
tion between the fanguiferous and the nervous fyftem,
a fulnefs of blood produces a difpofition to fpafm and
other difeafes of that kind.
Hence we may underftand why a plethora is fome¬
times accompanied with a weak and fometimes with a
ftrong and hard pulfe, why it is the caufe as well as
a part of fo many diftempers, why it is the effedl of
a high ftate of health, &c.
6 The
” Plethora.
Theory. M E D I
Diforders The want of a due quantity of blood is no lefs per-
I nicious than too great an abundance of it. It debili-
lL ‘°° tales the perfon, and renders him unable to perform the
P proper offices of life ; produces a languid circulation,
fyncope, fpafms, and at laft death itfelf. In a llighter
degree of the difeafe the body is emaciated through
KL i<?1. want of nouriffiment, and its funttions are vitiated in
. InwritioE. var;ous Ways. It may arife from want, bad food, or
E fuch as affords little nourifhment: from bad digeltion,
or the chyle being hindered from paffing into the
blood : from fevers, or other difeafes which exhauit
the body and hinder nutrition : or laftly, from various
evacuations, particularly of blood ; and that the more
efpecrally if they are fudden, for in flow evacuations
the veffels accommodate themfelves furprifingly to the
quantity left in them. Befides, if the body be flowly
exhaufted, the excretions are leffened by reafon of the
deficiency of the vital power ; fo that the unufual ex¬
pence is eafily compenfated by the unufual retention.
But if the evacuation happens to be very fudden and
great, it may either prove mortal in a fliort time, or
break the conftitution to a degree beyond recovery,
jviorma By a great and long-continued deficiency of blood
Bthimicfs of the quality of it alfo is impaired ; becaufe the thin part
Khe'blood. of it is eafily and foon made up ; but the glutinous,
thick, and red part, not fb eafily. Hence the blood
becomes thin, pale, fcarcely capable of coagulation, or
of affording a proper fupport to the body. Too great
thinnefs of the blood alfo proceeds from ufing much
drink, efpecially of the aqueous kind, flerider and
little nourifhing diet, a bad digeftion in the ftomach ;
from difeafes of the lungs and thofe organs which ela¬
borate the red part; or from fuppreffions of the ufual
evacuations of thin humours, as fweat or urine, indu¬
ced by cold, a fault of the fecreting organs, or by
putrefcency. But along with this other diforders of
the blood concur.
A too thin and watery blood makes the face pale,
the body weak, languid, and torpid ; the folid parts be¬
come flaccid from want of nourifhment, and having too
great a quantity of water in their compofition. It
brings on hydropic effufions of water in all parts of
the body, by reafon of the increafed exhalation of
that thin fluid which moiftens all the inward parts ;
partly by reafon of the blood itfelf being in fome mea-
fure difiblved, fo that it pafles out of the veffels more
eafily and plentifully than it ought to do ; and partly
by reafon of the veflels being relaxed beyond their
ufual pitch, and not making a proper refiftance. Be¬
fides, in this cafe, the lymphatics are fo far from ab-
fbrbing more than ufual, that, partaking likewife of the
general debility, they are fcarce fufficient for perform¬
ing their proper offices.
Nature, however, has taken care, by the moft Ample
means, to provide againfl: fo many and fo great evils j
for neither does the blood fo eafily become thin as fome
have imagined, nor when this quality takes place does
it want a proper remedy. For almoft inftantly, if the
perfon be otherwife in health, the excretions of the
thinner matters are greatly augmented, and the whole
n mafs of blood in a fhort time becomes as thick as for-
| [iea] mtrly-
i Morbid The oppofite to this, namely, too great a thicknefs
thicknefs < f of the blood, though often fpoken of by phyficians, is
the blood.
CINE. 87
very rarely if ever obferved ; and thofe fevers and in- Diforders
flammations which have been thought to arife from
thence, are now found to originate from other caufe -. .
The following would feem to be the law of the human
conftitution. As foon as the blood has attained the
due degree of thicknefs, or gone in the leaft beyond it,
the excretions are either fupprefted or diminiftied, the
body attracts more moifture fjjpm the air, the perfon
is thirfty, and drinks as much as is neceifary for dilu¬
ting the blood. But if water be wanting, and the per¬
fon cannot fatisfy his thirft, then the blood is fo far
from being thickened, that by reafon of a putrefcency
begun or augmented, it is much diflblved, becomes
acrid, and is with difficulty contained in the veflels.
The acrimony of the fluids has afforded a large Acrimony
field for declamation to the fpeculative phyficians, and of the
upon this flender foundation many perplexed and in-bl00^
tricate theories have been built. It is certain indeed,
that the blood in a ftate of health has fome fmall (hare
of acrimony ; and this acrimony, from certain caufes,
may be a little increafed fo as to produce various dif¬
eafes of a dangereus nature. This we are affured of
from the increafe of motion in the heart and arteries,
and the fimilar augmentation of the aftion of the fe-
cretory organs, from acrid fubftances taken inwardly.
The fame thing alfo appears from the unufual acri¬
mony of the fecreted fluids in fuch cafes, by which the
veflels are fometimes greatly ftimulated, and fometimes
even quite eroded. Very many acrid fubftances, how¬
ever, are daily takyi into the ftomach ; fo that thefe
muft either be correfted in the prima via, or changed
by digeftion before they pafs into the blood ; or at
leaft by dilution with much water, or being blunted by
an admixture with gluten, oil, or inflammable air, they
maft depofit much of their acrimony, and at laft be
thrown out of the body as noxious fubftances. Thus-
a vaft quantity of falls, acid, alkaline, and neutral, may
pafs through the body, without in the leaft affedting;
the health; though thefe falls, if taken in very large
quantity, undiluted, or not thrown out of the body,,
will do much hurt.
Moreover, even while life continues, putrefa&ion is-
going on, and produces much of that fubftance called
animal fait; for into this a great part of our food is
converted, and paflesoffby the urine. But if this pu-
trefcent difpofition be too great, it will produce too
large a quantity of animal fait; efpecially if much of
any faline fubftance is otherwife thrown into the body
without proper dilution: and this kind of difeafe is
well known to failors who have been long at fea with¬
out having an opportunity of getting frefh provifions.
For this fpontaneous putrefcency, nature has fug-
gefted a proper remedy, namely, frefn meat,, efpecially
of the vegetable and acelcent kind, and fuch as is well
impregnated with aerial acid, which it may impart to-
the body.. But where this kind of food is wanting,,
the putrefa&ion goes on apace,, and a very great thin¬
nefs and acrimony of the juices take, place ; efpecially
if there be alfo a fcarcity of water, or the excretions-
which ought to carry the putrid matters out of the
body languifh, either from cold, floth, torpor, depref-
fing paflions of the mind, or from the qonftitution be¬
ing broken by difeafes; or laftly, from too great heat,,
which always favours putrefadiion.
M
-Dfforders Tiefidcs, It would Teem, that fometimes a difpofi-
tion to putrefaction is much increafed by the reception
■ . of a putrid ferment into the body ; of which we have
examples in fome infectious fevers, where the conta¬
gion is very much affifted by heat, animal-diet, certain
kinds of falts, dibility and nailinefs.
Laftly, any fingle part of the body may putrefy
from various caufes, as from inflammation, gangrene,
cold, See. and thus may the whole body be infeCted;;
although for the molt part the difeafe proves fatal be¬
fore the corruption has fpread over the whole body.
But when the mafs of blood begins to putrefy great¬
ly, it not only becomeswery acrid, but thin alfo, fo
that it either will not coagulate at all, or Ihows only
a flight and very loofe craflamentum. Nay, even the
red globules are broke down and deftroyed ; in which
• cafe it neceflarily follows, that the blood mull be¬
come very acrid, as well on account of the evolution
©f the fait, as by reafon of the rancid and putrid glu¬
ten, wliich Simulates, apd frequently even erodes, the
vefiels ; producing fpots, firft red, then livid and
black, tumors, and ulcers fcarce poflible to be cured,
without firfl: removing the putreTcent difpofition of
the humours. From the fame caufes proceed haemor¬
rhages from every part of the body, hardly to be re¬
trained ; a moft intolerable fetor of the breath and
•all the excrements; the higheft debility and laxity of
the folids ; the putrefaction aCting as a poifon to the
-nervous fyftem, and at length bringing on death.
An acrimony of the acid kind never takes place in
the human Blood, nor in any of the humours fecreted
from it; though one of them, namely the milk, turns
■acid fpontaneoufly in a very Ihort time after it is drawn
from the breaft. Neither, indeed, does an alkaline
acrimony feem ever to take place in the blood. Pu-
trefcency indeed tends this way, and at lafl: terminates
in it ; but fcarcely while the perfon lives, though the
nature of the urine, even while recent, feems to be but
little diftant from that of an alkali.
Many kinds of acrimony indeed may exifl in the
blood from too liberal an ufe of fpices, wine, &c. but
of thefe we know nothing certain. We well know,
however, that the body is often infefted with various
kinds of morbid acrimony, which bring oh many and
dangerous difeafes, as the fmall-pox, meafles, cancers,
lues venerea, &c. of which the origin and manner of
a Cling are very little underflood, though the effects are
abundantly evident. In moft cafes, nature has taken
no lefs care to provide againft the acrimony than again!!
the too great th'cknefs of the blood. Sometimes an
antidote is afforded, either by the excitement of thirft,
that the acrid fubftance may be diluted with plenty of
drink ; or by increafing the evacuations, that it may
be thrown out of the body ; or laftly, by exciting va¬
rious motions and aClions of the vital powers, by
which it may be either fubdued, changed, rendered in¬
nocent, or expelled from the body by new and un¬
wonted paffages.
104 With regard to refpiration, Dr Gregory obferves,
fcefpira- that it may be obftruCled from various caufes feated
tion. either in the lungs themfelves or the furrounding parts.
But from whatever caufe this obftruClion may arife, it
undoubtedly produces all thofe difeafes which proceed
from an interrupted circulation. The lungs them-
203.
Theory1
felves alfo being at length compreffed, and not fuffer- Dif-.rder*:!
ed to dilate fuffxciently, cannot throw off the vapour R P'raj
which arifes from them; and hence they are frequent-, tlun' ,
ly oppreffed with moifture. At the fame time they are ’
irritated, fo that a greater quantity of mucus, and that
of a thicker kind than ufual, is fecreted ; by which
means the paffages through which the air enters them
are flopped up, and a violent cough at length throws 1
off the load.
The refpiration is alfo fubjeCl to fome other difor-
ders, as a cough and fneezing; which, though at firft
fight they may feem very dangerous, are not deftitute
of ufe, and may even be reckoned among the moft fa-
lutary attempts of nature to relieve the patient. Of¬
ten, however, they are attended with danger, or
very great uneafinefs; namely, when they are either
too violent or exerted in vain. At any rate, it is ne-
ceffary for a phyfician to know the nature, caufes, and
effedfs, of thefe, that he may be enabled to promote
them when neceffary, to moderate them when too
violent, and to flop them when noxious or to no
purpofe.
A cough is a violent, frequently involuntary, and p
fonorous exfpiration, fuddenly expelling the air with B
great force through the glottis fomewhat contradled.
The eonvulfion of the mufcles ferving for exfpiration,
gives a great force to the air, while the contradlion of
the glottis produces the found. It is often longconti-
nued, being repeated at certain intervals, during each
of which the infpiration is imperfedl and obftrudted
by reafon of the contradlion of the glottis. It is ex¬
cited by any kind of acrid fubftance, either chemically
or mechanically applied to thofe paffages through
which the air enters. Thefe are lined with a mem¬
brane fo exceedingly delicate and impatient @f ftimu-
lus, that it cannot even bear the touch of the mildeft
fubftance, fuch as a fmall drop of water, without throw¬
ing the mufcles ferving for exfpiration into a violent
convulfion ; the glottis at the fame time contradling
by means of the fympathy between it and the neigh¬
bouring parts. Thus the air is thrown out with fuch
violence, that it drives the irritating fubftan.ce along
with it; and thus a cough becomes not only ufeful,
but abfolutely neceffary for the prefervation of life, as
being able to free the lungs from every kind of irrita¬
ting fubftance or foulnefs, which might foon bring on
a fuffocation. Hence a cough is almoft an infeparable
companion of every inflammation of the lungs, as well
as every difficulty in refpiration ; and even frequently
accompanies the entrance of the pureft air when the
trachea and bronchiae ^re excoriated, or become too
fenfible. Examples alfo are not wanting, where a vio¬
lent and troublefome cough has arifen from an irrita¬
tion of the nervous fyftem, or even of fome particular
part, of the ear, for inftance, the ftomach and inteftinea
by worms, the liver by inflammation, &c.
Coughing may alfo be voluntarily excited, and may
then be managed at pleafure. Even when involuntary,
it may be moderated, or fuppreffed, by a contrary ef¬
fort : though a violent fit of coughing cannot by any
means be refilled. When it is once excited, the cough
goes on till the irritating fubftance be expelled, or the
fenfe of irritation aboliihed, or perhaps overcome by a
more uneafy fenfation than even the cough itfelf; af-
5
MEDICINE,
Theory. M E D I
Difordcrs ter which, the irritation again returning at a certain
Uf.Refpu'a- |nterVal, the cough alfo comes on. Hence we are
y tl>"n‘ taught a method of allaying and quieting this mod
" troublefome malady, though frequently it is not in our
power to remove the caufe of it altogether.
; A very violent cough is often dangerous. For by
the retention of the breath, and the ftrong efforts made
in coughing, a great quantity of blood is colle&ed in
•the lungs, of which the veffels are diftended, and fre¬
quently broken; and hence there fometimes happens a
violent and even fatal hemorrhage. More frequently,
however, it is the caufe of a flower, though equally fa¬
tal, difeafe. Nay, a frequent and troublefome cough,
without any great hemorrhage, or even without any
temorrhage at all, may damage the lungs to fuch a
degree, efpecially if they be of a more tender ftruc-
ture than ufual, as to lay the foundation of a phthifis
almoft always incurable.
Again, by a long-continued and violent cough, the
paffage of the blood through the lungs being impeded,
it muff neceffarily flow through the veins towards the
head: hence rednefs and lividnefs in the countenance,
hemorrhages, palfies, apoplexies, and fometimes mor¬
tal convulflons. Laftly, by a violent cough the abdo¬
minal vifcera are perpetually compreffed with remark¬
able violence ; and if any part happens to be weaker
than ufual, a hernia, prolapfus uteri, abortion, or fi-
milar accidents, may happen.
Even when the cough is more gentle, if it happens
to be importunate and frequent, although we have no¬
thing of this kind to fear, yet the patient is by no
means free from danger; as he is thereby agitated, fa-
' tigued, has his conftitution broken, is deprived of reft,
has a fever brought upon him, his lungs are (hake-n
and irritated, digeftion and all the other fundtions are
impeded, till at laft he finks under a complication of
maladies.
Sneezing. Sneezing is fomewhat akin to cough, as confifting
of a very full infpiration, to which fueceeds a moft
violent exfpiration, by which the air is driven out
through the noftrils with immenfe violence, and fweeps
the paffage through them as it goes out. It is a con-
vulfion much more violent than a cough, and is befides
very difficult to be flopped when once a propenfity to
it has taken place. As a cough proceeds from an irri¬
tation of the glottis, trachea, bronchia, and lungs, fo
fneezing arifes from an irritation of the membrane of
the noftrils, but rarely from fympathy with any diftant
part. It is fometimes of fervice, as well as a cough ;
though it is alfo fometimes prejudicial, for the reafons
. 10y which have been already affigned.
Digeftion. The laft part of Dr Gregory’s trearife neceffary to
be taken notice of here, is that which confiders dif-
eafes arifing from a bad digeftion, difordered motion
of the inteftines, and fome of the principal fecretions.
The firft of thefe, he fays, are fometimes very trouble¬
fome, though feldom dangerous. The principal fymp-
toms are oppreffion, anxiety, pain at the ftomach ;
eru&ations, by reafon of air extricated from the fer-
tnenting aliments, and irritating the ftomach ; naufea
and vomiting, from the irritation and diftenfion of the
fame organ; the belly fometimes too coftive, and fome¬
times too loofe; a defeat of nouriftiment; a general
debility; relaxation of the folid parts; too great thin-
Voi. XI. Part I.
CINE. 89
nefs of the fluids ; all the fun<ftions impeded ; pain of rWordcr,
the head; vertigo, fyncope, afthma, palpitationgreat
finking of the fpirits, efpecially if the patient has. ^ ' .
been of a peculiar conftitution ; fometimes the gout,
fometimes a dropfy, or a flow fever which may prove
mortal. I0g
The motion of the inteftines may be either to'o great Coftivcneft,
or too little; and hence proceeds either coftivenefs or
loofenefs. The former is frequently not to be account¬
ed morbid ; but, when it is, it may arife from the
ftru&ureof the ,inteftines being injured, or from their
being Ihut up or obftru&ed by fpafm or otherwife, or
from a deficiency of thofe humours which moiften the
inteftines ; or it may arife from mere debility, from a
palfy of the fibres perhaps, or from a deficiency of the
ufual ttimulus, of the bile, for inftance, or from to»
dry or flender a diet.
The confequences of long-continued coftivenefs, are
firft an affe&ion of the alimentary canal, and then of
the whole body. The ftomach is- difeafed, and doe*
not digeft the aliments properly; the whole body is
left deftitute of its ufual ftimulus ; the blood is cor¬
rupted, perhaps from the reforption of the putrid mat¬
ter into it. The circulation through the abdominal
vifqera is impeded; hence frequent and irregular con-
geftions, varices of the veins, hemorrhoids, &c. Nay,
the inteftines themfelves being overloaded, diftended
and irritated by an heavy, acrid, and putrid load of
aliment or other matters, are excited to new and un-
ufual contractions, which, if they do not get the bet¬
ter of the obftru&ion, bring on tormina, colic, or an
iliac paffion, inflammation and gangrene, fatal in a
very fhort time. 709
Loofenefs, or diarrhoea, Is a malady extremely com- Loefenefs.
mon; being fometimes a primary difeafe, and fome¬
times only a fymptom or an effect of others. Some¬
times it is a falutary effort of nature, fuch as the
phyfician ought to imitate and bring on by art. It
is alfo familiar to infants, and to people of a certain
conftitution ; and to them coftivenefs is very prejudi¬
cial. It may arife, in the firft place, from fomething
taken into the body, or generated in the inteftines;
from a fermentation and corruption of the mafs of ali¬
ments; from the bile being too abundant and acrid, or
from blood or pus poured into the inteftines; from the
inteftines themfelves being eroded, or deprived of their
natural mucus ; from the humours being driven from
the furface of the body towards the inward parts, as
by cold, efpecially when applied to the feet; or from
a general corruption of the whole body, as in the
phthifis, hedlic, or putrid fever, efpecially towards the
end of thefe diforders. In fevers it is fometimes falu-
tary, or even puts an end to the difeafe altogether, or
at leaft renders it milder: more freaic'1tly, however,
deriving its origin from putrefcency; rt is of no fer¬
vice, but rather exhaufts the ftrength of the patient.
A diarrhoea likewife, almoft incurable, and often mor¬
tal in a ftiort time, frequently arifes after the opera¬
tion for the fiftula in ano. Some have their inteftines
fo extremely weak and moveable, that from the flighteft
caufej fuch as catching cold, any violent commotion
of the mind, &c. they arefubjedl to a violent diarrhoea.
Laftly, whatever be its origin, if it hath continued for
a long time, the vifcera are rendered fo weak and ir-.
M ritable.
90
M E D I
Diforfarsof ritable, that the difeafe, though often removed, flill
tlieAliinen-returns £rom ^he highteft'caufes, and even fuch as are
tar^Can^ot ea% difcovere|.
A diarrhoea proves very pernicious, by hindering
digeftion and the nourifhment of the body ; for the
ftomach is commonly affedted, and the aliments pafs
through the inteftines fo quickly, that they can nei¬
ther be properly digeited, nor are the lafteals able to
abforb the chyle from them as they go along. Such a
violent evacuation is alfo hurtful by exhauiting the
body, and carrying off a great quantity of the nutri¬
tious matter from the blood. Neither, indeed, is it
only the alimentary mafs which is thrown out fooner
than it ought to be ; but at the fame time, a great
quantity of the fluids fecreted in the inteftines, fo that
the whole body quickly partakes of the debility.
Sometimes a violent and long-continued diarrhoea
rifes to fuch a height, that the aliment is difcharged
with little or no alteration. Sometimes alfo, though
rarely, from a fimilar caufe, or from the obftruction
of the mefenteric glands, and its other palfages into the
blood, the chyle itfelf is thrown out like milk along
with the excrements; and this difeafe is called the
i t o jluxus celiacus.
Dyfentery. A dyfentery is attended with very fevere gripes in
the belly, a frequent defire of going to ftool, and
vain efforts which excrete nothing befides the mucus
of the inteftines mixed with a little blood; and is ac¬
companied with exceflive debility, and frequently
with putrefcency and fever. It is thought to arife
from the conftriftion of fome part of the inteftines,
of the colon efpecially : by which means the bowels,
though ever fo much irritated, can pafs nothing; nei¬
ther can the difeafe be removed until the belly has
j?i been well purged by proper medicines.
Tenefmus. A tenefmus is a frequent and infatiable propen-
flty to- ftool, without being able to pafs any thing,
notwithftanding the moft violent efforts. It may be oc-
caftoned by any kind of irritation, either of the rec¬
tum itfelf or of the neighbouring parts, by acrid
fubftances taken into the body; by fome of the itrong-
er purges, efpecially aloes, which is very difficult of
folution, and will pafs even to the redftum. with very
little alteration ; by a violent and obftinate diarrhoea,
dyfentery, haemorrhoids, worms, fiftula, calculus, ulcer
in the bladder, urethra, &c. It is often very perni¬
cious, both from the exceffive uneafinefs it occafions to
the patient, and from its exhaufting his ftrength, by the
frequent and vain efforts bringing on a prpiapfus ani,
and communicating the violent irritation to the neigh-
iti bouring parts, as the bladder, &c.
Uaufea and A naufea and vomiting are diforders very common,
vomiting. and owing to almoft innumerable caufes ; not only to
affections of the ftomach itfelf, but alfo to[affeCtions and
irritations of the remoteft parts of the body which
may ad upon the'ftomach by fympathy. Every irri¬
tation. and diftention of that vifcus therefore, a load
of crude aliment, an obftruCtion about the pylorus,
all acrid fubftances taken into it, difeafes of the liver,
inteftines, kidneys, uterus, the head, the feet, the fttin,
or indeed the whole body, inflammation, the ftone,
img’s evil, fcirrhus, apoplexy, compreflion of the
brain, fracture of the fltull, vertigo, fyncope, violent
t/uin, the gout, efpecially when repelled, fevers, paf-
c I N E. Theory
fions of the mind, difagreeable imaginations or dif-r^fordersd
courfes, frequently induce naufea and vomiting. theAlimea
Thefe affeftions are often ferviceable by freeing the 'ary ^ana j
ftomach from fortiething with which it was overloaded; 4
promoting fpitting in fome cafes where the lungs are
overcharged with mucus, blood, pus, or water; pro¬
ducing fweat, and a free and proper diftribution of
blood to the furface of the body ; partly, perhaps, by
the great ftraining which accompanies vomiting, but
rather by that wonderful fympathy which takes place
between the ftomach and ikin : and hence, in many
difeafes, vomiting is a moft excellent remedy. It is
however in fome cafes hurtful, if too violent or too fre¬
quently repeated, partly by debilitating and making
the ftomach more ealily moved ; and partly by fati¬
guing the patient with violent ftrainings, which occa-
fion hernias, abortions, &c. 113
Sometimes we find the motion of the inteftines11'^ P-d-.
totally inverted, from the anus to the mouth; a®00’
moft dangerous diftemper, which hath obtained the
name of the iliac pajfwn. It moft frequently arifes
from fome obftruCtion in the alimentary canal hinder¬
ing the defeent of the excrements, as fcirrhus, fpafm,
inflammation, &c.: though the moft perfeCf iliac paf-
fion takes place without any obftruCtion, fo that cly-
fters will be vomited ; and even after this has conti*
nued for feveral days, the patients have at length re¬
covered.
A flighter degree of the iliac paffion, namely the
inveriion of the periftaltic motion of the duodenum,
always takes place in long continued and violent vo¬
miting, as in fea-ficknefs, or when a perfon has taken
too large a dofe of an qmetic; by which means a vaft
quantity of bile frequently afeends into the ftomach,
and is difcharged by vomiting. ll4
An exceffive vomiting with loofenefs is called a Cholera.
lera, when the matter difcharged has a bilious appear¬
ance. It arifes from a very great irritation of the ali¬
mentary canal without any obftruCtion; and is for the
moft part occafioned by too great a quantity, or
from an acrimony of the bile, from whence it takes
its- name. It may originate from feveral caufes, as
too ftrong a dofe of an emetic and cathartic medicine,
eating too great a quantity of fummer-fruits, &c.
and is a very violent malady, often killing the pa¬
tient in a few hours, unlefs proper remedies be applied
in time. 115
From a fuppreffion of any of the fecretions, or a Obftruded
diforder of any of the fecretory organs, many mif- perffifa-
chiefs may arife. A diminution of perfpiration pro-tl0U'
duces plethora, laffitude, languor, depreffion of mind,
bad digeftion, lofs of appetite, and even a general cor¬
ruption of the humours from the retention of fuch a
quantity of putrefeent matter.—The more fuddenly the
diminution or fuppreffion of the perfpiration takes
place, the fooner the mifehief is produced, and the
greater it is ; not only by retaining the matter which
ought to be thrown out, but by repelling the humours
from the furface of the body, and directing them to
other parts; whence fevers, inflammations, congeilions
of the blood, &c. frequently take place.
Thus fuppreffion of perfpiration may arife from many
different caufes ; as from cold fuddenly applied to the
body when very hot; fometimes from very violent
2 paffions
Theory. M E D I
H'Difo dersof paflions of the mind; or from fpafmodic dxfeafes, as the
■gcr^tion hyfterics, &c. It may be fuppreffed alfo by that
m v kind of coniiridtion of the veffels of the fliin which is
produced by various kinds of fevers, the nature of
■ 11(5 which has hitherto been but little known.
Bjxcellive Excefiive perfpiratiop or fweating is injurious by de-
■perfpira bilitating tlie body,.relaxing the flcin, and expofing the
K ’ patient to all the evils which arife from catching cold.
- It may even be carried to fuch a height as to produce
fainting and death ; though it muft be owned that we
cannot cafily bring examples of people having from
this caufe their blood infpiffkted, corrupted, or being
I ti; thence made liable to inflammations and fevers.
|Sup{ reflion A fupprefiion of urine is ftill more dangerous than
|ef urine. that 0f perfpiration, and unlefs relieved in a fhort
time will certainly prove fatal. This diforder, which
is called \fchuria> may arife from various difeafes of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, &c. Thus any
obftrudtion or irritation of one or other of the kidneys
or ureters, by a ftone, gravel, mucus, blood, inflam¬
mations, fpafm, fuppuration, fcirrhu0, fwellings of the
neighbouring parts, &c. may either prevent the urine
from being fecreted, or may give rife to a fcanty or de¬
praved fecretion, or finally may obftruft its paffage
into the bladder after it is fecreted.
The urine alfo, after it has entered the bladder,
is there frequently fuppreffed, by reafon of various
diforders to which that organ is liable, as an irritation
or inflammation, fpafm, acrid fubftances inje&ed, or
fympathy with the neighbouring parts; or by reafon
of the texture of the bladder itfelf being deftroyed, or
from a palfy, fcirrhus, ulcer, &c. in the bladder.
Or, laftly, the urine may be retained in the blad¬
der from a general ftupor, as from a difeafe of the
brain, which happens in fome fevers, when the pa¬
tient is neither fenfible of the ufual ftimulus, nor
even of one much greater, fo that the fibres can
fcarcely be excited to contraction by any means what¬
ever. This, in fevers, is always a bad fign, and fome-
times even proves fatal.
A fuppreffion of urine for any length of time
produces an immenfe diftenfion of the bladder, op-
preflion, uneafinefs, and pain, not only of the part
itfelf, but of the furrounding ones, and even of the
whole body ; a fpafm, or infuperable conftriCrion of
the fphinfter; an inflammation, gangrene, or lacera¬
tion of the bladder itfelf; a violent irritation of the
whole habit; then a naufea, vomiting, vertigo, ge¬
neral ftupor, and an impregnation of the whole mafs of
blood with a humour of an urinous nature, which at
laft being poured out into various cavities of the body,
efpecially of the head, foon brings on a deep fleep,
n 3 convulfions, and death.
[Dyfuria.
From the fame caufes, but afting with lefs force,
proceeds that difeafe called a dyfuria, when the urine
pafles with difficulty and pain, and is frequently
red, black, bloody, purulent, mucous and fandy;
the reafon of all which appearances is very much un¬
known.-:—The molt frequent complaint, however, in
; 119 making water, is where the patient has a continual and
Strangury, violent delire of palling his urine, while at the fame
time only two or three drops can be palled at once,
and that not without feme pain. This is occafioned,
even in healthy people, by fome acrid fubftance taken
into the ftomach ; and is very common to old people,
CINE. 91
who are generally fubjeCt to diforders of the kidneys OifordersoK
and bladder. It arifes alfo frequently from a ftone Secrt-tl0n*.
irritating the bladder, or from an inflammation of it, v
or its being deprived of its mucus, or this laft being
fomebow or other corrupted ; or laftly, from certain
difeafes or fome particular ftate of the neighbouring
parts, as of the uterus, vagina, urethra, proftrate
gland, &c. ... 140
Akin to the ftrangury is an incontinence of urine, Inconti-
when the patient’s water either comes away againftnence °£
his will, or altogether without his knowledge. Thisunne'
diforder may arife from debility, palfy, an ulcer or
wound, or any long-continued and violent irritation
of the bladder, efpe’cially of its fphin&er, as from a
ftone, a general palfy, or in females, difficult labour
injuring the neighbouring parts.—This fymptom oc¬
curs in a great number of difeafes, efpecially in the
hydrocephalus.—Sometimes the urine is expelled with
violence, either by reafon of univerfal fpafms, or by
violent contraclions of the mufcles of refpiration, as
in fneezing, laughter, &c. rjt
Among the diforders incident to the urine we^^?
may reckon the produftion of calculi, which frequently
bring on the moft excruciating and dangerous difeafes.
—The urine, befides the water and falts, contairfS no
fmall fhare of the glutinous part of the blood already
fomewhat corrupted, and ftill inclined to farther cor¬
ruption. Hence the urine even of the moft healthy
people depofits a fediment after it has flood for fome
time ; and though none of this fediment be formed in
an healthy body, yet if the fmalleft particle of foreign
matter be introduced into the bladder, a cruft foon
gathers round it, and it is fare to become the bafts of
a ftoqc, which by degrees grows to a very great
fize. It is not unlikely, alfo, that fome unknown
fault of the fluids may contribute to the produdlion
of thofe calculi, as the ftone is well known to be an
hereditary difeafe, and to be born with the patient.
Calculous perfons alfo are commonly fubjeft to com¬
plaints of the ftomach, efpecially to an acidity of it;
and many have received no little relief from alkalefcent
or alkaline medicines.—From the fame caufes may
calculi be formed in the kidneys; from which proceed
a horrid train of fymptoms deferibed in the fubfequent
part of this treatife.
11 is now found by accurate experiments of the
moft able chemifts, that urinary calculi do riot, as was
once fuppofed, confift almoft entirely of an earthy mat¬
ter. Their principal conftituent is a peculiar acid
approaching more nearly to the phofphoric found in
the bones than to any other. But the acid of cal¬
culus being in fome refpefts peculiar in its nature, has
among modern chemifts obtained a peculiar name, and
been diftinguiffied by the appellation of the iithic acid.
It is highly probable that this acid prefent in the cir¬
culating mafs, is precipitated and difengaged by the
introduftion of other acids, and thus thrown off in
greater quantities by the kidneys. Thus then we can
underftand the influence of acids as tending to the ge¬
neration of calculus, and of alkalies as tending to
prevent it. ^ I24
The laft diforder here to be taken notice of is ascirrhus.
diforder of the glands themfdves, owing to fome kind
of obftru&ion, and is one of the moft dreadful dif- _
eafes incident to human nature. Hence happens a
M 2 great
92 MEDICINE.
Svirrhus. great fweiling and furprifmg hardnefs, not only
without pain, but fometimes even with a diminution
of fenfation in the part affetted; and when the
gland is thus affe&ed, it is called a fcirrhus. Some¬
times it remafns in this Hate for a long time; but
fooner or later produces the moft excruciating tor¬
ment. By degrees it is infected with a flow and ma¬
lignant fuppuration, degenerating into an horrid ulcer,,
confuming not only the part itfelf, but eating away
the neighbouring ones, and corrupting the whole body
with the moft acrid and incurable poifon. This_difeafe
is called a cancer, of which the caufes are very little
known.
Theory
Of the organs in both fexes concerned in the func- Verfatility
tion of generation, and of that funftion as far as we
yet know any thing refpe&ing it, an account has al-
ready been given in Anatomy ; and after what has
already been laid of the different funftions, and of
the morbid affections, to which thefe are fubjefted,
we may conclude our remarks on the theory of me¬
dicine, with mentioning the remarkable verfatility of
the human conftitution ; which, more than that of any
other animal, is capable of accommodating itfelf to
every climate and to all kind of diet. Hence we may
conclude, that a large proportion of the difeafes to
■which we are fubje&ed are produced by ourfelves.
Practice of Medicine, or an Account
Human Body
t*3
General "ITTE have already defined medicine to be the art of
imcnTof" * * preventing, curing, and alleviating, thefe dif-
Dileafes. cafes to which mankind are fubjefted. While thefe af¬
fections, however, are in number almoft infinite, each
in its progrefs is fubjefted to almoft endlefs varieties
from differences in climate, conftitution, treatment,
and a variety of other particulars. Hence we may
readily explain both the difficulty of diftinguilhing
morbid affeCtions from each other in aCtual pradtice,
and the diverfity of names which have been affixed to
them in the writings of ancient phyficians. It may
readily be fuppofed, that in this as well as other fub-
jecfts, there has been a gradual improvement from the
progreffive labours of induftrious and ingenious men.
And although much yet remains to be done in the
proper arrangement and diftinftion of difeafes, or
what has been called methodical nofology, yet there can¬
not be a doubt, that during the courfe of the prefent
century, this fubjeCf has received very great improve¬
ments For thefe, we are in the firft place highly in¬
debted to the labours of Francifcus Boiffier de Sau-
vages, an emiment profeffor of medicine at Montpe¬
lier, who, following out an idea fuggefted by the fa-
gacious Dr Sydenham of England, firft fuccefsfully
attempted to arrange difeafes as botanifts had done
plants, into claffes, orders, genera, and fpecies. Since
the publication of the Nofologia Methodica of Sauva-
ges, this fubjeCt has been fuccefsfully cultivated by fe-
veral ingenious men, particularly by Sir Charles Lin¬
naeus of Upfal, to whofe genius for arrangement every
branch of natural hiftory, but botany in particular,
has been fo highly indebted; by Rudolphus Augut
tus Vogel, an eminent profeffor at Gottingen ; and by
John Baptift Sagar, a diftinguilhed phyfician at Ig-
law in Moravia : But of all the fyftems of arrange¬
ment yet prefented to the medical world, that pub-
lifhed by the late illuftrious Dr .William Cullen of
Edinburgh, may juftly be confidered as the belt. In
treating, therefore, of the principal difeafes to which
the human body is fubje&ed, we fliall follow his plan,
endeavouring to deliver the heft eftablilhed obferva-
tions refpefting the hiftory, theory, and pradtice of
each. And in treating of particular genera of difeafe,
although we follow the arrangement of Dr Cullen,
yet for the fatisfaftion of the reader, we ffiall point
out the claffes to which the fame affedtior is referred
of the principal Difeafes to which the
is fubjefted.
by the other eminent writers whom we have mention¬
ed. And on this account, it may not be improper
briefly to enumerate the general claffes to which each
of them have referred the affedtions of the human
body.
The claffes of Sauvages are,
r. Vitia. 6. Debilitates.
2. Febres. 7. Dolores.
3. Phlegmafiar. 8. Vefaniae.
4. Spafmi. 9. Fluxus.
5. Anhelationes. 10. Cachexia.
The claffes of Linnseus are,
1. Exanthematici. 7. Motorii.
2. Critici. 8. Supprefforiu
3. Phlogiftici. 9. Evacuatorii.
4. Dolorofi. 10. Deformes.
5. Mentales. 11. Vitia.
6. Quietales.
The claffes of Vogel are,
1. Febres. 7. Hyperafthefes.
2. Profluvia. 8. Cachexia.
3. Epifchefea. 9. Paranoia.
4. Dolores. 10. Vitia.
5. Spafmi. 11. Deformitates.
6. Adynamia.
The claffes of Sagar are,
1. Vitia. 8. Anhelationes.
2. Palga. 9. Debilitates.
3. Cachexia. 10. Exanthemata.
4. Dolores. ti. Phlegmafia.
5. Fluxus. 12. Febres.
6. Suppreffiones. 13. Vefania.
7. Spafmi.
After this fhort view of different claffifications, we
lhall next prefent to our readers a more particular ac¬
count of the arrangement of Dr Cullen ; which, al¬
though it can by no means be reprefented as free from
errors or imperfedfions, is yet in many refpedts the
beft that has hitherto been publiflied,
Cullen’s Arrangement.
CLASS I. Pyrexia;. Ajfrequent pulfe coming oa
after an horror j confiderable heat; many of the func.
Practice. M E B I
I General tlons Injured; the flrength of the limbs efpecially di-
f Arrange- minified.
| ment of
| Diftafes. Order I. Febres. Pyrexia without any primary
local affeflion, following langour, laffitude, and other
fymptoms of debility.
Seft. I. Intermittentes. Fevers arifing from the
miafma of marfhes ; with an apyrexia, or at leaft a very
evident remiffion ; but the difeafe returns conflantly.
and for the moft part with a horror or trembling
There is only one paroxyfm in a day.
Genus I. Tertiana. Similar paroxyfms at an inter¬
val of about 48 hours, coming on moll commonly at
mid-day. A tertian hath either ;
I. An apyrexia interpofed ;
1. Varying the duration of the paroxyfms.
A. The tertian whofe paroxyfms are not extended
beyond 12 hours.
B. The tertian with paroxyfms extended beyond
12 hours.
2. Varying in the return of the paroxyfms.
C. The tertian returning every day with unequal
paroxyfms alternately fimilar to one another.
D. The tertian returning every third day with two
paroxyfms on the fame day.
E. The tertian returning every day, with two pa¬
roxyfms on every third day, and only one on the in¬
termediate ones.
F. The tertian returning every day, with a notable
remiflion interpofed between the odd and the even
days, but a lefs remarkable one between the even and
the odd one.
3. Varying in its fymptoms.
G. The tertian accompanied with a difpofition to
fleep.
H. Accompanied with fpafms and convulfive mo¬
tions.
I. Accompanied with an efflorefcence on the Ikin.
K. With phlegmalia.
4. Varying in being complicated with other dif-
eafes.
5. Varying as to its origin.
II. With the interpofition only ©f a remiffion be¬
tween the paroxyfms.
Genus II. Quartana. Similar paroxyfms, with
an interval of about 72 hours, coming on in the af¬
ternoon.
I. With the interpofition of an apyrexia.
1. Varying in the type.
A. The quartan with Angle paroxyfms, returning
every fourth day, none on the other days.
B. With two paroxyfms every fourth day, and
none on the other days.
C. With three paroxyfms every fourth day, and
none on the intermediate days.
D. Of the four days having only the third free
from fever, with fimilar paroxyfms every fourth day.
E. The quartan coming on every day, with fimilar
paroxyfms every fourth day.
2. Varying in its fymptoms.
3. Varying in being complicated with other dif-
eafes-
II. With a remiffion only between the paroxyfms.
Genus III. Quotidiana. Similar paroxyfms with
an interval of about 24 hours, coming on in the
morning.
CINE.
1. With the interpofition of an apyrexia.
r. Varies in being folitary.
A. Univerfal.
B. Partial.
2. Complicated with other difeafes.
II. With a remiffion only between the paroxyfms.
Seft. II. Continue. Fevers without any intermif-
fion, and not occafioned by marfh miafmata ; attended
with exacerbations and temiffions, though not very
remarkable.
Genus IV. Synocha. Great heat; a frequent,
llrong, and hard pulfe ; high-coloured urine; the func¬
tions of the fenforium a little difturbed.
Genus V. Typhus. A contagious difeafe ; the
heat not greatly above the natural; the pulfe fmall,
weak, and for the molt part frequent; the urine little
changed; the functions of the fenforium very much
difturbed, and the ftrength greatly diminilhed.
The fpecies are,
I. Typhus petechialis. Typhus for the moft part
with petechias.
Varying in degree. 1. Mild typhus. 2. Malignant
typhus.
II. Typhus iSerodes. Typhus with a yellownefs.
of the fkin.
Genus VI. Synochus. A contagious difeafe. A
fever compofed of a fynocha and typhus; ,in the begin¬
ning a fynocha, but towards the end a typhus.
Order II. Phlegmafias. A fynocha fever, with in¬
flammation or topical pain, the internal function of ther
part being at the lame time injured; the blood cover¬
ed with fize.
Genus VII. Phlogofis. Pyrexia; rednefs, heat,,
and painful tenfion, of fome external part.
The fpecies are,
I. Phlogofis (phlegmme) of a vivid red colour; ar
fwelling well defined, for the moft part elevated to a
point, and frequently degenerating into an abfeefs,
with a beating or throbbing pain.
The variations are, 1. In the form. 2. In the fi-
tuation.
II. Phlogofis [erythema) of a reddilh colour, va-
hilhing by prefiure ; of an unequal and creeping cir¬
cumference, with fcarce any fwelling; ending in the
fealing off the cuticle, in phly&enae, or blilters.
The variations are, 1. In the degree of violence.
2. In the remote caufe. 3. In being complicated
with other difeafes.
The confequences of a phlogofis are, an impofti
hume, gangrene, fphacelus.
Genus VIII. Ophthalmia. A rednefs and pain of
the eye, with an inability to bear the light; for the
moft part with an effufion of tears.
The fpecies and varieties of the ophthalmia are,
I, Idiopathic.
1. Ophthalmia in the tunica adnata,
and the membranes lying under it, or the coats of :
the eye.
A. Varying in the degree of the external inflam¬
mation.
B. In the internal coats affedted.
2. Ophthalmia [tarfi) of the eye-lids, with fweh
ling, erofion, and glutinous exfudation.
II Symptomatic.
1. From a difeafe of the eye itfelf.
93
General
Airange-
2. From
*94 M E D I
General 2. From difeafes of other parts, or of the whole
"m*r't of b°dy-
Difeafes. Genus IX. Phreriitis. Violent pyrexia; pain of
»—  the head; rednefs of the face and eyes j^inability to
endure the light or any noife ; watchfulnefs ; a fierce
delirium, or typhomauia.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus X. : anche. Pyrexia fometimes inclining
to a typhus; difficulty of fwallowing and breathing;
with a fenfation of narrow nefs in the fauces.
The fpecies are,
I Cynanche (tonftllaris) affeftingthe mucous mem¬
brane of the fauces, but efpecially the tonfils, with red¬
nefs and fwelling, accompanied with a fynocha.
II. Cynanche {maligna) affedting the tonfils and mu¬
cous membrane of the fauces with fwelling, rednefs, and
mucous crufts of a whitifti or affi-colour, creeping,
and covering ulcers; with a typhous fever and exanthe¬
mata.
II. Cynanche {trachealis) attended with difficult re-
fpiration,noify and hoarfeinfpiration, loud cough, with¬
out any apparent tumor in the fauces, fomew hat dif¬
ficult deglutition, and a fynocha.
IV. Cynanche (pharingtza) attended with rednefs in
the bottom of the fauces, very difficult and painful
deglutition, refpiration fufficiently free, and a fy¬
nocha.
V. Cynanche {parotidaa) with great fwelling of the pa¬
rotids and maxillary glands appearing on the outfide :
the refpiration and deglutition but little injured ; a
fynocha, for the moft part mild.
Difeafes of this genus are fymptomatic, either from
external or internal caufes.
Genus XI. Pneumonia. Pyrexia, with a pain
in fome part of the thorax, difficult refpiration, and
cough. The fpecies are.
I. Peripneumony, with a pulfe not always hard, but
fometimes foft; an obtufe pain of the breaft ; the re¬
fpiration always difficult; fometimes the patient can¬
not breathe unlefs in an upright pofture; the face fwell-
ed, and of a livid colour; the cough for the moft part
xnoift, frequently bloody.
1. Simple idiopathic peripneumonies.
Varying in degree.
2. Idiopathic peripneumonies complicated withfever.
3. Symptomatic peripneumonies.
II. Pleurify, with a hard pulfe ; for the moft part
attended with a pungent pain of one fide, augmented
chiefly during the time of infpiration ; an uneafinefs
when lying on the fide ; a moil painful cough, dry in
the beginning of the difeafe, afterwards moift, and
frequently bloody.
1. Simple idiopathic pleurifies.
2. Pleurifies, complicated (1.) With fever. (2.)
With catarrh.
3. Symptomatic pleurifies.
4. Falfe pleurifies.
The confequences of pleurify are a vomica or em¬
pyema.
Genus XIII. Carditis. Pyrexia; pain about the
heart; anxiety ; difficulty of breathing ; cough ; un¬
equal pulfe ; palpitation of the heart, and fainting.
Pra£lice<
CINE.
I. Idiopathic. General
II. Symptomatic. Arrange-
Genus XIV. Peritonitis. Pyrexia; pain of the
belly, exafperated by an upright pofture, without
the proper figns of other abdominal phlegmafiae. If
the diagnoftics of the following difeafes are given,
they may be reckoned as fo many fpecies of this
genus.
I. Peritonitis {propria) fituated in the peritonaeum,
properly fo called, furrounding the infide of the abdo¬
men.
II. Peritonitis {omentah) in the peritonaeum ex¬
tended through the omentum.
III. Peritonitis {mefenterica) in the peritonaeum
fpread through the mefentery.
Genus XV. Gaftritis. Pyrexia inclining to a ty¬
phus; anxiety ; pain and heat of the epigaftrium, aug¬
mented when any thing is taken into the ftomach ; an
inclination to vomit, and an immediate rejection of
every thing fwallowed ; an hickup.
1. Idiopathic.
x. From internal caufes.
A. Gaftritis (phlegmonodea) attended with acute
pain and violent pyrexia.
2. From external caufes.
B. Gaftritis {eryfipelatofa), with a lefs violent fever
and pain ; an eryfipelatous rednefs appearing on the
fauces.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XVI. Enteritis. Pyrexia of a typhous na¬
ture ; pungent pain of the belly, ftretehing and
twilling round the navel; vomiting ; the belly obfti-
nately bound.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Enteritis (phlegmonoclaa), with acute pain, vio¬
lent fever, vomiting, and conftipation of the belly.
2. Enteritis {eryfipelatofa) with lefs acute fever and
pain, without vomiting; but accompanied with a
diarrhoea.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus XVII. Hepatitis. Pyrexia; tenfion and pain
of the right hypochondrium ; fome-times pungent like
that of a pleurify, but more frequently obtufe ; a pain
reaching to the clavicle and top of the right Ihoulder ;
a difficulty of lying on the left fide ; dyfpnoea ; dry
cough, vomiting, and hickup.
Genus XVIII. Splenitis. Pyrexia ; tenfion, heat,
and fwelling of the left hypochondrium, the pain in-
creafing by preflure ; without the figns of nephritis.
Genus XIX. Nephritis. Pyrexia ; pain in the re¬
gion of the kidney, often following the courfe of the
ureter ; frequent making of water, either thin and co-
lourlefs, or very red ; vomiting ; ftupor of the thigh ;
with a retraction or pain of the tefticle of the fame
fide. The fpecies are,
I. Idiopathic. Spontaneous.
II. Symptomatic. „
Genus XX. Cyftitis. Pyrexia ; pain and fwell¬
ing of the hypogaftrium; frequent and painful making
of water, or ifehuria ; and tenefmus. The fpecies are,
I. Thofe arifing from internal caufes.
II. Thofe from external caufes.
Genus XXI. Hyfteritis. Pyrexia ; heat, tenfion,
fwelling,
Pra&ice. M E D I
| General fwelling, and pain of the hypogaftrium ; the os uteri
Arrange- pa;nful when touched; vomiting.
iJJifeafes Genus XXII. Rheumatifmus. A difeafe arifing
Wy—— from an external and frequently very evident caufe;
pyrexia; pain about the joints, frequently purfuing
the courfe of the mufcles; infeiting the knees and other
large joints rather than thofe of the feet or hands; in-
creafed by external heat.
The fpecies are either idiopathic or fymptomatic.
The former varies in fituation.
1 ■ A. In the mufcles of the loins. -
B In the mufcles of the coxendix.
C. In the mufcles of the breaft.
Genus XXIII. Odontalgia ; a rheumatifm of the
| jaws from a caries of the teeth.
Genus XXIV. Podagra. An hereditary difeafe,
arifing without any evident" external caufe, but for the
moil part preceded by an unufual affection of the fto-
mach ; pyrexia ; pain of a joint for the mofl part of
the great toe of the foot, at leaft infelling chiefly the
wrifts and ankles ; returning by intervals; and often
alternated with affections of the ffomach and other
internal parts.
I. Podagra (regularu) with a pretty violent in¬
flammation of the joints remaining for fome days, and
by degrees going off- with fwelling, itching, and de-
fquamation of the affefted part.
II. Podagra (atonica) with an atony of the fto-
maeh, or fome other internal part; and either with¬
out the ufual inflammation of the joints, or only with
flight' and Wandering pains ; and frequently alternated
with dyfpepfia, or other fymptoms of atony.
III. Podagra (retrograda) with the inflammation
of the joints fuddenly receding, and an atony of the
Itomach and other parts immediately following.
IV. Podagra {aberrans') with the inflammation of
an internal part either preceding or not, and fuddenly
receding ; with an inflammation of the joints.
Genus XXV. Arthropuofis. Deep, obtufc, and
long-continued pains of the joints or mufcular parts,
frequently following contufions ; with either no fwell¬
ing, or a moderate and diffufed one ; no phlogofis;
pyrexia, at firft gentle, afterwards hectic, and at length '
an impofthume.
Order III. Exanthemata. Contagious difeafqs;
affedting a perfon only once in their life ; beginning
with fever ; after a certain time appear phlogofes, for
the molt part fmall and in coniiderable number,, and
difperfed over the flein.
Genus XXVI. Eryfipelas. A fynocha of two or
three days, for the molt part attended with drowfinefs,
often with a delirium. In fome part of the fkin, molt
frequently the face, appears a phlogofis erithema.
(G. VII. Sp. 2.) The fpecies are,.
I. Eryfipelas {yeficulvfum) with erythema, rednefs
creeping, occupying a large fpace, and in fome parts
ending in large .blitters.
II. Eryfipelas {phlySanodes'), with an erythema
formed of a number of papulae,.chiefly occupying the
trunk of the body, ending in phlyitense or imall
blitters.
The difeafe is alfo fymptomatic.
Genus XXVII. Pettis. An exceedingly contagious .
typhus,, with the higheft debility. On an uncertain
CINE. 95
day of the difeafe buboes and carbuncles break forth. General
It is various in degree, but the fpecies are uncertain, of*
Genus XXVIII. Variola ; a contagious fynocha, Difeafcs.
with vomiting, and pain on prelfing the epigaftrium. y—-w
On the third day begins, and on the fifth is finifhed,
the eruption of inflammatory puttules, which fuppu-
rate in the fpace of eight days, and at laft go off in
crufts ; frequently leaving deprefled cicatrices or pock-
pits in the flan. The fpecies are,
I. Variola (difereta) with few, dillinft, turgid pu-
ftules, having circular bafes ; the fever ceafing imme¬
diately after the eruption.
II. Variola {conjluens') with numerous, confluent,
irregularly lhaped puftules, flaccid, and little eleva¬
ted ; the fever remaining after the eruption.
Genus XXIX. Varicella. Synocha ; papulse
breaking out after a fljort fever, fimilarto thofe of the
fmall-pox, but hardly ever coming to fuppuratipn ; af¬
ter a iew days going off in frnall feales, but never lea¬
ving any mark.
Genus XXX. Rubeola. A contagious fynocha,
with breezing, epiphora, and dry hoarfe cough. On
the fourth day, or a little later, break forth fmall,
cluftered,'0tid fearce elevated papulse ; after three days
going off in very fmall branny feales.
I. Rubeola {vulgari}') with very fmall confluent,,
corymbofe papulae, fcarce rifmg above the (kin.
Varying,
i. In the fymptoms being more fevere, and the courfe
of the dileafe lefs regular.
2 In being accompanied with a. quinfey.
3. With a putrid diathefis.
II. Rubeola (variolodes) with diilinft. papula;, rai-
fed above the (kin.
Genus XXXI. Mikaria. Synochus with anxiety,,
frequent fighing, feetid .fweat, and points on the (kin.
On an uncertain day of the difeafe, break out red,
fmall, diftinft papula;, fpread over the whole body as
well as the face ; the apices of which, after one or
two days, become very fmall white puftules, remaining
for a (hort time.
Genus XXXII. Scarlatina. A contagious fynocha.
On the fourth day of the difeafe the face fwells a little ;
at the fame time an univerfal rednefs occupies the (kin
in large fpots, at length running together; after three
days going off in branny feales ; frequently fucceeded
by an anafarca. The fpecies are,
I Scarlatina {/implex), not accompanied with cy-
nanche.
II. Scarlatina {cynanchlca), with an ulcerous cy-
nanche.
Genus !kXXl II. Urticaria. An amphemerina fever.
On the fecond day of the difeafe,.red (pots rei'embling
the flinging of nettles, almoft. vaniihing during the
day, but returning in the evening with the fever,-
and after a few days going off altogether in very final!
feales.
Genus XXXIV. Pemphigus. A contagious ty¬
phus. On the tirll,. fecond, or third day of the difeafe,
bliilers break oiit in feveral parts of the body, of the
bignefs of a bean, remaining for many days, and at
laft pouring out a thin ichor. 1
Genus XXXV. Aphtha. Synochus; the tongue
fume what fvvelled and of a livid colour, as well as the
fauces; efehars firft appearing in the fauces, .but at
$6 M E D I
General length occupying the whole internal part of the mouth,
^nient^of a w^te colour, fometimes diftinft, often running
Difeafes. together ; quickly growing again when taken off; and
u—remaining for an uncertain time.
The fpecies are, i. Idiophatic. 2. Symptomatic.
Order IV. Haemorrhagise. Pyrexia, with a profu-
fion of blood, without any external violence: the blood
drawn from a vein hath the fame appearance as in
phlegmafiae.
Genus XXXVI. Epiftaxis. Pain or weight of
the head, rednefs of the face; a profufion of blood
from the nofe.
I. Idiopathic.
Varying according to the time of life.
1. Epiftaxis of young people, with fymptoms of an
arterious plethora.
2. Epiftaxis of old people, with fymptoms of a ve¬
nous plethora.
II. Symptomatic.
1. From internal caufes.
2. From external caufes.
Genus XXXVII. Hsemoptyfis. Rednefs of the
checks ; a fenfation of uneafinefs, or pain, and fome¬
times of heat in the breaft ; difficulty of breathing ;
tickling of -the fauces ; either a fevere or lefs vio¬
lent cough, bringing up florid and frequently frothy
blood.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Haemoptyfis (ptdhorica), without any external
violence, and without being preceded by any cough or
fuppreffion of any cuftomary evacuation.
2. Haemoptyfis (violmta), from external violence
applied.
3. Haemoptyfis (phthiftca), after a long-continued
cough, with a leannefs and debility.
4. Haemoptyfis (calculojd), in which fome calculous
molecules, for the moft part of a calcareous nature, are
thrown up.
5. Haemoptyfis {-mearid), after the fupprefiion of a
Cuftomary evacuation.
Befides thefe, there are a number of fymptomatic
fpecies mentioned by different authors. The confe-
quence of an hae.moptyfis is, a
Phthijis. A wafting and debility of the body, with
a cough, heftic fever, and for the moft part a purulent
expedforation The fpecies are,
I. An incipient phthifis, without any expe&oration
of pus.
II. A confirmed phthifis, with an expe&oration of
pus.
Both fpecies vary, 1. As to their remote'caufe.
2. As to the origin of the purulent matter.
Genus XXXVIII. Haemorrhois. Weight and
pain of the head ; vertigo; pain of the loins ; pain of
the anus ; livid painful tubercles, from which for the
moft part blood flows out; which fometimes alfo drops
out of the anus, without any apparent tumor. The
fpecies are,
1. Haemorrhois (lumens'), external from marifeae.
v Varying.
A. Bloody.
B. Mucous.
2. Haemorrhds (prodJens), external from a proci¬
dentia ani.
N02c>3.
CINE.
Pra(5tic«
3. Haemorrhois (fuens), internal, without any General's
fwelling, or procidentia ani.
4. Haemorrhois (ceeca), with pain and fwelling of
the anus, without any profufion of blood.
Genus XXXIX. Menorrhagia. Pains of the back,
belly, and loins, like thofe of child-birth ; an unufual-
ly copious flux of the menfes or blood from the vagina.
The fpecies are,
1. Menorrhagia (rubra), bloody in women neither
with child nor in child-birth.
2. Menorrhagia (abortus), bloody in women with
child.
3. Menorrhagia (Jochialis), bloody in women af¬
ter delivery.
4. Menorrhagia (vitiorum) bloody from fome lo¬
cal difeafe.
5. Menorrhagia (alba), ferous, without any local
difeafe, in women not with child.
6. Menorrhagia (Nabothi), ferous in women with
child.
Order V. Profluvia. Pyrexia, with an increafed fe-
cretion, naturally not bloody.
Genus XL. Catarrhus. Pyrexia frequently con¬
tagious; an increafed excretion of mucus, at leaft efforts
to excrete it.
The fpecies are for the moft part fymptomatic.
1. From cold.
2. From contagion.
Genus XLI. Dyfenteria. Contagious pyrexia ;
frequent mucous or bloody ftools, while the alvine
feces are for the moft part retained; gripes; tenefmus.
Varying:
1. Accompanied with worms.
2. With the 'excretion of fmall flefhy or febaceous
bodies.
3. With an intermittent fever.
4. Without blood.
5. With a miliary fever.
CLASS If. Neuroses. An injury of the fenfe
and motion, without an idiopathic pyrexia or any
local affe&ion.
Order. I. Comata. A diminution of voluntary mo¬
tion, with deep, or a deprivation of the fenfes.
Genus XLII. Apoplexia. Almoft all voluntary
motion diminifhed, with fleep more or lefs profound ;
the motion of the heart and arteries remaining.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Apoplexia (fanguinea) with fymptoms of uni-
verfal plethora, efpecially of the head.
2. Apoplexia (ferofa) with a leucophlegmatia over
the whole body, efpecially in old people.
3. Apoplexia (hydrocephalica) coming on by de¬
grees ; affecting infants, or thofe below the age of
puberty, firft with laffitude, a flight fever and pain of
the head, then with flownefs of the pulfe, dilatation
of the pupil of the eye, and drowfinefs.
4. Apoplexia (atrabiliaria) taking place in thofe of
a melancholic conftitution.
5. Apoplexia (trauma ica) from fome external in¬
jury mechanically applied to the head.
6. Apoplexia (venenata) from powerful fedatives ta¬
ken internally or applied externally.
7. Apo-
Pradice. M E D I
General >7. Apoplexia (mentalis} from a paffion of the mind.
Arrange- Apoplexia {cataleptica) the mufcles remaining
Difeafe^ contra&ile, by external motion of the limbs.
«n—9. Apoplexia (fujfocata) from fome external fuffo-
cating power.
The apoplexia is frequently fymptomatic.
1 Of an intermitting fever. 2 Continued fever.
3 Phlegmafia. 4 Exanthema. 5 Hyfteria. 6 Epilepfy.
y Podagra. 8 Worms. 9 Ifchuria. 10 Scurvy.
Genus XLIII. Paralyfis. Only fome of the vo
luntary motions diminifhed, frequently with fleep.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1 Paralyfis {partialis} of fome particulur miifcles
only. '
2. Paralyfis {hemiplegica). of one fide of the body.
Varying according to the conftitution of the body.
a. Hemiplegia in a plethoric habit.
b. In a leucophlegmatic habit.
3. Parlyfis [paraplegica') of one half of the body
taken tranfverfely.
4. Paralyfis {venenata) from fedative powers applied
either internally or externally.
A fymptom either of an Aflhenia or Palfy is,
Tremor ; an alternate motion of a limb by frequent
ftrokes and intervals.
The fpecies are, 1 Aftheriic. 2 Paralytic. 3 Con-
\ulfive.
Order II. Adynamise. A diminution of the invo¬
luntary motions whether vital or natural.
Genus XLIV. Syncope ; a diminution, or even a
total ftoppage, of the motion of the heart for a little.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Syncope [cardiaca), returning frequently with¬
out any manifeft caufe, with violent palpitations of
the heart during the intervals.—From a fault of the
heart or neighbouring veffels.
2. Syncope {occafwnalis) arifing from fome evident
caufe.—From an affection of the whole fyftem.
II. Symptomatic ; or fymptoms of difeafes either
of the whole fyltem, or of other parts befides the
heart.
Genus XLV. Dyfpepfia. Anorexia, naufea, vo¬
miting, inflation, belching, rumination, cardialgia,
gaftrodynia, more or fewer of thofe fymptoms at leaft
concurring; for the moft part with a conftipation of
the belly, and without any other difeafe either of the
ftomach itfelf or of other parts.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
1. From a difeafe of the ftomach itfelf.
2. From a difeafe of other parts, or of the whole
body.
Genus XLVI. Hypochondriafis. Dyfpepfia, with
languor, fadnefs and fear without any adequate caufes,
in a, melancholy temperament.
Genus XLVII. Chlorofis. Dyfpepfia, or a defire
of fomething not ufed as food ; a pale or difcoloured
complexion ; the veins not well filled; a foft tumor
of the whole body; afthenia; palpitation; fuppreffion
of the menfes.
Order III. Spafmi. Irregular motions of the muf¬
cles or mufcular fibres.
Sedft. I. In the animalfunftions.
Vol.XI. Parti.
CINE. 97
Genus XLVIII. Tetanus;—a fpaftic rigidity of General
almoft the whole body.
Varying according to the remote caufe, as it arifes Difeafe3>
either from fomething internal, from cold, or from a u—y—
wound. It varies likewife from whatever caufe it
may arife, according to the part of the body affefted.
Genus XLIX. Trifmus. A fpaftic rigidity of the
lower jaw.—The fpecies are,
1. Trifmus (nafeentium), feizing infants under two
months old.
2. Trifmus (traumaticus), feizing people of all ages
either from a wound or cold.
Genus L. Convulfio.—An irregular clonic contrac¬
tion of the mufcles without fleep.
I. Idiopathic.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LI. Chorea, attacking thofe who have not
yet arrived at puberty, moft commonly within the 10th
or 14th year, with convulfive motions for the moft;
part of one fide in attempting the voluntary motion of
the hands and arms, refembling the gefticulations of
mountebanks; in walking, rather dragging one of their
feet after them than lifting it.
Genus LII. Raphania. A fpaftic contraflion of the
joints, with a convulfive agitation, and moft violent pe¬
riodical pain.
Genus LI1I. Epilepfia. A convulfion of the mufcles,
with fleep.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Epilepfia {cerebralis), fuddenly attacking without
any manifeft caufe, without any fenfe of uneafinefs
preceding, excepting perhaps a flight vertigo or fco-
tomia.
2. Epilepfia {fympathica), without any manifeft
caufe, but preceded by the fenfation of a kind of air
rifing from a certain part of the body towards the
head.
3. Epilepfia {occqfionalis), arifing from a manifeft.
irritation, and ceafing on the removal of that irrita¬
tion.
Varying according to the difference of the irritating
matter. And thus it may arife,
From injuries of the head; pain; worms; poifon;
from the repulfion of the itch, or an effufion of any
other acrid humour; from crudities in the ftomach;
from paflions of the mind; from an immoderate he-
morrhagy; or from debility.
Se£t. II. In the vital functions.
In the aftion of the heart.
Genus LIV. Palpitatio. A violent and irregular
motion of the heart.
In the aftion of the lungs.
Genus LV. Afthma. A difficulty of breathing re¬
turning by intervals, with a fenfe of ftraitnefs in the
breaft, and a noify refpiration with hilling. In the
beginning of the paroxyfm there is either no cough at
all, or coughing is difficult; but towards the end the
cough becomes free, frequently with a copious fpitting
of mucus.—The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Afthma (fpontancum), without any manifeft caufe
or other concomitant difeafe.
2. Afthma {exanthematicum), from the repulfion of
the itch or other acrid effufion.
3. Afthma {plethoricum), from the fuppreffion of
N fome
98 . . ,
Genera! fome cuJtomary fanguineous evacuation, or from a
Arrange- fpontaneous plethora.
Difeafes Genus-LVI. Dyfpnoca. A continual difficulty of
. . ^ '< breathing, without any fenfe of ftraitnefs, but rather
of fullnefs and infardfion in the breaft; a frequent
cough throughout the whole courfe of the difeafe.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. Dyfpnoea (cntarrhalis), with a frequent cough,
bringing up plenty of vifeid mucus.
2. Dyfpnoea (feed), with a cough for the moll; part
dry.
3. Dyfpnoea (aered), increafed by the leaft change
of weather.
4. Dyfpncea (terred), bringing up with the cough
an earthy or calculous matter.
5. Dyfpnoea (aquofa), with fcanty urine and cede-
matous feet; without any fluftuation in the breaft, or
other figns of an hydrothorax.
6. Dyfpnoea (pmquedinofd), in very fat people
7. Dyfpnoea {thoracica), from an injury done to the
parts furrounding the thorax, or from fome bad con¬
formation ofthem.
8. Dyfpnoea {extrinfeca), from evident external
caufes.
The fymptomatic fpecies of dyfpnoea are fymp-
toms,
1. Of difeafes of the heart or large veffels.
2. Of a fwelling in the abdomen.
3. Of various difeafes.
Genus LVII. Pertuffis. A contagious difeafe; con-
vulfive ftrangulating cough reiterated with noify infpi-
ration ; frequent vomiting.
Se£t. III. In the natural functions.
Genus LVIII. Pyrofis. A burning pain in the epi-
gaftrium, with plenty of aqueous humour, for the moft
part inlipid, but fometimes acrid, belched up.
Genus L1X. Colica. Pain of the belly, efpecially
twilling round the navel; vomiting; a conftipation.
The idiopathic fpecics are,
X. Colica (fpnfmodica), with retraftion of the navel,
and fpafin? of the abdominal mufcles.
Varying, by reafon of fome fymptoms fuperadded.
Hence,
a, Colica, with vomiting of excrements, or of mat¬
ters inje&ed by the anus.
b, Colica, with inflammation fupervening.
2. Colica (piSonum), preceded by a fenfe of weight
or uneafmefs in the belly, efpecially about the navel;
then comes on the colic pain, at firft flight and inter¬
rupted, chiefly augmented after meals: at length more
fevere and almoft continual, with pains of the arms and
back, at laft ending in a palfy.
' Varying according to the nature of the remote caufe;
and hence,
a, From metallic poifon.
b, From acids taken inwardly.
c, From cold.
d, From a contufion of the back.
3. Colica (fercored), in people fubjeft to coftive-
nefs.
4. Colica (acciclentalis), from acrid matter taken in¬
wardly,
5. Cohca (mecum’alis), in new-born children from a
retention of the meconium.
Pr adVice.
6. Colic (callofa), with a fenfation of ftri&ure in General
fome part of the inteftines, and frequently of a collec- Arra!'gC'
tion of flatus with fome pain before the conftri&ed
part; which flatus alfo paffing through the part where ' ^ tSb
the ftriclure is felt, gradually vaniflies; the belly flow,
and at laft paffing only a few liquid fseces.
7. Colica (calculofa), with-a fixed hardnefs in fome
part of the abdomen, and calculi fornetimes paffing by
the anus.
Genus LX. Cholera. A vomiting of bilious matter,
and likewifea frequent excretion of the fame by Itool;
anxiety; gripes; fpafms in the calves of the legs.
1. Idiopathic.
t. Cholera (fpontaned), arifing in a warm feafon,
without any manifeft caufe.
2. Cholera [accidentalis), from acrid matters taken
inwardly.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LXI. Diarrhoea. Frequent ftools; the dif¬
eafe not infeftious; no primary pyrexia.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Diarrhoea (crapulofa), in which the excrements
are voided in greater quantity than naturally.
2. Diarrhoea (biUqfa), in which yellow feces are
voided in great quantity.
3. Diarrhoea (mucofa), in which either from acrid
fubftances taken inwardly, or from cold, efpecially
applied to the feet, a great quantity of mucus is
voided.
4. Diarrhoea (ceeliaca), in which a milky humour of
the nature of chyle is paffed.
5. Diarrhoea [lienteria], in which the aliments are
difeharged with little alteration foon after eating.
6. Diarrhoea [hepatirrheed), in which a bloody ferous
matter is difeharged without pain.
II. Symptomatic.
Genus LXII. Diabetes. A chronical profufion of
urine, for the moft part preternatural, and in immo¬
derate quantity.
I. Idiopathic.
1. Diabetes (mel/itus), with urine of the fmell, co¬
lour, and tafte of honey.
2. Diabetes {infipidus), with limpid, but not fweet,
urine.
II. Symptomatic
Genus LXIII. Hyfteria. Rumbling of the bowels;
a fenfation as of a globe turning itfelf in the belly,
afeending to the ftomach and fauces, and there threat¬
ening fuffocation; fleep; convulfions; a great quantity
of limpid urine; the mind involuntarily fickle and mu¬
table.
The following are by Sauvages reckoned diftinft
idiopathic fpecies ; but, by Dr Cullen, only varieties
of the fame fpecies.
A, From a retention of the menfes.
B, From a menorrhagia cruenta.
C, From a menorrhagia ferofa, or fluor albus.
XI, From an obftruftion of the vifeera.
E, From a fault of the ftomach.
F, From too great falacity.
Genus LXIV. Hydrophobia. A diflike and hor¬
ror at any kind of drink, as occafioning a convulfion
of the pharynx ; induced, for the moft part, by the
bite of a mad animal. The fpecies are,
M E D I C I N E.
X. Hydros
Pratflice. M E D
General I. Hydrophobia (rahiofa), with a define of biting
inent of ^ by Zanders, occafioned by the bite of a mad ani-
Difeufe?. tnal*
U—^  II. Hydrophobia (/implex)) without madnefs, or
any define of biting.
Order IV. Vefaniae. Difordens of the judgment,
without any pyrexia or coma.
Genus LXV. Amentia; an imbecility of judge¬
ment, by which people either do not perceive, or do
not remember, the relations of things. The fpecies
are,
I. Amentia (congenita), continuing from a perfon’s
birth.
II. Amentia (fenilis), from the diminution of the
perceptions and memory through extreme old age.
III. Amentia (acqui/ita), occurring in people for¬
merly of a found mind, from evident external caufes.
Genus LXVI. Melancholia; a partial madnefs, with¬
out dyfpepfia.
Varying according to the different fubjefts concern¬
ing which the perfon raves; and thus it is,
1. With an imagination in the patient concerning
his body being in a dangerous condition, from flight
caufes; or that his affairs are in a defperate ftate.
2. With an imagination concerning a profperous
ftate of affairs.
3. With violent love, without fatyriafis or nympho¬
mania.
4. With a fuperftitious fear of a future flate.
5. With an averfion from motion and all the offices
of life.
6. With reftleffnefs, and an impatience of any fitua-
tion whatever.
7. With a wearinefs of life.
8. With a deception concerning the nature of the
patient’s fpecies.
Dr Cullen thinks that there is no fuch difeafe as
that called dtemonomania, and that the difeafes mention¬
ed by Sauvages under that title are either,
1. Species of melancholy or mania; or
2. Of fome difeafe by the fpedtators falfely aferibed
to the influence of an evil fpirit; or
3. Of a difeafe entirely feigned; or
4. Of a difeafe partly true and partly feigned.
Genus LXVII. Mania; universal madnefs.
1. Mania (mentalis), arifing entirely from paffions
of the mind.
2. Mania (corporea), from an evident difeafe of the
body.
Varying according to the different difeafe of the
body.
3. Mania (obfeura), without any paffion of mind or
evident difeafe of the body preceding.
The fymptomatic fpecies of mania are,
1. Paraphrofyne from poifons.
2. Paraphrofyne from paffion.
3. Paraphrofyne febrilis.
Genus LXVIII. Oneirodynia. A violent and trou-
blefome imagination in time of fleep.
1. Oneirodynia (aUtivd), exciting to walking and
various motions.
2. Oneirodynia (gravans), from a fenfe of fome
weight incumbent, and preffing on the breaft efpe-
cially.
I C I N E.
99
CLASS III. Cachexia ; a depraved habit of the
vvhole or greateft part of the body, without primary ment of
pyrexia or neurofis. Difeafes.
Order I. Marcores; a wafting of the whole body.
Genus LXIX. Tabes. Leannefs, afthenia, he&ic
pyrexia. The fpecies are,
1. Tabes (puru/enta), from an external or internal
ulcer, or from a vomica.
Varying in its fituation: hence,
2. Tabes (fcropbulofa), in ferophulou* conftitutions
3. Tabes (venenata), from poifon taken inwardly.
Genus LXX. Atrophia. Leannefs and afthenia,
without hectic pyi-exia. The fpecies are,
1. Atrophia (inanitorum), from too great evacua
tion.
2. Atrophia (famelicorum), from a deficiency of
nourifliment.
3. Atrophia (cacocbymica), from corrupted nourifh-
raent.
4. Atrophia (debiliuni), from the fundtion of nutri¬
tion being depraved, without any extraordinary eva¬
cuation or cacochymia having preceded.
Order II. Intumefcentix. An external tumor of
the whole or greateft part of the body.
Sedfc. I. Adipo/t.
Genus LXXI. Polyfarcia ; a troublefome fwelling
of the body from fat.
Se&. II. Flatuo/e.
Genus LXII. Pneumatofis; a tenfe elaftic fwel¬
ling of the body, crackling under the hand. The
fpecies are,
1. Pneumatofis (fpontanea), without any manifeft
caufe.
2. Pneumatofis (traumatica)^ from a wound in the
breaft.
3. Pneumatofis (venenata), from poifon injected or
applied.
4. Pneumatofis (hyjlerka), with hyfteria.
Genus LXXIII. Tympanites; a tenfe, elaftic, fo-
norous fwelling of the abdomen; coftivenefs; a decay
of the other parts. The fpecies are,
x. Tympanites (intejlinalis), with a tumor of the
abdomen frequently unequal, and with a frequent eva¬
cuation of air relieving the tenfion and pain.
2. Tympanites (abdominalis), with a more evident
noife, a more equable tumor, and a lefs frequent emif-
fion of flatus, which alfo gives lefs relief.
Genus LXXIV. Phyfometrai; a flight elaftic fwel¬
ling in the epigaftrium, having the figure and fituation
of the uterus.
Sedt. III. A quo fa or Hydropes.
Genus LXXV. Anafarca. A foft, inelaftic fwel¬
ling of the whole body, or fome part of it. The fpe¬
cies are,
1. Anafarca (ferofa), from a retention of ferum on
account of the fuppreffion of the ufual evacuations, or
from an increafe of the ferum on account of too great
a quantity of water taken inwardly.
2. Anafarca (oppilata), from a compreffion of the
veins.
3. Anafarca (exanthematica), arifing after exanthe¬
mata, cfpecially after the eryfipelas.
N 2 4. Anafarca
ioo MEDIC
General ^ Anafarca (anamia), from the thinnefs of the
^ment^of ^0°cl produced by hemorrhagy
Difeafec. S' Anafarca {debilium), in weak people after long
«« difeafes, or from other canfes.
Genus LXXVI. Hydrocephalus. A foft inelaflic
fwelling of the head, with the futures of the cranium
opened.
Genus LXXVI I. Hydrorachitis. A foft, flender
tumor above the vertebrae of the loins; the vertebrae
gaping from each other.
Genus LXXVIII. Hydrothorax. Dyfpnoea; pale-
nefs of the face; cedematous fwellings of the feet;
fcanty urine; lying down difficult; a fudden and fpon-
taneous waking out of fleep, with palpitation ; water
fluctuating in the breaft
Genus LXXIX Afcites. A tenfe, fcarce elaftic,
but fluctuating fwelling of the abdomen. The fpe-
cies are,
i. Afcites {abdominalis'), with an equal fwelling of
the whole abdomen, and with a fluctuation fufficiently
evident.
Varying according to the caufe.
A, From an obftruCtion of the vifcera.
B, From debility.
C, From a thinnefs of the blood.
2 Afcites (face at us), with a fwelling of the abdo¬
men, in the beginning at leaft, partial, and with a lefs
evident fluctuation.
Genus LXXX Hydrometra. A fwelling of the hy-
pogattrium in women, gradually increafing, keeping
the (hape of the uterus, yielding to preflure, and fluc¬
tuating ; without ifehuria or pregnancy.
Genus LXXXI. Hydrocele. A fwelling of the
ferotum, not painful; increafing by degrees, foft, fluc¬
tuating, and pellucid.
SeCt. IV. Solidte.
Genus LXXXII. Phyfconia. A fwelling chiefly
occupying a certain part of the abdomen, gradually
increafing, and neither fonorous nor fluctuating. The
ipecies are,
Phyfconia hepatica.
Phyfconia fplenica.
Phyfconia renalis.
Phyfconia uterina.
Phyfconia ab ovario.
Phyfconia mefenterica.
Phyfconia inteftinalis.
Phyfconia omental is.
Phyfconia polyfplachna.
Phyfconia vifceralis.
Phyfconia externa lupialis.
Phyfconia externa feirrhodea.
Phyfconia externa hydatidofa.
Phyfconia ab adipe fubcutaneo.
Phyfconia ab excrefcentia.
Genus LXXXIII. Rachitis. A large head, fwel¬
ling moft in the forepart, the ribs depreffed; abdomen
fwelled, with a decay of the other parts.
Varying,
1. Simple, without any other difeafe.
2. Joined with other difeafes.
Order III. Impetigines. Cachexies chiefly de¬
forming the Ikin and external parts of the body.
I N E. Practice.
Genus LXXXIV. Scrophula. Swellings of the General
conglobate glands, efpecially in the neck ; fwelling ‘rr^ee-
of the upper lip and fupport of the nofe ; the face flo- Oifoifof
rid, Hein thin, abdomen fwelled. The fpecies are, c '
1. Scrophula (vulgaris), Ample, external, and per¬
manent.
2. Scrophula (mefenterica), Ample, internal, with
palenefs of the face, want of appetite, fwelling of the
abdomen, and unufual fetor of the excrements.
3. Scrophula (fugax), moft fimple, appearing on¬
ly about the neck ; for the moft part proceeding from
the reforption of the matter of ulcers in the head.
4. Scrophula (Americana), joined with the yaws.
Genus LXXXV. Syphilis. A contagious difeafe,
after impure venery, and a diforder of the genitals;
ulcers of the tonfils ; of the fkin, efpecially about the
margin of the hair; corymbofe papulae, ending in
crufts and crufty ulcers; pains of the bones; exo-
ftofes.
Genus LXXXVI. Scorbutus; in cold countries,
attacking after putrefeent diet, efpecially fuch as is
fait and of the animal-kind, where no fupply of frefh
vegetables is to be had; afthenia; ftomacace ; fpots
of different colours on the fkin, for the moft part li¬
vid, and appearing chiefly among the roots of the
hair.
Varying in degree.
a, Scorbutus incipiens.
b. Scorbutus crefcens.
c. Scorbutus inveteratus.
Varying alfo in fymptoms.
d, Scorbutus lividus.
e. Scorbutus petechialis.
f. Scorbutus pallidus.
g, Sccrbutus ruber.
h, Scorbutus calidus.:
Genus LXXXV 11. Elephantiafis ; a contagious
difeafe; thick, wrinkled, rough, un&uous fkin, de-
ftitute of hairs, anasfthefia in the extremities, the face
deformed with pimples, the voice hoarfe and nafal. *
Genus LXXXVIII. Lepra; the fkin rough, with
white, branny, and chopped efehars, fometimes moifl:
beneath, with itching.
Genus LXXX1X. Frambcefia ; fwellings refem-
bling fungi, or the fruit of the mulberry or rafpben y,
growing on various parts of the fkin.
Genus XC. Trichoma ; a contagious difeafe ; the
hairs thicker than ufual, and twifted into inextricable
knots and cords.
Genus XC1. liter us ; yellownefs of the fkin and
eyes; white fseces ; urine of a dark red, tinging what
is put into it of a clay colour.
The idiopathic fpecies are,
1. 1 items (calculofus), with acute pain in the epi-
gaftric region, increafing after meals ; biliary concre¬
tions voided by ftool.
2. literus (fpafmodkus), without pain, after fpafmo-
dic difeafes and paffions of the mind.
3. literus (hepaticus), without pain, after difeafes
of the liver.
4. literus (gravidarum), arifing during the time of
pregnancy, and going off after delivery.
5. literus (infantum), coming on in infants a few
days after birth.
CLASS
7
jPradlice. MED
fee!ieral CLASS IV. Locales. An affeftion of fome part,
^nt^oT ^ut not; ^ie whole body.
iifeafes. Orber I. Dyfethefias. The fenfes depraved or de*
^ ftroyed, from a difeafe of the external organs.
Genus XCII. Caligo. The fight impaired or to¬
tally deftroyed, on account of fome opaque fubftance
interpofed between the objefts and the retina, inhe¬
rent in the eye itfelf or the eye-lids. The fpecies are,
1. Caligo (lent is), occafioned by an opaque fpot
behind the pupil.
2. Caligo (corneaJ, from an opacity of the cornea.
3. Caligo fpapillaJ, from an obitruftion of the
i pupil.
Varying according to the different caufes from which
it proceeds.
4. Caligo (humorum), from a difeafe or deleft of the
aqueous humour.
Varying according to the different Hate of the hu¬
mour.
5. Caligo (palpebrarum), from a difeafe inherent in
the eye-lids.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe in
the eye-lids.
Genus XCIII. Amaurofis. The fight diminifhed,
or totally abolifhed, without any evident difeafe of the
eye ; the pupil for the moft: part remaining dilated and
immoveable. The fpecies are,
1. Amaurofis {comprejfionis), after the caufes and
attended with the fymptoms of congeftion in the brain.
Varying according to the nature of the remote
caufe.
2. Amaurofis (atonica), after the caufes and ac¬
companied with fymptoms of debility.
3. Amaurofis (fpafmodica), after the caufes and
with the figns of fpafm.
4. Amaurofis {venenata), from poifon taken into
the body or applied outwardly to it.
Genus XCIV. Dyfopia. A depravation of the
fight, fo that objedts cannot be diftinttly perceived,
I. except at a certain diftance, and in a certain fituation.
The fpecies are,
1. Dyfop.'a 'Hnelrarum), in which obje&s are not
feen unlefs they be placed in a ftrong light.
2. Dyfopia {luminis), in which objects are not di-
ftinftly feen unlefs fey a weak light.
3. Dyfopia (diflitorum), in which diftant obje&s
are not perceived.
4. Dyfopia {proximorum), in which the neareft ob-
jefts are not perceived.
5. Dyfopia (lateralis), in which objects are not
perceived unlefs placed in an oblique pofture.
Genus. XCV. Pfeudoblepfis; when the fight is dif-
eafed in fuch a manner that the perfon imagines he
fees things which really do not exift, or fees things
which do exift after fome other manner than they real¬
ly are. The fpecies are,
1. Pfeudoblepfis (imaginaria), in which the perfon •
imagines he fees things which really do not exift.
Varying according to the nature of the. imagina-.
tion.
2. Pfeudoblepfis (mutans), in which objects really
exifting appear fomehow changed.
Varying according to the change perceived in the
obje&s, and according to the remote caufe.
I C I N E. 101
Genus XCVI. Dyfeccea. A diminution or total General
abolition of the fenfe of hearing. The fpecies are,
X. Dyfeccea (organica), from a difeafe in the or- Dtfeafes.
gans tranfmitting founds to the internal ear. c—-y —a
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe and
of the part affefted.
2. Dyfecoea (atonica), without any evident difeafe
of the organs tranfmitting the founds.
Varying according to the nature of the caufe.
Genus XCVII. Paracuiis ; a depravation of the
hearing. The fpecies are,
1. Paracufis [imperfeBa), in which though founds
coming from external objects are heard, yet it is nei¬
ther diftindlly nor in the ufual manner.
Varying,
a. With a dulnefs of hearing.
b. With an hearing too acute and fenfible.
c. When a fingle external found is doubled by fome
internal caufes.
d. When the founds which a perfon defires to hear
are not perceived, unlefs fome other violent found is
raifed at the fame time.
2. Paracufis (imaginaria), in which founds not ex¬
ifting externally are excited from internal caufes.
Varying according to the nature of the found per¬
ceived, and according to the nature of the remote
caufe.
Genus XCVII1. Anofmia ; a diminution or aboli¬
tion of the fenfe of fmell. The fpecies are,
1. Anofmia (organic a), from-a difeafe in the mem
brane lining the internal parts of the noftrils.
Varying according to the nature of the difeafe.
2. Anofmia (atonica), without any evident difeafe
of the membrane of the nofe.
Genus XCIX. Agheuftia ; a diminution or aboli¬
tion of the fenfe of tafte.
1. Agheuftia (organica), from a difeafe in the mem¬
brane of the tongue, keeping off from the nerves thofe
fubftances which ought to produce tafte.
2. Agheuftia (atonica), without any evident dif¬
eafe of the tongue.
Genus C. Anasfthefia; a diminution or abolition of
the fenfe of feeling. The fpecies from Sauvages, .ad- -
opted by Dr Cullen, are,
1. Anrefthefia a fpina bifida.
2. Anaefthefia plethorica.
3. Anaefthefia nafeentium:
4. Anaefthefia melancholica. .
Order II. Dyforexia 5 error or defeft of appetite. -
Seift. I. Appetitus erronei.
Genus Cl. Bulimia ; a defire for food in greater
quantities than can be digefted.
The idiopathic fpecies are, ,
1. Bulimia (be/luonum), an unufual appetite for food,
without any difeafe of the ftomach.
2. Bulimia (fyncopalis), a frequent defire of meat,
• on account ,of a fenfation of hunger threatening fyn-
cope.
3. Bulimia (emetica), an appetite for a great quan¬
tity of meat, which is thrown up immediately after it
is taken.
Genus CII. Polydipfia ; an appetite for an unufual
quantity of drink.
The polydipfia is almoft always fymptomatic, and
varies
103 M E D I
General varies only according to the nature of the difeafe
^rvetu^of ^hich aceoinpanies it.
Oifeafer. Genus CIII. Pica ; a defire of fwallowing fubftan-
ces not ufed as food.
Genus CIV. Satyriafis; an unbounded defire of
'venery in men. The fpecies are,
1. Satyriafis (juvenilis), an unbounded defire of
venery, the body at the fame time being little difor-
dered.
2. Satyriafis (furens), a vehement defire of venery,
with a great diforder of the body at the fame time.
Genus CV. Nymphomania j an unbounded defire
•of venery in women.
Varying in degree.
Genus CVI. Noftalgia ; a violent defire in thofe
who are abfent from their country of revifiting it.
1. Noftalgia (/implex), without any other difeafe.
2. Nottalgia (complicata), accompanied with other
difeafes.
Seft. II. Appetitus deficientes.
Genus CVI1. Anorexia. Want of appetite for
food. Always fymptomatic.
1. Anorexia (humoralis), from fome humour load¬
ing the ftomach.
2. Anorexia (atonica\ from the tone of the fibres
of the ftomach being loft.
Genus CVIII. Adipfia ; a want of thirft. Always
a fymptom of fome difeafe affe&ing the fenforium
commune.
Genus CIX. Anaphrodifia ; want of defire for, or
impotence to, venery.
The true fpecies are,
1. Anaphrodifia paralytica.
2. Anaphrodifia gonorrhoica.
The falfe ones are,
1. Anaphrodifia a marifcis.
2. Anaphrodifia ab urethras vitio.
Order III. Dyfcinefiae. An impediment, or de¬
pravation of motion from a diforder of the organs.
Genus CX. Aphonia ; a total fuppreffion of voice
without coma or fyncope. The fpecies are,
1. Aphonia (gutturalh), from the fauces or glottis
being fwelled.
2. Aphonia (trachealis), from a comprefiion of the
trachea.
3. Aphonia (atonica), from the nerves of the larynx
being cut.
Genus CXI. Mutitas ; a want of power to pro¬
nounce words. The fpecies are,
1. Mutitas (organica), from the tongue being cut
out or deftroyed.
2. Mutitas (atonica), from the injuries done to the
nerves of the tongue.
3. Mutitas (furdorum), from people being born
deaf, or the hearing being deftroyed during child¬
hood.
Genus CXII. Paraphonia ; a depraved found of the
voice. The fpecies are,
1. Paraphonia (pubcrum), in which, about the time
of puberty, the voice from being acute and fweet, be¬
comes more grave and harlh.
2. Paraphonia (rauca), in which, by reafon of the
drynefs or flaccid tumor of the fauces, the voice be¬
comes .rough and hoaffe.
CINE. Pratt!
2. Paraphonia (re/mans), in which, by reafon of <> •»**
an obftrudlion in the nofrils, the voice becomes hoarfe,
with a found biffing through the noftrils.
4. Paraphonia (palatina), in which, on account of
a defeift or divifion of the uvula, for the moft part with
an hare-lip, the voice becomes obfcure, hoarfe, and
unpleafant.
5. Paraphonia (dangers),' in which the voice is
changed to one acute, ftirill, and fmalL
6. Paraphonia (comatoja), in which, from a relaxa¬
tion of the velum palati and glottis, a found is pro¬
duced during infpiration.
Genus CXIII. Pfellifmus; a defedt in the articu¬
lation of words. The fpecies are,
1. Pfellifmus (ha/tans), in which the words, efpe-
cially the firft ones of a difcourfe, are not eafily pro¬
nounced, and not without a frequent repetition of the
firft fyllable.
2. Pfellifmus (ringens), in which the found of
the letter R is always afpirated, and, as it were,
doubled.
3. Pfellifmus (lallans), in which the found of the
letter L becomes more liquid, or is pronounced in-
ftead of R.
4: Pfellifmus (emolliens), in which the hard letters
are changed into the fofter ones, and thus the letter S
is much ufed.
5. Pfellifmus (balhutiens), in which, by reafon of
the tongue being large, or fwelled, the labial let¬
ters are better heard, and often pronounced inftead of
others.
6. Pfellifmus (acheilos), in which the labial letters
cannot be pronounced at all, or with difficulty.
7. Pfellif.Hus (logo/omatum), in which, on account
of the divifion o'f the palate, the guttural letters are
lefs perfedtly pronounced.
Genus CX1V. Strabifmus; the optic axes of tlje
eyes not converging. The fpecies are,
1. Strabifmus (habitualis), from a bad cuftom of
ufing only one eye.
2. Strabifmus (commodus), from the greater debility
or mobility of one eye above the other; fo that both
eyes cannot be conveniently ufed.
3. Strabifmus (necejfarius), from a change in the
fituation or fhape of the parts of the eye.
Genus CXV. Contradtura ; a long-continued and
rigid contracfion of one or more limbs. The fpecies
are,
1. Contra&ura (primaria), from the mufcles beco¬
ming contrafted and rigid.
a, From5 the mufcles becoming rigid by inflamma¬
tion.
b, From mufcles becoming rigid by fpafm.
c, From mufcles con trailed by reafon of their anta-
gonifts having become paralytic.
d, From mufcles contradled by an irritating acri¬
mony.
2. Contradlura (articularis), from ftiff joints.]
Order IV. Apocenofes. A flux either of blood or
fome other humour flowing more plentifully than ufual,
without pyrexia, or an increafed impulfe of fluids.
Genus-CXVI. Profufio ; a flux of blood.
Genus CXVII. Ephidrofis; a preternatural evacu¬
ation of fweat.
- 7 Symp-
Praclice.
General Symptomat ic ephidrofes vary according to the na«
Arrange* ture 0f t}je difeafes which they accompany, the diffe-
Difeafes rent nature of the fweat itfelf, and fometimes the dif*
t - v-- . ferent parts of the body which fweats moft.
Genus CXVI1I. Epiphora ; a flux of the lacrymal
humour.
Genus CXIX. Ptyalifmus ; a flux of faliva.
HI Genus CXX. Enurefis ; an involuntary flux of urine
without pain. The fpecies are,
1. Enurefis {atonica), after difeafes injuring the
|||L fphinfter of the bladder.
2. Enurefis (irritata), from a compreffion or irri¬
tation of the bladder.
Genus CXXI. Gonorrhoea ; a preternatural flux of
humour from the urethra in men, with or without a
defire of venery. The fpecies are,
1. Gonorrhoea [pura), in which, without any im¬
pure venery having preceded, a humour refembling
pus, without difuria or propenfity to venery, flows from
the urethra.
2. Gonorrhoea {impura), in which, after impure ve¬
nery, an humour like pus flows from the urethra with
dyfuria. The confequence of this is,
Gonorrhoea {mucofa), in which, after an impure go¬
norrhoea, a mucous humour flows from the urethra with
little or no dyfuria.
3. Gonorrhoea (laxorum), in which an humour for
the mofl: part pellucid, without any erection of the
penis, but with a propenfity to venery, flows from the
urethra while the perfon is awake.
4. Gonorrhoea ^ dormientiuni), in which the feminal
liquor is thrown out, with erection and defire of venery,
in thofe who are afleep and have lafcivious dreams.
Order V. Epifchefes ; fuppreffions of evacuations.
Genus CXXIL Obftipatio ; the ftools either fup-
preffed or flower than ufual. The fpecies are,
1. Obftipatio (debilium), in lax, weak, and for the
moft part dyfpeptic perfon s.
2. Obftipatio (rigidorum), in people whofe fibres are
rigid, and frequently of an hypochondriac difpofition.
3. Obftipatio (objlruttorum), with fymptoms of the
colica 1 ft, 2d, 4th, and 7th, abovementioned.
Genus CXXIII. Ifchuria ; an abfolute fuppreffion
of urine. The fpecies are,
1. Ifchuria (renalis), coming after a difeafe of the
kidneys, with pain, or troublefome fenfe of weight in
the region of the kidneys, and without any fwelling
1 of the hypogaftrium, or defire of making water.
2. Ifchuria (ureterica), coming after a difeafe of the
kidneys, with a fenfe of pain or uneafinefs in fome part
of the ureter, and without any tumor of the hypoga¬
ftrium, or defire of making water.
3. Ifchuria (ve/tcalis), with a fwelling of the hypo¬
gaftrium, pain at the neck of the bladder, and a fre¬
quent ftimulus to make water.
4. Ifchuria (urethralis), with a fwelling of the hy¬
pogaftrium, frequent ftimulus to make water, and pain
in fome part of the urethra.
All thefe .fpecies are fubdivided into many varieties,
according to their different caufes.
Genus CXXIV. Dyfuria j a painful, and fomehow
impeded emifiion of urine. The fpecies are,
I. Dyfuria (ardens), with heat of water, without
any manifeft diiorder of the bladder. .
i°3
2. Dyfuria (fpafmodica), from a fpafm eommuni- General
cated from the other parts to the bladder. Arrange-
3. Dyfuria (comprejftonis), from the neighbouring D^fe*.
parts prefling upon the bladder. ■ -
4. Dyfuria (phlogiflica), from an inflammation of the
neighbouring parts.
5. Dyfuria (irritata), with figns of a ftone in the
bladder.
6. Dyfuria (mucofa), with a copious excretion of
mucus.
Genus CXXV. Dyfpermatifmus ; a flow, impeded,
and infufficient emiflion of femen in the venereal aft.
The fpecies are,
1. Dyfpermatifmus (urethralis), from difeafes of
the urethra.
2. Dyfpermatifmus (nodofus), from knots on the
cavernous bodies.
3. Dyfpermatifmus (praputialis), from too narrow
an orifice of the prepuce.
4. Dyfpermatifmus (mucofus), from mucus infarc-
ting the urethra.
5. Dyfpermatifmus (hypertonicus), from too ftrong
an ereftion of the penis.
6. Dyfpermatifmus (epilepticus), from a fpafmodic
epilepfy happening during the time of coition.
7. Dyfpermatifmus (aprailodes), from an imbeci¬
lity of the parts of generation.
8. Dyfpermatifmus (refluus), in which there is no
emiflion of femen, becaufe it returns from the urethra.
into the bladder.
Genus CXXVI. Amenorrheea. The menfes either
flowing more fparingly than ufual, or not at all, at their
ufual time, without pregnancy. The fpecies are,
1. Amenorrhoea (emanfwnis), in thofe arrived at
puberty, in whom, after the ufual time, the menfes
have not yet made their appearance, and many differ¬
ent morbid affeftions have taken place.
2. Amenorrhoea (fupprejjionts) in adults, in whom
the menfes which had already begun to flow are fup-
preffed.
3. Amenorrhoea (dfficilis), in which the menfes flow
fparingly, and with difficulty.
Order VI. Tumores; an increafed magnitude of
any part without phlogofis.
Genus CXXVII. Aneurifma; a foft tumor, with
pulfation, above an artery.
Genus CXXV1II. Varix ; a foft tumor, without'
pulfation, above a vein.
Genus CXXIX. Ecchymoma; a diffufed, and fcarce
eminent, livid tumor.
Genus CXXX. Scirrhus 5 an hard tumor of fome
part, generally of a gland, without pain, and difficult¬
ly brought to fuppuratioh.
Genus CXXXI. Cancer. A painful tumor of a
fcirrhous nature,. and degenerating into an ill-condi¬
tioned ulcer.
Genus CXXXII. Bubo ; a fuppurating tumor of
a conglobate gland.
Genus CXXXIII. Sarcoma ; a foft fweiling, with¬
out pain.
Genus CXXXIV. Verruca ; a harder fcabrous
fwelling.
Genus CXXXV. Clavus; a hard, lameflated thick-,
nefs of the fkin..
MEDICINE.
Genual
M E D I
Genus CXXXVL Lupik. A moveable, foft tu¬
mour below the fkin, without pain.
Genus CXXXVII. Ganglion. An harder move-
able fwelling, adhering to a tendon.
Genus CXXXVIII. Hydatis ; a cuticular veficle
filled with aqueous humour.
Genus CXXX1X. Hydarthrus ; a moft painful fwel-
'ling of the joints, chiefly of the knee, at firft fcarce
elevated, of the fame colour with the ikin, diminiflting
the mobility.
Genus CXL. Exoftofis ; a hard tumor adhering to
a bone.
Order VII. E&opise; tumors occafioned by the
removal of fome part out of its proper fituation.
Genus CXLI. Hernia ; an eftopia of a foft part as
yet covered with the Ikin and other integuments.
Genus CXLII. Prolapfus ; a bare eftopia of fome
foft part.
Genus CXL1II. Luxatio ; the removal of a bone
-from its place in the joints.
Order VIII. Dialyfes. A folution of continuity;
manifeft to the fight or touch.
Genus CXLIV. Vulnus ; a recent and bloody fo¬
lution of the unity of fome foft part by the motion of
fome hard body.
Genus CXLV. Ulcus. A purulent or ichorous fo¬
lution of a foft part.
Genus CXLVI. Herpes; a great number of phlyc-
tense or fmall ulcers, gathering in clutters, creeping,
and obftinate.
Genus CXLVII. Tinea ; fmall ulcers among the
roots of the hair of the head, pouring out a humour
which changes to a white friable fcurf.
Genus CXLVIII. Pfora. Itchy puftules and little
ulcers of an infe&iousnature, chiefly infefting the hands.
Genus CXLIX. Fra&ura; bones broken into
large fragments.
Genus CL. Caries; an exulceration of a bone.
Having thus prefented to our readers Dr Cullen’s
general fyftematic view of all the difeafes to which the
human body is fubjefted, we come next to give a more
particular account of the more important affedtions,
treating of them in the order which Dr Cullen has ar¬
ranged them.
Class I. PYREXIiE, or the Febrile
Difeafes.
Order I. F E B R E S,
Or Fevers ftriftly fo called.
Sauvag. Oafs II. Vog. Oafs I. Sagar. Oafs XII.
Morbi Febriles Critici, Lin. Oafs II.
Sect. I. INTERMITTENTS.
Intermittentes of fome authors ; Sauv. Oafs II. Or¬
der III. Lin. Oafs II. Order II. Fog. Oafs I. Or¬
der I. Sag. Oafs XII. Order III.
The remittentes of others, Sauv. Oafs II. Order II.
Sag. Oafs XII. Order II.
Exacerbantes, Lin. Oafs II. Order III.
Continuse, Fog. Oafs I. Order II.
N° 203.
G I N E. I
Genus I. TERTIANA ; the Tertian Fever.
(Tertlana, Sauv. G. 88. Lin. 16. Hoffm. Stahl. Cleg-
horn Senac.
The Genuine Tertian.
(Tertiana legitima, Senert. Hoffm. Cleghornt Minorc.
Sauv. Sp. I.)
1. Difcription. This difeafe, in its moft regular
form, confifts of repeated paroxifms, returning every
fecond day, the patient during the intermediate period
enjoying apparently a ftate of good health. This is the
moft common form of ague, as it is commonly called in
Britain. Each paroxyfm confifts of three parts, the
cold, the hot, and the fweating ftages. The paroxyfm
commonly begins with a remarkable ftiivering, increa-
fing frequently to a convulfive lhaking of the limbs.
The extremities are always cold, fometimes remarkably
fo. The cold for the moft part is firft perceived about
the lumbar regions, from thence afcending along the
fpine turns towards the pit of the ftomach. Sometimes
it begins in the firft joint of the fingers and tip of the
nofe. Sometimes it attacks only a particular part of
the body, as one of the arms, the fide of the head,
&c. This cold is often preceded by a heavy and fleepy
torpor, languor, and laffitude, which we are partly to
afcribe to real weaknefs and partly to mere lazinefs.
To thefe fymptoms fucceed yawning and ftretching ;
after which the cold comes on as above defcribed, not
unfrequently with a pain of the back, and a trouble-
fome fenfation of teniion in the precordia and hypo¬
chondria. To this fucceed naufea and vomiting : and
the more genuine the difeafe, the more certainly does
the vomiting come on ; by which a great deal of tough
mucous matter, and fometimes bilious fluff or indi-
gefted food is evacuated during the firft paroxyfms.
In fome there is only a violent ftraining to vomit,
without bringing up any thing : fometimes, inftead of
thefe fymptoms, a diarrhoea occurs; and this chiefly
in weak, phlegmatic, and aged people, or where an in-
digefted mucous faburra has long remained in the pri-
mae vise.
When thefe fymptoms have continued for an hour
or two, the cold begins to go off, and is fucceeded by
a laflitude, languor, and flaccidity of the whole body,
but chiefly in the limbs, with an uneafy. forenefs as if
the parts had been bruifed ; excepting in thofe cafes
where the naufea continues for a longer time. After
this languor, a heat comes on, the increafe of which is
generally flow, but fometimes otherwife, with pain of
the head, thirft, and bitternefs in the mouth. The
pulfe is quick and unequal; fometimes beating 130
ftrokes in a minute. As foon as this heat has aba¬
ted, a little moifture or fweat is obferved to break
forth ; not always indeed in the firft, but always in the
fucceeding paroxyfms, and the urine lets fall a quan¬
tity of lateritious fediment. The whole paroxyfm is
fcarce ever over in lefs than fix hours, more frequent¬
ly eight, and in violent cafes extends to 12 hours; but
that which exceeds 12 hours is to be reckoned a fpuri-
ous kind, and approaching to the nature of continued
fevers. All thefe fymptoms, however, are repeated
every fecond day, in fuch a manner that the patient
is quite free from fever for at leaft 24 hours. The pa¬
roxyfms return much about the fame time, though
fometimes a little fooner or later.
Pfa&lce. M E D I
Febres Caufes of thit dfeafe, and perfons fuljeS to it. The
genuine tertian attacks men rather than women, young
people rather than old ; the latter being more fub-
jedt to anomalous tertians. It likewife feizes the
lufty and adtive, rather than the lazy and indolent.
Thofe, however, who are apt to naufeate their meat,
fall eafily into a tertian fever. The canfe, according
to Dr Cullen, is the miafma of marfhes, and that
only. Other phyficians have taken in many more
caufes, almoft every thing indeed which debilitates
the body : but the Dodtor denies that any of thefe,
though they may difpofe the body for receiving,
the difeafe, or may augment it, can by any means pro¬
duce it without the concurrence of the marlh miafma ;
and it cannot be denied, that it is a difeafe almoft pe¬
culiar to marfliy fituations. Thus we find it very fre¬
quent in the fenny counties of Britain, although in
other parts of this ifland it may be confidered as a
rare difeafe.
3. Prognojis. The genuine Ample tertian, unlefs
improper medicines be adminiftered, is generally very
eafily cured ; nay, the vulgar reckon it of fuch a falu-
tary nature, that after it they imagine a perfon be¬
comes more ftrong and healthy than before. Hippo¬
crates has obferved, that thefe fevers terminate of
their own accord after feven or nine paroxyfms.
Juncker tells us, that it frequently terminates before
the feventh paroxyfm, but rarely before the fourth.
He alfo denies that any thing critical is to be obferved
in its going off; but in this he differs from Vogel,
who tells us, that the urine, for fome days after the
fever is quite gone off, appears flimy, and lets fall much
fediment. The latter alfo informs us, that befides the
common crifis by fweat and urine, the tertian hath one
peculiar to itfelf, namely, dry fcabby ulcers breaking
out upon the lips. Thefe fometimes appear about the
third or fourth paroxyfm ; and then we may venture
to foretel that the difeafe will go off fpontaneoully
after the feventh. But though the difeafe be never
dangerous, in cold climates at leail, when properly
treated ; yet the improper ufe «f hot and ftimulating
medicines may change it into a continued fever, more
or lefs dangerous according to the quantity of medi¬
cines taken and the conftitution of the patient; in
which cafe the prognofis muft be regulated by the par¬
ticular fymptoms which occur. In warm climates,
however, the tertian fever may be confidered as a
much more dangerous difeafe; and unlefs the moft
powerful remedies be employed, the patient is in dan¬
ger of falling a victim to every paroxyfm.
A variety of theories have been propofed for ex¬
plaining the phenomena of this affection ; but we may
eafily aflert, that every thing hitherto faid upon the fub-
je£l is highly unfatisfadfory. For although it be now
almoft univerfally admitted, that this fever does arife
from the effluvia of marlhes, yet in what manner the
aftion of thofe effluvia induces fever, and particularly
why this fever returns in regular paroxyfm., are quef-
tions with regard to which we are ftill totally in the
dark. Dr Cullen, with much ingenuity, attempted
to prove, that the remote caufes of this, &S well as of
ether fevers, operated by inducing a ftate of debility ;
that this debility gives rife to fpafm, induces increafed
Vol. XL Part I.
CINE. 105
aftion, from which the phenomena are to be explain- Tertians,
ed. But this theory is liable to no lefs numerous and —\T“—*
unfurmountable objections than the exploded hypo-
thefes which had before been propofed by others. For
it is an undeniable truth, that debility often exifts, evert
to the higheft imaginable degree, without any fever;
nay, that when fever has taken place, the debility is
often much greater after it is entirely gone than at
any period during its courfe. When fpafm and in¬
creafed adtion do take place, we have no reafon to view
them in any other light than merely as fymptoms of
the difeafe ; and while they are often abfent in this
affedtion, they frequently occur in others where the
ficknefs, anxiety, and other charadterifing fymptpms
of fever are entirely abfent: and, upon the whole, a
probable or rational theory of intermittents, as well as
of other fevefs, ftill remain to be difeovered.
Cure. The treatment of all genuine intermittents*
whether tertians, quotidians, or quartans, being almoft
precifely the fame, the general method of cure appli¬
cable to them all may be here given, to which it will
be eafy to refer when we come to deferibe the others.
In treating intermittent fevers, phyficians have
formed indications of cure according to their dif¬
ferent theories. The followers of Boerhaave, Stahl,
&c. who imagined that the difeafe proceeded from
a lentor or other diforders in the blood, al v ays thought
it neceflary to corredt and evacuate thefe peccant bu- ,
mours by emetics and purgatives before they attempt¬
ed to ftop the difeafe by the Peruvian bark or any
other medicine. The bark, indeed, among fome, feems
to be Held in very little eftimation by them; fince Vo¬
gel affirms, that this medicine, inftead of deferving to
have the preference of all other febrifuge medicines,
ought rather to be ranked among the loweft of the
whole ; and for this reafon he aferibes the cures, faid
to be obtained by the ufe of the Peruvian bark, en¬
tirely to nature.
According to Dr Cullen, the indications of cure in
intermitting fevers may be reduced to the following.
1. In the time of intermiffion, to prevent the re¬
turn of the paroxyfms.
2. fn the time of paroxyfms, to condudt thefe in
fuch a manner as to obtain a final folution of the dif¬
eafe.
3. To take off certain circumftances which might
prevent the fulfilling of the two firft indications.
The firft indication may be anfwered in two ways.
1. By increafing the adrion of the heart and arteries
fome time before the period of acceffion, and fupport-
ing that increafed adtion till the period of acceffion be
over, and thus to prevent the reeurrence of that atony
and fpafm of the extreme veffels, which he thinks give
occafion to the recurrence of paroxyfms. 2. By fup-
porting the tone of the veffels, and thereby preventing
atony and the confequent fpafm, without increafing
the action of the heart and arteries, the recurrence of
paroxyfms may be prevented.
- The adtion of the heart and arteries may be increa¬
fed, 1. By various ftimulant remedies internally given
or externally applied, and that without exciting fweat.
2. By the fame remedies, or others, managed in fuch
a manner as to excite fweating, and to fupport that
O fweating
ic6 M E D I
Febres fweating till the period of acceffion be for fome time
V”paft. 3. By emetics, fupporting for the fame time
the tone and a&ion of the extreme vefiels.
The tone of the extreme veffels may be fupported
without increafing the action of the heart and arteries,
by various tonic medicines; as, 1. Aftringents alone.
2, Bitters alone. 3. Aftringents and bitters conjoin¬
ed. 4. Ailringents and aromatics conjoined. 5. Cer¬
tain metallic tonics; and, 6. Opiates. A good deal
of exercife, and as full a diet as the condition of the
patient’s appetite and digeftion allow of, will be pro¬
per during the time of intermiffion, and may be confi-
dered as belonging to this head. Although many
particulars in this plan of cure are deduced from Dr
Cullen’s theory, yet there can be no doubt that the
9bje& chiefly to be aimed at is to employ fuch reme¬
dies during the intermiffions as will prevent a recur¬
rence of the paroxyfm. Of all the remedies hitherto
employed with this intention, the moft celebrated,
perhaps the moft certainly eife&ual, is the Peruvian
bark ; or, to fpeak more properly, the bark of the
Cinchona officinalis of Linnaeus. But it mufl be ob-
ferved, that good effects are only to be expe&ed from
this medicine when given in fubftance and in large
quantity ; and for its ufe the following rules or obfer-
\ations have been given.
1. The bark may with fafety be employed at any
period of intermitting fevers, providing that at the
fame time there be neither a phlogiftic diathefis pre¬
vailing in the fyftem, nor any confiderable or fixed
yongeftion prefent in the abdominal vifcera.
2. The proper time for exhibiting the bark in in¬
termittent fevers is during the time of intermiffion, and
k is to be abflained from in the time of paroxyfms.
3. In the cafe of genuine intermittents, while a
due quantity of bark is employed, the exhibition of
it ought to be brought as near to the time of acceffion
as the condition of the patient’s ftomach will allow.
4. In all cafes of intermittents, it is not fufficient
that the recurrence of paroxyfms be flopped for once
by the ufe of the bark ; a relapfe is commonly to be
expe&ed, and fhould be prevented by. the exhibition
of the bark repeated at proper intervals.
The advantage of adminiftering the bark as early as
poffible, was fully afcertained by Dr Lind in the years
1765, 66, and 67, during an uncommon prevalence
of intermittents. When the difeafe was flopped by the
bark immediately after the firft or fecond fit, which
was the cafe with 200 of the Doctor’s patients as well
as himfelf, neither a jaundice nor dropfy enfued ;
whereas, when the bark could not be adminiflered, on
account of the imperfect remiffion of the fever, or
■when the patient had neglefted to take it, either a
dropfy, jaundice, or conflant headach, were the certain,
confequences; and the violence of the difeafe was in
proportion to the number of the preceding fits,, or to
the continuance of the fever. By every paroxyfm the
dropfical fwellings were vifibly increafed, and the co¬
lour of the ikia rendered of a deeper yellow. When
the fever continued a few days without remiffion, the
belly and legs generally {welled; a violent headach,
likewife, and vertigo,, for the mod part diftrefled the
patient; fo that fome, even after the fever had left
them, were not able to walk acrofs their chamber for
a fortnight or three weeks. When the returns of the
3
CINE. Pra&ie&i
fever were regular and even, but flight, four or five fits Teniana.l
of a fimple tertian were fometimes followed by the ——v—"4*
mofl dangerous fymptoms; efpecially in the year 1765,
when thefe fevers raged with the greateft violence. If,
as frequently happened, a Bropfical patient relapfed m-
tothe ague, there was an abfolute neceflaty for puttin'*
an immediate flop to it by the bark; and in upwards
of 70 fuch patients, Dr Lind obferved the mofl bene¬
ficial effedls to accrue from this pradlice. He 'never
prefcribed the bark until the patient was free from'all
fymptoms of the fever; but in that cafe,.without re¬
gard to a cough, or any other chronical indifpofition,
he ordered it to be given in large dofes.
The bark has been often obferved to fail in remo¬
ving intermittents, from not continuing the ufe of it
for a fufficient length of time, from adminiflering it in
too fmall a dbfe, or from-giving it in an , improper
form. It was a prevailing opinion, that an ounce, or
an ounce and an half, of the bark, taken during one in-
termiflion, is fufficient to prevent, the return of another
paroxyfm. But this is not always the cafe ; for a fe-
vere fit will often attack a patient who has taken fuch
a quantity. When this happens, the patient ought to
perfeverc during the following intermiffions, with an-
increafe of the dofe, till five or fix ounces at lead have
been taken. The medicine alfo ought not to be omit¬
ted as foon as one fit is dopped, but fhould be conti¬
nued in a fmaller dofe, and after longer intervals, for
at lead ten days or a fortnight. Even for feveral
months after the difeafe is entirely removed, it would
be advifable to take a little bark occafionally in damp .
weather, or during an eaderly wind, to prevent a re¬
lapfe. Where the intervals between-the fits are fhort,
as in quotidians and double tertians, from one to two
drachms of it ought to be taken every two or three
hours.
The form in which this medicine is adminidered is
of fome coufequence. Mucilages and fyrups have
been recommended to conceal the tade of it; but,
from various experiments, Dr Lind found nothing
more effedlual for this purpofe than fmall-beer or
milk, efpecially the latter. A drachm of bark mixed
with two ounces of milk, and quickly drank, may
eafily be taken by a perfon of the mod delicate tade,
and by wafhing the mouth afterwards with milk there
will not remain the lead flavour of the. bark ; but if
the mixture be not drank immediately, the, bark will
impart a bitter tade to the milk. This medicine is
commonly given in eleftuaries or bolides ; but Dr
Lind obferves, that in thefe forms it proves much lefs
efficacious than whenadmiaiftered in juleps or draughts,,
with the plentiful addition of wine or fpirits. He has
remarked,,that fix drachms of powdered, bark, given
in a julep, confiding of one fourth or one third of
brandy, is as effectual as an ounce of the powder in
the form of an eledtuary, and proves lefs difagrecable
to the domach. For patient- unaccudomed to wine
or fpirks, each draught fhould be warmed with fpiritus
falis ammoniaci, or tinft. myrrh, by both of which
the efficacy of the bark is increafed. Dr Lind is alfo
fully convinced that wine or fpirits improve the virtues.
©f the bark much more than elixir vitrioli, tin£l. rofar.
or fuch other medicines as have been recommended by
different phyficians.
Forthofe who naufeate the bark from a weaknefs
ef
M E D t
Febres 0f the ftomach or other caufe, he advifes it to be
given in clyfters, in which form it is as efficacious
as when taken by the mouth. For this purpofe the
extraft is moft proper with the addition of a fufficient
quantity of the tinftura thebaica, in order to its being
longer retained. For children labouring under in¬
termitting fevers, Dr Lind orders the fpine of the
back to be anointed* at the approach of the fit, with
a liniment compofed of equal parts of tin&ura the¬
baica and liniment fapon. which has often prevent¬
ed it. 1 f this Ihoiild not produce the defired effefl,
he informs us, that two or three tea-fpoonfuls of
fyrup. e. mecon. given in the hot fit, will generally
-mitigate the fymptoms. But for the entire removal
of the difeafe, after purging with magnefia alba, he
prefcribes a drachm of the extra£t cort. Perlman,
with a few drops of tindt. thebaic, in a clyfter* to be
repeated every three hours for a child of about a year
old. When the ftomach is oppreffed with phlegm,
the magnefia frequently occafions vomiting, which
fhould be promoted with warm water. The conftant
heavinefs of the head ocCafioned by thofe fevers in
fuch tender Conftitutions is belt relieved by the appli¬
cation of a blifter to the back.
The bark has alfo proved effeftual for the cure of
intermittents in children, even when externally applied,
by putting the powder of it into a quilted *vaiiicoat.
Of its efficacy in this way feveFal inftances are related
by Dr Samuel Pye in the fecond volume of Medi¬
cal Obfervations and Inquiries. In ffiort, fo effec¬
tual was the bark found in removing thefe fevers
when properly applied, that of between four and five
Lundred afflifted with them in the year 1765, Dr
Lind loll only two, neither of whom had taken this
Tnedicj’ne.
In all thefe fevers, a vomit was adminiftered when¬
ever the patient complained of a ficknefs and reaching
to vomit, or was feized with a fpontaneous vomiting 5
and the bark was never given till this ficknefs was
removed, or a purgative taken to clear more perfe&ly
the whole alimentary canah In thofe patients who
were troubled with a cough, attended with a pain
in the fide affefting the breathing, when the pain
Vvas not relieved by warm fomentations, the balfa-
mum anodynum, or by a bliller, the Do&or gene4
rally ordered a few ounces of blood to be taken
away, and endeavoured to Hop the fever as foon as
poffible by the admini'1 ration of the bark ; having
Found that every return of the fever increafed all fuch
pains. When the headach was veiy violent, and
haraffed the patient during the ihtermiffions, the fuc-
cefs of the bark was rendered more Complete by the
application of a blifter to the back.—A giddinefs of
the head, which is the fjtnptom moft commonly re¬
maining after even a flight intermitting fever, was ge¬
nerally relieved by the i-.l C. C. and the bark in wine.
The former of theie was adminiftered in the following
manner.
1> Aq. Alex. Simp-. Jvii.
Sal. C. C 3fs.
Syr. e Cort. AurUnt. Ji. M. f. julep. Cap.
cochlear, ij. fubinde.
If from the continuance of the fever the patient was
-diftreffed with flatulence, a diftenfion of the abdomen.
CINE. 107
and a fwelling of the legs, a fpoonful of tin&ura fa- Tertiana,^
era, with the addition of 30 drops of the fpirit lavend. ^
compof. was ordered to be taken every night.—A
continuance of the bark, a change of air, and the cold
bath, were often found requifite to prevent a relapfe.
Such_ is the method of cure recommended by this
experienced author, who has alfo difeovered the effica¬
cy and fuccefs of opium in intermitting fevers. He
informs us, that he has preferibed an opiate to up¬
wards of 300 patients labouring under this difeafe ;
and he obferved, that, if taken during the intermillion,
it had not the leaft effefit either in preventing or mi¬
tigating the fucceeding paroxyfm : when given in the
cold fit, it once or twice feertied to remove it; but
when given half an hour after the commencement of
the hot fit, it generally gave immediate relief.—
When given in the hot fit, tire effe&s of opium are
as follow. 1. It fhortens and abates the fit; and
this with more certainty than an ounce of the bark
is found to remove the difeafe. It generally gives a
fenfible relief to the head, takes off the burning Jieat
of the fever, and -.occafions a profufe fweat. This
fweat is attended with an agreeable foftnefs of the
fkin, inftead of the burning fenfation which affefts
patients fweating in the hot fit, and i» always much
more copious than is thofe who have not taken opium.
3. It often produces a foft and refrefhing fleep to a
patient tortured in the agonies of the fever, from which
he awakes bathed in fweat, and in a great meafure free
from all complaints.
The Doftor has always obferved, that the effects of
opium are more uniform and conftant in intermitting
fevers than in any other difeafe, and are then more
quick and fenfible than thofe of any other medicine.
An opiate thus given foon after the commencement of
the hot fit, by abating the violence and leffening the
duration of the fever, preferves the conftitution fo en¬
tirely uninjured, that, fince he ufed opium in agues, a
dropfy or jaundice has feldom attacked any of his pa¬
tients in thofe difeafes. When opium did not imme¬
diately abate the fymptoms of the fever, it never in¬
creafed their violence. On the contrary, moft pa¬
tients reaped fome benefit from an opiate given in the
hot fit, and many of them bore a larger dofe at that
time than they could do at any other. The Dodftor
affures us, that even a delirium in the hot fit is not
increafed by opium, though opium will not remove it.
Hence he thinks it probable, that many fymptoms
attending thefe fevers are fpafinodic; but more efpe-
eially the head-ach. However, if the patient be deli¬
rious in the fit, the adminiftration of the opiate ought
to be delayed until he recovers his fenfes, when it will
be found greatly to relieve the Weaknefs and iaintnefs
which commonly fucceed the delirium Dr Lind is
of opinion, that opiutn in this difafe is the beft pre¬
parative for the bark ; as it not only produces a com¬
plete intermiffion, in which cafe alone that remedy can.
be fafely adminiftered ; but occafions fuch a falutary
and copious evacuation by fweat, as generally to render
a much lefs quantity of bark requifite. He commonly
prefcribes the opiate in about two ounces of tinftura
facra, when the patient is coftive, who is to take the
bark immediately after the fit. By thefe means the
.paroxyfm is ftiortened, and the inteftines are cleanfed*
O Z previotrt
jo8 M E D I
Fcbrc^ previous to the admlnlftratlon of the bark; "as the
y’"—opiate doth not prevent, but only fomewhat retards,
the operation of the purgative. When a vomit is
given immediately before the paroxyfm, the admini-
liration of the opiate fhould be poftponed till the hot
fit is begun.
In the adminiftration of the Peruvian bark, care
flrould be taken that it be of a good quality. And
different opinions have been entertained with refpedt
to the choice, even where there is no reafon to be¬
lieve that it has been adulterated by the mixture of
other articles. For a long time, the preference was
given to fmall quilled pieces of a pale coloured bark ;
but of late the red bark, which is generally in larger
maffes, of an apparently coarfer texture, and evidently
of a more refinous nature, has been highly celebrated
by Dr Saunders and others. And in cafes where it
does not difagree with the ftomach or excite loofenefs,
it is admitted by the moll accurate obfervers to be
more powerful in preventing the return of intermit-
tents. Whether the red bark be the product of a dif¬
ferent fpecies of the cinchona, or be obtained as well
as the pale quilled bark from the cinchona officinalis,
is not yet ascertained with fufficient accuracy.
A fpecies of cinchona, dittinguiffied by the title of
cinchona Jamaicenfis, has been difcovered in Jamaica and
other iflands in the Weft Indies. A very accurate de-
fcription of it has been given by Dr Wright of Jamaica
in the Philofophical Tranfadtions of London. The
bark of this fpecies alfo has been recommended in the
cure of intermittents; but the advantages of it
have not hitherto been fufficiently confirmed by ex¬
perience. See Cinchona and Jesuits Bark.
The barks of various trees readily cultivated in
Britain, particularly different fpecies of the falix, the
prunus, the fraxinus, and the quercus, have by fctme
been reprefented as no lefs efficacious than the Peruvian
bark. But we may fafely venture to affert, that al¬
though feveral of them may poffefs fome power in
flopping intermittents, yet that none hitherto tried
can be confidered as in any degree approaching to the
cinchona in point of efficacy.
But although the Peruvian bark be the beft cure
for intermittents hitherto dift:overed,yet while it can by
no means be neprefented as the only cure, it is very
certain that other remedies have in different cafes fuc-
ceeded after the cinchona has failed. Cures have of¬
ten been obtained by the ufe of different aromatics,
bitters, and aftringents. Many articles from the mi¬
neral kingdom alfo have been employed with advan¬
tage. And intermittents have unqueftionably been in
certain cafes flopped by different preparations of iron,
zinc, copper, lead, and mercury. But of all the ar¬
ticles of this nature, arfenic has of late been the moft
celebrated. Arfenic is on good grounds conje&ured
to be the bafis of an article much employed in the
cure of intermittents in fome of the countries where
they are moft prevalent, and fold under the title of
the tqjlehfs ague drop. The great fuccefs attending
the ufe of this article, led Dr Fowler, an ingenious phy-
lician of Stafford,.to examine it with particular atten¬
tion. And in a treatife which he has lately publiihed,
entitled Medical Reports on the effects of arfenic in the
cure of agues, he has given a formula for an arfenical
felution, which he has found very fuccefsful in affec-
CINE.
Practice, s
tions of this kind, and which is probably very nearly Terti'ana.Iii;
the fame with the taftelefs ague drop. Dr Fowler’s "V
mineral folution, as he ftyles it, is found by diffolving
64 grains of arfenic and as much fixed vegetable al¬
kaline fait in a pound of diftilled water. This folu¬
tion is given in dofes from three to 12 drops, varied
according to the condition of the patient, and re¬
peated two or three times a-day. And where the
Peruvian bark has failed in flopping intermittents,
it feems to be one of the moft powerful remedies yet
difcovered. But after all remedies prove ineffectual,
intermittents are often flopped by change of feafon
and of fituation.
But befides the remedies employed in tertian fever*
and other intermittents, with the view of preventing
the return of paroxyfms, it is often alfo neceffary to
employ powerful articles with othei*intentions, particu¬
larly to mitigate and fhorten the paroxyfm when pre-
fent; to obviate urgent fymptoms, efpecially thofe of
an inflammatory or putrid nature; and to obtain a
complete apyrexia or intermiffion from fever after the
paroxyfm has ceafed. With thefe intentions, recourfe
is not unfrequently had to emetics, laxatives, blood¬
letting, blifters, opium, diluents, or fudorifics, as the
circumftances of the cale may require.
The Irregular or Spurious Tertian. 127
Sp. I. var. 1. B.
Tertiana notha five fpuria, Sauv. fp. 2. Sennert.
Cleg horn. Hoffman.
The charadleriftic marks of this fever are, that its
paroxyfms laft longer than 12 hours, and confequently
it inclines more to the quotidian or continued fever than
the former. Its paroxyfms have no ftated hour of
attacking. The cure, however, is precifely the fame
with that above defcribed, obferving the proper cau¬
tions already mentioned with regard to the ufe of the
bark.
The Double Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. C.
Tertiana duplex, Sauv. fp. 13. Vog. G. 12. Sennert.
Cleghorn.
Duplicata, Lin. 18.
The double tertian comes on every day ; but differ*
from the quotidian in fo far, that its paroxyfms do not
anfwer to each other fingly, but alternately. The
firft day, for inftance, the fit will come on in the
forenoon, the fecond in the afternoon, the third in the
forenoon, and the fourth in the afternoon.
Of thefe fevers we fhall give the following defcrip-
tion from Cleghorn’s treatife on the difeafes of Mi¬
norca : “ They are called double tertians when there
are two fits and two intervals within the time of each
period. But commonly there is fome difference between
the two fits, either in refpeft of the hour they come
at, the time of their duration, or the nature and vio¬
lence of their concomitant fymptoms. Some double
tertians begin in this manner.—On the evening of
Monday, for example, a flight fit comes on, and goes
off early next morning; but on Tuefday, towards the
middle of the day, a more fevere paroxyfm begins,
and continues till night. Then there is an interval to
Wednefday evening, when a flight fit commences a
new period of the fever, which proceeds in the fame
manner as the firft; fo that (according to the way
phyfieians calculate the days of difeafes, by beginning
to-
j Practice. M E D I
! Febrcs to reckon from the fi-rll hour of their in^afion), both
f v * paroxyfms happen on the odd days, while the greatdl
part of the even days is calm and undilturbed. But
in moft double tertians the patient has a fit every day
of the difeafe ; the fevere one commonly appearing at
Hi . noon upon the odd days, the flight one towards even¬
ing on the even days; though fometimes the worfl: of
the two fits happen on the even days.
[“ There is a tertian fever fometimes to be met
with, during each period of which there are three
different fits, and as many intervals. For example,
towards Monday noon the patient is feized with a pa-
roxyfm, which declines about five or 'fix o’clock the
fame evening : a few hours after, another fit begins,
and continues until morning : from which time there
is an interval to Tuefday evening, when a third fit
comes on, and lafts moft part of the night. On
Wednefday there are again two paroxyfms, as on
Monday and on Thurfday, like that of Tuefday ; and
thus the fever goes on with a double fit on each of the
odd days, and a Angle fit on the even days.
“ In double tertians, that interval is the moft con-
fiderable which follows the fevere fit; for the flight fit
oftener ends in a remiffion than intermiffion, and fre¬
quently lingers till the other approaches : Hence it
is, that the night preceding the vehement fit is much
more reftlefs than that which comes after it, as has
been obferved by Hippocrates. In double tertians,
the vehement fit often comes on a little earlier in
each period, while the flight fit returns at the fame
hour, or perhaps later and later every other day: fo
that the motions of one have no influence on thofe of
the other; from whence it appears, that each of thefe
fits hath its own proper independent caufes.”
Lig Duplicated Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2- D.
Tertiana duplicata, Sauv. fp. 14. Jones. River.
This hath two fits on the fame day, with an inter¬
mediate day on which there are none. This alfo does
not differ in any remarkable particular from thofe al¬
ready deferibed.
jjo The Triple Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. E.
Tertiana triplex, Sauv. fp. 15.. Cleghorn.
Semitertiana, Hoffman.
Semitertiana primi ordinis, Spig.
This differs from the former in having a Angle and'
double fit alternately : thus, for inftance, if there are
two fits the firft day, there is only one the fecond,
two the third, one the fourth, &c. Its cure the fame as
before.
121 The &?»k-Tertian. Sp. I. var. 2. F.
, Hemitritaeus, Celf.
Semitertiana, Cleghorn.
Semitertiana fecundi ordinis,
Amphimerina hemitritaeus, Sauv. fp. 8.
Amphimerinapfeudo.hemitritiieus, SawT. fp. 5.
The femitertian is deferibed by Dr Cullen as having
only an evident remffion between.its paroxyfms; more
remarkable between the odd and even day, but lefs
fo between the even and odd one. For this reafon,
he adds, that peflibly fome femitertians ought rather
to be clafled among the remittents; and owns that it is
difficult to fettle the boundaries between them. But
Cleghorn, whom he quotes, deferibes it in the follovv-
C I N E. *C9-
ing manner. “ A fit begins on Monday noon, for Tertiana.
example, and goes off the fame night On Tuefday
afternoon a fecond fit comes on, and gradually in-
creafestill Wednefday night, when it terminates. On
Thurfday morning there is fuch another interval as
happened on Tuefday morning: But on Thurfday
afternoon another long fit like the preceding com.
mences; and returning regularly every other day, leaves
only a fhort interval of ten or twelve hours during the
eight and forty.
Concerning the cure of thefe fevers Dr Cullen, ob-
ferves, that though no entire apyrexia occurs, the bark
may be given during the remiffions ; and it fliould be
given even though the remiffions be inconfiderable ; if,
from the known nature, of the. epidemic, intermiffions
or confiderable remiffions are not to be expected, and
that great danger is apprehended from repeated exa¬
cerbations.
The Tertian. Sp. I. var. 3: G. 13^'
Tertiana carotica, Sauv. fp. 10. JVerlhof.
Tertiana hemiplegica, Sauv fp. 20. Werlholf.
Quotidiana foporofa, Sauv. fp. 8 Car. Pif.
Febris caput impetens, Sydenham, ep. ad R. Brady.
This, according to Vogel, is a moft dangerous fpe-
eies, and'very commonly fatal; for which reafon he
ranks it among thofe intermittents which he calls wu-
lignant. Sometimes he tells us the alarming fymptom
of a fleepinefs comes on, not at the beginning of the
difeafe, but will unexpeftedly occur during the third,
fourth, fifth, or fixth paroxyfm. It commonly begins
with the cold fit, and continues during the whole time
of the paroxyfm, and, becoming ftronger at every fuc-
ceeding one, at laft terminates in a mortal apoplexy.
Sometimes fevets of this kind rage epidemically. Vo¬
gel relates, that he faw a fimple tertian changed into
one of thefe dangerous fevers. The patient was a wo¬
man of a delicate conilitution, and the fymptom ap¬
peared in confequence of her being put in 4 violent'
paffion : however, it occurred but once, and Ihe reco¬
vered. Hoffman mentions a cams in a double ter¬
tian occurring feven times without proving mortal; tho*'
Vogel fays, that the powers of nature are very feldom-
fufficient to conquer the difeafe.
In 1678, Dr Sydenham'tells us that intermittents
raged epidemically at London, where none had ap¬
peared before from 1664. Of them “ it. is to be noted-.
(fays he), that though quartans were moft frequent
formerly, yet now tertians or quotidians were moft-
common, unlefs the latter be intitled double tertians ;;
and likewife, that though thefc tertians fometimes
began with chilnefs and ftiivering, which were fuc-
ceeded firft by heat, and foon after by fweat, and
ended at length in. a perfect intermiffion,, returning
again after a fixed time, yet they did not keep this
order after the third or fourth fit, efpecially if the-
patient was confined to his bed and ufed hot cardiacs,
which increafe the difeafe. But afterwards this fever-
became fo unufually violent, that only a remiffion,
happened in the place of an intermiffion;. and ap¬
proaching every day nearer the fpecie- of continued
fevers, it feized the head, and proved fatal to abun¬
dance of perfons.’*
From this defeription of Sydenham’s we may have
an idea of. the nature of the difeafe. A« to its cure,
hC'
XI©
Febres
133
MEDICINE,
he ftrongly recommends the bark ; telling us, that,
even in the mojl continued kind of intermittents, “ the
nearer the intermittent approaches to a continued fe¬
ver, either fpontaneoufly, or from ufmg too hot a re¬
gimen, fo much the more neceffary is it to exhibit a
larger quantity of the bark ; and that he took advan¬
tage of a remiffion, though ever fo fmall.
The Spafmodic or Convulfive Tertian. Sp. I.
Tertiana afthmatica, Sauv. fp. 6. Bonet.
Tertiana hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 8. JVedel. A. N. C.
Dec. I. A. II. obf. 193.
Hyfteria febricofa, Sauv. G. 135. fp. 8. A. N. C.
Dec. I. Ann. II.
The Eruptive Tertian. Sp. 1. v&r. 3.1.
Tertiana petechialis, Sauv. fp. 3. Donat. Lautter.
Tertiana fcorbutica, IVedel. A. N. C. Dec. I. A.
II. obf. 193.
Tertiana urticata, Sauv. fp. 22. Flanchon. Journ.
de Med. 1765. Cleghorn.
Tertiana miliaris, Sauv. fp. 21. Walt bier.
This fpecies of tertian is accompanied with red or
livid blotches on the Ikin, or an eruption like that oc-
calioned by the flinging of nettles. In the latter cafe
Dr Cleghorn fay-- the difeafe is very dangerous ; and
as the former indicates an incipient diffolution and
putrefaction of the blood, it mult alfo be reckoned of
very dangerous tendency.
F
1
1
Tertiana epileptic®, Sauv. fp. 16. Calder. Lautter.
Quotidiana epileptica, Sauv. fp. 3. Edinb. Effays,
vol. 5. art. 49.
.Ecclampfia febricofa, Souv. G. 133. fp. 17,
Epilepfia febricofa, Sauv. G. 134. fp. 9.
Tertiana tetanodes Medici Beobacht I. Band.
Tetanus febricofus, Sauv. G. 122. fp. 10. Stork^
Ann. Med. II.
Tertians of this kind occur with very different
fymptoms from thofe of the true ones, and fometimes
even with thofe which are very extraordinary. In
fome they are attended with fymptoms of aflhma,
in others with thofe. of hyfterics, in others with con-
vulfions. Where the fyrnptoms of aflhma occur, the
difeafe muft be treated with diuretics and antifpafmo-
dicb joined with the bark. In the hylteric afthma
the fit comes on with cold, yawning, cardialgia,
terror and dejection of mind. The difeafe is to be
removed by mild aperients and. antihyfledcs joined
with the bark.
Of the convulfive tertian we have a moft remarkable
inftance in the Edinburgh Medical Effays, Vol. V.
The patient wa3 a farmer’s fon about 26 years of age,
of a llrotig plethoric habit of body. He had laboured
under an ague half a-year, and had taken a great
deal of bark. While he was telling his cafe to the
furgeon (Mr Baine of Pembroke), he was fuddenly
taken with a violent flamping of his feet ; and the
, convulfibns gradually afeended from the foies of the
feet to his legs, thighs, belly, back, and fhoulders.
His head was then moft violently convulfed, with a
total deprivation of fpeech ; but he had a moft difilial
vociferation, that might have been heard at a con¬
siderable diftance, his abdomen and thorax working
and heaving violently and unufually in the mean time.
This fit having lafted half an hour, a profufe fweat
broke out over all his body, which relieved him ; and
he then became capable of anfwering fuch queflions
as were put. Thefe extraordinary fits, he faid, had
been occafiohed by a fright, and his neighbours had
concluded that he was bewitched They returned
fometimes twice a-day, and always at the times the
ague ufed to return. During the paroxyfm his pulfe
was very high and quick, his face much inflamed,
and his eyes ready to ftnrt out of his head. After
the fit was over, he complained of a moft torturing
pain of the bowels. His tongue was generally moift,
and he had a fuppreffion of urine.—This formidable
difeafe, however, was totally fubdued by the ufe
of the bark, mereurials, antifpafmodics, opiates, and
faline,draughts.
The Inflammatory Tertian Sp. l.var. 3. K.
Tertiana pleuritica, Sauv. fp. 4. Falef. Lautt.
Pleuritis periodica, Sauv. G. 103. fp. 14.
Tertiana arthritica, Sauv. fp 5. Morten. Lautt.
Sauvages inform us, that he has feen a true and
genuine pleufify having all the pathognomic figns of
the difeafe, but affuming the form of an intermittent;
that is, the patient is one day affefted with the pleuri-
fy, and the next feemingly in perfect health. He alfo
tells us, that in the month of May 1760 a tertian
raged epidemically, which after the third fit imitated
a pleurify, the pain of the fide and difficulty of
breathing coming regularly on, and the fever from
an intermittent becoming remittent; the blood had
alfo the fame appearance with that of pleuritic perfons,
and the diflemper yielded to bleeding and gentle
cathartics.*—-Morton alfo inform > us, that he has
obferved fimilar diforders an hundred times over,
which were always certainly and fafely cured by the
Peruvian bark.
The Tertian complicated with other Diforders. j
Sp. l.var. 4. 3
Tertiana fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 9. Etmuller1. Ti-
mteus.
Tertiana fypbilitica, Sauv. fp. 17. Deidier.
Tertiana verminofa, Sauv. fp. 18. Stiffer. irt aft.
Helmftad. Lanfcif. de noxis palud. Pringle.
Ramascsuni. Van den Bofch. de court, vermin.
The fcorbutic tertian, according to Sauvages, is
exceedingly anomalous, its periods being fometimes
much anticipated, and fometimes much poftponed. It
is exceedingly obftinate, and will return if the body
be not cleared of its fcorbutic taint. The patient
is affected with lancinating pains of a wandering na¬
ture. The urine lets fail a dufky red ftdiment, or
a thick branny matter is eopioufly fcattered .up and
down in it, feemingly tinged w*ith blood. The
ufual fymptoms of feurvy, viz. livid fpots, and rot¬
ten fetid gums, alfo frequently occur. For this the
Peruvian bark is very ufeful, both as a febrifuge and
antifeorbutic.
A tertian accompanied with worms is taken no¬
tice of by Sir John Pringle in his treatife on the difi
eafes of the army. The worms, he tells us, were of
the round kind ; and though we are by no means to
reckon them the eaufe of the fever, they never failed
to make it worfe,. occafioning obftinate gripings or
ficknefs at ftomach- In thefe cafes flitches were fre¬
quent; but, being flatulent, were not often relieved by
bleeding. The worms were difeharged by vomiting
as
Pra&ice; M E D I
Febres aS well as By ftool Few difeharging thefe worms, he
1 commonly gave half a drachm of rhubarb with 12
grains of calomel; without obferving any inconveni¬
ence from fuch a large dofe of mercury. Anthelmin¬
tics, which aft flowly, had little chance of doing good;
for though worms will fometimes lie long in the
bowels, without giving much uneafinefs to a perfon
otherwife well, yet in a fever, efpecially one of a pu¬
trid kind (to which his intermittents always feemed
to incline), the worms being difturbed by the increafe
of heat, and the corruption of the humours in the
prim a via, begin to move about, and ftruggle to get
out. Lancifius, who makes this remark, adds, that
upon opening the bodies of feme who had died at
Rome of fevers of this kind, wounds were found in
the inteftines made by the biting of the worms; nay,
that fome of them had even pieiced through the coats
of the guts, and lay in the cavity of the abdomen.
Pringle never had any inftance of this; but knew
many cafes in which the worms efcaped by the pa¬
tient’s mouth, though there had been no previous
retching to bring them up. One foldier was thrown
into violent convulfions, but; was cured by the above-
mentioned powder.
J-37 The Tertian varizd from its Origin. Sp. L
var. 5.
Tertiana accidentalis, Sauv. Sp. 12. Sydenham.
Tertiana a fcabie, Sauv. fp. 12, Juncker,Xzb. 80.
Hoffman, II. p. 12.
The exiftenee of fevers of this kind, as we have al¬
ready obferved, is denied by Dr Cullen ; the acci¬
dental fever of Sauvages was faid to arife from any
flight error in the non-naturals, and confequently was
very eafily cured. That which arofe from the repul-
ilon of the itch, was cured as foon as the eruption re¬
turned.
The Tertian with only a rem'ffton between-the
; Remittent fits. Sp. II.
Tertian. Tritasophya, Sauv. Gen. 8y. Sag. p. 695.
Tritaeus, Lin. 21.
Hemitritaea, Lin. 23.
Tertianae remittentes et continuse Auftorum.
Tertianse fubintrantes, proportionate, fubcontinuse;
Torti.
Tertiana ftibcontinua, Sauv. fp. 19,
Quotidiana deceptiva, fp. 2.
Amphimerina femiquintana, Sauv. fp, 24.
Tritaeophya deceptiva, Sauv. fp. 10.
Caufos Hippocratis.
TritKophya caufus, Sauv. fp. 2;
Febris ardens Boerhaavu, aph. 738 ?
Tertiana perniciofa, qua? fimulata tertiani circuitus
effigie lethalis, et milk accidentibus periculofiffi-
mis implicata, exiftit. Lud. Mercatus.
Tertiana peftilens, P. Sal. Diverfus.
Tertiana maligna peftilens, Riverii.
Morbus Hungaricus.' Lang. Lerrib. Sennert.
Languor Pannonicus, Ccler. -
Amphimerina Hungarica, Sauv. fp. 10.
Hemitritasus peftilens, Schencl. ex Corn. Gamma.
Febres peftilentes iEgyptiorum, Hlpin,
Febris tertiana epidemia, Bartholin.
CINE.
Febres epidemicse, autumni 1657 et 1658, Willis. Tc
Febris fyneches epidemica, ab anno 1658 ad 1664.
et poftea ab anno 1673 ad 1691, Morton.
Febres autumnales incipientes, Sydenham.
Affeftus epidemicus Leidenfis, Fr. Sylvii.
Morbus epidemicus Leidenfis, 1669, Fanois.
Tertianx perniciofae et peftilentes, et febres caftren-
fes epidemise, Lancifi.
Febres intermittentes anomalae et mail moris, Hoff,
man.
Febris cholerica minus acuta* Hoffman.
Febris epidemica Leidenfis, anno 1719, Koker apud *
Haller, Difp. tom. V.
Amphimerina paludofa, Sauv. fp. 19.
Febris paludum, Pringle.
Bononienfis conftitutio hiemalis 1729, Beccari in
A. N. C. Vol. III.
Amphimerina biliofa, fp. 22.
Febris caftrenfis, Pringle.
Febris putrida epidemica, Huxkam de acre ad ann.
I729*. .
Febris biliofa Laafanenfis, T'ffot.
Tritaeophya Wratiflavienfis, Sauv. fp. 3. Hahn.
Epidemia verna Wratiflav. in App. ad. A. N. C.
Vol. X.
Tritaeophya Americana, Sauv. fp. 12.
Febris a no mala Batava, Grainger.
Morbus Naronianus, Pujati.
Febris continua remittens, f/iV/aryV difeafes of Bar-
badoes.
Febris remittens Indiae orientalis, Lind. diff. inaug.
1768.
Febris critica et febr. biliofa aeftatis, Rouppe.
Febris remittens regionum calidarum, Lind on the
difeafes of hot climates.
A. Tertiana cholerica five dyfenterica. Tort. Therap.
Special, lib. iii. cap. 1. Lautter. Hift. Med.
caf. 6. 16. 17. 20. Morion, App. ad Exerc. II.
B. Tertiana fuberuenta five atrabrlaris. Tort, ibid.”
Never feen by Cleghorn.
C. Tertiana cardiaca, Tort. ibid. Lautter, Hift.
Med. caf. 15. 15. 23.
Amphimerina cardiaca, Sauv. fp. 5.
Tritssophya affodes, Sauv. fp, 6.
Febris continua affodes, Vog. 27.
D. Tertiana diaphoretica, Tort. ibid.
Tritaeophya typbodes, Sauv. fp. 4.
Tritreophya elodes, Sauv. fpt. 5.
Febris continua Ciodt^Vog. 21.
E. Tertiana fyncopalis. Tort, ibid- Lautter. caf 11,
12. 13. 15. 16.
Tritaeopbya fyncopalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Amphimerina fyncopalis, Sauv. fp. 4.
Amphimerina humorofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris eontinua fyneepalis, Log. 29.
F. Tertiana algida, Tort. ibid. Lautter, caf. 13.
Amphimerina epiala, iSau^. fp. 3.
Am-phimerina plrricodes, Sauv. fp. 7.
Tritaeophya leipyria, Sauv. fp. 9.
Tertiana leipyria, Sauv. fp. 23.- VaJcarenghi Med.
Ration, p. 18.
Febris continua epiala et leipyria, Vog. 19. et 24.
G. Tertiana lethargica, Tort. ib.
Tritaeophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 7. Lautter, J. 7. T4,
Tertiaa»
in M E D I
Febres TeVtiaria apoplcftica, Morton. Excrc. I. cap. Ix.
“ ’ hift. 25.
Tertiana foporofa, Werlhof. de febr. p. 6.
Febris epidemica Urbevetana, Land/, de noxls pal.
effluv. I. II. c. 3.
The remittent fevers are much more dangerous than
the true intermictents, as being generally attended with
much greater debility of the nervous fyftem and ten¬
dency to putrefcency in the fluids than the latter.
Sauvages divides his tritseophya, a remittent tertian,
into the following fpecies.
*39 I. Trltteophyafynccpalis, or that attended with faint¬
ing. It begins like a tertian, with cold fucceeded by
heat and profufe fweating; but attended with much
more dangerous fymptoms, fuch as cardialgia, enor-
nioua vomiting, great weaknefs, fmall contracted
pulfe, coldnefs of the extremities, and, unlefs time¬
ly affiftance be given, kills during the fecond or third
paroxyfm.
540 2- The caufus, or burning fever of Hippocrates,
returns every third day without any new fenfation
of cold; and is attended with great thirft, heat,
but without diarrhoea or fweat, and continues only
for one week or two at the utmoft It attacks chief¬
ly young people of a robuft and bilious habit of body,
who have been accuftomed to much exercife, and ex-
pofed to the fun during the heats of lummer, and have
alfoufed a phlogiftic regimen. The tongue is dry,fome-
times black ; the urine of a red or flame colour ; to¬
gether with pain of the head, anxiety, and fometimes
Other fymptoms ftill more dangerous.
:j . j 3. Tritaophya Vrati/lavienfis, was a peftilential difeafe
occafioned by famine, during which the people fed on
putrid aliments: the air was infefted by the vafi. num¬
bers of bodies of thofe flain in battle, and the inhabitants
were alfo deje&ed by reafon of being deprived of their
harveft, and other calamities; to all which was added
the continuance of a calm in the atmofphere for a long
time. It began with an acute fever, leipyria or cold¬
nefs of the external parts and fenfation of burning heat
inwardly ; general weaknefs; pain of the head and prae-
cordia; ferous or bilious diarrhoea; a delirium, in
fome furious, and accompanied with a dread of be¬
ing expofed to the air; on the fecond day the thirfl:
was violent, attended with a bilious vomiting as well
as 'diarrhoea, tough vifcid fpitting, fainting, burning
heat in the bowels, the tongue dry and feeming as if
burnt with a hot iron, a fuppreflion of the voice, an¬
xiety, ftupor; after which quickly followed convulfldns
and death. In fome fevers a leipyria came on with an
exceeding great cold of the extremities, prefently fol¬
lowed by an intolerable heat of the vifeera, with fymp-
tomatic fweats> violent diarrhoea, followed by a very
itchy.miliary eruption. On the fourth day came on
copious fweats, Ipafms of the lower jaw, naufea, invo¬
luntary palling of urine, flight delirium, a flux of icho¬
rous matter from the noftrils, an exceeding tough fpit¬
ting, an epilepfy, and death. Profefibr Hahn, who
gives the hiftory of this difeafe, was himfelf attacked by
it, and fuffered in the following manner. On the firft
day was a violent feverifh paroxyfm v/ithout rigor, a
fliarp pain in the occiput, and immediately an inflamma¬
tory pain over the whole head; the feet were extremely
cold, and the extremities rigid with fpafms. The pain
contmned to increafc daily to fuch a degree, that the
■N" 203.
CINE. Pra<5Hc£«
contaft of the air itfelf became at laft intolerable; a Tertiana. ; .
dejeftion of mind and incredible weaknefs followed ; V—1
he palled reftlefs nights with continual fweating, heavy
and pained eyes, and an univerfal fenfation of rheuma-
tifm over the whole body. On the third day the pain*
were afluaged, but he had a very bad night. On the
fourth day all the fymptoms were worfe, the feet quite
chilled, the hands very red and agitated with convul-
five motions; he was terrified with apprehenfions of
death, and had a vomiting every now and then : this
day fponges dipped in cold water were applied over the
whole body, and he ufed cold water for his drink. On
the eighth day the pulfe was convulfive ? and the pains
were fo violent, that they made him cry out almolt con¬
tinually. On the ninth day he was delirious, and threw
up fome grumous blood. On the nth his pulfe was
more quiet, and he had a fweat; a decoftion of the
bark was given : his voice was broken, his fpeech in¬
terrupted, and his teeth chattered upon one another.
On the 1 2th his jaw was convulfed, he had a rifus far-
donicus, and deafnefs ; after which, the paroxyfms re¬
turned lefs frequently, and only towards night. On
the 14th he had a chilling cold over the whole body,
a cold fweat; frequent lotions were applied, and all the
fymptoms became milder. On the 18th he had a quick
delirium, but fainted as foon as taken out of bed; a
fenfation of hunger, followed by copious fweats; pro¬
found fleep ; an averfion from noife 5 every thing ap¬
peared new and extraordinary. On the 36th a cholera;
an the 48th a fealing off of the lie in, and falling off
of the nails. This epidemic carried off above 3009
people at Warfaw. Frequent lotion of the body ei¬
ther cold or tepid, watery glyflers, and the copious
introduftion of watery fluids under the form of
drink, were of fervice. But the moll favourable
crifis was under the form of fome cutaneous erup¬
tion.
4. Trlttophya typhodes. The principal fymptom of
this fever was a continual fweat with which the pa¬
tients were almoll always wet; with paroxyfms re¬
turning every third day. Sauvages tells us, that he
had twice an opportunity of obferving this fever ; one
was in the teacher of an academy, about 40 years of
age, and of a melancholic temperament. He fweated
every other night fo plentifully, that he was obliged to
change his linen nine times ; and even on the interme¬
diate days was never perfectly free of fever, and had
his Ikin moiftened with fweat. The other was of a wo¬
man who went about in man's clothes, and was difeo-
vered only after her death. The difeafe began with a
flight fenfation of cold, after which Ihe fweated for
eight hours. It was attended with the highell de¬
bility, anxiety, and at the fame time an infatiable
hunger.
5. Tritaophya elodes, was an inflammatory epide-
mic, but not contagious, terminating about the 14th ^
or 21 ft day. The difeafe came on in the night-time,
with difturbed reft; univerfal weaknefs, watchings,
great heat and fweat, rednefs of the face and almoft
of the whole body, fparkling eyes, the tongue dry
and white ; a hard, tenfe, and turgid pulfe : about the
third day a kind of frenzy frequently came on with the
feverilh paroxyfm, the forerunner of an univerfel mi- .
liary eruption ; or, what was worfe, with purple fpots
fo clofe together, that they looked like an eryfipelas
of
Practice. M E D I
Febres of the whole body. Sometimes blifters of the fize
v**""v 1 of fmall pearls, filled with acrid ferum, appeared on
the neck, armpits, and trunk of the body, wdiich
were of all others the moft dangerous. There was a
variety of the difeafe, which our author calls the humo-
rails, and in which the pulfe was foft and feeble, with
greater weaknefs over the whole body, and the difpo-
lition to deep more frequent than in the other ; the
eyes languid; the tongue very white, but not dry ; and
worms were difch'arged.
144 6. Triuopbya ajfodes. This fpecies arofe from a
foulnefs of the prim* fiae, and the effluvia of waters in
which hemp had been fteeped. It began with rigor,
followed by great heats, reftleffnefs, tolling of the
limbs, terrible faintings, immoderate third, drynefs of
tongue, delirium, and at length exceffive watchings;
thefe lad, however, were lefs dangerous than vertigoes
or comatofe difpofitions, which brought on convullions
or apoplexies.
7. Trhteophya carotica. This had exacerbations
every other evening ; and its diftinguifhing fymptom
was an exceffive inclination to deep, preceded by a fe-
vere headach, and followed by delirium, and fometimes
convulfipns; the tongue was black, and the patient
infenfible of third after the delirium came on. In
thofe cafes v/here the difeafe proved fatal, a fubful-
tus tendinum and other grievous fymptoms came on.
9. Trltaophya leipyria is only a variety of the tritae-
ophya caufus, already defcribed.
10. Tritaophya deceptiva This fpecies at fird
aflumes the appearance of a continued fever; but af¬
terwards degenerates into a remittent, or even an in¬
termittent. It is defcribed by Sydenham, but attend¬
ed with no remarkable fymptoms.
n. The lad of Sauvages’s fpecies of Tritaeophya
belonging to the remitting tertian is the simericana.
This, acccording to Sauvages, is the ardent fever with
which the Europeans are ufually feized on their fird
coming to America, and generally carries off one half
of them. Of this there are two varieties, the wry
acute and the acute. The very acute ends before the
feventh day. It comes on a few days after the per-
fon’s arrival, with lofs of appetite, with dyfpnoea and
fighing from weaknefs, head-ach, laffitude, pain of the
•loins : a pyrexia fucceeds, with great third, fweat, and
heat; the ficknefs increafes, naufea comeson, with vo¬
miting of porraceous bile; the tongue rough, the ex¬
tremities often cold ; watching, furious delirium ; and
the patient frequently dies on the third day. Copious
fweats, and a plentiful hemorrhagy from the nofe on
the fifth day, but not fooner, are ferviceable ; but a bi¬
lious diarrhoea is the bed crifis of all.
The acute kind terminates mod frequently on the
ninth, but very rarely goes beyond the fifteenth day.
Death frequently comes on between the fourth and fe¬
venth days. It begins with head-ach, pain in th§
loins, and fometimes fhivering ; great laffitude, dyf¬
pnoea, third; burning fever, increafing every thirdrday;
inflation of the abdomen, pain at the pit of the tlo-
mach, naufea, and bilious vomiting. Such is the date
of the difeafe within twenty-four hours. The eyes are
red, and full of tears ; the urine pellucid ; there is a
low delirium, and continual anxiety ; the tongue is dry
and red, and fometimes, though rarely, black, which
is a dill worfe fign; the pulfe, formerly Itrong and
Von. XI. Part I.
H5
146
248
C T N E. 113
full, finks about the fourth day, and becomes terrfe Tertiana.^
and fpafmodic : if a carus then comes on, the patient
dies the fifth or fixth day ; but if the pulfe keeps up,
and no carus comes on, a crifis is to be expe&ed by
fweat, by a copious hemorrhagy from the nofe, or,
which is dill more fafe, by a bilious diarrhcea, which is
never falutary if it comes on before the fifth day.
To the remitting tertian alfo belong the following
fpecies mentioned by Sauvages, viz.
1. Tertlana fubc'ontinua. This begins like a genuine 149
tertian, and at fird hath didindf paroxyfms ; but thefe
grow gradually more and more obfcure, the difeafe ac¬
quiring daily more of the appearance of continued
fever, by which it is to be didinguidied from the
other varieties of this fpecies. It is not unfrequently
joined with thofe fymptoms which attend the fatal fe¬
ver already mentioned ; as cardialgia, cholera, fyncope,
&c. but in a much lefs degreel The difeafe commonly
begins with little or no fenfe of cold, but rather a fen-
fation of heat; when the tertian is doubled, it has firft
a llighter and then a more fevere fit; and thus goes
on with an exacerbation on the even days: and though
it fhould'change from a double into a iingle tertian,
we are dill to fufpect it, if a weak fit is the forerunner.
of a very drong one. This change of the tertian into
a continued fever is alfo to be prognodicated if a heat
remarkable to the touch is perceived on the day of in-
termiffion, together with fome didurbance of the pulfe,
third, and drynefs of the tongue ; all of which fhow
an univerfal tendency to infiammation: the fame is
foretold by the urine being in fmall quantity, and very
red, or of a fa.ffron colour; alfo an ulcerous or aph¬
thous infiammation of the throat, with difficulty of
fwallowing, or any very fevere fymptom coming on in
the beginning of the difeafe, excepting only a delirium,
which is eafily removed.
2. Spuotidiana deceptiva. This is a diforder of an j
inflammatory kind, with a drong tendency to putref-
cency, and fometimes affumes the form of a quotidian.
In it the patient frequently complains of cold when he
really is hot, and the remiffion is very indidinft; and
the difeafe is known by the great languor of the pa¬
tient and the foulnefs of his tongue.
3. /Jmphimcrina cardiaca is an acute malignant fever, ,
with daily exacerbations, attended with fainting and *
vomiting of green bile. Afterwards, the weaknefs in¬
creafing, the patient’s extremities grow cold, and apro-
fufe fweat comes on, which is frequently fucceeded by
death on the fourth day. Another fpecies refembling
this Sauvages calls the fyncopalis ; ♦ at the cardiaca dif¬
fers from it in being attended with cardialgia.
4. ' Amphimerina pnludofa. This is the fever defcri- 153
bed by the Britifh phylicians under many different
names, and appearing under various forms, according
to the different conltitutions of the patients. This
fever in the Eaft Indies, according to Dr Lind of
Windfor, generally comes on fuddenly, and begins
with a fenfe of debility and a very great lownefs of
fpirits. Thefe fymptoms are attended with a greater
or lefs degree of chillinefs, a dizzinefs, a naufe i, very
acute pains in the head and loins, and a trembling of
the hands ; the countenance is pale, the Ikin commonly
very dry and corrugated, the eyes dull and heavy, the
pulfe quick and fmall, the breath generally difficult,
and interrupted with hiccough.
As
M E D I
As the paroxyfm increafes, the chillinefs now an
then gives way to irregular heats, which foon become
violent and permanent; the naufea likewife incrtafes;
and in fome there comes on a vomiting, in which they
throw up a great deal of bile. Sometimes bile is
likewife voided by Hook The fkin grows red ; the
eyes fmall, and fometimes not a little inflamed. The
pulfe becomes fuller, and the breath more difficult,
attended with great reftlefihefs and a troublefome
third:; notwithftanding which (fo great is the naufea)
the patient cannot endure any kind of liquids. The
tongue becomes foul, and the pain of the head and
loins more violent; a delirium then follows ; a flight
moifture appears on the face, and from thence fpreads
to the other parts ; whilft the violence of the other
fymptoms abates, and Ihows the beginning of a re-
miflion, which is completed-by plentiful fweats.
On the fever’s remitting, the pulfe returns almofl: to
its natural date ; the pains of the head and loins dill
continue, though fomewhat lefs violent, as likewife
the naufea and want of appetite. When the difeafe
gains drength, the remiffion is fcarcely obvious, and
is immediately followed by another paroxyfm ; which
begins, not indeed with fo great a fliivering, but is at¬
tended with a greater pain of the head, the greated
anxiety, a heartburn, naufea, vomiting, and bilious
dools. The matter mod commonly evacuated by vo¬
mit and Aool is whitifh like chalk and water, or curd¬
led milk which is vomited by fucking children, when
the curd is much broke down. A heat, immoderate
third, and delirium, now come on. The tongue be¬
comes more foul; the teeth and infide of the lips are
covered with a black crud ; the breath grows hot and
fetid : another remiffion-enfues, attended with afweat;
but this remiffion is both Ihorter and lefs obvious than
the fird.
This fecond reraiffion is fucceeded by a paroxyfm,
in which the fymptoms are fax more violent than in
the former ; that which the patient difcharges by vo¬
miting and purging is more fetid; the mouth, teeth,
and infide of the lips, are not only covered with a
black crud, but the tongue becomes fo dry and diff,
that the patient’s vice can fcarce be heard. Vio¬
lent delirium, with reii. dfnefs and anxiety, come on
chiefly during the paroxyfm ; nor do thefe fymp¬
toms abate till the fever remits, and the patient
fwealts.
When the fever becomes fo violent, during the
thud fit, as to end in death, which is generally the
cafe, fome of the fick have a coma ; in others the de¬
lirium becomes more violent. The difcharges now
become more fetid, and have a cadaverous fmell; the
dools are involuntary ; the pulfe is fo quick, fmall, and
irregular, that it is fcarce to be counted, or even felt;
a cold fweat is diffufed over the whole body, efpecially
the head and neck : the face becomes Hippocratic
and convulfed ; the patient picks the bed-clothes; a
fubfultus tendinum comes on ; the fick lie conflantly
on their backs, and infenfibly Hide down to the foot
of the bed ; their extremities grow cold ; they are then
feized with convulfions, with which the fcene clofes.
In this fever, the urine, which at the beginning is
J>ale, becomes of a deeper colour by degrees, but
without depofiting any fediment. There feldom or
never appear any pctechiae, and the prickly heat
CINE. Pra&ice,
which was before on the fltin vanifhes on the firil ap- Tertians,
pearance of the fever. But thopgh thefe were the ——v——*
general fymptoms of this diforder, they varied in the
different fubjedts, and at different feafons of the fame
year. The pulfe, for example, in fome, was quick in
the beginning of the diforder; in others, it varied
with the other fymptoms. The fkin was generally
dry in the beginning of the fit; but in fome it was
moifl, and covered with fweat from the very fird
beginning of the difeafe. In the month of September,
when the diforder raged mod, the remiffions were
very imperfedf and obfcure ; but, on the return of
winter and the healthy feafon, they became more re¬
gular, and the difeafe affumed the appearance of an
intermitting fever, to fuch a degree as at length not
to be didinguifhed from it. In fome the remiffions
could fcarce be perceived, and the fever continued for-
two weeks without any material change for the better
or the worfe. At this time numbers were feized with
it. When the diforder continued for any time wiih-
out a change, it generally ended in death ; while the
weather grew better, it fometimes, in the fpace of a
few days, from a common fever became an intermit¬
ting one, and the patient recovered, unlefs his liver,
which was fometimes the cafe, happened to be affe&ed.
The cure of an inflammation of the liver proved un¬
certain and tedious ; as it was commonly followed by
a colliquative diarrhoea, which generally endangered'
the patient’s life.—Every fucceeding paroxyfm was
obferved to be more dangerous than the preceding;
the third generally proved fatal; fome died during
the fird. When this happened, the fever, in the lan¬
guage of the country, was called a put a, that is a drong
fever.
This difeafe, according to Hr Lind of Haflar hof-
pital, is the autumnal fever of all hot countries, the
epidemic difeafe between the tropics, and the difeafe
mod fatal to Europeans in all hot and unhealthy cli¬
mates. All authors agree that intermittents in gene¬
ral, but particularly this dangerous kind of them, are
produced by heat and moidure. Dr Lind of Wind-
for remarks, that the European feamen are very fub-
je& to the fever above mentioned when they happen <
to arrive at Bengal in autumn. They are predifpo-
fed to it from the nature of their food, their confine¬
ment on board, the very great heats to which they
are expofed during the voyage, and their lying for
hours together expofed to the night colds.
Mod of the meat ufed by the crews of thofe diips
is faked, and often in a putrid date, without any freflt
vegetables, they having only bifcuits, and fome other
farinaceous matters. The quantity of the vinous or
fpirituous liquors allowed them is by far too fmall to
fubdue the putrefcent difpofition of their animal-food.
Their fluids confequently become, from day to day,
more and more putrefcent, and of courfe the more apt
to breed and contrail this diforder. This difpofition
is likewife induced by their being dewed very clofe to¬
gether, and that for a confiderable length of time, and
in a foul air, efpecially when the weather happens to be
too dormy to permit the hatches and port-holes to be
kept open.
Though the heats they endure in the voyage to In¬
dia are lefs confiderable than thofe of the country it-
felf, yet they are too much for an European conditution
6 to
Practice. M E D I
Febres to bear, 'Hie general heat at fea within the tropics is
  about 84° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which is fuf-
ficient to relax them, and promote a corruption of their
humours, efpecially when it coincides with the above
caufes. It likewife creates a languor and indolence,
which alone are fufficient to increafe that putrefcence.
Thefe caufes are apt to be confiderably aggravated by
the mens being often expofed, when on duty, for hours
together, to rain, damp, and cold air; a circumftance
which frequently happens to them when working their
Ihips up the river Ganges in the night-time. Hence
the perfpiration is checked, and the excrementitious
fluid which ufed to be difcharged by the Ikin being
•retained in the body, contributes, he thinks, very much
towards the predifpofition to this difeafe.
But the moft powerful of all the remote caufes is
juftly thought to be the effluvia of marlhes replete with
putrid animal-fubftances. We have not, however,
been able to determine from what kind of putrid ani-
mal-fubftanees thefe effluvia derive their virus. For
that every kind of putrefadtion has not fuch an effedl
appears from this, that neither pradtical anatom ills, nor
thofe who by their trades are expofed to the putrid ef¬
fluvia of animals, for inllance fuch tanners and butch¬
ers as keep their (hops and flails very dirty, are more
fubjedf than others to putrid difeafes. Nor are the
(hip-ftewards and their fervants, whofe bufinefs it is
to deliver out their provifions to the (hips crews, and
who fpend the moft of their time amongft the putrid
and rancid effluvia of the places in which thofe pro¬
vifions are kept, more fubjedl to putrid fevers than
their (hip-mates. But whatever be in this, we are well
afiured that fome particular putrid fermentations pro¬
duce noxious vapours, which, united with thofe of
marlhes, render them more pernicious. Hence evi¬
dently proceeds the extreme unhealthfulnefs of a place
called Culpi) on the eaftern bank of the Ganges. The
fhores about it are full of mud, and the banks co¬
vered with trees. Oppofite to the place where the (hips
lie there is a creek, and about a mile from its entrance
Hands the town of Culpi: the (hips lie about a mile
from the (bore. None of the failors on board the
Chips ftationed at this place enjoyed their health. The
burying ground alfo contributed not a little to fpread
the infection The ground being marftiy, the putrid
water flowed from the old graves into the new ones,
which infe&ed the grave-diggers and thofe that at¬
tended the funerals; and from this caufe many were
fuddenly feized while they were performing the laft
duty to their companions. This place has ever been
remarkable for the unhealthfulnefs of its air. It was
once cuftomary to fend fome of the Company’s fer¬
vants here to receive the cargoes of the (hips, and fend
them to Calcutta ; but fo many of them died on this
duty, that the Company was at length obliged to dif-
penfe with it.
Hence it plainly appears, how apt putrid animal
and vegetable fubllances are to render the effluvia of
fenny places more pernicious than they would other-
wife be. The reafon why great Inundations of the
Nile and Ganges are followed by a healthy feafon is,
that by this means the putrid animal and vegetable
fubftances difperfed over the contiguous countries are
carried off into the fea.—The noxious vapours ariling
from fens fpread but a little way. Dr Lind has often
known (hips crews at a very little diftance from the
CINE.
(liore quite free from this diforder. But although Tertians,
thefe mar(h miafmata firft bring on the difeafe, yet *
contagion particularly fpreads it, and renders it more
epidemic. Thus the Drake Eaft Indiaman continued
free from the diforder for two weeks together, when
(he had no communication with the other (hips |
whereas, as foon as the diforder was brought on board,
many were feized with it within a few days in fuch a
manner as to leave no room to entertain the leaft doubt
concerning its peftilential nature.
Dr Lind of Haflar hofpital has given a very curious
and learned account of the appearance of this fever
throughout the various parts of the globe. It was ve¬
ry common in England in the years 1765 and 1766,
one obvious caufe of which was the prevalence of tire
eaftern wind. This wind in England is often faid to
bring with it a fog from the fea ; but the truth of the
matter is, that in many places of this illand the eaft-
wind frequently raifes a copious vapour from water*
mud, and all marffly or damp places. To this exha¬
ling quality of the eaftern wind Dr Lind has often
been an eye-witnefs. When the wind changes to the
eaft, the mud fometimes fends up a vapour as thick as
fmoke ; and the do&or has obferved two (Hh-ponds in
his neighbourhood, one of frelh and the other of fait
water, which on the approach of an eafterly wind
fometimes alfo emit a denfe vapour, as from a pot of
boiling water. In order to view this phenomenon di*
ftin&ly, the perfon (hould (land at about 100 yards
diftance from the rtiud or ponds. If the fun Ihines
when the wind changes to the eaft, he will obferve a
conftant fleam of vapours arifing out of the ponds,
from about five to ten yards in height, while the air
about him remains ferene. As the vapour or fog ari¬
fing from other bodies glides along the furface of the
earth, and is brought by the eafterly wind to the
ponds, he will (till be able, for fome time, to diftin-
guilh the vapours afcending perpendicularly out of the
ponds from thofe which are carried in an horizontal di-
reffion by the wind ; efpecially if the fun continues to
dune, though faintly.
This evaporating quality of the eaft-wind feems to
manifeft itfelf alfo by its effe&s both on the thermo¬
meter and the human body ; for a thermometer hung
over a damp piece of ground during the fogs or ex¬
halations arifing from it, will often indicate a degree of
cold below the freezing point. The chillinefs of the
body, fo fenfibly perceived when inthisfituation, feems
to proceed from the fame caufe, and to produce near¬
ly the fame fenfations, which the damp arifing from
the wet floor in a chamber communicates to thofe who
happen to be in it.
Winds are not conftant in their effefts. As we have
fometimes warm weather with a north-wind, and fome¬
times very little heat with one blowing from the fouth;
fo the fogs attending an eaft-wind are not conftant,
neither is the evaporation above mentioned at all times
to be perceived. It is poflible, however, that in all
this there may be a deception ; and that inftead of
luppofing the quantity of vapours exhaled to be in-
-creafed by an eafterly wind, the coldnefs of that wind
may only condenfe and render vifible the vapours
in the air at that time. But even this fuppofitipn is
liable to great objeftions, as our coldeft north-winds
feldom or never produce fuch an effeft, but on the
contrary are attended with dry and ferene weather.
P 2 Be
u6 M EDI
Febres Be this as it will, however, an eaft-wind is ufually
accompanied with a cold, damp, and unwholefome
vapour, which is obferved to affeft the health both of
animals and vegetables, and in many places to produce
obftinate intermitting fevers, and alfo to occafion fre¬
quent rejapfes. In particular fpots of the low damp
ifland of Portfea, the ague frequently prevails during
the autumnal feafon, and in fome years is much more
frequent and violent than in others. It is alfo obfer-
vable, that this difeafe always attacks ftrangers, or thofe
who have formerly lived on a drier foil, and in a more
elevated fituation, with greater feverity than thofe v4io
are natives of the ifland.
The year 1765 was remarkable, not only for the
long continuance of the eallerly winds, but for an ex-
ceffive degree of heat, which produced a more violent
and general rage of thofe difeafes than had been known
for many years before. In the month of Auguft the
quickfilver in Fahrenheit’s thermometer-oftcn rofe to
82® in the middle of the day. This confiderable ad¬
dition of heat, together with the want of refrefhing
rains, greatly fpread the fever, increafed its violence,
and even changed its form in many places. At Portf-
mouth, and throughout almoft: the whole ifland of
Portfea, an alarming continual or remitting fever ra¬
ged, which extended itfelf as far as Chichefler. At the
fame time, .the town of Gofport, though diftant only
one mile from Portfmouth, enjoyed an almofl total ex¬
emption from ficknefs of every kind ; whereas in the
neighbouring villages and farm-hdufes, a mild regular,
tertian ague diftreffed whole families.’ The violence of
the fever, writhijs appearances in a continued,remitting,,
or intermitting form, marked in fome meafure the na¬
ture of the foil. In Portfmouth the fymptoms were
bad, worfe at Kingfton, and frill more dangerous and
violent at a place called Half-<way Houfes ; a ftreet fo
named, about half a mile from Portfmouth, where
fcarcely one in a family efcaped this fever, which ge¬
nerally made its firft attack with a delirium. In the
large fuburb of Portfmouth called the Common, it feem-
ed to rage with more violence than in the town, fome
parts excepted ; but even whole flreets of this fuburb,
together with the houfes in the dock-yard, efcaped its
- attack.
The marines, who were three times a-w'eek exerci-
fed earlv in the morning on South Sea beach., fuffered
much .from the effeft of the ftagnant water in an ad¬
joining morafs. Half a dozen of them were frequent¬
ly taken ill in their ranks when under arms ; fome be¬
ing feized with fucb a giddinefs of their head, that
they eould fcarcely Hand y while others fell down
fpeechlefs, and upon recovering their fenfes complain¬
ed of a violent head-ach. When fuch patients were re¬
ceived into the hofpital, it was obferved that fome few
had a regular ague, but that far the greater number
laboured under a remitting fever, in which fometimes
indeed there was no perceptible remiflion for feveral
days. A conftant pain and giddinefs of the head were
the moft infeparable and diftrefling fymptoms of this
difeafe. Some were delirious, and a few vomited up
a quantity of bile ; but in all the countenance was yel¬
low. A long continuance of the fever produced a drop-
fy or jaundice, or both. Even a flight attack reduced
the moft robuft conftitution to a ftate of extreme de¬
bility ; and this weaknefs, together with the giddi-
C I N E. Pradlice;
nefs, continued for a long time after the fever* A Tertiaua.
fcabby eruption now and then made its appearance on —*
the lips and the corners of the mouth: but dry itchy
fpots over the whole body, refembling much the com¬
mon itth> and feemingto partake of the nature of that.
difeafe, were more frequently obferved in the patients
at Portfmouth, where there was not the leaft reafoir
to fufpedt any infection.
Such is the appearance of the remitting fever oeca-
fioned by marfti miafmita in England. In the Nether¬
lands its fymptoms are not much different. Dr Wind
informs us, that at Middleburg, the capital of Weft
Zealand, a ficknefs generally reigns towards the latter-
end of Auguft, or the beginning of September, which
is always moft violent after hot fummers. It commences
after the rains which fall in the end of July; thefoon-
er it begins the longer it continues, and it is only check¬
ed by the coldnefs of the weather. Towards the end
of Auguft and the beginning of September it is a con¬
tinual burning fever, attended with a vomiting of bile,
which is called the ga//Jicknefs. This fever, after con¬
tinuing three or four days, intermits, and affumes the
form of a double tertian ; leaving the patient in a fort¬
night, or perhaps fooner. Strangers that have been
accuftomed to breathe a dry pure air do not recover, fa
quickly. Foreigners in indigent circumftances, fuch
as the Scots and German foldiers, who are garrifoned
in the adjacent places, are apt after thofe fevers to have
a fwelling in their legs and a dropfy •, of which many-
die.
Thefe difeafes, the Do&or obferves, are the fame
with the double tertians common within the tropics.
Such as are feized with the gall-ficknefs have at lirit.
fome flufhes of heat over the body, a lofs of appetite,,
a white foul tongue, a yellow tindl in the eyes, and a
pale colour in the lips. Such as live well, drink wine*
and have warm clothes and good lodgings, do not fuf-
fer fo much during the fickly feafon as the poor peo¬
ple ; however, thefe difeafes are not infedlious, and fel-
dom prove mortal to the natives.
Sir John Pringle obferves, that the prevailing epi¬
demic of autumn in all marflry countries, is a fever of
an intermitting nature, commonly of a tertian form,
but of a bad kind ; which, in the dampeft places and-
worft feafons, appears as a double tertian, a remitting,
or even an ardent fever. But however thefe fevers may.
vary in their appearance according to the conftitutiou-
of the patient and other circumftances, they are all of
a fimilar nature. For though, in the beginning of the
epidemic, when the heat or rather the putrefaftion in
the air is the greateft, they affume a continued or a
remitting form, yet by the end of autumn they ufually.
terminate in regular intermittents.
In Zealand, where the. air is more corrupted than in
other parts of the Netherlands, this diflemper, as we
have already obferved, is called the galUficknefs ; and
indeed both the redundance and depravation of the
gall is fometimes fo great, that it has been generally
aferibed to the corruption and overflowing of that hu¬
mour. But though it cannot with juftice be faid to
originate from corrupted gall or bile, it is certain that
the difeafe may be continued, and the fymptoms ag¬
gravated, by an increafed fecretion and putrefa&ion of
the bile occafloned by the fever. In proportion to the
coolnefs of the feafon, to the height and drynefs of the
ground^
' Practice. M E D I
;; Febres ground, this dlftemper I'S milder, remits or intermits
v more freely, and removes further from the nature of a
continued fever. The higher ranks of people in ge¬
neral are leaft liable to the difeafes of the marlhes; for
Jfuch countries require dry houfes,’ apartments raifed
above the ground, moderate exercife, without labour
in the fun or evening damps, a juft quantity of fer-
1' mented liquors, plenty of vegetables, and frefh meats.
Without fuch helps, not only ftrangers, but the natives
themfelves are lickly, efpecially after hot and clofe fum-
. mers. The hardielt conftitutions are very little ex¬
cepted more than others ; and hence the Britiih in the
Netherlands have always been fubjeft to fevers.
By this dillemper the Britifh troops were haraffed
throughout the whole of the war from 1743 to 1747.
It appeared in the month of Auguft 1743 ; the pa-
roxyfms came on in the evening, with great heat, thirft,
a violent headach, and often a delirium. Thefe fymp-
- • toms lafted moft of the night, but abated in the morn¬
ing, with an imperfedi fweat, fometimes with an has-
morrhagy of the npfe or a loofenefs The ftomach
from the beginning was d-ifordered with a naufea and
fenfe of oppreffion, frequently with a bilious and of-
fenfive vomiting. If evacuations were either neglec-'
ted, or too fparingly ufed, the patient fell into a conti¬
nued fever, and fometimes grew yellow as in a jaundice.
When the feafon was further advanced, this fever was
attended with a cough, rheumatic pains, and fizy blood.
The officers being better accommodated than the com¬
mon men, and the cavalry who had cloaks to keep them
warm, were not fo fubjedf to it: and others who be¬
longed to the army, but lay in quarters, were leaft of
all affe&ed ; and the lefs in proportion to their being
little expofed to heats, night-damps, and the other fa¬
tigues of the fervice.
In this manner did the remitting fever infeft the
army for the remaining years of the war ; and that ex-
a&ly in proportion to their diftance from the marfliy
places, of which we have feveral notable inftances in
Pringle’s obfervations. In Hungary the fame difeafe
appears with ftill more violence, and is readily compli¬
cated with fevers of a truly peftilential nature, by
which means it becomes extremely dangerous. Hun¬
gary is acknowledged to be the moft fickly climate in
Europe, and indeed as bad as any in the world. Here
it was where the crufaders, in only marching through
the country to invade Afia, often loft half their num¬
ber by ficknefs ; and where the Auftrians not long
fince buried, in a few years, above 40,000 of their beft
troops, who fell a facrifice to the malignant difpofition
of the Hungarian air. The reafon of this uncommon
malignity is, that Hungary abounds with rivers, which,
by often overflowing, leave that low flat country over-
fpread wdth lakes and ponds of ftagnating water, and
with large unwholefome marfhes. So great is the im¬
purity of thefe ftagnated waters, that by them the ri¬
vers, even the Danube, whofe courfe is flow, become
in fome places corrupted and offenfive. The air is
moift, and in fummer quite fultry. In. the nights of
harveft, Kramer tells us, it was fo very damp, that the
Auftrian foldiers could not fecure themfelves from the
moifture even by a triple tent-covering. Here epide¬
mical diftempers begin conftantly to rage during the
hotteft months of the year ; which are July, Auguft,
and September: and thefe complaints, according to
CINE. 117
the obfervations of the phyfician above-mentioned, are Tertiana.
the fame with thofe which are epidemic upon the coaft ——v”'
of Guinea, and in the fickly climates of the Eaft and
Weft Indies, of which malignant fevers of the remit¬
ting and intermitting kind are the moft common and
dangerous.
The heat of the fun in Hungary, according to the
fame author, is more intenfe than in any other country
of Europe ; and in proportion to the heat is the pefti¬
lential quality of the marfliy exhalations. It is con¬
ftantly obferved, that the nearer any city or fort is to
a morafs or a large river with foul and oozy banks,
the more unhealthy are the inhabitants. At fuch
feafons and places, the air fwarms with numberlefs
infedts and animalcules, a fare fign of its malignant
difpofition ; and the hotter the futnmer, the more fre¬
quent and mortal are the difeafes. in ftiort, this
country, on account of its unhealthinefs, has been
termed the grave of the Germans; and in Italy, the
Campania of Rome is almoft equally unhealthy. Lan-
cilius, phyfician to Pope Clement XI. furnifhes us with
a very ftriking inftance of the malignant quality of the
air of Campania. Thirty gentlemen and ladies of the
firft rank in Rome having made an excurlion, upon a
party of pleafure, towards the mouth of the Tyber,
the wind fuddenly ftiifting, blew from the fouth over
the putrid marflres, when 29 were immediately feized
with a tertian fever, only one efcaplng.
The ifland of Sardinia is annually vifited with an
epidemical ficknefs, which rages from June to Sep¬
tember, and is called by the natives the intemperles.
In fome years there is a want of rain for four or five
months ; and then it is that this ficknefs exerts its
utmoft violence, being always more fatal in fome
places than in others, and in particular to ftrangers.
Of this the Britifli had a fevere proof in 1758.—Ad¬
miral Broderick, in the Prince fltip of war, anchored
in the bay of Oriftagni, where 27 of his men, fent a-
ftiore on duty, were feized with the epidemical diftem-
per of this ifland ; twelve of them in particular, who-
had flept on Ihore, were brought on board delirious.
All ot them in general laboured under a low fever,
attended with great oppreflion at the breaft and at
the pit of the ftomach, a conftant retching, and fome¬
times a vomiting of bile ; upon which a delirium often
enfued. Thefe fevers changed into double tertians,
and terminated in obftinate quartan agues. It is wor¬
thy of remark, that in this ffiip, which lay only two
miles from the land, none were taken ill but fuch as
had been on Ihore, of whom feven died. The prior ,
of a convent, making a vifit to the Englifli officers,,
informed them, that the intemperies of the ifland was
a remitting or intermitting fever, and that he himfelf
had fuffered feveral attacks of it. Sardinia was for- ,
merly fo remarkable for its unwholefome air, that the
Romans ufed to banifli their criminals thither; and it
is at prefent but thinly peopled, awing to the morta-
fity occafioned by this annual ficknefs. For although
it is about 140 miles long, and in feveral places 75
miles broad, yet it is computed that the whole number
of its inhabitants does not exceed 250,000 : an incon.-
fiderable number, when compared with the inhabitants,
of the lefler, but comparatively more healthful, ifland
of Corfica; though even there the French loft a num¬
ber of their troops by intermitting and remitting fe-
5 vers..
i‘8 M E D I
Febres vers. In the iHand,of Minorca, too, Dr Cleghorn in-
forms us, that fevers of this kind prevail exceedingly ;
that their types are various, their fymptoms violent,
the intermiffions fallacious, and that they frequently
and fuddenly prove fatal. It is more than probable,
he adds, from the accounts of feveral phyficians and
travellers, that epidemical tertians are not wholly con*
fined to the coafts and iflands of the Mediterranean,
but that they are equally frequent and deltru&ive in
many other parts of the globe ; and perhaps may be
deemed the anniverfary autumnal diftempers of moft
,hot countries in the world. And though in the mild
climate of Britain, a tertian may always eafily be
cured when^ once it is difcovered ; yet in warm cli¬
mates, fuch is the rapid progrefs of the diftemper,
that it is neceflary to know it in the very beginning,
which is very difficult for thofe who have never feen
;any but the tertians ufually met with in Britain. *
From Dr Cleghorn’s account of Minorca, how¬
ever, it doth not appear why that ifiand ffiould be fo
much infelled with fevers of this kind, fince it is far
from being a marffiy country ; nay, on the contrary,
is very dry. The fouth wind, he obferves, is very
unhealthy ; and it is the prevalence of this wind which
brings on the fever: but ftill the difficulty is not re¬
moved, becaufe the fea-air is fo far from bringing on
fuch dangerous difeafes, that it is one of the greateft
prefervatives againft them when it can be had. As
to the moifture which muft neceffarily accompany an
infular fituation, that cannot reafonably be admitted
as a caufe of this or any other difeafe. In the Lon¬
don Medical Obfervations we find a paper on a fubjeft
very fimilar to the prefent, namely, the mifchiefs pro¬
duced by lying in damp fiieets, or being expofed to
moill vapour. The author tells us, that he hardly knows
a dillemper the origin of which hath not by fome been
afcribed to lying in a damp bed, or fitting in a wet
room; and yet he does not know any one which will
, certainly be produced by thefe caufes, and people
frequently expofe themfelves to fuch caufes without
fuffering any ill effe&s. “ It muft be owned indeed,
(fays he), that the vapours arifing from the bilge-water
of ffiips tend to produce a feurvy. The fwampy
plains alfo near the mouths of great rivers which are
often overflowed, and low grounds which cannot rea¬
dily be drained, and thofe trafts of land where the
thicknefs and extent of the woods keep the ground
moift and half putrid for want of ventilation, are de-
ftrudlive to the neighbouring inhabitants, by occa-
fioning obftinate intermittents in the colder climates,
and peftilential fevers in the hotter regions. But all
this mifehief arifes not merely from moifture, but from
an unventilated and putrid moifture ; for the inoffen-
•fivenefs of mere wetnefs, untainted with putridity, may
be reafonably inferred from the following confidera-
tions. The air is often fully faturated with moifture,
and could not be more filled by the vapours ariling
from a chamber covered with water ; and yet nei¬
ther is any epidemical diftemper produced by it, nor
are thofe remarkably aggravated with which the lick
•happen at that time to be affli&ed. The air from
rivers and from the fea is probably more repleniftied
with vapours than inland countries cleared of their
woods : yet the .moft celebrated of the ancient phyfi-
C I N E« Pra6llce.>
clans recommended the bank of a running river for the Tertianadt;
fituation of a houfe, on account of its peculiar health- 1
fulnefs; and many invalids are fpnt by the modern
phyficians to the fea fide, only for the benefit of the
fea air.
“ Where the failors are cleanly, and not too much
crowded, they are often as healthy during long voy¬
ages at fea, as they would have been upon any part
of the land. Venice is not obferved to be lefs healthy
than London or Paris.
“ Thofe who are much difpofed to fweat, lie many
hours in bed-clothes impregnated probably with a lefj
wholefome moifture than would have been left in the
fheets half-dried after walking; and I have not yet
had reafon to think that any remarkable injury was
done to the health by the continuance of fuch fweats
almoft every night for weeks, and for months, except
what arofe from the too great copioufnefs of this eva¬
cuation.
“ Children, and fuch as are troubled with the ftone,
and thofe who, from other infirmities or age, con-
ftantly wet their beds with their urine, do not appear
to fuffer in their health on this account.
“ It is a common pra&ice, in fome diforders, to go J
to bed with the legs or arms wrapped in linen cloths
thoroughly foaked in Malvern water, fo that the ffieets
will be in many places as wet as they can be ; and I
have known thefe patients and their bedfellows receive
no Lirm from a continuance of this practice for many
months. Nor can it be faid that the Malvern water is
more innocent than any other water might be, on ac¬
count of any ingredients with which it is impregnated;
for the Malvern water is purer than that of any
other fpring in England which I ever examined or
heard of.
“ The greateft valetudinarians do not fcruple to
fprinkle lavender-water upon their flieets ; and yet,
when the fpirit is flown off, there is left what is as
truly water as if it had been taken from the river.
“ Is it obferved, that laundreffes are peculiarly un¬
healthy above other women, though they live half
their time in the midft of wet linen, in an air fully fa¬
turated with vapours ? Many other employments might
be mentioned, the perfons occupied in which arc
conftantly expofed to wet floors or pavements, or to
be furrounded with watery vapours, or to have their
clothes often wet for many hours together.
“ Is it the coldnefs of wet linen which is to be feared?
But ffiirts and ftieets, colder than any unfrozen water
can be, are fafely worn and lain in by many perfons,
who, during a hard froft, neither warm their ffiirts
nor their Iheets.—Or does the danger lie in the damp-
nefs ? But then how comes it to pafs, that a warm or
cold bath, and long-continued fomentations, can be
uled, without the deftrudtion of thofe vyho ufe them ?
Or is it from both together ? Yet we have long heard
of the thicknefs and continuance of the cold fogs in
the feas north-weft of England, but have never yet
been told of any certain ill effedt which they have upon
thofe that live in thefe countries.”
With regard to the caufes of fevers, however. Dr
Lind is of opinion, that noxious vapours arifing from
the earth are for the moft part to be blamed. Even
in countries feemingly dry, and where violent rains are
not
Praftice. M E D
Febres not frequent, lie thinks that the air may load itfelf
wv 1 with putrid exhalations from the ground ; and that,
except in the burning defarts of Arabia or Africa,
people are nowhere exempt from difeafes occafioned
by putrid moiilure. In moft of the hot countries,
however, the pernicious effects of the putrid vapours
are by no means equivocal. In Guinea, they feem to
be more extraordinary than any where elfe in the
world ; neither indeed can it be fuppofed, that a hot
and moift atmofphere can be without putrefcency. It
may in general be remarked, that in fultry climates,
or during hot weather, in all places fubjeft to great
rains, where the country is not cleared and cultivated,
but is over-run with thickets, fhrubs, or woods, efpe-
cially if there are marfhes or ftagnating waters in the
neighbourhood, frcknefs may be dreaded, and particu¬
larly the remitting fever of which we now treat. The
fens,even in different counties ofEngland, are known to
be^ very prejudicial to the health of thofe who live near
them, and ftill more fo to ftrangers; but the woody
and marfliy lands in hot countries are much moi-e per¬
nicious to the health of Europeans. In all thofe un¬
healthy places, particularly during fogs or rains, a raw
vapour, difagreeable to the fm'ell, arifes from the earth,
and efpecially in the huts or houfes. But of all the
vapours which infeft the torrid zone, the moft malig¬
nant and fatal are the harmattans : They are faid to
arife from the conflux of feveral rivers in the king of
Dormeo’s dominions at Benin (the moft unwholefome
part of Guinea), where travellers are obliged to be
carried on mens backs for feveral days journey, through
fwampy grounds, and over marlhes, amidft {linking
ooze, and thickets of mangrove trees which are an¬
nually overflown. Thefe vapours come up the coaft
to a furprifing diftance, with the fouth-eaft and north-
eaft winds : and it has been obferved, that in their
progrefs they have often changed both the courfe of
the winds and of the fea currents. The times of their
appearance at Cape Coaft are the months of Decem¬
ber, January, or February. The north-eaft and fouth-
eaft winds are always unhealthy, but particularly fo
during the harmattan feafon. Some years this vapour
is fcarcely perceptible ; but in others it is thick, noxi¬
ous, and deftruftive to the blacks as well as whites.—
The mortality is in proportion to the denfity and du¬
ration of the fog. It has a raw putrid fmell; and is
foinetimes fo thick, that a perfon or houfe cannot be
difcerned through it, at the diftance of 15 or 20 yards:
and it continues fo for 10 or 14 days ; during which
it opens the {earns of {hips, fplits or opens the crevices
of wood as if ftirunk or dried with a great fire, and
deftroys both man and beaft.—In the year 1754 or
1755,. the mortality occafioned in Guinea by this*
{linking fog was fo great, that in feveral negro towns
the living were fcarce fufficient to bury the dead.—
Twenty women brought over from Holland by a new
governor to the Caftle del Mina, perifhed,. together
with moft of the men in the garrifon. The gates of
Cape Coaft caftle were {hut up for want of centinels
to do duty ; the blacks dying at this time as well as
the white people. It is liicky that it is only in fome
years that harmattans are fo very thick and noxious,
otherwife that part of the country would be depopu¬
lated. It is obferved that all fogs are extremely un¬
healthy in thofe parts, particularly before and after the
rainy feafons } but the above account, of the harmat*
1 c 1 N E.
tans appeared fo very extraordinary and incredible to Ter
fome of Dr Lind’s readers, that he thought proper ~""''
to publiftr a further corroboration of the fads above-
mentioned. “ A gentleman (fays he), who had long
refided at Cape Coaft caftle, informed me, that during
the time of this fog, being in the upper chambers of
the fort, the boards of the floor flirunk fo much, that
he could difcern the candles burning in the apartments
below him (there are no plafter ceilings ufed in thofe
hot countries), and that he could then even diftin-
guiflr what people were doing in the apartments
below; the feams of the floor having opened above
half an inch, while the fog lafted, which afterwards,
upon its being difpdled, became clofe and tight as
before.”
In this country the rains and dews feem to be pof-
feffed of qualities almoft equally pernicious with the
fogs. This much is certain, that in Guinea, many
of the principal negroes, and efpecially of the mulattoe
Portuguefe, take the utmoft precaution to avoid being
wet with thofe rains, efpecially fuch as fall firft. At
the fetting in of the rainy feafon, they generally fhut
themfelves up in a clofe well-thatched hut, where they
keep a conftant fire, fmoke tobacco, and drink brandy,
as prefervatives againft the noxious quality of the air
at that time.. When wet by accident with the rain,,
they immediately plunge themfelves into falt-water, if
near it. Thofe natives generally bathe once a-day,-
but never in the frefti water rivers when they are over¬
flown with the rains : at fuch times they prefer for
that purpofe the water of fprings. The firft rains
which fall in Guinea arc commonly fuppofed to be
the moft unhealthy. They have been known, in 4S
hours, to render the leather of the {hoes quite mouldy
and rotten ^ they {lain clothes more than any other
rain ; and foon after their commencement, even places
formerly dry and parched fwarm with frogs. At this
time {kins, part of the traific of Senegal, quickly ge¬
nerate large worms; and it is remarked,. that the
fowls, which greedily prey on other infe&s, refufe to
feed on thefe. It has been farther obferved, that
woollen cloths wet in thofe rains, and afterwards hang
up to dry in the fun, have fometimes become full of
maggots in a few hours. — It is alfo probable, that as
in fome of thofe- countries the earth, for fix or eight
months of the year, receives no moifture from the
heavens but what falls in dews, which every night re¬
new the vegetation, the furfaceof the ground in many
places becomes hard and incruftated with a dry fcurt,
which pens up the vapours below: until by the con¬
tinuance of the rains for. fome time, this cruft is
foftened, and .the long pent up vapours fet free. That
thefe dews do not'penetrate deep into the earth is evi¬
dent from the conftant drynefs and hardnefs of fuch
fpots of ground in thofe countries as are not covered
with grafs and other vegetables. Thus the large rivers
in the dry feafon being confined within narrow bounds,
leave a great part of their channel uncovered, which
having its moifture totally exhaled, becomes a folid
hard cruft ; but no fooner the rains fallj than by de¬
grees this long parched up cruft of earth and clay gra
dually foftens, and the ground, which before had not
the leaft fmell, begins to emit a ftench, which in four
or five weeks becomes exceedingly noifome, at which
time the ficknefs is generally moft violent.
This ficknefs, however, is not different from the
remitting*
MED! C I N E.
PrafHci
e
remitting fever which has been defcribed under fo in apparent good health. The white people in general Tertiana. ;|
' ' ' ‘ ' ‘    |
many various forms and names. An inflammatory, became^ellow ; their ftomach could not receive much
fever is feldom obferved, during the feafon of ficknefs, food without loathing and, retchings. Indeed it is no
in this part of the world ; and we fhall conclude our wonder that this ficknefs proved fo fatal, that recove-
defcription of the amphimerina paludofa with fome ex- ries from it were fo tedious, and that they were at-
tradts from the furgeon!s journal of a fhip that failed tended with fluxes, dropfies, the jaundice, ague-cakes,
up the rivers of Guinea. and other dangerous chronical diftempers. It feetned
“ On the 5th of April we failed up the river of more wonderful to me that any white people ever reco-
Gambia, and found all the Englifh in the fort in ver, while they continue to breathe fo peftiferous an air
perfedt health. The furgeons of the fadlory informed as that at Catchou during the rainy feafon. We were,
me, that a relaxation of the itomach, and confequent- as I have already obferved, 30 miles from the fea,
ly a weakened digeftion, feemed to bring on moft of in a country altogether uncultivated, overflowed with
the difeafes fo fatal to Europeans in the fickly feafon. water, furrounded with thick impenetrable woods, and
They were generally of a bilious nature, attended
with a low fever, fometimes of a malignant, at other
^times of a remitting kind-.—On the 12th of April,
after failing 30 miles up the river St Domingo, we
came to Catchou, a town belonging to the Portuguefe,
in Lat. 20° N. In this town were only four white
people, the governor and three friars. The number
ith flime. The air was vitiated, noifome,
and thick; infomuch that the lighted torches or candles
burnt dim, and feemed ready,to be extinguiflied : even
the human voice loll its natural tone. The fmell of the
ground and of the houfes was raw and offenlive; but the
-vapour ariling from putrid water intheditcheswas much
worfe. All this, however, feemed tolerable, when com-
of whites in the trading {hips were 51. One morn- .pared with the infinite numbers of infedls fwarming
ing, towards the latter- end of April, a little rain fell.
■On the 13th of May there was a fecond Ihower,
accompanied with a tornado, sOn the iSth of May
-it rained the whole day ; and the rain continued, with
but fhort intervals, until the beginning of Oftober.
“ In the month of June, aknoft two-thirds of the
white people were taken ill. Their ficknefs could not
every where, both on the ground and in the <
w'hich, as they feemed to"be produced and cherilhed by
the putrefaction of the atmofphere, fo they contributed
greatly to increafe its impurity. The wild bees from
the, woods, together with millions of ants, over-ran
and dellroyed the furniture of tire houfes; at the fame
time, fwarms of cockroaches often darkened the air.
-be well charaderifed by any denomination commonly .and extinguilhed even candles in their flight; but the
-applied to fevers.;,it ho,wever approached neareft to
. what is called a nervous fever, as the pulfe was always
low, and the brain and nerves feemed principally
affeCled. It had alfo a tendency to frequent yemif-
-fions. It began fometimes with a vomiting, but
-oftener with a delirium. Its attack was commonly in
the night ; and the patients, being then delirious, were
.apt to run into the open air., I obferved them fre¬
quently recover their fenfes for a Ihort time, by means
.of the heavy rain which fell upon their naked bodies.
.But the delirium foon returned: they afterwards be¬
came comatofe, their pulfe funk, and a train of ner¬
vous fymptoms followed; their Hein often became
yellow; bilious vomitings and llools were frequent
fymptoms. The fever reduced the .patient’s ftrength
fo much, that it was generally fix weeks or two
.months before he was able to walk abroad. A con-
fuming flux, a jaundice, a dropfy, or obltruftions in
-the bowels, were the confequences of it. Of 51
white men, being the companies of four fhips which
.were at Catchon, one-third died of the- fever, and
one-third more of .the flux, and other difeafes confe¬
quent upon it; and of thefe not one was taken ill till,
the rains began.
“ I believe, on the whole face of the earth, there
is'fcarce to be found a more .unhealthy country than
;this during tlie rainy feafon : and the idea 1 then con¬
ceived of our white people was by making.a compa-
rifon of their breathing fuch a noxious air, with a
number of river-fifli put into llagnating water; where,
greatdl plague was the murquettos and fand-flies,
whofe inceffant buzz and painful flings were more
infupportable than any fymptom of the fever. Be-
fides all thefe, an incredible number of frogs on the
banks of the river made fuch a conftant and dif-
agreeable croaking, that nothing but being accuftom-
ed to fuch an hideous noife could permit the enjoy¬
ment of natural fleep. In the beginning of O&ober,
as the rains abated, the weather became very hot;
the woods were covered with abundance of dead frogs,
and other vermin, left by the recefs of the river; all
the mangroves and flirubs were likevvife overfpread
with flunking flyne.”
After fo particular- a defeription of the remitting fe¬
ver in many different parts of the world, we prefume
it will be needlefs to take notice of any little, varieties,
which may occur in the warm parts of America, as
both the nature and cureof the diftemper are radically
the fame : neither (hall we lengthen out this article
with further deferiptions of remitting fevers from the
Works of foreign authors, as, from what we have al¬
ready faid,.their nature cannot well be miftaken.
Cure. The great difficulty in the cure of remitting
fevers arifes from their not being Ample difeares, but a
complication of feveral others. Fevers,.properly fpeak-
ing, have but,three or four different appearances which
they can affume without a complication. One is, when
they are attended with’ a phlogiftic diatliefis; another
is, when they affu.me the -form of .genuine intermit-
tents ; a third is, when they produce a great debility of
s the water corrupts, the lifh gro.v lefs lively, they the nervous fyflem ; and the fourth is, when along
droop, pine away, and many di
“ Thus ome perfons became dull, inactive, or flight-
-ly delirious, at intefvals ; and, without being fo much
/.s confined to their beds, they expired in that delirious
and comatofe ftate in lefs than 48 hours, after being
N° 203.
with this debility there is alfo a rapid tendency to pu-
trefadlion. If, therefore, all thefe fpecies happen to
make an attack at once, the moft dangerous fever we
can imagine will be produced; and however contrary
it may be to our theories to admit the pofiibility of
fuch
Pra&ice. M E D I
Febres fuch an attack, the truth the faA Js tdo often con-
 v firmed by fatal experience. In the beginning of remit¬
tent fevers, for inftance, the fymptoms indicate a high
degree of inflammation : but if the pra&itioner at¬
tempts to remove this inflammation by blood-letting or
other evacuations, the pulfe finks irrecoverably, and
the per on dies with fuch fymptoms as (how that the
nervous fyftem has been from the beginning greatly
affefted; at the fame time the high ftimulants and
cordials, or the bark, which would have conquered
the nervous part of the difeafe, increafe the inflamma¬
tory part of it to fuch a degree, that, by a too early
exhibition of them the patient alfo dies, but after ano¬
ther manner.
In the remitting fever of the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind
of Windfor formed the following indications of cure,
i. To allay the violence of the fever. 2. To evacuate
the putrid humours, and take great care to prevent the
body from inclining to putrefa&ion. 3- To keep up
the ftrength of the patient as much as poffible during
the diforder. 4. To lofe no time in preventing the
return of the paroxyfms.
To allay the violence of the fever, every thing that
can contribute to increafe it ought to be carefully
avoided or removed ; fuch as great heat, too itrong a
light falling on the eyes, noife, and motion. If du¬
ring the paroxyfm the head and loins be affe&ed with
violent pains, the pulfe be full and hard, and the heat
v intenfe, bleeding may be ufed, but with the greateft
caution : for, however ufeful this operation may be in
cold climates, the fuccefs of it in warm ones is fo far
from being certain, that the lives of the patients have
been often very much endangered, nay even deitroyed
by it. Dr Badenoch, and the furgeon of the Ponlborne,
endeavoured each of them to relieve two patients by
blood-letting ; and the confequence was, that each of
them loft one patient. Dr Lind bled two patients;
one of whom was Mr Richardfon, the firft mate of
the fliip, who complained of a moft violent pain in his
head, with a full hard pulfe. About four or five ounces
of blood were taken from him, by which he was
greatly relieved : nor was the cure retarded by it;
nay, the fever afterwards became lefs irregular. At
the time the other patient was bled, the difeafe was
exceedingly frequent and violent. He was fo earneft
for bleeding, that he fired all the reft with the fame
defire, fwearing, that by refufing them this only re¬
medy, every one of them would be fent to their graves.
To quiet them, therefore, an! get quit of their impor¬
tunities, the Doftor complied with their requeft, and
took about five or fix ounces from him who had been
the firft to require it. The confequence was, that he
immediately loft his ftrength; and in lefs than an hour,
during which time he made his will, was carried off by
the next fit. It is neceffary, however, to obferve, and
indeed the Doftor himfelf makes the obfervation, with
regard to thfe patient, that he was bled at an improper
time, namely, between the fits; whereas, had he been
bled in the hot fit, it is poflible he might have been
relieved.
In fupport of the advantages to be derived from
bleeding under proper circumftances, we have the
authority both of Cleghorn and Pringle. As Dr
Cleghorn praftifed in a very hot country, his ob-
fervations muft in the prefent cafe have greater weight
Vol. XI. Part I.
G I N E. 12
than thofe of Pringle, who praftifed in a colder Tertiana.
one. The former acquaints us, that if he was called * J
in early enough, unlefs there was a ftrong contra-indi¬
cation, he always ufed to take away fome blood from
people of all ages 5 namely, from robuft adults, 10
or 12 ounces; from others a fmaller quantity, in
proportion to their ftrength and years. And further, if
a violent head-ach, obftinate delirium, and great heat or
pains of the bowels, were urgent, the bleeding was re¬
peated within a day or two. By this feafonable evacua¬
tion, he found the vehemence of all the paroxyfms
fomewhat diminifhed ; the apyrexies became more com¬
plete ; the operation of emetics and cathartics render¬
ed fafer and more fuceefsful; and the terrible fymp¬
toms which happened about the height of the diftem-
per, fuch as ravfng fopor, difficulty of breathing, in¬
flammations of the abdominal vifeera, &c. were either
prevented or mitigated. But if the fever had conti¬
nued for fome time before he was called, and the mafs
of blood appeared to be too much melted down or in¬
clined to a putrid diffolution, he either abftained from
bleeding entirely, or took away a very fmall quantity,
though fome importunate fymptoms might feem to re¬
quire a larger evacuation. As to the time of perform¬
ing the operation, he acquaints us, that it is fafe
enough, except when the cold fit lafts or is foon ex-
pefted, or while the fltin is covered with critical
fweats ; and that he ufually opened a vein in the be¬
ginning of the hot fit; by which means the fick were
relieved, the immoderate heat of the body, which is
often produftive of fatal effefts, was diminiffied, and
the critical fweats brought on fooner and in greater
abundance.
But though Dr Lind found venefeftion to be of fuch
pernicious tendency in his patients, cooling acidulated
liquors were of the utmoft fervice, as they correfted
the putrid humours, leffened the heat and third, and
of courfe prevented the fever from arriving at fo great
an height as it would otherwife have done. Thofe
cooling liquors are the beft which are made up with
fome farinaceous fubftance, as they moft eafily unite
with our fluids. Foffile acids too, and cryftals of tar¬
tar, efpecially the latter, are of confiderable ufe,
not only in this but in other fevers. The neutral falls,
prepared with the juice of lemons, were likewife given
with fuccefs during the heat of the fever. They leffen
the naufea, the fits become more regular, and the re-
miffions more full; and they are particularly grateful
when given in a ftate of effervefeenee. The good ef¬
fefts of thefe draughts we are in a great meafure t®
aferibe to the antifeptic quality of the fixed air extri¬
cated from them during the effervefcence ; of which
we fhall fpeak more fully when treating of the typhous
fevers.
During the remiffion, it is proper to evacuate the
putrid humours by fmall dofes of ipecacuanha, or ra¬
ther tartar emetic. The tartar emetic indeed appears
to be endowed with fome kind of febrifuge virtue,
which Dr Cullen thinks is owing to its relaxing the
febrile fpafm taking place in the capillary veffels.
But fhould there appear any fymptoms of a topi¬
cal inflammation in fome of the abdominal vifeera,
a thing which never happens unlefs the diforder
has been of fome Handing, vomiting is to be avoided,
and we are to depend upon purgatives alone for the
CL evacu-
122 MED!
Febres cvacnatlofl of the putrid bile, which are always ufe-
« ' ful in the cure of this diforder. But all acrid and
flrong purgatives are to be carefully avoided, and only
the mild antifeptic ones made ufe of, fuch as cryilals
of tartar, or tamarinds made up with manna or with
Glauber’s fait.
Under the article Gall, we have obferved, from
Ur Percival, the effeft which vegetable acids have in
fweeteningputrid bile; whence it feemsprobable, that
a liberal ufe of thefe acids would be much more fer-
viccable than a repetition of any kind of purgatives.
Though in thefe difeafes there is a great quantity of
putrefcent bile colle&ed in the body, yet it feems
much more probable that this is the ejfett rather than the
eaufe of the diforder; and therefore, though we carry off
the quantity collected ever fo often, more of the fame
kind will ftill be produced by the putrefcent difpofition
of the other fluids, at the fame time that the ftrength
of the patient muff neceffarily be diminifhed by re¬
peated evacuations, when it ought rather to be kept
up by all poffible means. We ought well to obferve,
however, that the mineral acids have not that property
of fweetening putrid bile which the vegetable ones
have ; and therefore the fame relief will not be given
by them which might reafonably be expected from vi¬
negar or lemon-juice.
In order to keep up the ftrength of the patient,
good food is abfolutely neceffary. Dr Lind allowed
the fick fmall mcffes of' panada made with boiled
rice and barley mixed with currants or raifins and
prunes, feafoned with fugar and a little wine, efpeci-
ally claret. During the paroxyfms, they had gruel
made of flour and rice, with fugar and the juice of
acid fruit; and when the fit went off, a little wine was
added to this mixture.
The (hirts and bedding muft be very often changed
and well aired ; their ftools, and all filth and naftinefs,
are to be immediately removed; the places where they
are lodged ftiould be well aired and frequently fprink-
led with vinegar; and, in the laft place, the lick muft
be exceedingly well nurfed. Blifters, according to
Dr Lind, Ihould never be ufed till the fever has been
of long continuance, or the fpirits and pulfe of the pa¬
tient have begun to flag. But here our author has im¬
plicitly followed Dr Huxham, whofe theory concern¬
ing the ufe of blifters is now found to be erroneous.
According to that celebrated author, blifters are ca¬
pable of doing confiderable hurt in all cafes where
there is a tendency to inflammation, by increafing the
motion of the fluids and the ofciliatory power of the
veffels, both of which are already too great. They
are alfo improper, according to him, where there is a
confiderable tendency of the fluids to putrefaftion;
becaufe he fuppofes the falts of thefe flies to operate
in the fame manner with volatile alkalies, that is, by
diffolving and putrefying the blood ftill farther. But
Sir John Pringle has fhown, that, in inflammatory
fevers as well as thofe of the putrid kind, both blifters
and volatile falts may be of fervice ; the latter, parti¬
cularly, he hath experimentally proved to be fo far from
promoting putrefaftion, that they are exceedingly
ftrong antifepticSi
In the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind found it abfolutely
neceflary to exhibit the bark in large quantities, and
as early as poffible. By this method he not only fe-
C T N E. Pradlic
cured the patient from the imminent danger of death Tertianai
to which he was expofed at every fit, but likewife con- -y-—
quered thofe obftru&ions which were apt to enfue
in the abdominal vifcera, and which are to be attri¬
buted to the continuance of the diforder, and not to
the bark employed to cure it. He always gave the
bark during the fecond remiffion, as all his care was
during the firft to cleanfe the primse vias. He obferves,
however, that it is to no purpofe to give the bark till
the neceffary purgations are over; but affures us, that
it never fails, unlefs from the coming on of a vomiting
or diarrhoea it cannot be taken in fufficient quantities
before the return of a paroxyfm. To prevent the me¬
dicine from vomiting or purging, he mixed a few drops
of liquid laudanum with every dofe of it. Half a
drachm was given every half hour in fome convenient
vehicle, beginning as foon as the fever had confide-
rably abated, and the pulfe was returned nearly to its
natural ftate; both which generally happened before
the fweats were over. An ounce of the bark was
fometimes found too little to check the fever, but an
ounce and a half never failed. It muft be continued
daily in fmall dofes till the patient has recovered his
ttrength, and then a greater quantity muft be given,
efpecially at the feafon when the rivers overflow the
country.
Dr Pringle found the autumnal remittents in the Ne¬
therlands complicated with a great many inflammatory
fymptoms ; for which reafon it was generally found
neceffary to open a vein in the beginning. The ver¬
nal and later autumnal remitting fevers are accom¬
panied with pleuritic and rheumatic pains from the
coldnefs of the weather, and on that account require
more bleeding. A phyfician unacquainted with the
nature of the difeafe, and attending chiefly to the pa¬
roxyfms and remiffions, would be apt to omit this eva¬
cuation entirely, and give the bark too foon, which
would bring on a continued inflammatory fever. In
thefe countries a vein may be fafely opened either du¬
ring the remiffion or in the height of a paroxyfm; and
our author alfo found good effe&s refulting from bleed¬
ing in the hot fits of the marfh-fever, even after it had
almoft come to regular intermiffions. After bleeding, a
purgative was ufually exhibited, of which he gives us
the following formula.
R. Infufi fense commun. jjiij.
Elecft. Lenitiv. ^fs.
Nitr. pur. ji.
Tindt. fen. 5vi. M.
Of this only one half was taken at once ; and if it
did not operate twice in four hours, the remainder
was then taken. This potion agreed with the fto-
mach, purged plentifully, and therefore waS a very
ufeful compofition. Next morning, when there was
almoft always fome remiffion, he gave one grain of eme¬
tic tartar rubbed with 12 grains of crabs-eyes, and
repeated the dofe in two hours, if the firft had little
or no effeft ; or at any rate in four hours. This me¬
dicine was intended not only to vomit, but alfo to
operate by ftool, and excite a fweat. If thefe evacua¬
tions were procured, the fever generally became eafier,
and was even fometimes cured. This he prefers to the
ipecacuanha, and therefore in the latter years of his
pra&iee difufed that root entirely. The fame medi¬
cine was repeated next day or the day following; or if
not.
Practice,
MEDICINE.
Febres not, a laxative dyfler was thrown in : and this me-
—y—~ thod was continued till the fever either went off altoge¬
ther, or intermitted in fuch a manner as to be cured
by the bark.
A limilar method was followed by Dr Huck in the
remitting fevers of the Welt Indies and North Ame¬
rica. In the beginning he let blood ; and in the firft
remillion gave four or live grains of ipecacuanha, with
from half a grain to two grains of emetic tartar. This
powder he repeated in two hours, taking care that the
patient Ihould not drink before the fecond dofe ; for
then the medicine more readily palled into the bowels
after it had operated by vomiting. If after two hours
more the operation either way was fmall, he gave a
third dofe, which commonly had a good effeft in
opening the firft paffages ; and then the fever either
went quite off, or intermitted in fuch a manner as to
yield to the bark. On the continent, he found little
difficulty after the intermiffion ; but in the Weft In¬
dies, unlefs he gave the bark upon the very firft inter¬
miffion, though imperfect, the fever was apt to affume
a continued and dangerous form.
In the remitting fevers of hot countries, however,
it muft be obferved, that the lancet mull in all cafes be
much more fparingly ufed than in fimilar difeafes of
the colder regions; and we muft alfo be fparing of vene-
feftion in thofe countries where the marlh effluvia are
very ftrong and prevail much. For this reafon Dr
Lind of Haflar greatly condemns the praftice of in-
difcriminate bleeding when people firft arrive in hot
climates. The firft difeafes indeed which occur in a
voyage to the fouthward are for the moft part of an
inflammatory nature, and owing to a fudden tranfition
from cold to hot weather. This occafions a fullnefs
and diftenfion of the veffels; whence all Europeans,
on their firft arrival under the tropic, bear evacuations
much better than afterwards. The practice of indif-
criminately bleeding, however, a number of the (hip’s
company when they firft come into a warm latitude, is
by no means found to anfwer the purpofe of a preven¬
tive. In fuch cafes, indeed, as plainly indicate a ple¬
thoric difpofition brought on by the heat, blood-let¬
ting is certainly ufeful. The figns of this are a pain
and giddinefs in the head ; a heavinefs and dulnefs of
the eyes, which fometimes appear flightly inflamed :
there is alfo commonly a fenfe of weight and fulnefs
in the breaft, the pulfe at the fame time being quick
and oppreffed.
But the cafe is quite different after a longer conti¬
nuance of fultry weather, and when the conftitution is
in fome meafure habituated to the hot climate. For
it is then obferved, that the fymptoms of inflamma¬
tions in the bowels, even the moft dangerous, are not
near fo fevere in fuch climates as in cold countries ;
nor can the patidnts bear fuch large evacuations. The
phyfician, however, muft take care not to be mifled
by the apparent mildnefs of the fymptoms: for he will
find, notwithftanding fuch deceitful appearances, that
the inflammation makes a more rapid progrefs in hot
countries than in cold, fuppurations anil mortifications
being much more fuddenly formed ; and that in general
all acute diftempers come fooner to a crifis in the warm
fouthern than in colder regions. Hence it is an im¬
portant rule of practice in thofe climates, to feize the
moft early opportunity, in the commencement of all
threatening inflammations, to make frequent though
not copious evacuations by blood-letting. For by de¬
lay the inflammation quickly paffes from it firft to its
laft or fatal ftage ; at leaft an imperfeft crifis in fuch
inflammatory fevers enfues, which fixes an obftru&ion
in the vifcera extremely difficult to remove.
It is indeed a general maxim with fome phyficians
in the Weft Indies, that in moft acute diftempers bleed¬
ing in that country is prejudicial. This is founded
upon a fuppofition that the craffamentum of the blood
is thinned, and the folids greatly weakened, by the
heat of the climate. It is therefore objefted, that
bleeding in fuch an habit of body weakens the powers
of nature, and withdraws the ftrength which is re-
quifite to fupport the patient until the crifis of the
fever.
This reafoning is partly juft ; but, like all general
maxims, will admit of exceptions. Firft with regard
to failors, it is to be remembered, that they are more
expofed to quick viciffitudes of heat, cold, damps, and
to various changes ©f the air and weather, than moft of
the other inhabitants of the Torrid Zone. Add to
this, that their intemperance, and the exceffes they
are apt to fall into whenever it is in their power to
commit them, render them more liable to inflamma¬
tions than any other fet of people. Hence their dif¬
eafes require more plentiful evacuations than the land-
inhabitants of thofe parts of the world, and generally
they bear them better. But with regard to the na¬
tives of the country, or thofe who have remained long
there, it muft be proper to bleed them very fparingly,
making a fmall allowance for the different feafons of
the year, the temperature of the air, and the fitua-
tion of the places where they refide. Thus, in fome
parts, even on the ifland of Jamaica, at particular fea¬
fons, the weather is cool; wherefore, in thefe places,
and at fuch feafons, the inhabitants having their fi¬
bres more rigid, and a firmer crafis of their blood, bear
venefeftion much better.
In cold countries the ftate of the air greatly affifts
in reftoring the impaired fpring of the fibres; where¬
as every thing almoft in warm weather, fuch as heat,
moifture, &c. concur to relax and weaken the habit
of body. Thus we may daily fee perfons in Britain,
after having fuffered a moft fevere fit of ficknefs, re¬
cover their ftrength and fpirits in a few days, and in
a very ftiort time their natural conftitution. But the
cafe is very different in the fultry regions of the Torrid
Zone, or indeed in any part of the - world where the
heat of the feafon caufes the mercury to ftand for any
length of time at the 77th degree and upward of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. During fuch an excefs of
heat, debility after fevers is apt to remain with Eu¬
ropean conftitutions for feveral months. In Jamaica,
the convalefcents are fent to the cool fummits of the
mountains; but a retreat to a more northern climate
is often abfolutely neceffary to recover their wonted
tone and vigour of body. It is a well-eftabliftied
obfervation, that the negroes and aborigines of the
Torrid Zone cannot bear plentiful evacuations by the
lancet. They commonly mix the moft ftimulating
poignant fpices with their ordinary light food, and
this is found by experience fuitable to their confti¬
tutions.
As proper preventives for the dangerous fevers of
Q^2 which
MEDICINE.
Praiflicu
winch wc are treating, Dr Lind on all occafions re¬
commends the avoiding of itagnant water, or putrid
marlhes; the ufe of proper food, cleanlinefs, and fo-
briety. Of the 'propriety of removing from the neigh¬
bourhood of thole places whole peitilential effluvia pro¬
duce the diforders, we cannot poflibly entertain a
doubt ; and of the efficacy of proper food in prevent¬
ing putrid diforders he gives a remarkable inflance in
the Sheernefs man of war, bound to the Eail Indies.
As they went out, the men being apprehenfive of
lickneis in fo long a voyage, petitioned the captain
not to oblige them to take up their fait provilions,
but rather to permit them to livs upon the other fpc-
eies of their allowance. It was therefore ordered, that
they Ihould be ferved with falt-meat only once a-week;
and the confequence was, that, after a palfage of five
months and one day, the Ihip arrived at the Cape of
Good Hope without having a fingle perfon fick on
board. As the ufe of Sutton’s pipes had been then
newly introduced into the king’s Ihips, the captain
was willing to afcribe part ol fuch an uncommon
healthfulnels to their beneficial effects; but it was foon
difeovered, that, by the neglect of the carpenter, the
cock of the pipes had been all this while kept (hut.
This Ihip remained in India fome months, where none
of the men, except the boat’s crew, had the benefit of
going on Ihore; notwithllanding which, the crew con¬
tinued to enjoy the molt perfedt Hate of health ; they
were, however, well fupplied with frelh meat. On
leaving India, knowing they were to flop at the Cape
of Good. Hope, and trufting to a quick paffage, and
the abundance of refrelhments to be had there, they
eat their full allowance of falt-meats, during a paffage
of only 10 weeks; and it is to te remarked the air-pipes
were now open. The effecl of this was, that when they
were arrived at the Cape, 20 of them were affiidted in
a moft miferable manner with fcorbutic and other dif¬
orders. Thefe, however, were fpeedily recovered by
the refrelhments they met with on Ihore. Being now
thoroughly fenfible of the beneficial effects of eating,
in thefe fduthern climates, as little fait meat as pof-
fible when at fea, they unanimoufly agreed, in their
voyage home from the Cape, to refrain from their
too plentiful allowance of fait fielh. And thus the
Sheernefs arrived at Spithead, with her full comple¬
ment of 160 men in perfect health and with unbro¬
ken conftitutions ; having in this voyage of 14 months
and 1 5 days buried but one man, who died in a mer¬
curial falivation.
Thus we fee, that a free and pure air is not a fuffi-
ci&nt prefervative againft a putrefeent ftate of the
fluids, without proper food ; and, on the other hand,
we have a very remarkable inllance of the ineffi¬
cacy of the moll falutary food to prevent putrid dif-
eafes, in a very noxious Hate of the a-tmofphere. In
the year 1717, at the fiege of Belgrade in Hungary,
the fever of the country, and the flux, occafioned a
moft extraoadinary mortality among the troops. The
dread of thefe difeafes caufed every one, as may na¬
turally be fuppofed, to have recourfe to different pre¬
cautions for felf-prefervation. Prince Eugene, the
commander in chief, had water and the provifions for
his table fent him twice a-week from Vienna. The
pure fiream of the river Kahlenberg was regularly
brought to him: he avoided all exceffes; and lived re¬
gularly, or rather abftemioufly ; refrefhed himfelf often Quartanii
by eating a cool melon ; and mixed his ufual wirte, —“'V"“f
which was Burgundy, with water. Yet notwithlland¬
ing his utmoil care, he was feized with a dyfentery ;
which would have quickly put an end to his life, had
not the fpeedy concluflon of that campaign permitted
him to make a quick retreat.
At this unhealthy feafon, when hardly one imperial
officer, much lefe their feveral domellics, efcaped thofe
malignant difeafes, the renowned Count Bonneval and
his numerous retinue continued in perfedl health, to the
furprife, or, to ufe the words of Dr Kramer, to the
envy, of all who beheld him. The only precaution he
ufed was to take, two or three times a-day, a fmall
quantity of brandy in which the bark was infufed ; and
he obliged all his attendants and domellics to follow
his example. It is no lefs remarkable that the count,
placing his certain prefervation in the ufe of this
Angle medicine, lived for many years afterwards in the
moil unhealthy fpots of Hungary, without any attack
or apprehenfion of difeafe ; and continued to enjoy a
perfect ftate of health during the hotteft and mod
fickly feafons. And thus, with an unbroken and
found conilitution, which is feldom the cafe of thofe
who reiide long in fuch climates, he lived to a great
age. There is an inllance produced by the fame au¬
thor of a whole regiment in Italy having been pre-
ferved by the ufe of the bark from the attack of thefe
malignant difeafes, viz. the flux, and bilious fever as it
is frequently called, when the reft of the Auftrian
army, not purfuing that method, became greatly an¬
noyed with them.
The intemperance and irregular living of thofe Eu¬
ropeans who vifit the hot climates is frequently accufed
as the caufe of their dellrudtion; but, our author-
thinks, without fufficient reafon : for though intem¬
perance will make the body more liable to receive fuch
difeafes, it will not bring them on. It mull by no
means, however, be imagined, that in thefe climates
Europeans may with impunity be guilty of exceffes in
eating or drinking; for the lead error in that way will
often prove fatal by debilitating the body, whofe ut-
molt llrength in time of full health was perhaps
fcaree fufficient to refill the pellilential miafmata of
the atmofphere.
It appears, therefore, from the concurrent teftimony
of the molt eminent phyficians, that the moft proper
medicine to be ufed, either as a preventive or cure for
remitting and intermitting diforders is the Peruvian
bark, adminillered with proper precautions, and after
the primne via have been evacuated of the putrid bi¬
lious matter collected in them. In thofe fpecies of
tritaophya, &c. belonging to this clafs, enumerated
by Sauvages, the fame remedies only were ufeful; but
in that pellilential diltemper which he calls tritaophya
Vratjlavieijis, he tells us, that walhing the body witK,
water fometimes hot fometimes cold, watery clyilers,
and plenty of aqueous drink, were likewife of uie.
Genus II. QUARTANA i the Qujartan Fever.
Quartana auftorum, Sauv. Gen. 89. Lin. 17.
Peg. 3. Sag. 711. Hoffin. II. p. 23. Junck. tab. 81.
The Genuine Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. A.
Quartana legitima, Sauv. l. Sydenham de morb.
acut. cap. v.
jDefcription.
I Praaice. M E, D I
, fe|,res Dcfeription. The genuine quartan, according to
- 'v Juncker, keeps its form more exadly than other inter-
miuents; fcarcely coming on at any other time than
four or five in the afternoon. The cold is lefs violent
than in the tertian j but is very perceptible, though it
doth not proceed to fuch a height as to make the
limbs fhake ; and continues for about two hours. It is
preceded and accompanied by a langour both of body
and mind. There is fddom any vomiting unlefs when
the ftomach is manifeftly overloaded with aliment; nei¬
ther is there any diarrhoea, but the belly in general is
rather bound, not only on the days on which the pa-
roxyfm takes place, but alfo on the intermediate ones.
The heat, which flowly fucceeds the cold, is lefs
troublefome to the patient by its violence than by the
ujjcafy drynefs of the fkin, which is fcarce ever moi-
ftened with fweat. This heat rarely continues longer
than four or fix hours, unlefs perhaps at the firft or fe-
cond paroxyfm. It is accompanied alfo with a giddi-
nefs and dull pain of the head. On the termination
of the paroxyfm, the patient returns to a middling
ftate of health, and continues in the fame for the reft
of the intermediate days; only there remains fome-
what of a loathing, and a deep-feated pain as if the
perfon was all over bruifed or broken, which kind of
fenfation the phyficians are wont to call ojltocopus.
The fit returns every fourth day, and that precifely at
the fame hours, being rarely poftponed.
Caufes of, and perjons fubjcci to, this diforder. The
fame general caufes concur in producing this as in other
intermittents, namely marfh miafmata, and whatever can
difpofe the body to be eafily affe&ed by them. Stu¬
dious people, and thofe of a melancholic turn, are
faid to be particularly fubjeft to quartans ; but what
are the immediate caufes which produce a return of
the fits every fourth day, inftead of every day, or every
third day, muft probably lie for ever concealed, as de¬
pending upon the fecret and inexplicable mechanifm
of the human body.
Prognofis. A Ample quartan, where there is no
reafon to dread any induration of the vifcera, may very
certainly admit of a cure ; and the prognofis can
never be unfavourable, unlefs in cafes of extreme
weaknefs, or where the diftemper hath been unfkilful-
ly treated.
Cure. This does not in the leaft differ from that
which hath been fully laid down for the fimple tertian,
and which it is therefore needlefs to repeat here.
The Duplicated Quartan. S- j var T g
JJ4 Quartana duplicam, {j; ;
This is entirely fimil^ to the |u l;cated tertian ai„
ready mentioned; ^.oper al}owance b€;ng made for the
'.en the type of a tertian and quartan.
difference betw-
The Tr
*55
‘156
.pficated Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. C.
CINE.
The Triple Quartan. Sp. I. var. r. E.
Quartana triplex, Sauv- fp. 5. Vog. Jp. 14. Bar¬
tholin, H. anat. c. 1. 95.
This comes on every day, but the quartan type is
ftill preferred by the times of acceffion ; that is, the
time of the fourth paroxyfm’s coming on anfwers to
that of the firft, the fifth to the fecond, the fixth to
the third, &c.
The Quartan, accompanied with Symptoms of other
difeafes. Sp. I. var. 2.
Quartana cataleptica, Sauv. fp. 7. Bond, polyalth.
vol. I. p. 805.
Quartana comatofa, Sauv. fp. 15. Werholf. de febr.
C. Pifonis Obferv. de morbis a colluvie ferof,
obf. 166, 167. 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174.
Quartana epileptica, Sauv. fp. 8. Scholzii Conf.
379> 38°-
Quartana hyfterica, Sauv. fp. to. Morton, Pyret,
exerc. 1. cap. ix. H. 10, 11.
Quartan? nephralgica, Sauv. fp. 9,
Quartana metaftatica, Sauv. fp. 17.
Quartana amens, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham de morb,
acut. cap- v.
Quartana fplenetica, Sauv. fp. 2. Elmuller, Coll,
csnfult. caf 25.
The Quartan complicated with other Difeafes. Sp. I.
var. 3.
Quartana fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 6. Plateri, ^bferv.
L. III. p. 676. Edin. Eff. art. xlvii. obf. 8.
Quartana arthriticia, Sauv. fp. it. Mufgr. d&Arthr.
fympt. cap. ix. H. 4. et 5.
Arthritis febrifequa, Sauv. fp. to.
Arthritis febricofa, Sauv. fp. ro. Werlholf. de
febr. Cockburn de morbis oavigantium, obf. 19.
Quartana fcorbutica, Sauv. i’p. 14. Barthol. de med.
Dan. diff. iv. Tim. L, VIIL caf. 18.
The Remitting Quartan. Sp. IT.
Tetartophya, S.'mv. gen. 85. Sag. 699. Lin. 21.
Quartana ren^’tttens au&orum.
Var. I. T'l-tartaphya fimplex, Sauv. fp r.
2. Amphimerina femiquartana, Sauv. fp. 23.
3. Tetartophya femitertiana, Sauv. fp. 5.
4. Tetartophya maligna, Sauv. fp1. 6. Lautter.
Hift. med. caf. 21. M. Donat. L. III.
cap. 14. ex M. Gatenaria Horfl. L. I. obf. 15.
5. Tetartophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 4. Wrtl-
holf. de febr. Bianchi Hift. hep. pars III.
conft. ann. 1718, p. 751.
6. Tetartophya fplenalgica, Sauv. fp. 2.
7. Tetartophya, hepatalgica, Sauv. 3. Car. •
Pif. in prefat. p. 33.
8. Amphimerina fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 16.
To the tertian or quartan fevers alfo belong the ifr-
125
“r* -• —• raticce of authors. As all thofe above mentioneddif-
.^rtana tripheata, Sauv. fp, 16. £er oniy jn tbe fjjght circumftance of the type ffofe
hath three paroxyfms every fourth day, while tbe intermitting and remitting tertians already deferir
bed at length, it is unneoeffary here to take up time
in defetibing every minute circumftance related by
phyficians concerning them, efpecially as it could con¬
tribute nothing towards the laying down a better me¬
thod of cure than what hath been already fuggefted.
th&intermediate days are entirely free from fever.
The Double Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. D.
Quartana duplex, Sauv. fp. 3. Vog. fp. 13.
In the double quartan, the fits come on eveiy day
except the third ; but fo that the firft paroxyfm an-
fwers to the third, the fecond to the fourth,,and fo on.
Genus
M E D I
Genus III. QtJOTIDIANA ; the Quotidian
Fever.
Quotidiana1’ auftorum, Sauv. gen. 86. Lin. 15.
F'og. I. Hojfm. II. 33. Junck. tab. 79.
The Genuine Quotidian. Sp. 1. var„i. A.
Quotidiana iimplex, Sauv. fp. 1.
Quotidiana legitima, Sennert. de febr. cap. 18.
Defcription. This kind of fever generally comes on
about fix or feven o’clock in the morning, beginning
with a confiderable degree of cold and ftiivering, which
lafts for about an hour ; and is often accompanied with
vomiting, or fpontaneous diarrhoea, or both. It is
fucceeded by a pretty ftrong heat, accompanied with
thirft, reftlelfnefs, and pain of the head. When the
heat abates a little, a fpontaneous fweat commonly
follows, and the whole paroxyfm rarely exceeds fix
hours. It returns, however, every day almoft always
at the fame hour, unlefs it be evidently difturbed.
Caufes of, and perfonsfubjecl to, the difeafe. The fame
general caufes are to be afiigned for the quotidian as
for other intermittents. This kind occurs but rarely ;
and is faid to attack people of a phlegmatic tempera¬
ment rather than any other: alfo old people rather
than young, and women rather than men.
The prognofis and method of cure are not different
from thofe of tertians and quartans.
The Parto/Quotidian. Sp. x. var. 1. B.
Quotidiana partialis, Sauv. fp. 16. Cnoffel, E N. C.
I). 1. A. III. obf. 205. Edin. Med. Eff. vol. i.
art. 3 t. vol. ii. art, 16.
Quotidiana cephalalgica, Sauv. fp. 6. Mart, pyretol,
exerc . i. hift. 27. Van Swieten in Boerh. p. 534.
Cephalalgia intermittens, Sauv. fp. 7.
Cephalaea febricofa, Sauv. fp. 4.
Quotidiana ophthalmica, Morton, ibid. hift. 17.
Van Sovteten, ibid.
Ophthalmia febricofa, Sauv. fp. 23.
Thefe diftempers attack only fome particular part of
the body, as the head, the eye, arm, &c. producing
periodical affe&ions of thofe parts returning once in
24 hours ; and are to be cured by the bark, as other
intermittents. They are known to belong to this clafs,
by the evident intermiffion of the pain or other affec¬
tion of the part. The quotidiana hyjlerica, Sauv.
fp. 3. quotidiana catarrbalis, Sauv. fp. 9, and quoti¬
diana dranguriofa, Sauv. fp". 11 • feem to be fymptoma-
tic diiorders.
The Remitting Quotidian. Sp. II.
Amphimerina, Sauv. gen. 84. Lin. 20.
Quotidiana continua, Vog. 15.
Quotidianse remittentes et continuae audlorum.
Amphimerina latica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Febris continua lymphatics, Etmulicr, Coll. conf.
caf. 32. River. Obf. cent. x. obf. 57.
Amphimerina fingultuofa, Sauv. fp. 14.
Febris continua Lyngodes, Vog. 26.
Concerning thefe alfo nothing remains neceffary to
be mentioned in this place, having already fo fully dif-
cuffed the remitting fevers in all the different parts of
the world, Many other varieties of thefe fevers men¬
tioned by different authors are to be accounted merely
Symptomatic.
CINE. Tratfice.
Sect. II. CONTINUED FEVERS. .3rn*c'“-.
Continue, Sauv. clafs ii. ord. I. Vog. clafs I. ord. 2*
Sag. 666. Boerh. 727.
Continentes, Lin. clafs. ii. ord. x. Stahl. Caf. mag.
35. Caf. min. 87. Junck. 58. Sennert. de febr.
L. ii. cap. 2. et 10.
Genus IV. SYNOCHA. ^
Synocha, Sauv. gen. 80. Lin. 12. Junck. 58.
Synocha, five febris acuta fanguinea, Hojfm. II. 105.
Synochus, Vog. 16.
Continua non putris, Boerh. 720.
Ephemera, Sauv. g. 79. Boerh. 728. Junck. 57.
Diaria, Lin. 11.
Febris infiammatoria audiorum.
Defcription. The moft Ample kind of fynocha is
the ephemera or diary fever It begins without any
fenfation of cold or fhivering, unlefs there be fome in¬
ternal inflammation, or the, fmall-pox or meafles hap¬
pen to be prefent. A continual heat without any in¬
termiffion conftitutes the effence of this difeafe. The
heat, however, is more tolerable than in the fynocha
properly fo called. In fome the pains of the head are
pungent and throbbing, anf^ering to the pulfations
of the arteries ; but in others they are dull and heavy.
The face is red and bloated ; and there is a remarkable
laffitude of the limbs, with a ftrong, full, and frequent
pulfe. The urine is red, and depofits a fediment almoft
of the colour of orange-peel; and in the very firft day
of the difeafe, figns of concodtion (according to the
Hippocratic phrafe) appear. The fever commonly
goes off with a gentle fweat, but fometimes, though
more rarely, with an hemorrhagy of the nofe. Its
fhorteft period is 24 hours ; but if it goes beyond the
fourth day, it is then a fynocha properly fo called.
The Ample fynocha, according to Vogel, begins
with cold and ftiivering, fucceeded by vehement heat,
rednefs, and drynefs of the fkin. The face, efpecial-
ly, is very red, and the thirft intenfe. The head is
either pained or heavy. The patient either doth not
fieep at all, or is difturbed with dreams. A moift
fweat then breaks out all over the fkin. The pulfe is
full, quick, and frequent; the judgment is fometimes
a little difturbed: young people are apt to be terri¬
fied with imaginations ; and they for the moft part
incline to fieep : the refpiration is difficult, and the
belly coftive ; at the fame time that a tenfive kind of
laffitude is perceived over the whole body. ft. com¬
plete crifis takes place either on the fourth or at the
fartheffi on the eleventh day. The chara&eriftic marks
of the fimple fynochus, therefore, are, A rednefs of the
face, moifture of the fkin, a ftrong and frequent pulfe.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjecl to, this difeafe. As we have
already remarked of intermittents, fb muft we alfo now
remark of continued fevers, that it is impoffible to dif-
cover thofe minute caufes which occafioii the difference
of type betwixt one inflammatory fever and another,
though moft authors pretend to enumerate thefe'with
great certainty. Thus Juncker tells us, that the caufe
of the fimple ephemera is plethora, together with any
immoderate agitation and commotion of the fluids
while in that ftate. Vogel reckons among the caufes
of his febris diaria, paffions of the mind, pain, want,
expofure to the fun, &c. ; a repulfion or abforption
2 of
pradice. M E D I
Febres of certain humours ; wounds, fraftures, luxations, &c. ;
>»—v fo that in general we may reckon every thing tending
to increafe the aftion of the arterial fyftem to be in
certain circumftances a caufe of inflammatory fever.—
Hence we find thole are moll fubjeft to the fynocha
whofe conftitution is either naturally robuft, or who
are expofed to thofe caufes which tend to produce an
increafed aftion of the arterial fyitem ; fuck as hard
labour, high living, &c.
Prognofts. The mod Ample kind of fynocha, that
is, the ephemera or diary fever, is commonly cured
without the alfiftancS of medicine, and therefore the
prognofis is for the molt part favourable : yet, if it be
improperly treated by heating medicines, it may eafily
be converted into the other kind ; or, if there be a pu¬
trid difpofition of the fluids, into a fever of a very
dangerous nature. The fame thing is to be underltood
even of the molt violent kind ; for Ample inflamma¬
tory fevers are not dangerous unlefs complicated with
an affeftion of fome particular part, as the pleura, Ito-
mach, See.
Cure. Dr Cullen objefts to the plan of thofe
who are for leaving the cure of continued fevers to the
operations of nature ; becaufe thefe operations are nei¬
ther certain in themfelves, nor are they fo well under-
ftood as to enable us to regulate them properly ; and
it is likewife poffible to fuperfede them by art. The
plan therefore on which he proceeds is, to form his
indications of cure upon the means of obviating the
tendency to death in fevers; and thefe he reduces to
three., i. To moderate the violence of re-aftion.—
2. To remove or obviate the caufes of debility ; and,
3. To obviate or correft the tendency of the fluids to
putrefaftion.
The jirjl indication may be anfwered, r. By all
thofe means which diminilh the aftion of the heart and
arteries. 2. By thofe which take of the fpafm of the
extreme velfels, which, according to his theory, is the
chief caufe of violent re-aftion.
I. The aftion of the heart and ai • cries may be dimi-
nilhed, 1. By avoiding or moderating thofe irritations
which, in one degree or other, are almoft conllantly
applied to the body. 2. By the ufe of certain feda-
tive powers. 3. By diminiming the tenfion or tone
of the arterial fyftem.
[1.] The irritations above-mentioned are the im-
preflions made upon our fenfes, the exercife ofthe body
and mind, and the taking in of aliments. The avoid¬
ing of thefe as much as pofiible, or the moderating
their force, makes what is properly called the aniiphlo—
giflic regimen, proper to be employed in almoji every
continued fever. This regimen is to be direfted in
the following manner.
x. Impreffions on the external fenfes, as ftimulant
to the fyftem, and a chief fupport of its aftivity,
fhould be avoided as much as poffible ; efpecially fuch .
as are of a ftronger kind, and which give pain and
uneafinefs. No impreffion is to be more carefully
guarded againft than that of external heat ; and at
the fame time every other means of increafing the heat,
of the body is to be fhunned. Both thefe precautions
are to be taken as foon as a hot ftage is fully formed,
and to be attended to during its continuance, except
in certain cafes, where a determination to fweating is
Btxeffary, or where the ftimulant tffefts of heat may
CINE. 127
be compenfated by circumftances which determine it Synocha.
to produce a relaxation and revulfion. ' 'v
a. A11 motion of the body is to be avoided as much
as poffible, and that ptffture only chofen which em¬
ploys the feweft mufcles, and keeps none of them long
in a ftate of contraftion. Speaking, as it accelerates
refpiration, is particularly to be avoided. It muft al-
fo be obferved, that every motion of the body is more
ftimulant in proportion as the patient is weaker.
3. The exercife of the mind is alfo to be avoided,
as being a ftimulus to the body ; ’but here an exception
is to be made in the cafe of a delirium coming on,
when the prefenting of accuftomed objefts may di¬
vert the irregular train of ideas then arifing in the
mind.
4. The prefence of recent aliment in the ftomach
proves always a ftimulus to the fyftem, and ought
therefore to be as moderate as poffible. A total ab-
ftinence for fome time may be of fervice ; but as this
cannot be long continued with fafety, we muft avoid
the ilimulus of aliment by choofing that kind whiclx-
gives the leaft. Alimentary matters are alfo to be ac¬
counted more ftimulant in proportion to their alkale-
feent qualities; and this leads us to avoid all animal,
and ufe only vegetable food. For the fame reafon,
aromatic and fpirituous liquors are to be avoided ;
and in anfwering the prefent indication, we muft ab-
ftain from all fermented liquors except thofe of the
loweft quality. Other ftimuli are, the fenfation of
thirft, crudities or corrupted humours in the ftomach,
a preternatural retention of the faeces in the inteftines,
and a general acrimony of all the humours, which is
in molt fevers to be fufpefted. Thefe are to be re¬
moved by fuch methods as the urgency of the fymp-
toms require, by diluting liquors, vomiting, the ufe of
acids, laxative clyfters, and large quantities of antifep-
tic drinks. •
[2.j The fecond method of moderating the vio¬
lence of reaftion is by the employment of certain fe-
dative powers, with a view to diminifh the aftivity of
the whole body, and particularly that of the fangui-
ferous fyftem. The firft of thefe to be mentioned is
the application of cold. Heat is the chief fupport of
the aftivity of the animal-fyjlem ; and the fyftem is
therefore provided with a power of generating heat in
itfelf: but at the fame time we may obferve, that this
would go to excefs, were it not conftantly moderated
by a cooler temperature in the furrounding atmofphere.
When, therefore, the generating power of heat in the
fyftem is increafed,. as is commonly the cafe in fevers,
it is neceffary not only to avoid all further means of
increafing it, but alfo to apply air of a cooler tempe¬
rature ; or at leaft to apply it more entirely and freely
than in a ftate of health. This is fhown, from fome
late obfervations, to be a very powerful means of mo¬
derating the violence of reaftion ; but -what is the
mode of its operation, to what circumftances of fever
it particularly applies, or what limitations it lequires,-
are not yet fully afeertained.
Another fedative power very frequently employed
in fevers, is that of certain medicines known in the
materia medica by the name- of refrigerants. The
chief of thefe are acids of all kinds when fufficiently
diluted, and which are, in feveral refpefts, remedies
adapted to continued fevers. Thofe efpecially in ufe
are..:
MED
arc the vitriolic and vegetable; and on many accounts
the latter are to be preferred. Another fet of refrige¬
rants are the neutral falts formed of the vitriolic, ni¬
trous, or vegetable acids, with alkalies either fixed or
volatile. All thefe neutrals, while they are diffolved
in water, generate cold ; but as that cold ceafes foon
after the diffolution is finifhed, and as the falts are ge¬
nerally exhibited in a diflblved ftate, their refrigerant
'power in the animal body does not all depend upon
their power of generating cold with water. Nitre is
the refrigerant chiefly employed; but all the others,
compounded as above mentioned, partake more or lefs
of the fame quality. Befides thefe neutrals, fome me¬
tallic falts have alfo been employed in fevers, particu¬
larly the fugar of lead : but the refrigerant powers of
this fait are by no means afeertained, and its deliteri-
ous qualities are too well known to admit of its being
freely ufed-
[3.] The third general method of diminifhing the
rea&ion of the fyftem, is by leffening the tenfion, tone,
and activity of the fanguiferous fyftem. As the acti¬
vity of the fyftem in a great meafure depends upon the
tone, and this again upon the tenfion, of the veflels,
given to them by the quantity of fluids they contain,
it is evident, that the diminution of the quantity of
thefe muft diminiih the a&ivity of the fanguiferous
fyftem. The moft efficacious means of diminifhing
the quantity of fluids is by the evacuations of blood¬
letting and purging. The former is evidently one of
the moft powerful means of ^iminifhing the activity of
the whole body, and efpecially of the fanguiferous fy¬
ftem ; and it muft therefore be the moft effectual
means of moderating the reaction in fevers. When
the violence of reaction, and its conftant attendant
a phlogiftic diathefis, are fufficiently evident; when
thefe conftitute the principal part of the difeafe, and
may be expected to continue through the whole of it,
as in the cafes of fynocha ; then blood-letting is the
principal remedy, and may be employed as far as the
fymptoms of the difeafe may feem to require, and the
conftkution of the patient will bear. It muft, how¬
ever, be remarked, that a greater evacuation than is
neceffary may occafion a flower recovery, and render
the perfon more liable to a relapfe, or bring on other
difeafes. It is alfo to be obferved, that this evacu¬
ation is the more effectual, as the blood is more fud-
denly drawn off, and as the body is at the fame time
more free from all irritation, and therefore when
it is in a pofture in which the feweft mufcles are in
action.
With regard to purging, when we confider the
quantity of fluids conftantly prefent in the cavity of
the inteftines, and the quantity which may be drawn
off from the innumerable excretories that open into
this cavity, it will be obvious, that a very great eva¬
cuation may be made in this way ; and if this be done
ky a ftimulus that is not at the fame time communi¬
cated to the reft of the body, it may, by emptying
both the cavity of the inteftines and the arteries which
furnifh the excretions poured into it, induce a confi-
derable relaxation in the whole fyftem ; and is there¬
fore fuited to moderate the violence of reaftion in fe¬
vers. But it is to be obferved, that as the fluid drawn
from the excretories opening into the inteftines is not
all drawn immediately from the arteries, and as what
N0 204' 1
I C I N E.
Practice
is even more immediately drawn from thefe is drawn Synocha.
off flowly ; fo the evacuation will not, in proportion to
its quantity, occafion fuch a fudden depletion of the
red veffels as bloo'd-letting does; and therefore cannot
aft fo powerfully in taking off the phlogiftic diathefi*
of the fyftem.
At the fame time the evacuation may induce a con-
fiderable degree of debility; and therefore, in thdfe
cafes in which a dangerous ftate of debility is likely to
occur, purging is to be employed with a great deal of
caution ; and this caution is more difficult to be ob¬
ferved than in the cafe of blood-letting : and it is fur¬
ther to be noticed, that as purging takes off in fome
meafure the determination of the blood to the veffels
on the furface of the body, it feems to be an evacua¬
tion not well adapted to the cure of fevers.
II. The other method of moderating the violence
of reaftion in fevers is by the exhibition of thofe re¬
medies fuited to take off the fpafm of the extreme vef¬
fels, fuppofed to be the irritation which chiefly fup-
ports the reaftion. The means to be employed for
this purpofe are either internal or external.
Fi/y?, The internal means are, I. Thofe which de¬
termine the force of the circulation to the extreme vef¬
fels ort the furface of the body, and, by reftoring the
tone and aftivity of thefe veffels, overcome the fpafm
on their extremities. 2. Thofe medicines which have
the power of taking off fpafm in any part of the fy¬
ftem, and which are known under the title of Anti-
S P A 3 MODI CS.
(x.) Thofe remedies which -are fit to determine to
the furfac e of the body are, 1. Diluents. 2. Neutral
falts. 3. Sudorifics. 4. Emetics.
1. Water enters, in a large proportion, into the
compofition of all the animal fluids, and a large quan¬
tity of it is always diffufed through the whole of the
common mafs. In a found ftate, the fluidity of the
whole mafs depends upon the quantity of water pre¬
fent in it. Water therefore is the proper diluent of
our mafs of blood, and other fluids are diluent only in
proportion to the quantity of water they contain.
In a healthy ftate, alfo, the fulnefs of the extreme
veffels and the quantity of excretion are in proportion
to the quantity of water prefent in the body. But in
fever, though the excretions be in fome meafure inter¬
rupted, they continue in fuch quantity as to exhale
the more fluid parts of the blood ; and, while a por¬
tion of them is at the fame time neceflarily retained in
the larger veffels, the fmaller, and the extreme vef¬
fels, both from the deficiency of fluid and their own
contrafted ftate, are lefs filled, and therefore allowed
to remain in that condition. To remedy this con¬
trafted' ftate, nothing is more neceffary than a large
fupply of water or watery fluids taken in by drinking
or otherwife ; for as any fuperfluous quantity of wa¬
ter is forced off by the feveral excretories, fuch a force
applied may be a means of dilating the extreme veffels,
and of overcoming the fpafm affefting their extremi¬
ties. Accordingly, the throwing in of a large quan¬
tity of watery fluids has been, at all times, a remedy
much employed in fevers ; and in no inftance more re¬
markably than by the Spanifh and Italian phyficians,
in the ufe of what they call the dtest a aquea. This
praftice confifts in taking away every other kind of
aliment and drink, and in giving, in divided portions,
every
Practice.
M E D i
Febre;
every day for feveral days together, fix or eight pounds
of plain water, generally cold, but fometimes warm.
All this, however, is to be done only after the dif-
eafe has continued for fome time, and at leaft for a
week.
2. A fecond means of determining to the furface
of the body, is by the life of neutral falls. Thefe
neutrals, in a certain dofe, taken into the ftomach,
produce foon after a fenfe of heat upon the furface of
the body ; and, if the body be covered dofe and kept
warm, a fweat is readily brought out. The fame me¬
dicines taken during the cold ftage of a fever, very
often put an end to it, and bring on the hot one; and
they are alfo remarkable for flopping the vomiting
which fo frequently attends the cold ftage of fevers.
All this fhows, that neutral falts have a power of de¬
termining the blsod to the furface of the body, and
may therefore be of ufe in taking off the fpafm which
fubfifts there in fevers. The neutral molt commonly
employed in fevers, is that formed of an alkali with
the native acid of vegetables. But all the other neu¬
trals have more or lefs of the fame virtue ; and perhaps
fome of them, particularly the ammoniacal falts, pof-
fefs it in a ftronger degree. As cold water taken in¬
to the ftomach often Ihows the fame diaphoretic effects
with the neutral falts, it is probablt-that the effect of
the latter depends upon their refrigerant powers.
3. A third method of determining to the furface of
the Body, and taking off the fpafm fublifting there, is
by the ufe of fudorifics and of fweating. The propriety
of this remedy has been much difputed ; and many
fpecious arguments may be adduced both for and
againft the practice. In its favour may be urged,
1. That in healthy perfons, in every cafe of increafed
a£tion of the heart and arteries, a fweating takes place,
and is, feemingly, the means of preventing the bad
effects of fuch increafed action. 2. That, in fevers,
their moft ufual folution and termination is by fponta-
neous fweating. 3. That, even when excited by art,
is has been found ufeful at certain periods, and in cer¬
tain fpecies of fever.—On the other hand, it may be
urged againft the praflice of fweating, j . That in fe¬
vers, as a fpontaneous fweating does not immediately-
come on, there are fome circumftances different from
thofe in the ftate of health, and which may render it
doubtful whether the fweating can be fafely excited
by art. 2. That in many cafes the practice has been
attended with bad confequences. The means com¬
monly employed have a tendency to produce an in¬
flammatory diathefis; which, if rot taken off by the
fweat fucceeding, muft be increafed with much dan¬
ger. Thus fweating employed to prevent the acceflions
of intermitting fevers has often changed them into a
continued form, which is always dangerous. 3. The
utility of the practice is doubtful, as fweating, when
it happens, does not always give a final determination,
as muft be manifeft in the cafe of intermittents, and
in many continued fevers which are fometimes in the
beginning attended with fweatings which do not prove
final; and, on the contrary, whether they be fponta¬
neous or excited by art, they feem often to aggravate
the difeafe.
From thefe confiderations, it is doubtful if the prac¬
tice of fweating can be admitted very generally ; but,
at the fame time, it is alfo very doubtful if tbs failure
Vol. XI. Part L
CINE.
of the practice, or the mifehiefs faid to arife from it,
have not been owing to the improper condudl of the
practitioner. With refpeft to the laft, it is almoft
agreed among phyficians, 1. That fweating has been
generally hurtful when excited by ftimulant, heating,
and inflammatory medicines. 2. That it has been
hurtful when excited by much external heat, and con¬
tinued with a great increafe of the heat of the body.
3. That it is always hurtful when it does not relieve ^
and rather increafes the frequency and hardnefs of the
pulfe, the anxiety and difficulty of breathing, the
headach, and delirium. 4. That it is always hurtful
if it be urged when the fweat is not fluid, and when
it is partial and on the fuperior parts of the body-
only.
In thefe cafes, it is probable, that either an inflam¬
matory diathefis is produced, which increafes the fpafm
on the extreme veffels ; or that, from other caufes,-the
fpafm is too much fixed to yield eafily to the increafed
aftion of the heart and arteries ^ and upon either fup-
pofition it muft be obvious, that urging the fweat may
produce determinations to forne of the internal parte,
with very great danger.
Notwithilanding thefe doubts, however, it ftill re¬
mains true, 1. That iweating has been offen ufeful in.
preventing the acceffions of fevers when they have
been certainly forefeen, and a proper conduft em¬
ployed. 2. That even after fevers have in fome mea-
iure come on, fweating has interrupted their progr.-fs
when properly employed, either at the very beginning
of the difeafe, or during its approach and gradual for¬
mation. 3. That even after pyrexiae have continued
for fome time, fweating has been fuccefsfully employ¬
ed in curing them, as is particularly exemplified in
the cafe of a rheumatifm. 4. That certain fevers pro¬
duced by a very powerful fedative contagion, have bee»
generally treated moft fuccefsfully by fweating.
Thefe rnftances are in favour of fweating, but give
no general rule y and it muft be left to farther experi¬
ence to determine how far any general rule can be efta-*
bliffied in’this matter. In the mean time, if the prac¬
tice of fweating is to be attempted, the following rules
may be laid dow n for the coriduft of it 1. That ii
fweat ftvould be excited without the ufe of ftimulant
inflammatory medicines. 2. That it ftiould be exci¬
ted with as little external heat, and with as little in*
creafe of the heat of the body, as poffible. 3. That,
when excited, it fhould be continued for a due length-
of time ; not lefs than 12 hours, and fometimes For 24?
or 48 hours ; always, however, fuppofing that it pro¬
ceeds without the dangerous circumftances already-
mentioned. 4. That for fome part of the time, and'
as long as the perfon can ealily bear, it fhould be-
carried on without admitting of fleep. 5. That it
Ihould be rendered univerfal over the w-hole body ; and
therefore particularly that care fliould be taken to
bring the fweating to the lower extremities. 6. That
the practice fhould be rendered fafer by moderate pur¬
ging excited at the fame time. 7. That it fliould not
be fuddenly checked by. cold any how applied to the
body.
When attention is to be given to thefe rules, the
fweating may be excited, 1. By warm bathing, or a.
fomentation of the lower extremities. 2. By frequent
draughts of tepid liquors,.chiefly water, rendered more
R grateful'
jf ^ © M E D I
Febres grateful ty the addition of a light aromatic, or more
"'“'’'V—-, powerful by that of a fmall quantity of wine. 3. By
giving fome dofes of neutral falts. 4. Mofl efFe&iially,
and perhaps moft fafely, by a large dofe of an opiate,
joined with a portion of neutral falts, and of an eme¬
tic.
The fourth mean of determining to the furface of
the body, and thereby taking off the fpafm affefting
"- the extreme veffels, is by the ufe of emetics. Thefe,
particularly of the antimonial kind, have been enw
ployed in the Cure of fevers ever lince the introduftion
of chemical medicines; and though of late their ufe
has become very general, their efficacy is ftill difputed,
and their manner of operating is differently explained.
Vomiting is in many refpe&s ufeful in fevers ; as k
evacuates the contents of the flomach, as it emulges
the biliary and pancreatic dufts, and evacuates the
contents of the duodenum, and perhaps alfo of a lar¬
ger portion of the inteflines; as it agitates the whole
of the abdominal vifeera, it expedes the circulation in
them, and promotes their feveral fecretions ; and laft-
ly, as it agitates alfo the vifeera of the thorax, it has
like effeeb there.
It is not to this caiife, however, that we are to im¬
pute the effeft vomiting has in determining to the fur-
face of the body. This mull be attributed to the par¬
ticular operation of emetics upon the mufcular fibres
of the flomach, whereby they excite the adlion of the
extreme arteries on the furface of the body, and by this
means effedluallydetermine the blood to thefe veffels, re¬
move the atony, and take off the fpafm affedling them.
For this purpofe they are exhibited ih two different
ways ; that is, either in fuch dofes as may excite full
and repeated vomitings, or in fuch dofes as may excite
ficknefs and -naufea only, with little or no vomiting
at all.
Full vomiting is well fuited to determine to the fitr-
face of the body, and thereby to obviate the atony and
fpafm which lay the foundation of fever. Thus, vo¬
miting excited a little before the expecled acceffion of
the paroxyfm of an intermittent, has been found to
_prevent the paroxyfm altogether. It has been obfer-
ved alfo, that when contagion has been applied to a
perfon, and firfl difcqvers its operation, a Vomit given
jr-has prevented the fever which might otherwise have
been expefted.
Thefe are the advantages to be obtained by exciting
vomiting at the firfl approach of fevers, or of the pa¬
roxyfm of fevers; and they may alfo be applied after
fevers are formed, to take off, perhaps entirely, the
atony and fpafm, or at leafl to moderate thefe, fo that
the fever may proceed more gently and fafely. It is
feldom, however, that vomiting is found to produce a
final folution of fevers ; and after they are once form¬
ed, it is commonly neceflary to repeat the vomiting fe¬
veral times ; but this is attended with inconvenieney,
and fometimes with difadvantage. The operation of
full vomiting is t ran fit ary, and the exercife of vomit¬
ing is a debilitating power; and therefore, when the
vomiting does not remove the atony and fpafm very
entirely, it may give occafion to their recurrence with
greater force. For thefe reafons, after fevers are fully
formed, fome phyficians have thought proper to em-
iploy emetics in naufeating dofes only. Thefe are ca-
jsilie of exciting the a£lion of the extreme velkls,
CINE. Pra&leW
and them operarion is more permanent. At the fame Synoehai |!
time they often fhow their power by exciting fome de- ——v***^
gree of fweat, and their operation is rendered more
fafe by their commonly producing fome evacuation by
flool. But naufea continued for any great length of
time, is to moft patients a feUfation highly diftreffing,
and almoft infufferable.
The emetics chiefly in ufe at prefent are, ipecacu¬
anha and antimony. The former may be employed for
determining to the furface of the body : but, even ia
very fmall dofes, it fo readily excites vomiting, that it
is with difficulty employed for the purpofe of naufta-
ting only ; and in whatever manner employed, there is
realon to fufpedl that its effefls are lefs permanent,
and lefs powerfully communicated from the flomach to
the reft of the fyftem, than thofe of antimony. This
Lift is therefore generally preferred ; and its prepara-
tions, feemingly various, may all be reduced to two
heads ; one comprehending thofe in which the regu-
line part is in a condition to be afted upon by acids,
and therefore on meeting with acids in the ftomach it
becomes adlive ; and another, comprehending thofe
preparations in which thereguline part is already join¬
ed with an acid, rendering it adlive. Of each kind
there are great numbers, but not differing effentially
from one another; the two moft worthy of notice are,
the calx nitrata antimonii and emetic tartar, or antimonium
tartarifatum, of the Edinburgh difpenfatory. Both thefe
are very efficacious medicines ; but the latter feems
preferable, becaufe its dofe is capable of being better af-
certainedj though the former, on account of its flower
operation, may have fome advantages, and in certain
cafes be more efficacious as a purgative and fudorific.
The calx nitrata antimonii, when firft introduced in¬
to the pharmacopoeia of the Edinburgh college, was
fuppofed to be very nearly, if not precifely, the fame
with a medicine which has of late been highly cele¬
brated in the cure of fevers. Dr James’s powder. But
from later and more accurate obfervations, there is
now reafon to believe that the pulvis antimonialis of
the London pharmacopoeia, formed by the calcination
-of antimony with hartfhorn, approaches more nearly
to that celebrated arcanum. But at any rate, the
calx antimonii nitrata, the pulvis antimonialis, and
James’s powder, are probably not effentially different
from each other. The two latter, however, have the
moft near refemblance; and accordingly the Edinburgh
college in the laft edition of their pharmacopoeia have
introduced an article under the title of antimonium cal-
caren-pho/phoratum, which they confider as fo much fi-
milar to James’s powder, that they have ufed as a fy-
nonyme for it, the title of pulvis Jacobi.
The time moft proper for exhibiting thefe medicines
is a little before the acceffion, wffien that can be cer¬
tainly known. In continued fevers the exacerbations
are not always very obiervable; but there is reafon to
believe, that one commonly happens about noon or
foon after it; and that thefe, therefore, are the mofl
proper times for exhibiting emetics.
With rcfpedl to the manner of adminiftration, that
of the calx nitrata i - fimple, as the whole of what is
thought a proper dofe may be given at once; and no
more can be properly given till the next acceffion.
The adminiftration of the emetic tartar is different. It
is to be given in fmall dofes, not fufficient to excite vo¬
miting- $
M E D I C I N
Fra dice.
Ecbres mitlng; and thefe dbfes are to,be repeated after fliort
»-—v  intervals for feveral times, till ficknefs, naufea, and
fome, though not much, vomiting come on. The dif¬
ference of adminiftration mutt depend upon the dofe,
and the length of the interval at which it is given. If
it be intended that the medicine thould certainly ope¬
rate by ftool, the dbfes are made fmall, and the inter¬
vals long. On the contrary, when vomiting is proper,
or when much purging oOght to be avoided, and there¬
fore fome vomiting mult be admitted, the dofe.r are
made larger, and the intervals firorter. With refpe£t
to both kinds of preparations, the repetition is to be
made at the times of acceffion, but not very often: for
if the lirft exhibitions, duly managed, have little effect,
it is feldom that the after exhibitions have much ; and
it fometimes happens that the repeated vomiting, and
efpecially repeated purging,, does harm by weakening
the patient.
(■2.) The other fet of internal medicines which are
fuppcfed ufaful in taking off the fpafm of the extreme
velfels, are thofe named aniifpafmociic. But whatever
may be the virtues of fome of them in this way, fuch
is their power of llimulating at the fame time, that
very few of them can with fafety be adminiffered in
fevers of an inflammatory nature. Almoff: the only
, one which can with fafety be exhibited in thefe cafes
]; is camphor; and the operations of this are by no means
well afcertained. Dr Huxham mentions it as a cor-
reftor of the acrimony of cantharides; and'affures us,
that it very effeftually promotes a-diaphorefis. But
from the remarks of other practitioners, we have no
juft reafon to fuppofe that it aCts perceptibly in a dofe
of five or fix grains, though in 15 or 20 it produces a
particular kind of intoxication;
Secondly, The external means fuited to take off the
fpafm of the extreme veffels, arc bliftering and warm-
bathing.
1. What are the effeCts-of bliftering fo frequently
employed in fevers, is not yet agreed upon among phy-
ficians. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that the fmall quan¬
tity of cantharides abforbed. from a bliftering plafter,
is not fufficient to change the confiftence of the mafs
of blood ; and therefore, that fuch a quantity can nei¬
ther do good by refolving phlogiltic lentor if it exifts,
nor do harm by increafing the dilfolution of the blood
arifing from a putrid tendency in it. The effefts of
cantharides upon the fluids, therefore, may be.entirely
neglefted. The inflammation produced by the appli¬
cation of cantharides to the Ikin,Affords a certain proof
of their ftimulant power: but in many perfons the ef-
fed of that ftimulus is not confiderable ; in many it is-
not communicated to the whole fyftem; and even when
it does take place in the whole fyftem, it feems to be
taken off very entirely by the effufion and evacuation of
ferura from the bliftered part. It may be concluded,
therefore, that neither much good is to be expe&ed,
nor much harm to be apprehended, from the ftimulant
power of bliftering; and the certainty of this conclu-
lion is eftablilhed by the great benefit arifing from the
proper pratfice of bliftering in inflammatory difeafes.
Much has been imputed to the evacuation made by
bliftering ; but it is never fo confiderable as to affed
the whole fyftem; and therefore can neither by a hid¬
den depletion relax fcfre fanguiferous fyftem, nor by any
E. 131
revulfion affeft the general diftributlon of the fluids. Typhus.
The evacuation, however, is fo confiderable as to affed ""n *
the neighbouring veffel^ and the manifeft utility of
bliftering near the part affeded in inflammatory difeafes
leads us to think, that bliftering, by deriving to the
Ikin, and producing an effufibn there, relaxes the fpafm
of the deeper feated veffels. It is in this manner, moft
probably, that the tumor of a joint, from an effufion
into the cellular texture under the Ikin, takes off the
rheumatic pain formerly affeding that joint. Analo¬
gous to this, probably, is the good effed of bliftering
in continued fevers; and arifcs from the relaxation of
the fpafm of the extreme veffels by a communication
of the bliftered part with the reft of the Ikin. A blifter
may be employed at any period in continued fevers ;
but it will be-of moft advantage in the advanced Rate-
of fuch fevers, when, the reaction being weaker, all
ambiguity from the ftimulating power of bliftering is
removed, and when it may heft concur with, other cir-
cumftances tending to a final folution of the fpafm.
From this view of the matter, it will appear, that
the part of the body to which blilters ought to be ap¬
plied is indifferent, except upon the fufpicion of topical
affediou, when the bliftering is- to be made as near as
poflible to the part affeded. Whether finapifms and
other rubefacientia ad in a manner analogous to what
has been luppofed of bliftering may be doubtful; but
their effeds in rheumatifm .and other inflammatory
difeafes render it probable-
2. The other external means of taking off the fpafm
of the extreme veffels is warm bathing. This was
frequently, and in different circumftances, employed
by the ancients ; but has, till very lately, been ne-
gleded by modern phyficians. As the heat of the
bath ftimulates the extreme veffels, and, with the
'concurrence of moifture, alfo relaxes them, it feems to
be a fafe ftimulus, and well fuited to take off the
fpafm affeding .thefe veffels. It may be applied to
the whole body by immerfion; but this is in many
refpeds inconvenient; and whether fome of the in¬
conveniences of immerfion might not be avoided by
a vapour-bath, is not yet determined by experience ;
but from extenfive experience it appears, that moft of
the purpofes of warm bathing can be obtained by a fo¬
mentation of the legs and feet, if properly admini-
ftered, and continued for a due length of time, not
lefs than. an. hour. The marks of the good effeds of
fuch a fomentation are, the patient’s bearing it eafily,
jts relieving delirium, and inducing fleep.
Genus V. TYPHUS; the Typhous Fever.
Typhus, Sau-v. Gen. 82.. Sag. 677..
I. Typhus mitior, or the Slow Nervous Fever. Sp. I. 16(S'
var. T.
Febris maligna hedica cofivulfira, five lues
Willis, de morb. covulfiv. cap. 8.
Febris peftiiens, Fracaflor. de morb. contag. L. II.
cap. 4.
Febris peftiletis fine charadere veneni, Forejl, L. VI.
obf. 26.
Febris hedica peftiiens, Forejl, L. VI. obf. 32.
Febris nova ann. 1685, Sydenham, Sched. monitor.
Febris putrida nervofa, Wintringh. Com. Nofolog,
ad ann. 1720, 1721.
R 2
Febris '
M E D I
Febris lenta nervota, Huxham on fevers, chap. 8.
Febris contagiofa, Lind on ftvCrs and infeftion,
pa [Jim.
Typhus nervofus, Sauv, fp. 2.
Typhus comatofus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Tritaeophya typhodes Mangeti, Sauv. fp. II. Raym,
Fori, de febribus.
Defcrlption. Of all the defcriptions vet have of the
nervous fever, that of Dr Huxham is perhaps the beft.
According to him, the patient at firfl: grows fomewhat
liftlefs, and feels flight chills and (hudders, with un¬
certain fiuQies of heat, and a kind of wearinefs all
over, like what is felt after great fatigue. This is
always attended with a fort of heavinefs and dejeftion
of fpirit, and more or lefs of a load, pain, or giddi-
nefs of the head ; a naufea and difrelifli of every thing
foon follows, without any confidcrable third;, but fre¬
quently with urging to vomit, though little but in-
tipid phlegm is brought up. Though a kind of lucid
interval of feveral hour^ fometimes intervenes, yet the
fymptdms return with aggravation, cfpecially towards
night; the head grows more giddy or heavy; the heat
greater; the pulfe quicker, but weak; with, an op-
.preffive kind of breathing. A great torpor, or obtufe
pain and coldnefs, affe&s the hinder-part of the head
frequently, and oftentimes a heavy pain is felt on the
top all along the coronary future; this, tmd that of
the back-part of the head, generally attend nervous
fevers, and are commonly fucceeded by fome degree
of a delirium. In this condition the patient often
continues for five or fix days, with a heavy, pale, funk
countenance 5 feemingly not very fick, and yet far
from being well; reftlefs, anxious, and commonly
■quite void of deep, though fometimes very drowfy and
heavy; but although he appears to thofe about him
aftually to deep, he is utterly infenfible of it, and
denies that he doth fo. The pulfe during all this
time is quick, weak, and unequal; fometimes flutter¬
ing, and fometimes for a few moments flow; nay, even
intermitting, and then, with a hidden flufh in the face,
immediately very quick, and perhaps foon after fur-
prifingly calm and equal; and thus alternately. The
heats and chills are as uncertain and unequal; fome¬
times a fudden colour and glowarife in the cheeks, while
•the tip of the nofe and ears is cold, and the forehead
at the fame time in a cold dewy fweat. Nay, it is
very common, that a high colour and heat appear in
the face, when the extremities are quite cold. The
urine is commonly pale, and often limpid ; frequently
of a whey colour, or like vapid fmall-beer, in which
there is either no manner of fediment, or a kind of
loofe matter like bran irregularly fcattered up and
*lown in it. The tongue at the beginning is feldom
or never dry or difcoloured, but fometimes covered
with a thin whitifh mucus: at length, indeed, it often
•appears very dry, red, and chapped, or of the colour
of pomegranate-rind; but this mcftly at the clofe
of the difeafe : yet, however dry the tongue and
lips feem, the patient fcarce ever complains of thirft,
though fometimes of a heat in the tongue. About
the feventh or eighth day, the giddinefs, pain, or hea¬
vinefs of the head become much greater, with a con-
ftant noife in it, or tinnitus aurium ; which is very
difturbing to the fick, and frequently brings on a de¬
lirium. The load on the praecordia, anxiety and faint-
C I N E. Pra<5Uce.
nefs, grow much more urgent; and they often fall into Typhus.
an aftual deliquium, efpecially if they attempt to fit up;-v"—■■’I
cold fweats fuddenly come out on the forehead, and
on the backs of the hands (though at the fame time
there is too much heat in the cheeks and palms), and
as fuddenly go off. If the urine now grows more • f
pale and limpid, a delirium is certainly to be expected,
with universal tremors and fubfultus tendinum; the
delirium is feldom violent, but as it were a confufion
of thought and a&ion, muttering continually to them-
felves, and faltering in their fpeech Sometimes
they awake only in a hurry and confufion, and pre¬
fen tly recollect themfelves, but forthwith fall into a
muttering^dozy ftate again. The tongue grows often
very dry at the height, efpecially in its middle part, with
a yellowifii lift on each fide, and trembles greatly when
the fick attempts to put it out. Frequently profufe
fweats pour forth all at once, about the ninth, tenth,
or twelfth day, commonly coldifti and clammy on the
extremities; oftentimes very thin ftoolsare difeharged,
and then nature finks apace ; the extremities grow
cold, the nails pale or livid ; the pulfe may be faid to
tremble and flutter, rather than to beat, the vibrations
being fo exceeding weak and quick that they can
fcarce be diftinguifaed ; though fometimes they creep
on furprifingly flow, and very frequently intermit.
The fick become quite infenfible and ftupid, fcaree
affedled with the loudeft noife or the ftrongeft light $
though, at the beginning, ftrangely fufceptible of the
impreflions of either. The delirium now ends in a
profound coma, and that foon in eternal fleep. The
ilools, urine, and tears, run off involuntarily, and de¬
nounce a fpeedy diffolution, as the vaft tremblings and
twitchings of the nerves and tendons are preludes to a
general convulfion, which at once fnaps off the thread
of life. In one or other of thefe ways are the fick
carried off, after having languiftied for 14, >8, or 20
days; nay, fometimes much longer. Moft patients
grow deaf and ftupid towards the end of this dif-
eafe, (fome extremely deaf), though too quick and
apprehenfive at the beginning ; infomuch that the
leaft noife or light greatly offended them. Many
from their immoderate fears feem to hurry themfelves
out of life, where little danger is apparent at the
beginning: nay, fome will not allow themfelves to
fleep, from a vain fear of dozing quite away ; and
others from the vaft hurry, anxiety, and confufion
they are fenfible of either during fleep or at their
waking.
Caufes of, and perfons fubjeS to, the diforder. The
nervous fever is moft frequently the confequence of
contagion. It moft commonly attacks perfons of
weak nerves, a lax habit of body, and a poor thin
blood ; thofe who have fuffered great evacuations, a
long deje&ion of fpirits, immoderate watchings, ftu-
dies, fatigue, &c.; alfo thofe who have ufed much
crude unwholefome food, vapid impure drinks, or
who have been confined long in damp foul air ; who
have broken the vigour of their conftitutions by fali-
vations, too frequent purging, immoderate venery,
&c. Hence we fee how the difeafe is connefted
with an extreme debility of the nervous fyftem ; for,
when people are prepared for this fever by having
their nerves already weakened, the contagious par¬
ticles immediately attack the nervous fyftem, with-
Practice. M E D I
Febres out fo much affcfting tKe ftate bf the blood or
. ju{ces> th0Ugh the latter are greatly affe&ed in the
putrid malignant fevers.
Prognofis. In nervous fevers, the prognofis is very
much the fame with that of the putrid malignant
kind. And although death be not fo frequent as in
that modification of fever, yet it may juftly be confi-
dered as a very fatal difeafe.
Cure. As this fever is produced by a contagion
affe&ing the nervous fyftem of a perfon already debi¬
litated, and thus producing weaknefs in an extreme
degree, we have now occafion to confider Dr Cullen’s
two indications of cure omitted under the Synocba;
namely, to remove the caufe and obviate the effefb of
debility, and to correft the putrefcent* tendency of
the fluids; for though, in the beginning of nervous
1 fevers, the tendency to putrefa&ion be not remark¬
able, it becomes exceedingly great towards their con-
clufion.
[i .j In anfwering the firft indication, Dr Cullen ob-
ferves, that moft of the fedative powers inducing de¬
bility ceafe to ait foon after they have been firfl ap¬
plied ; and therefore the removing them is not an
objeft of the prefent indication. There is only one
which may be fuppofed to continue to aft for a long
time, and that is the contagion applied ; but we
know nothing in the nature of contagion that can
lead us to any meafures for removing or correfting it.
We know only its effects as a fedative power inducing
debility, or as a ferment inducing a tendency to putre¬
faction in the fluids, the former of which at prefent
falls under out confideration.—The debility induced
in fevers by contagion, or other caufes, appears efpe-
cially in the weaker energy of the brain ; but in
what this confifts, or how it may be reftored, we do
not well know; but as nature, feemingly for this pur-
pofe, excites the motion of the heart and arteries, we
muft afcribe the" continuance of the debility to the
weaker re-adion of the fanguiferovs fyftem : the
means, therefore, which we employ for obviating de¬
bility, are immediately directed to fupport and in-
creafe the aCtion of the heart and arteries; and the re¬
medies employed are tonics or ftimulants.
In contagious difeafes we know, both from the
effeCts which appear, and from dilfeCtions, that the
tone of the heart and arteries is confiderably dimi-
ni flied ; and that tonic remedies are therefore pro¬
perly indicated. We are to confider thefe remedies
as of two kinds ; 1. The power of cold ; 2. That of
tonic medicines.
The power of cold as a tonic in fevers may be em¬
ployed in two ways: either as thrown into the ftomach,
or as applied to thefurfaceof the body. As we have
already obferved that the power of cold may be
communicated from any one part to every other part of
the fyftem, fo it will be readily allowed that the ftomach
is a part as fit as any other for this communication, and
that cold drink taken into the ftomach may prove an
ufeful tonic in fevers.—This the experience of all ages
has confirmed; but at the fame time it has been fre¬
quently obferved, that, in certain circumftances, cold
drink taken into the ftomach has proved very hurtful;
and therefore that its ufe in fevers requires fome limi¬
tations. What thefe limitations ftiould be, and what
are all the circumftances which may forbid the ufe of
CINE. 133
cold drink, it is difficult to determine 5 but it feems Tyi hus.
clearly forbidden in all cafes where a phlogiftic dia-' v~—^
thefis prevails in the fyftem, and more efpecially
when there are topical affeftions of an inflammatory
nature.
The other method of employing cold as a tonic,
is by applying it to the furface of the body, as a re¬
frigerant power fit to moderate the violence of re-
aftion ; but probably it may here alfo be confidered
properly as a tonic, and ufeful in cafes of debility.—
Not only cool air, but cold water alfo may be applied
to the furface of the body as a tonic. The ancients
frequently applied it with advantage to particular
• parts as a tonic ; hut it is a difcovery of modern
times, that, in the cafe of putrid fevers attended with
much debility, the body may be wafiied all over with
cold water. This was firft pradlifed at Breflaw in
Silefia, as appears from a differtation under the title
of Epidemia Verna, qua JVratiJlaviam anno 1737 af-
f'txit, to be found in the Nat. Curiof. vol. x.
And from other writers it appears, that the praftice
has paffed into fome of the neighbouring countries ;
but in this ifland it does not appear that we have
yet had any experience of it.
The medicines which have been employed in fevers
as tonics are various. If the faccharum faturni hath
been found ufeful, it is probably as a tonic rather
than as a refrigerant ; and the ens veneris, or other
preparations of iron which have been employed, can
adl as tonics only. The preparations of copper, from
their effects in epilepfy, are prefumed to poffefs a
tonic power; but whether their ufe in fevers be
founded on their tonic or emetic powers, is uncettain.
And upon the whole there may no doubt occur fome
inftances of fevers being cured by tonics taken from
the fofiile kingdom; but the vegetable tonics are the
moft efficacious, and among thefe the Peruvian bark
certainly holds the firft place.
The bark has commonly been confidered as a fpe-
cific, or a remedy of which the operation was not
underftood. We muft obferve, however, that, as in
many cafes the effedts of the bark are perceived foon
after its being taken into the ftomach, and before it
can poffibly be conveyed to the mafs of blood, we may
conclude, that its effedls do not arife from its opera¬
ting on the fluids; and mull therefore depend upon
its operating on the nerves of the ftomach, and being
thereby communicated to the reft of the nervous
fyftem. This operation feems to be a tonic power,
the bark being a remedy in many cafes of debility,
particularly in gangrene : and if its operation may be
explained from its pofleffing a tonic power, we may
eafily perceive why it is improper when a phlogiftic
diathefis prevails; and from the fame view we can
afcertain in what cafes of continued fever it may be
admitted. Thefe cafes are either where confiderable
remiffions have appeared, when it may be employed
to prevent the return of exacerbations, on the fame
footing as it is ufed in intermitting fevers ; or in the
advanced ftate of fevers, when all fufpicion of an in-
flammatory ftate is removed, and a general debility
prevails in the fyftem ; and its being then employed
is fufficiently agreeable to the prefent pra&ice.
Another fet of medicines to be employed for ob¬
viating debility and its effefts, are the direft ftimu-
lanta.
134 M E D I
Febres 1 ants. Thefe, in feme meafure, increafe the tone of
the moving fibres ; but are different from the tonics,
as they more dire&ly excite and increafe the aftion of
the heart and arteries. This mode of their operation
renders their ufe ambiguous ; and when an inflamma¬
tory diathefis is prefent, the effeils of the ftimulants
may be very hurtful; but it is ftill probable, that in
the advanced ftate of thefe fevers, when debility pre¬
vails, they may be ufeful.
Of ail the ffimulants which may be properly em¬
ployed, wine feems to be the moll eligible, it has
the advantage of being grateful to the palate and
flomach, and of having its ftimulant parts fo much
diluted, that it can be conveniently given in fmall
dofes ; and therefore it may be employed with fuffi-
cient caution ; but it is of little fervioe unlefs taken
pretty largely. — It may be fufpe&ed that wine has an
operation analogous to that of opium ; and on good
grounds. But we can diftindlly remark its ftimulant
power only; which renders its effetls in the phrenitic
delirium roanifeftly hurtful; and in the mild delirium
depending on debility, as remarkably ufeful.
[2.3 We muft now proceed to the other indication
of cure, namely, to corredl or obviate the tendency in
the fluids to putrefa£lion. This may be done, 1. By
avoiding any new application of putrid or putrefeent
matter. 2. By evacuating the putrid or putrefeent
matter already prefent in the body. 3. By correc¬
ting the putrid or putrefeent matter remaining in the
body by diluents and antifeptics. 4. By fupporting
the tone of the veflek, and thereby refilling further
putrefaflion, or obviating its effefts. 5. By modera¬
ting the violence of re-a£lion, confidered as a means of
increafing putrefadlion.
The further application of putrid or putrefeent
matter maybe avoided, 1. By removing the patient
from places filled with corrupted air. 2. By prevent¬
ing the accumulation of the patient’s own effluvia, by
a conftant ventilation, and by a frequent change of
bed-clothes and body-linen. 3. By the careful and
fpeedy removal of all excremental matters from the
patient’s chamber. 4. By avoiding animal-food.
The putrid or putrefeent matter already prefent
in the body, may be evacuated partly by frequent
evacuations of the contents of the inteftines ; and
more effectually ftill by fupporting the excretions of
perfpiration and urine by the plentiful ufe of diluents.
That which remains in the body may be rendered
more mild and innocent by thfc ufe of diluents, or
may be corrected by the nfe of antifeptics. Thefe
laft are of many and various kinds; but which of them
are conveniently applicable, or more particularly fuited
to the cafe of fevers, is not well afeertained. Thofe
molt certainly applicable and ufeful are acefcent ali¬
ments, acids of ail kinds, and neutral falts.
The progrefs of putrefaClion may be confiderably
retarded, and its effeCls obviated, by fupporting
the tone of the veffels ; and this may be done by
tonic medicines, of which the chief are cold, and the
Peruvian bark, as already mentioned. The violence
of re-aCtion increafing the tendency to putrefaCtion,
may be moderated by the means already mentioned
under fynocha.
Thefe are the proper indications to he obferved'in
CINE. Pra&ice.
the cure of the flow nervous fever. Dr Huxham Typhuo
obferves, that evacuations (efpecially bleeding) are 1 "W
improper even at the beginning. Even a common pur¬
gative given at this time hath been followed by furpri-
fing languors, fyncope, and a train of other ill fymp-
toms. However, it may fometimes be neceffary to
cleanfe the ftomach and prims vis by a gentle eme¬
tic, or a mild laxative. Indeed, where naufea, fick-
nefs, and load at ftomach at e urgent, as is frequently
the cafe in the beginning of this fever, a vomit is ne¬
ceffary. Clyfters of milk, fugar, and fait, may be
injeCted with fafety and advantage every fecond or
third day, if nature wants to be prompted to ftool.;.
The temperate, cordial, diaphoretic medicines, are
certainly, according to our author, moft proper in
thefe fevers; and a well-regulated, fupporting, di¬
luting diet is neceflary. The latter of itfelf, ju-
dicioufly managed, will go a great way in the cure,.,
efpecially aflifted by well-timed' and well-applied -
blifters, and a due care to keep the patient" as ,
quiet as poffible both in body and mind. But it
fhould be noted, that any ftrong opiates are commonly-
very pernicious, however much the want c; fleep and
reftleffnefs may feem to demand them. Mild dia¬
phoretics, fuch as neutral draughts or elixir paregori-
cum, have much better effeCts; which, by raifing a
gentle eafy fweat,, or at lealt a plentiful perfpiration,
calm the hurry of the fpirits, and a refreshing fleep en-
fues. Where the confufion and dejeCtion of'fpirits
are very confiderable, blifters have been advifed to be
applied to the neck, occiput, or behind the ears;,
and during all this a free ufe of thin wine-whey,.
fome pleafant ptifan or gruel, with a little foft wine,
muft be indulged. Indeed the patients, in this cafe,
ihould drink frequently : though fuch quantities may.
not be neceflary as in the ardent, or even putrid ma¬
lignant fevers ; yet they fliould be fufficient to carry
on the work of dilution, fupport the fweats, and
fupply the blood with frefli and wholefome fluids, in
place of that noxious matter which is continually
palling off. In this view alfo a thin chicken-broth is
of fervice, both as food and phyfic, efpecially towards
the decline of the difeafe ; and for the fame reafon
thin jellies of hartlhorn, fago, panada, are ufeful, ad¬
ding a little wine to them, and the juice of Seville
orange or lemon.
It is obfervable, that the lick are never fb eafy as
when they are in a gentle fweat; for this foon removes
the hurry of fpirits, exacerbations of heat, &c. But
profufe fweats Ihould never be encouraged, much lefs
attempted, by very ftrong heating medicines, efpecial¬
ly in the beginning or advance of the fever ; for they
too much exhauft the vital powers; and are followed'
by a vaft dejedtion of fpirits, tremors, ftartings of the
tendons, and fometimes end in rigors, cold clammy
fweats, fyncope, or a comatofe difpofition. Some¬
times irregular partial heats and flulhes fucceed, with
great anxiety, reftleffnefs, delirium, difficulty of brea¬
thing, and a vaft load and oppreffion in the praecor-
dia, fo as to incline the lefs cautious obferver to think
there maybe fomething peripneumonic in it; but even
here we muft beware of bleeding, as the pulfe will be
found very fmall and unequal, tho’ very quick. Nor
is bleeding contra-indicated only by the weaknefs and
fluttering
I Pradlice.
MEDICINE.
Tebres ftiittering of the pulfe, but alfo by the pale, limpid,
v*’*””' and watery urine which is commonly attendant. Thefe
fymptoms denote the load, anxiety, and opprefllon on
r the prsecordia to proceed from an affe&ion of the ner¬
vous fyftem, and not from a peripneumoriic obftruc-
tion o'r inflammation. The breathing in this cafe,
though thick and laborious, is not hot, but a kind of
lighing or fobbing refpiration, nor is there often any
kind of cough concomitant; fo that it has been con-
jedlured to proceed from fome fpafm on the vitals.
'Here therefore the nervous cordial medicines are in¬
dicated, and blifters to the thighs, legs, or arms.
Dr Huxham commonly ufed the following bolus and
Taline draught.
R. Pultf. contrayerv. 6omp. gr. xv.
Croc. Angh gr. iij.
Confeft. Ralegh. r)j.
Syr. Croci q. f. M._/i Bolus.
R. Sal. C. C. 9fs.
Succ. limon. jiij.
Aq. alexit. fimpl. |ifs. M. PeraBa ejfervefcen-
twi adds Sp. lavcnd. c. Syr. croc, ana 3ifs. M.f.
Haujl.
If great tremors and fubfultus tendinum came on, he
fubftituted half a fcruple of mufk inftead of the con-
trayerva in the bolus, with advantage. One or other
of thefe, or fimilar prefcriptions, are to be taken every
. fifth, fixth, or eighth hour, and a temperate cordial
julep may be now and then given out of thin
wine or cyder whey, or, which is in many cafes
better, out of muftard-whey; which laft is by no
means a contemptible medicine. The faline draught
made as above, is much more apt to pafs through
the pores of the /kin than when made with fait of
wormwood, which rather moves through the urinary
"pafTagcs.
The above-mentioned difficulty of breathing, anxie¬
ty, and oppreffion, many times precede a miliary
eruption, which often appears on the feventh, ninth,
er eleventh day of the fever, and fometimes later. In¬
deed great anxiety and oppremon on the prsecordia al¬
ways precede puftular eruptions of any kind in all
forts of fevers. This eruption fhould be promoted by
foft eafy cordials and proper diluents; to which flionld
be fometimes added fome gentle aromatics. Thefe
tend to calm the univerfal uneafinefs commonly com¬
plained of, and alfo very effcdlually promote a dia-
phorefis, or breathing kindly fweats, with which
the miliary eruptions freely and eafily advance. But
however advantageous thefe commonly are, prdfufe
fweats are feldom or never fo, even though attend¬
ed with a very large eruption. Two or three crops
'of 'thefe miliary puftules have been known to fuc-
ceed one another, following prdfufe fweats, not
only without advantage, but with great detriment to
the patients, as they were thereby reduced to an ex¬
treme degree of weaknefs ; fo that they^ may juflly bU
reckoned fymptomatical rather than any thing elfe,
and the confequent eruption is often merely the fymp-
tom of a fymptom ; for the miliary glands of the fkm
appear very turgid, and mimic a raih, after profufe
fweating, even in the moft healthy.
In thefe profufe colliquative fweatings a little gene¬
rous red wine (diluted fomewhat, if necefiaryj may be
•given with the .greateft advantage; as it prefently mo¬
derates the fweats, fupports the patiertt, Snd keeps Up Typhus-
the miliary papulas if they happen to attend. Towards ’ ■ *
the decline of the fever alfo, where the fweats are a-
bundant and weakening, fmall dofes of the tinfture of
the bark with fafrron and fnake-root were given with
the greatefl advantage, frequently interpofing a dofe
of rhubarb to carry off the putrid colluvies in the firft
paflages ; which withal makes the remiffions or inter-
miffions that often happeh in the decline of nervous
difeafes more diftinft and manifeft, and gives a fairer
opportunity of throwing in the bark; for in the pro¬
per exhibition ^pf this medicine we are to place our
chief hope of curing both the nervous and putrid ma¬
lignant fevers.
II. Typhus graviof, or the putrid, pejlilcntial, or ma- l6-p
lignant Fever. Sp. I. var. 2.
Febri^peflilens, P. Sal. Diverf. de febre pefti-
lenti.
Febris peftilens iEgyptiorum, Alpin. de med. JE-
gypt. Li. cap. 14.
Typhus iEgyptiacus, Sauv. fp. 6.
Febris pellilens maligna, Senncrt. de febribus, I. iv.
cap. 10.
Febris maligna peflilens, River, 1. xvii. fed. iij.
cap. 1.
Febris peftilens maligna, ann. 1643. de fe¬
bribus, cap. 14.
Typhus carcerum, Sauv. fp. .! .
Febris nautica $eftilentialis, Huxham de acre ad
ann. 1740.
Miliaris fiautica, SauV. fp. g.
Febris putrida contagiofa in carceribus genita, Hux*
ham de acre ad ann. 1742.
Miliaris purpurata-, Sauv. fp. h.
Febris carcerum et nofocomiorum. Pringle, Dif¬
eafes of the army, p. 294. Van Suuieten, Mala¬
dies des arm<-s, p. 136.
Typhus caftrenfis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Febris caftrenfis, quarn vulgo cephalalgiam epide-
micam vocaut, Henr. Mail et A. Ph. Koph. Difli
apud Hallerum, tom. v.
Febris Hungarica five caftrenfis, Juncher, 74. et
pltirium autiorum.
Febris caftrenfis Gallorum in Bohemia, ann. 1742.
Scrinci. DifT. apud Haller, tom. v.
Febris petechialis, Sennert. 1. iv. cap. 13. River.
prax. 1. xvii. fe<ft. iii. cap. 1. Hojfm. II. p. 84.
Juncker. 73. Huxham on fevers, chap. 8. Lud~
wig. Inft. med. din. n0 146. Schreiier von er-
kentnefs, und cur der Krank heiten. p. 126..
ilfonro, Difeafes of military hofpitals, p. 1.
Febris catan halis maligna petechizans, Juncker, 72.
Hojfm. II. 75. Eller de cogn. et cur- rnorb,
fed. vi.
Febris quae lenticulas, pnndicula, aut peticulas
vocant, Fracajloirius de morb. coniag. lib. ii.
cap. 6.
'Febris peticiilaris Tridenti, ann. 1; 91. Roboretui de
febr. peticul.
Febris petechialis epidemica Colonise ann. 1672.
Donckers, Idia febris petechialis.
Febris petechialis epidemica Pofonii, 1683, Cl F.
Loeu in App. ad A. N. C. vol. ii.
Febris petechialis epidemica Mutinae, 1692. Ra~
mazzini. Conft. Mutinenfis, oper. p. 177.
Febria
136 M E D I
Febres Febns maligna petcchizans, ann. 1698. Hojfm, II.
' ^ p. 80.
Febris pctecbialis Wratiflavi* ann. 1699. Hel-
wich, Ephem. Germ. D. III. A. VII. et VIII.
obf. 132 p. 616.
Febris epidemia Lipfi® 1718. AT. Adolph. A.
N. C. III. obf. 131. p. 296.
Febris endemica et epidemica Corcagienfis ann.
1708, 1718, et feq. Rogers> Eifay on epidemic
dii'eafes.
Febris continua epidemica Corcagienfis ann. 1719.
et feq. M. O’Ccinnel Obf. de moibis.
Febris petechralis epidemica Cremonae 1734. Val-
charengki Med. ration, feft. 3.
Febris petechizans Petropoli 1735. Weitbrecht.
Dili, apod Haller, tom. v.
Febris petechialis, ann. 1740, I74l> in Haffia,
Ritter. A. N. C. vol. vii. obf. 4.
Febris maligna petechialis Rinteili 1741. Furjle-
nau. A. N. C. vol. vii. obf. 5.
Febris petechialis epidemica Silefiae 1741 et feq.
Bandhorjl. Did. apud Haller, tom. v.
Febris pelechialis epidemica Vienna: 1757. Hafe-
nohrl. Hifh med. cap. 2.
Febris petechialis epidemica Lipfiae 1757. Ludu-
vig. Adverfar. tom. i. pars 1.
Febris petechialis epidemica, variis Germania: locis
ab. ann. 1755 ad 1761. Struck de morbo cum
petechiis.
Defcription. This difeafe has been fuppofed to dif¬
fer from the former in degree only ; and there are
many circumftances which would lead us to conclude,
that both frequently originate from a contagion pre-
cifely of the fame nature. In the fame manner we
fee, during different feafons, and in different circum¬
ftances, various degrees of malignity in fmall-pox.
Though every inftance of the difeafe depends on the
introdu&ion of a peculiar and fpecific contagion into
the body, yet this contagion in particular epidemics
evidently poffeffes peculiar malignancy. The fame is
probably the cafe with the typhoid fever : But whe¬
ther this obfervation be well founded or not, there
cannot be a doubt that the typhus gravior or putrid
fever is a difeafe of the moil dangerous nature, as,
befides the extreme debility of the nervous fyftem,
there is a rapid tendency of the fluids to putrefac¬
tion, which fometimes cuts off the patient in a
few days, nay, in the warm climates, in 12 or I4
hours; or if the patient recovers, he is for a long
time, even in this country, in an exceedingly weak
ftate, and requires many weeks to recover his for¬
mer health.
The putrid fevers, according to Huxham, make
their attack with much more violence than the flow
nervous ones ; the rigors are fometimes very great,
though fometiraes fcarce felt the heats much (harper
and permanent; yet, at firft, fudden,tranfient, and re¬
mittent : the pulfe more tenfe and hard, but common¬
ly quick and fmall; though fometimes flow, and feem-
ingly regular for a time, and then fluttering and une¬
qual. The head-ach, naufea, and vomiting, are much
more confiderable even from the beginning. Some¬
times a fevert fixed pain is felt in one or both temples,
or over one or both eye-brows} frequently in the
Nu 204.
CINE. Pra^ice.
bottom of the orbits of the eyes. The eyes al- Typhus,
ways appear very dull, heavy, yellowiflr, and very of-
ten a little inflamed. The countenance feems bloated,
and more dead-coloured than ufual. Commonly the
temporal arteries throb much, and a tinnitus aurium is
very troublefome.: a itrong vibration alfo of the caro¬
tid arteries frequently takes place in the advance of the
fever, though the pulfe at the wrift may be fmall, nay
even flow: this is a certain fign of an impending de-
lirium, and generally proceeds from fome confiderable
obftrudlions in the brain.
The proftration of fpirits, weaknefs, and faintnefs,
are often furprifingly great and hidden, though no in¬
ordinate evacuation happens ; and this too fometimes
when the pulfe feems tolerably ftrong. The refpira-
tion is mofl commonly laborious, and interrupted with
a kind of fighing or fobbing, and the breath is hot
and offenfive.
Few or none of thefe fevers are without a fort, of
lumbago, or pain in the back and loins; always an uni-
verfal wearinefs or forenefs is felt, and often much
pain in the limbs. Sometimes a great heat, load, and
pain, affeft the pit of the flomach, with perpetual vo¬
miting of porraceous or black choler, and a mod
troublefome fingultus ; the matter difeharged is fre •
quently of a very naufeous fmell. The tongue, though
only white at the beginning, grows daily more dark
and dry ; fometimes of a fhining livid colour, with a
kind of dark bubble at top; fometimes exceeding
black ; and fo continues for many days together; nor
is the tindl to be got off many times for feveral days,,
even after a favourable crifis: at the height of the
difeafe, it generally becomes very dry, ftiff, and
black, or of a dark pomegranate colour. Hence the
fpeech is very inarticulate, and fearce intelligible. The
thiril in the increafe of the fever is commonly very
great, fometimes unquenchable; and yet no kind o£
drink pleafes, but all feem bitter and mawkilh ; at
other times, however, no third is complained of, tho*
the mouth and tongue are exceedingly foul and dry ;
this is always a dangerous fymptom, and ends in a
frenzy or coma. The lips and teeth, efpecially near
the height, are furred up with a very black tenacious
fordes. At the onfet of the fever, the urine is often
crude, pale, and vapid, but grows much higher-co¬
loured in the advance, and frequently refembl*;; a
ftrong lixivium, or citrine urine, tinged with a fmall
quantity of blood; it is without the leaft fediment or
cloud, and fo continues for many days together l by de¬
grees it grows darker, like dead ftrong high-coloured'
beer, and fmells very rank and offenfive. In petechial
fevers, the urine hath often been feen almoft black and
very fetid. The ftools, efpecially near the height, or
in the decline of the fever, are for the moil part into¬
lerably fetid, green, livid, or black, frequently with
fevere gripes and blood. When they are more yellow or
brown, the lefs the danger; but the higheft when they
run off infenfibly, whatever their colour may be. It is
likewife a very bad fymptom when the belly continue*
tenfe, fwollen, and hard, after profufe ftools ; for this
is generally the confequence of an inflammation or
mortification of the iateftines. A gentle diarrhoea is
often very beneficial, and fometimes feems to be the
only way which nature takes to carry off the morbific
matter.
Some-
Pra<?tice-» MED!
Febres Sometimes blatk, livid, dun, or greenifh fpots ap-
pear, which always indicate a high degree of malig¬
nity ; however, the more florid the fpots are, the lefs
danger is to be feahed. It is alfo a good fign when
the black or violet petechias become of a brighter co¬
lour. The large, black, or livid fpots, are almoft al¬
ways. attended with profufe haemorrhagies; and the
fmall, dulky, brown fpots, like freckles, are not much
lefs dangerous than the livid or black; though they
are feldom accompanied with fluxes of Blood: ex-
ceflively. profufe, cold, clammy fweats are often con¬
comitant, by which alfo they fometimes vanilh, though
^without any advantage to the patient. The eruption
of the petechiae is uncertain ; fometimes they appear
on the fourth or fifth day, though fometimes not till
the eleventh, or even later. The viiices, or large
•dark, blue, or greenish marks, feldom appear till very
near the fatal period. Frequently alfo we meet
.with an efflorefcence like the meafles in malignant
•fevers, but of a much more dull and livid hue; in
which the fldn, efpecially on the bread;, appears as
-it were marbled or variegated. This in general is
an ill fymptom, and is often attended with fatal
.confequences.
Sometimes about the nth or 14th day, on the
■occurrence of profufe fweats, the petechiae difappear,
and vad quantities of white miliary pudules break out.
This is feldom found of any confiderableadvantage; but
an itching, fmarting, red rafli, commonly gives great
relief; and fo do the large-, fretting, watery bladders,
which many times rife upon the back, bread, Ihoul-
ders, &c. A fcabby eruption likewife about the lips
' and nofe is certainly one of the falutary fymptoms;
and the more hot and angry it is, fo much the better.
But of much more uncertain and dangerous event are
the brown-coloured aphthae; nor are thofe that are
exceeding white and thick, like lard, of a very pro-
mifing afpecl. They are foon fucceeded by great
difficulty of fwallowing, pain and ulceration of the
fauces, oefophagus, &c. and with an inceflant fingul-
tus: the whole prim* via become at lad affected ; a
bloody dyfentery comes on, followed by a fphacela-
tion of the intedines; as is evident from the black,
fanious, and bloody dools, extremely fetid and infec¬
tious. Vibices, or large, black, and bluifh marks re-
fembling bruifes, are frequently feen towards the clofe
of the fever; and, v/hen attended with lividity and
coldnefs of the extremities, are certain tokens of ap¬
proaching death. In fome cafes, the blacknefs hath
been known to reach almod to the elbows, and the
hands have been dead-cold for a day or two before the
death of the patient.
Such are the general appearances of the putrid ma¬
lignant fever in this country, among thofe who enjoy
a free air, and are not crowded together, or expofed
to the caufes of infeftion : but in jails, hofpitals, or
other places where the fick are crowded, and in fome
meafure deprived of the benefit of the free air, the
fymptoms are, if poffible, more terrible. Sir John
Pringle, who had many opportunities of obferving it,
tells us, that the jail or hofpital fever, in the begin¬
ning, is not eafy to be diftinguiflied from a common
fever. The firft fymptoms are flight interchanges of
heat and cold, a trembling of the hands, fometimes a
fenfe of numbnefs in the arms, weakneis of the limbs,
Vol. XI. Part I.
CINE
lofs of appetite ; and the diibrder increaling towards Typhi
night, the body grows hot, the fleep is interrupted,
and not refreffiing. With thefe fymptoms> for the
moft part, there is fome pain or confufion in the head;
the pulfe at firft is a little quicker than natural, and
the patients find themfelves too much indifpofed to go
about bufinefs, though too well to be wholly confined;
When the fever advances, the above-mentioned fymp¬
toms are in a higher degree ; and in particular the
patient complains of a. laffitude, naufi^a, pains in his
back, a more conftant pain and confuiion in his head;
attended with an uncommon dejedtion of fpirits. At
this time the pulfe is never funk, but beats quick, and
often varies in the fame day both as to ftrength and
fulnefs. It is little affedted by bleeding once, if a
moderate quantity of blood be taken away ; but if the
evacuation be large, and efpecially if it be repeated, to
anfwer a falfe indication of inflammation, the pulfe,
increafing in frequency, is apt to fink in force,
and often irrecoverably,, whilft the patient becomes
delirious. But withal vve muft obferve, that, in every
cafe, independent of evacuations, the pulfe fooner or
later finks, and then gives certain intelligence of the
nature of the difeafe. The appearance of the blood
is various ; for though it be comrfonly little altered,
yet fometimes it will be fizy, not only on the firft at¬
tack, but after the fever is formed. The'- worft ap¬
pearance is when the craffamentum is diffolved; though-
this does not happen till the advanced ftate of the
fever : though indeed this feems not eafy to be afcer-
tained, as Wood has been- fo feldom taken away at
that time- The urine is alfo various. Sometimes it
is of a reddiih or flame colour, which it preferves a
long time; but it is oftener pale, and changes from
time to time in colour as well as crudity, being fome¬
times clear, fometimes clouded.; towards the end,
upon a favourable crifis, it becomes thick, but doefc
not always depofit a fediment. If tire fick lie warm,
and have had no preceding flux, the belly is generally
bound ; but when they lie cold, as they often do in
field-hofpitals, the pores of the Ikin being {hut, a di¬
arrhoea is a common fymptom, but is not critical.
In the worft cafes, a flux appears in the laft ftage ;
then the ftools are involuntary, colliquative, ichorous;
or bloody, and have a cadaverous fmell; the effects of
a mortification of the bowels, and the figns of ap¬
proaching death. When the hofpitals are filled with
dyfenteric patients, fome of the nurfes will be infected
w'ith the flux only, and others with this fever, ending
in thefe bloody and gangrenous ftools.
In the beginning the heat is moderate; and even in
the advanced ftate, on firft touching the {kin, it feems
inconfiderable ; but upon feeling the pulfe for fome
time, we are fenfible of an uncommon ardour (the ca-
lor morcticansy as it has been called), leaving an un-
pleafant fenfation on the fingers for a few minutes'
after. A day or two before death, if care be not'
taken, fthe extremities become cold, and the pulfe
is then hardly to be felt. The {kin is generally dry
and parched; though fometimes there are longer or
fhorter fweats, efpecially in the beginning. Such as
are produced by medicine are of no ufe, except on the
firft attack, at which time they will often remove the
fever; and natural fweats are never critical till the
diftemper begins to decline. Thefe laft are rarely
is' S profufe,
j3S M E D I
Febres profuie, but gentle, continued, and equally diffufed
over the body: fometimes the difeafe will terminate
by an almoft imperceptible moifture of the fkin ; the
fweats are ufually fetid, and offenfive even to the pa¬
tient himfelf.
The tongue is commonly dry; and, without conftant
care of the nurfe, becomes hard and brown, with deep
chops ; but this fymptom is common to moft fevers.
At other times, though rarely, the tongue is foft and
moift to the laft, but with a mixture of a greeniih or
yellowifh colour. The third: is fometimes great, but
more frequently moderate. In the advanced date, the
breath is offenfive, and a blackifh furring gathers about
the roots of the teeth.
Some are never delirious, hut all lie under a ftupor
or confufion ; few retain their fenfes till death: many
lofe them early, and from two caufes; either from im¬
moderate bleeding, or the premature ufe of warm and
fpirituous medicines. They rarely fleep; and, unlefs de¬
lirious, have more of a deje&ed and thoughtful look
than what is commonly feen in other fevers. The face
is late in acquiring either a ghaftly or a very morbid
appearance ; yet the eyes are always muddy, and ge¬
nerally the white is of a reddifh caff as if inflamed.
The confufion of the head generally rifes to a delirium,
efpecially at night; but, unlefs by an unfeafonable hot
regimen, it feldom turns to rage, or to thofe high
fights of imagination common in other fevers. When
the delirium comes to that height, the face is flufhed,
the eyes red, the voice is quick,and the patient ftruggles,
to get up But when that fymptom is owing to large
evacuations, or only to the advanced ftate of the dif¬
eafe, the face appears meagre; the eye lids in flumbers
are only half {hut; and the voice, which is commonly
low and flow, finks to a degree fcarce to be heard.
From the beginning there is generally a great dejec¬
tion and failure of ftrength. A tremor of the hands is
more common than a ftarting of the tendons ; or if the
fubfultus occurs, it re in a leffer degree than in many
«ther fevers. In every ftage of the difeafe, as the pulfe
finks, the delirium and tremor increafe ; and in pro¬
portion as the pulfe rifes, the head and fpirks are re¬
lieved. Sometimes in the beginning, but for the moil
part in the advanced ftate, the patient grows dull of
hearing, and at laff almoft deaf. When the fever is
protrafted, with a flow and low voice, the fick have a
particular craving for fomething cordial, and nothing
k fo cordial or fo acceptable as wine. They long for
bo food, yet willingly take a little panada if wine be
added. But fuch a^ are delirious, with a quick voice,
wild looks, a fubfultus tendinum, or violent adlions,
though their pulfe be funk, yet bear neither hot medi¬
cines, wine, nor the common cordials.
Vomiting, and complaints of a load and ficknefs at
ftomach, though ufual fympioms, are not effential to
the difeafe ; nor are pleuritic flitches, difficulty in
breathing, or flying pains, to be referred fo much to
k as to the conflitution of the patient, or to a precedr
icg cold.
A petechial efflerefcence is a frequent, though not
an infeparable, attendant of this fever. It fometimes
appears of a brighter or paler red, at other times of a
fcvid colour, but never rifes above the flein. The fpots
are fmall; but generally fo confluent, that at a little di-
Msoce the /kin appears only fomewhat redder than or-
C I N E. Pratfice.
dinary, as if the colour was uniform; but upon a nearer Typhu*.
infpe&ion there are interftices feen. For the moft part
this eruption is fo little confpicuous, that unlefs it be
looked for attentively, it may efcape notice. The fpots
appear thickeft on the back and breaft, lefs on the legs
and arms, and Sir John Pringle never remembers to have
feen any on the face. As to the time of their appear¬
ance, he agrees entirely with Dr Huxham. Thefe
fpots are never critical, nor. are they reckoned among;
the mortal fymptoms; but only concur with other
figns to afeertain the nature of the difeafe. The nearer
they approach to purple, the more they are to be
dreaded. In a few cafes, inftead of fpots, purple ftreaka
and blotches were obferved. Sometimes the petechise.
did not appear till after death; and there was one cafe
in which, after bleeding, the petechiae were feen only
on the arm below the ligature, and nowhere elfe on the
/kin.
The hofpital fever, though accounted one of the con¬
tinued kind, yet has generally fome exacerbation at
night, with a remiffion and often partial fweats in the*
day ; and after a long continuance it is apt to change ;
into a hedlic, or an intermitting form. The length of
the difeafe is uncertain. Sometimes it terminated
either in death or recovery, in feven days after the pa¬
tient took to his bed; but in the hofpitals it generally
continued from 14 to 20, and fome died or recovered
after four weeks. From the time of the finking of the
pulfe until death or a favourable crifis, there is per¬
haps lefs change to be feen from day to day in this-
than in moft other fevers. When its courfe is long, it
fometimes terminates in fuppurations of the parotid
or axillary glands; and when thefe do not appear, it
is probable that the fever is kept up by the formation:
of fome internal abfeefs. The parotid glands themfelves
do not fuppurate, but only fome of the lymphatic glands
that lie over them. Sir John Pringle obferved one in-
ftance. of a fwelling of this kind on both fides, with¬
out any previous indifpofition, when the perfon, not
fufpe&ing the caufe, and applying difeutient cata-
plafms, was, upon the tumor fubiiding, feized with
the hofpital-fever. Many patients after the crifis of
this fever complain of a pain ia the limbs and want of
reft ; and almoft all of them mention great weaknefs,.
confufion. in their head, vertigo, and a noife in their
ears.
Ten of the bodies of thofe who died, of this diftem*
per in Houghton’s regiment were opened. In fome,-
all the cavities were examined ; in others, only the
brain or the bowels. In fome of them, the brain ap¬
peared to be fuppurated. The firft of this kind Sir John
Pringle met with at Ghent ;.but the man being brought
into the hofpital. from-the.barracks no earlier than two-
days before he died, he could only conjefture from the
fymptoms and the imperfect accounts he had of him,
that his death was owing to a fever of this kind, after
lingering near a month in it. About three.- ounces of
purulent matter were found in the ventricles of the
brain, and the whole cortical and medullary fubftance
was uncommonly flaccid and tender ; nay, fome of
the fame kind of matter was found in the fubftance of
the upper part of the cerebellum : yet this perfon, with,
fome ftupor and deafnefs, had his fenfes till the night
before he died; fo far, at leaft, that he anfwered di-
ftindljf when roufed and fpoken to; but about that
ticat
Pra&lce. M E D ^
Feb e> time the mufcles of his face began to be convulfed. Of
two other inftances of men who undoubtedly died of
this fever, in one the cerebrum was fuppurated, in the
other the cerebellum. In the former cafe, the patient
was under a ftupor, with deafnefs from the beginning •
but was never delirious, nc’- altogether infenfible. His
pulfe funk early; and abourten days before his death
his head began to fwell, and continued very large till
within two days before he died, when it fubfided a little.
For feveral days before his end, he would tafte nothing
but cold water, and during his illnefs he lay conftantly
upon one fide. The head being opened, an abfcefs as
large as an egg was found in the fubftance of the fore¬
part of the right hemifphere of the brain, full of thin
matter like whey. At that time five more, ill of the
fame fever, had the like fwelling of their heads, but
recovered. In the other cafe, the abfcefs in the cere¬
bellum was about the fize of a fmall pigeon’s egg, and
contained alfo a thin ichorous matter: nor had this
patient ever been fo thoroughly infenfible as not to an-
fwer reafonably when fpoken to. Two days before he
died his urine turned pale.
Thefe fuppurations, however, were not conftant;
for another who died about the fame time, and had
been ill about the fame number of days with the like
fymptoms, the pale water excepted, had no abfcefs ei¬
ther in the brain or cerebellum. And two were open¬
ed afterwards, in whom the cortical fubflance of the
brain had an inflammatory appearance, but no fuppu-
ration. In one of them the large inteftines were cor¬
rupted : that man went off’ with a loofenefs ; and juft
before he died, an ichorous matter was difcharged from
bis nofe. In the military hofpital at Ipfwich, one
who unexpeftedly died of this fever after having been
feemingly in a fair way of recovery, had no fuppura-
tion in his brain ; but in another, who died after an
abfcefs in both orbits, the brain was found flaccid, and
about two ounces of a thin ferum in the ventricles.
Caufes of, and perfons fuljeB to, this diforder. The
caufe of this fever, as well as that of the flow nervous
fever, is an infection or contagion from fome difeafed
animal-body, or from corrupted vegetables ; and there¬
fore is very little, if at all, different from thofe pefti-
iential diforders which have arifen after battles, when
great numbers of dead bodies were allowed to lie above
ground, and infeft the air with their effluvia. This is
confirmed by an obfervation of Foreftus, who was eyc-
witnefs to a diftemper of this kind (which indeed he
calls a plague) owing to the fame caufe, attended with
buboes and a high degree of contagion. The fame au¬
thor alfo gives an account of a malignant fever break¬
ing out at Egment in North-Holland, occafioned by
the rotting of a whale which had been left on the fliore.
We have a like obfervation of a fever affecting the
crew of a French ftiip, by the putrefaction of fome
cattle which they had killed on the ifland of Nevis in
the Weft Indies. Thefe men were feized with a pain
in their head and loins, great weaknefs, and a difor¬
der of the ftomach, accompanied with fever. Some
had carbuncles; and on others purple fpots appeared
after death.
Galen afligns two caufes for peftilential fevers :
T. The great heat of the weather, when the humours
happen to be in a more putrefcent ftate than ufual.
2. A putrid ftate of the air, arifing either from a mul¬
titude of dead bodies left unburied, as after a battle,
[CINE. j
or from the evaporation of corrupted lakes and TyPh
marfhes. "V
One of the moft remarkable difeafes incident to an
army is related by Diodorus, as breaking out among
the Carthaginians at the fiege of Syracufe. That au¬
thor not only relates fome of its moft diftinguiftung
fymptoms, but reafons well about its caufe. He ob-
ferves, that pains in the back and eruptions (pwircu,*,)
were common ; that fome had bloody ftools; that o-
thers were feized with a delirium, fo as to run about
and beat all that came in their way ; that the phyfi-
cians knew no cure ; and that it was the more fatal as
the lick were abandoned by every body on account of
the contagion. As to the caufe, the author takes no¬
tice of the multitude of people confined within a nar¬
row compafs ; of the fituation of the camp in a low
and wet ground; of the fcorching heats in the middle
of the day, fucceeded by the cold and damp air from
the marlhes in the night-time; to thefe he adds, the
putrid fteams arifing firft from the marihes, and after¬
wards from the bodies of thofe who lay unburied.—
This diftemper feems to have been a compound of the
marflr and peftilential fever.
Foreftus remarks, that, from the putrefaction of
the water only, the city of Delft, where he pradtifed,
was fcarce ten years together free from the plague or
fome peftilential diftemper. He adds, that the ma-
giftrates, upon his reprefentation of the caufe, erod¬
ed a wind mill for moving and refrdhing the water.
At that time Holland was much more fubjedi to inun¬
dations and the ftagnation of, water than at prefent.
In 1694, a fever broke out at Rochfort in France,
which, on account sf the uncommon fymptoms and
great mortality, was at firft believed to be the plague.
But M. Chirac, who was fent by the court to inquire
into its nature, found the caufe to arife from fome
marfhes that had been made by an inundation of the
lea; and obferved, that the corrupted fteams, which
fmelled like gun-powder, were carried to the town by
the wind, which had long blown from that quarter.
About two-thirds of thofe who were taken ill died.
In fuch as were Opened, the brain was found either in¬
flamed or loaded with blood ; the fibres of the body
were uncommonly tender ; and the bowels had either
fuppurated or were mortified.
It is needlefs to mention more inftances of peftilen¬
tial fevers being brought on by the fteams of corrupt¬
ed fubftances, whether animal or vegetable. In ge¬
neral it may be remarked, that the putrefadtion of
thefe fubftances in a dry air is more apt to bring on a
fever of the continued form ; but in a moift air hath
a greater tendency to produce remitting fevers. But
it mult alfo be obferved, that, even in cafes where the
moft malignant fevers prevail, all perfons are not
equally difpofed to receive the infedtion, though
equally expofed to it with others. Some, through
mere vigour »f body and mind, cannot be infedted
with the moft contagious difeafes; while, on the other
hand, thofe whole bodies are debilitated by a former
diieafe, by ftudy, low diet, or want, or thofe who
have laboured under any of the depreffmg paffions of
the mind for fome time,, feldom or never efcape. Men,
therefore, who have been weakened by accidents (as
thofe who have undergone a mercurial falivation) are
very apt to fall into this diftemper. Thofe who are
taken into Crowded hofpitals, ill of the fmall-pox,
S 2 however
140 M E D I
Febres however good the fort may be, fall readily into this
fever, and run a greater rifle of dying of it than others.
The fecond fever is attended with double danger, fee¬
ing the patient has been fo much weakened by the firft.
A fure fign of the corruption of the air in an hofpi-
tal is when many of the nurfes fall fick.
Prognnfis. In thefe fevers we cannot draw a prog-
noftic from any fymptom by itfelf; and perhaps all of
them together are more fallible than in others. Ge¬
nerally the following are good: To have little deli¬
rium ; the ftrength little impaired ; turbid urine in the
decline of the difeafe; and at that time a gentle fweat
or moifture diffufed over the body, or even the flein
foft and the tongue moift ; or to have fome loofe llools
fucceeded by. a diaphorefis ; the pulfe to rife by wine,
or cordials, with an abatement of the ftupor, tremor*
and other affeftions of the brain. Deafnefs is rather
a good fign. A fediment in the urine, without other
changes to the better, is no fure fign of recovery ; and
fome have recovered in whofe water there was no fedi¬
ment The bad figns are, a fubfultus tendinum ; the
eyes much inflamed and flaring ; the fpeech quick, and
the found of the voice altered ; a high delirium ^ per¬
petual watchfulnefs ; conftant ficknefs at the ftomach,
and vomitings ; frequent ftoots, with a finking pnlfe,
and the diforder of the head increafed ; coldnefs of the
extremities, and a tremulous motion of the tongue.
It is obferved to be among the word figns when the
patient complains of blindnefs-; when he fwallows with
difficulty, or cannot put out his tongue when defired
to do it; when he can lie on his back only, and pulls
up his knees ; or when infenfible he endeavours to
uncover his breaft, or makes frequent attempts to get
out of bed without affigning any reafon. If to any
of thefe are added ichorous, cadaverous, and involun¬
tary ftools, it is. a fign of a mortification of the bowels
and approaching death. It will not feem ftrange to
find moft of thefe prognoftics common to the advanced
ftate of other fevers* when we confider, that from
whatever eaufe fevers begin, by a long continuance
the humours are corrupted, and the brain and nerves
affedled much in the fame manner as in thofe which
arife from infettion.
Prevention and cure. As diftempers of the putrid
kind never arife without an infedfion received from
fome quarter or other, the methods of prevention mull
evidently be reduced to two general heads, i. To
avoid receiving the infe&ion into the body ; and,
2. To put the body in fuch a fituation as may enable
it to refill the infedlion when received. On both thele
methods fcarce any writer hath equalled Dr Lind of
Hallar, whofe opinions and directions therefore we
fhall give pretty fully.
As putrid difeafes are very common and violent in
the hot countries, it is very necelfary for Europeans
who vifit thefe climates to be well informed, in the firll
place, of the figns of an unhealthy country, that they
may be upon their guard as foon as they enter any fo¬
reign region. Thefe figns are by our author enume¬
rated as follows.
i. A fudden and great alteration in the air, at fun-
fet, from intolerable heat to a chilling cold. This is
perceived as foon as the fun is down, and is for the moll
part accompanied with a very heavy dew: it (hows an
unhealthy fwampy foil, the nature of which is fuch,
CINE. Pra<5Viee»
that no fooner the fun-beams are withdrawn, than the Typhus, j
vapours emitted from it. render the air damp, raw, and —-v—y
chilling, in the moA fultry climates; fo that even un¬
der the equator, in fome unhealthy places, the night-
aipr is very cold to an European conllitution.
2. Thick noifome fogs, chiefly after fiuifet, arifing
from the valleys, and particularly from the mud, llime,
or other impurities. In hot countries, the finell of
thefe fogs may be compared to that of a new-cleaned
ditch. Difeafes therefore, arifing from this caufe, ge¬
nerally take place in the night, or before fun rifing.
3. Numerous fwarms of flies, gnats, and other in¬
fers which-attend flagnated air and unhealthy places
covered with wood.
4. When all,butchers meat foon corrupts, and in a
few hours becomes full of maggots ; when metals are
quickly corroded on being expofed to the air; and
when a corpfe becomes intolerably offenfive in lefs than
fix hours ; thefe are proofs of a clofe, hot, and un-
wholefome country. And in fucb places, during ex-
ceflive heats, and great calms, it is not altogether un¬
common for Europeans, efpecially fuch as are of a
grofs habit of body, to be feized at once with the
moft alarming and fatal fymptoms of what is called
the yellow fever, without even any previous complaint
of ficknefs. or other fymptoras of the difeafe. There
has firft been perceived an uneafy itching fenfation,
commonly in the legs and upon pulling down the
ftockings, ftreams of thin diffolved blood followed, a
ghaftly yellow colour quickly diffufed itfelf over the
whole body, and the patient has beea carried off in
lefs than forty-eight hours.
5. A fort of. fandy foil, commonly a fmall, loofe,
white fand, as that at Penfacola, Whydah, and the
ifland of Bonavifta, which is found by experience to
be injurious to health. The peftiferous vapour ari¬
fing, during the fummer months and in the heat of
the day, from fuch a fandy foil, is bell charadlerifed
by its effefts in the extenfive defarts of Alia and Africa.
It there conftitules what is called the Samiel-uuind ; a
blaft which, in the parched defart, proves inftantiy
fatal both to man-and beaft: but when it paffes over
a foil well covered with grafs and vegetables, has its
effedls greatly mitigated ; it is, however, even then,
productive of ficknefs : thus the foutherly winds, while
they blow from the defarts of Libya during the fum¬
mer, at Algiers, Tunis,, and Tripoli, produce an un¬
healthy feafon and at Madras the winds, which,, in.
the months of April and May, pafs over a large tra£l
of fand, are always hot, dlfagreeable,, and unwhole-
fome.
During thefe land-winds, fuddsn. gufts of a more
hot and fuffocating nature are often obferved to come
from thefe fands once er twice, or even more frequent¬
ly, in a day, which feem to be this vapour in a purer
form. Thefe gulls pafs very quickly, and affe£l per-
fons who happen to ftand with their faces towards
them in the fame manner as the hot air which iffues
from a burning furnace, or from a heatsd oven, and
obliges them immediately to turn away from it in or¬
der to recover breath. The effeft of this hot fuffoc?*-
ting blaft or vapour on the human body, even when
mitigated by palling through a moift atmofphere, is
the fame as that of intenfe cold ; it Units up every pore
of the Ikin, and entirely flops the perfpiration of fucb
Praftice. M E D I
Febres as are expofed to it. Thefe blafts come only in the day-
*"•—v  time, and always from the defarts. Water is the only
known corre&or or antidote againft them: hence,
coarfe thick clothes, kept conftantly wet, and hung
up at the windows or doors, greatly mitigate their
violence. A' houfe fo built as to have no windows
or doors towards the defarts^ is an excellent proteftion
againft their, pernicious effefts. The hot land-winds
conftantly blow at Madras and other places on the
coaft of Coromandel, at that feafbn, from midnight
till noon : the fea-breezes then begin, which relieve
the difficulty in breathing, and the obftru&ed perfpi-
ration which the former ocdhfioned.
That the heat of thefe land-winds, as alfo of the
fudden gulls which accompany them, proceed from
large tradls of fand heated by the fun, is evident from
the increafed heat and fuftocating quality of thofe
winds, in proportion as the day advances, and as the
heat of the feafon is increafed. The oppofite winds,
blowing from each jide of the - Balagate-mountains,
are a farther proof of this. Thefe mountains, run¬
ning from north to fouth, divide the hither Penin-
fula of India into two unequal parts, and feparate
what is called the Malabar from the Coromandel coaft.
To the former they are very near, but at a great dif-
tance from the latter. The winds blowing from thofe
hills are on the Malabar-coaft always remarkably
cool; but on the coaft of Coromandel, in the months
of April, May, June, and July, are extremely hot
and fuffocating, as they pafs over a large trad of in¬
termediate fand, heated during thofe months by an al-
moft vertical fun. Hence the Malabar coaft i sal ways
covered with an agreeable verdure ; whereas the Co¬
romandel eoaft, during the continuance- of thefe hot
winds, feems a barren wildernefs, nothing appearing
green except the trees. On the contrary, the winds
that pafs over thefe fands, after being wet with the
rains,- are the coldeft which blow at Madras. Bottles
of liquor inclofed in bags of coarfe cloth, kept con¬
ftantly wet, and fufpended in the lhade, where thofe
hot winds may have accefs to. them, become as*cold
as if they had been immerfed in a folution of nitre;
an effed owing undoubtedly to the conftant evapora¬
tion of water from the furface.
It is an obfervation of the natives on the coaft of
Coromandel, which is.confirmed by the experience of
many Europeans, that the longer the hot land-winds
blow, the. healthier are the enfuing months; thefe
winds, as they exprefs it, purifying the air. Are not
the winds therefore* the caufe why the air on the. coaft
of Coromandel, except during their continuance, is
more healthy than in other parts of India where .thefe
winds do not blow ? Does not this alfo fuggeft a very
probable reafon, why the plague in Egypt generally
ceafes in the. beginning of June ; the periodical hot
winds which come from the defarts of Nubia and E-
thiopia having then rendered the air of Egypt pure
and wholefome ? Many have afcribed that effed to
the north-winds ; as the plague not only ceafes when
they blow, but all infeded goods, houfehold-furni-
ture, and wearing, apparel, are then faid to become en¬
tirely free from the contagion: thefe, however, can¬
not be the caufe, as the moll deftrudive plague is a-
bated in its violence,, if not wholly eradicated, before
they fet in. With equal propriety we may.reject the
CINE.
opinion that the overflowing of the Nik is produdive Typhu
of that falutary effed, as the plague generally ceafes '"""V-
before the increafe of that river is perceptible.
Thus the plague, the greateft calamity which can
afflid mankind, feems to be deftroyed by thofe hot
winds, which are otherwile fo pernicious to animal-
and vegetable life. And although, during the conti¬
nuance of thefe winds, the moil fruitful fields wear*
the afped of a parched defart, yet no fooner the rains
fall, but vegetation is reftcred, the plants revive, and a>
beautiful verdure is again fpread over the face of the
country.
Having thus given an account of the figns of an un¬
healthy country. Dr Lind next proceeds to mention
fuch employments as are particularly dangerous to Eu¬
ropeans on their firft arrival. One of thefe is the cut¬
ting down of trees, fhrubs, &c. or clearing the ground^
as it is called. Of the unhealthinefs of this employ¬
ment he gives two inftances. At the conclufion of the
late peace, the captain of a ffiip. of war went on Ihore
at the ifland of Dominica, with 12 of his men, to cut
down the wood, and to clear a piece of ground which
he intended to have purchafed : but, in a few days, - ,
ficknefs ooliged him to deiilt from this dangerous
work; the captain and 11 of his men being feized
with violent fevers, which terminated in obllinate in-
termittents, a-nd of which feveral died. The furvivors
fuffered fo much in their conllitutions, that, even after
they came to England, the return of an call-wind was
apt to bring on a violent fit of the ague. The Lud-
low-Caltle, a ffiip of war of 40 guns, in a voyage to -
the coalt of Guinea, alfo loll 25 of her men at Sierra
Leona, who were employed in cutting .down wood for
the Ihip. This is an occupation which has often pro¬
ved deitrinftive to Europeans in thofe climates, and in
which they ought never to be employed, efpec'ally du¬
ring the rainy feafon ; there being numberlefs inllan-
ces of white perfons, when cutting down the woods at
that feafon, who have been, taken ill in the. morning,
and dead before night-
Another evil, lels known, and lefsTufpedted, but
no lefs dangerous, is the fending of-Europeans in open
boats after lunfet, where the foil is fwampy, or where
there are great night-fogs. The Angle duty alone of ”
fetching frdh-killed butchers meat at night for the ufe
of our ihips companies in the Eall and Well Indies,
has ddtroyed every year feveral thoufand feamen. In
thofe parts of the world, butchers meat mull be brought
on board at night immediately after it is killed, other-
wife it will not be fit for ufe the next day; but a con-
tradl made with the natives to fend it on board at that
time, which might be done for a trifling fum, would '
be the means of prelerving many ufeful lives. During
the fickly feafon .at Batavia,, a boat- belonging to the
Medway, which attended on .ffiore every might, was
three times fucceffively manned, not one having furvi-
ved that-fervice.. They were all taken ill in the night,
when on .(bore,, or when returning on board ; io that.
at length the officers were obliged to employ none but
the natives on that bulinefs. Great numbers of men
have perilhed from being employed in this manner at
Bengal, where the European Ihips often anchor in the
moll unhealthy fpots of the river ; and even when the
great night-fogs arife, after the rainy feafon, the men
are often obliged to perform fuch nightTervices ia
5 boats*.*.
542 M E D I
Febrefl 'boats. Now fince it is (o dangerous for Europeans in
v-M-y—unhgaltby countries, particularly during a feafon of
' iicknef^, to be eKpofed in an open boat to the foggy
night-air, it muft appear, that fending them unihel-
tered, in open boats, far up rivers, in unhealthy
fouthern climates, for the fake of wood, water, trade,
or other purpofes, muft be attended with the moft de-
itruftive and fatal confequences.
Burying'the dead in fwampy countries is another
Occupation which has proved fatal to many, and which
ought to be entrufted to negroes or the natives of the
country. The effluvia from the ground when newly
opened, whether from graves or ditches, are far more
dangerous than from the fame fwampy foil when the
furface is undifturbed ; nay, in fome places, it has been
found almoft certain death for an European to dig a
grave, unlefs long feafoned to the country. In fuch a
place, the attendance of friends at funerals ought to be
difpenfed with.
In all cafes where it is prafticable, the fnips which
vifit thefe unhealthy countries fhould anchor at as great
a diftance at poffible from ihore ; or if obliged to an-
. chor near marfhy grounds or fvvamps, efpecially during
fummer or in hot weather, and when the wind blows
dire&ly from thence, the gun-ports which would ad¬
mit the noxious land-breeze ought to be kept (hut,
efpecially at night. Or if the (hip rides with her head
to the wind, a thick fail ought to be put upon the
fore-maft, along which the fmoke from the fire-place
might be made conltantly to play and afcend. If the
fail ihould occafion a little fmoke between decks, this
inconvenience will be fufficiently compenfated by its
keeping off the direft ftream of the fwampy fliore efflu¬
via ; which now being obliged to form a curve before
they reach the more diftant parts of the veffel, muff
needs be greatly diverted and fcattered.
The bell prefervative againft the mifchievous im-
preffions of a putrid fog, or of a marfhy exhalation,
is a clofe, Iheltered, and covered place ; fuch as the
lower apartments in a fhip, or a houfe in which there
are no doors or windows facing the fwamps. If in
fuch places a fire be kept either at the doors and other
inlets to a houfe, or in the chambers, as is praftifed
in fome unhealthy countries daring the rainy or foggy
feafon, it will prove an excellent and effedlual protec¬
tion againll the injuries of a bad air. On board of
flips alfo fires may be made at the hatchways ; and of
the good effects of this we have the following exam¬
ple. When the Edgar, a fhip of war of 60 guns, was
upon the coaft of Guinea in the year 1768, her men
were very fickly, and many of them died : however it
■was obferved, that in a floop of war, which was con-
llantly in company with her,- few were taken ill, and
not one died during the whole voyage. This could be
afcribed to no other caufe, but that in the floop the
fire-place for cooking vidtuals was on the fame level
with the deck where the men lay ; and every morning
when the fire was lighted, efpecially when there was
but little wind, the fmoke from the cook-room fpread
itfelf all over the fhip, and particularly over thofe parts
where the men lay ; but from the conftruftion of the
fire-place of the Edgar, no fmoke from it ever came
between her decks.
Perfons on board any fhip whatever, are much more
fafe, and their fituation is much preferable to that of
CINE. Pradice,
thofe who make diftant inland excurfiona in fmall Typhus,
boats upon the rivers, and who are for the moft part —
ignorant of the caufe of thofe maladies which deftroy
them. The intolerable heat at noon often oblige#
fuch perfons to go in a manner half-naked; while a
free and plentiful perfpiration iffues from every pore,
A near approach to putrid fwamps at this time is apt
to produce an immediate ficknefs, vomiting, and
afterwards a low nervous or malignant fever. But if
they happen to pafs them at night, or lie near them
in an open boat,, the air from thofe fwamps is per¬
ceived to be quite chill and cold ; in fo much that
warm thick clothing beAmes abfolutely requilite to
guard the body againft the impreffions of fo great an
alteration in the air, and againft its cold and incle¬
ment quality : for the effedls of it then, even on the
moft healthy and vigorous conftitution, is frequently a
chilling cold lit of an ague, terminating in a fever
with delirium, bilious vomitings, a flux, or even death
itfelf.
But where fuch expofure becomes unavoidable, the
only method is then to defend the body as much as
pollible againft the pernicious miafmata with which
the air abounds.-—All thofe who are employed in
cutting down woods, or in other laborious and dan¬
gerous fervices in hot climates, during the heat of the
day feught to have their heads covered with a bladder
dipt, in vinegar, and to wafh their mouths often with
the fame liquor; never to fwallow their fpittle, but
rather to chew a little rhubarb or fome other bitter,
and fpit it out frequently ; to ftop their noftrils with
a fmall bit of linen or tow dipped in camphorated vi¬
negar; and to infufe fome bark, garlic, and rhubarb,
in brandy, of which a dram- is to be taken, either by
itfelf or diluted with water morning and evening.
In the evening before funfet they Ihould leave off
work, and not return to their labour in the morning
till the fun has difperfed the unwholefome dews and
vapours. Thofe who mull of neceffity remain on Ihore,
and fleep in dangerous places, muft take care not to
fleep upon the ground expofed to the dews, but in
hammocks in a clofe tent, Handing upon a dry fand,
gravel, or chalk, near the fea ihore, and where there is
no fubterraneous water for at leaft four feet below the
furface of tbe ground. The door of this tent ihould
be made to open towards the fea; and the back part
of it, which receives the land breeze, muft be well
feeured by double canvas, or covered with branches
of trees. But in fuch circumftances, a hut, when it
can be procured, is preferable to a tent, efpecially if
it be well thatched, fo as to prove a defence both
againft the exceflive heat of the fun by day, and the
noxious dews which fall at night. Here tbe men may
be enjoined to fmoke tobacco. When the air is
thick, moift, and chill, the earth being overfpread
with cold dew, a cor ftant fire muft be kept in and
about the tent or hut, as the moil excellent means of
purifying fuch unwholefome air, and of preferving the
health of thofe who either fleeping or waking are ex¬
pofed to its influence. The centinels who guard the
water-calks, ought likewife at fuch a time to have a
fire burning near them. AH old and forfaken habi¬
tations, natural caves and grottos in the earth, where
the men may be induced to take up their abode, muft
before their admiffioa be perfectly dritd aud purified
with
Practice. M E D I
Febres with fufficient fires. Fire and fmoke are undoubtedly
w ’y'"" ' the great purifiers of all tainted and unwholefome air,
and the moil excellent prefervatives againfl its noxious
influence. It is the Cuftom of the negroes in Guinea,
and a!fo of fome Indians (who both fleep for the moil
part on the ground), to have a fire, producing a little
fmoke, conftantly burning in their huts where they
fleep. This not only corre&s the moifture of the
night, but alfo, by occafioning more fmoke than heat,
renders the damp from the earth lefi noxious; of which
Dr Lind gives the following remarkable inftance.
A Guinea Ihip being up one of the rivers for the kike
of trade, it was found to be very dangerous to fleep
on fhore; without which their trade could not be fo
conveniently carried on. Firfl the captain, then the
mate, and two or three of the feamen, were taken ill;
each of them the morning after they had lain on fhore-
By thefe accidents the men were greatly intimidated
from lying afhore; till the furgeon boldly offered to
try the experiment on himftlf. Next morning when
he waked, he found himfelf feized, as the reft, with a
giddinefs and pain in the head, &c. He immediately
acquainted one of the negroes with his condition, who
carried him to his hut, and fet him down in the fmoke
of it; when his fhiverings and giddinefs foon left him.
He then took a dram of the bark bitter; and found
himfelf greatly relieved, efpecially by breathing fome
time in the fmoke.—Thus inftrufted by the negro, he
ordered a large fire to dry the hut he flept in; and
afterwards had every night a fmall fire fufficient to
raife a gentle fmoke, without oceafioning a trouble-
fome heat : and by this means he and feveral others,
ufing the fame precautions, flept many nights on fhore
without any inconvenience.
Fire and fmoke indeed are found to be certain cor¬
rectors, or rather deftroyers, of infedtion in all cafes,
whether arifing from the noxious effluvia of marfties,
or from the contagion of difeafed bodies. Even thofe
moft extraordinary and fatal damps called karmattans,
are unable to refitt the falutary effects of fmoke. In
other cafes, Dr Lind remarks, that, under fome cir-
cumftances, the fource of an infection in a fick cham¬
ber or any other place, may be removed or deftroyed
by accidental means, for which we cannot account,
a,nd which we often cannot afeertain. But it oftener
happens, that it is very difficultly rooted out; and
that exaCt cleanlinefs, with the benefit of a pure air,
often proves infufficient to remove the evil. Smoke,
however, has never been known to fail. It is not to
be doubted, that, excepting the true plague, there
has been ah infection fully as peftilential and as mortal
in fome fhips as in any other place whatever ; yet
k has never been heard, that any fhip, after having
been carefully fmoked, did not immediately become
healthy : and if afterwards they turned fickly, it was
eafy to trace that ficknefs from other infe&ed ffiips,
jails, and the like places.
There are three methods praftifed for purifying
veffels after the men have been removed out of tffim.
The firft is by burning of tobacco. A quantity of
tobacco is fpread on feveral fires, made with fueh old
pieces of rope as are called junk. Thefe are difperfed
into different places of the Ihip, and their heat and
fmoke afterwards clofely confined below for a confide-
*able time.—-The fecund method is by charcoal fires
CINE.
ftrewed with brimftone. The heat and fteam of thefe Typhu
burning materials muft alfo be long and clofe (hut up: —'y—
but, although this fume, properly applied, has been
found by experience to purify moft effe&ually tainted
apartments, (hips, clothes, &c. yet there are fome kinds
of vermin which it will not deftroy, particularly lice.
The third method of purification is performed by the
addition of arfenic to the materials of the fecond pro-
cefs, in the following manner. After carefully (top¬
ping up all the openisgs and every fmall crevice of the
fhip (as was alfo neceffary in the preceding proceffes),
a number of iron pots, properly fecured, are to be pla¬
ced in the hold, orlape, gun-deck. See. Each of thefe
are to contain a layer of charcoal at the bottom, then
a layer of brimftone, and fo alternately three or four
layers of each, upon which the arfenic is to be fprink-
led, and on the top of it fome oakum dipped in tar is
to be laid to ferve as a match. The men, upon fet-
ting fire to the oakum, muft fpeedily leave the place,
(hutting clofe the hatchway by which they came up.
From the known and experienced efficacy of thefe
proceffes, it appears, that fire and fmoke are the moil
powerful agents for annihilating infection; and, it may
be prefumed, even the plague itfelf. t ins is in forne
meafure agreeable to what vve learn from the ancient
records of phyfic. But the prepofterous ufei or rather
abufe, of fire on fuch occafions, has caufed its effects to-
be difregarded by fome, and to be fufpe&ed of mif-
chief by others. The modern pra&ice of burning
large fires in the open air, in the ftreets, and about the
walls of towns infedted with the plague or other conta¬
gion, is founded on principles groundlefs and erroneous t
and has therefore been found by experience not only
unfuccefsful, but hurtful. But though this muft be-
allowed, it doth not thence by any means follow, that
when onceahoufe hath been infedted, and the patients,
removed from it, the doors and wiadows at the fame
time being fhut, that fuch fires will then prove hurtful;
or that, by this method of purification, all the feeds of
contagion will not be effedtually deftroyed. Whenever,
therefore, perfons die of a fpotted fever, a malignant
fore throat, the fmall-pox, or any difteenper found to
be communicable from the fick to others, the corpfe
ought quickly after death to be removed into another
room ; that in v. hich the perfon died (hould be well
aired, by having the windows opened, till a charcoal-
fire be kindled, with fome rolls of fulphur upon it ;
after which, both doors and windows (hould be kept
(hut for a confiderable time, not lefs than eight or teh
hours, till the room be thoroughly fmoked. In feveral
(hips, where there are the faired opportunities of try¬
ing and judging things of this nature, the contagion
of the fmall-pox has been entirely llopged by wood-
fires, fprinkled with brimflone, kept burning and clofe¬
ly confined in the infe&ed place. In a word, a judi¬
cious and proper application of fire and fmoke is (he
beft means for the deftrufticn and utter extinftion of
the moft malignant fources of difeafe; and they are be-
fides the greateft purifiers of all bad and tainted air.
Next to the fmoke of wood for purifying a tainted
air, that of gun-powder is to be efteemed the beft; and
it has this further good property, that it is entirely in-
offeniive to the lungs The cafcarilla-bark, when burn¬
ing, gives a moft agreeable feent to the chamber of the
fickfo is at lead an elegant prefervative, and may
. prevent
*44-
■Febres
M E D I
pfevent liad'fmells from taking effeft. The fteam of
Camphorated vinegar warmed, is ftii! more powerful for
this purpofe. But, befides correfting the ill quality
of the air, and purifying the chamber, another good
effe£t is produced from fuch fleams and fmoke as are
inoffenfiva to the lungs. As foon as the vapour be¬
comes denfe,' the nurfes and patients become defirous
of the admiffion of frefh air by the door or windows.
Now it is certain, that the air in the chambers of the
fick cannot be too often changed, provided the patient
be well covered, and the curtains of his bed, if necef-
fary, be drawn clofe. No argument is fo forcible to
obviate the danger of foul air in a room or ward (oc*
cafioned by the obftinacy of nurfes or relations), as or¬
dering it to be frequently fumigated or frnoked : A
practice more frequent in other countries than in this,
but of great benefit to the fick.
JLaftly, with regard to the methpd of purifying
goods, moveables, clothes, &c. which are fuppofed to
harbour infection, it mufl be obferved, that the ufual
cuftom of only unpacking and expofing fuch materials
to the open air, is in many inftances infufficient to de-
ftroy the latent feeds of difeafe. It is certain indeed,
: that in moft cafes the contagious particles are more
readily and fatally communicated from the clothes of
a fek perfon than from his body. The fpreading a*
broad, therefore, of contaminated clothes to dry or to
be aired, without a previous fumigation of them, may
be of dangerous and fatal confequence. AH fuchfuf-
petted fubftances fhould be firft fumigated in a clofe
place, and in the fame manner as an infe&ed chamber,
after which they may be fpread abroad and expofed to
the air. In infe&kms difeafes, efpecially fevers, the
linen of the fick, er-fuch clothes about them as will
admit of being waihed, ought never at‘firft to be put
in warm water, as it is dangerous to receive the fteam
that may hence arife. It is neceffaiy to fteep them
.firft either in cold water or in cold foap-lees for feve-
ral hours, that the filth may be walked off.
We muft now proceed to give an accountof the me¬
thod of cure, after , thefe methods of preventing the in-
.fe&ion from being received into the body have either
been neglefted or proved ineffe&ual. Here it is of the
-mmoft importance to take the difeafe in the very
beginning, before it hath time to corrupt the fluids to
.fuch a degree as to endanger life. In thefe flight de¬
grees of infeftion, a vomit properly adminiftered, e-
fpecially if fucceeded by a blifter, never fails to re¬
move the difhrder, and prevent the fever which would
otherwife unavoidably follow. Of this Dr Lind
.gives the following inftances. A lady afflicted with
the bilious cholic, had intolerably fetid difeharges of
corupted matters upwards and downwards. A gentle¬
woman, only in palling the room, was immediately
feized with a retching and ficknefs, which continued
24 hours. The nurfe who attended was fuddenly fei¬
zed with a giddmefs and vomiting from the badfmell,
.which, as Ihe expreffed it, reached into her ftomach.
The vomiting became more fevere at night, accompa¬
nied with a purging and frequent Ihiverings. By
means of an emetic both evacuations were flopped-:
.notwithftanding which, for fome days afterwards, llje
continued to have frequent cremors, and a violent head-
.ach, with a low irregular pulfe.; and did not recover
fo foon as the patient.
.N° .204.
C I N E'.; Practice,
Such flight degrees of infection have been often ob- Typhus,
ierved to be derived from patients of a grofs habit of'—
body, when labouring, under inflammatory diftempers,
and even other complaints. . A man was fent to Haf-
lar Hofpital, fnppofed to have a fever. He was fu-
rioufly delirious, with a quick full pulfe. Notwith¬
ftanding plentiful evacuations, this delirium continued
for two months with Ihort intervals; when the cafe
was found to be plainly maniacal. A nurfe, upon raf¬
fing this perfon up in her arms, perceived an intole¬
rably bad fmell, and was inftantly feized with fhiver-
ings, ficknefs, and head-ach. Finding herfelf very ill,
flie took a vomit in fix hours aftemards, and paffed the
night in profufe fweats by means of a fudorific draught.
Next morning the violence of the head-ach was but
little abated ; upon every attempt to move, (he com¬
plained of a burning heat and pain in her forehead,
land became giddy. Her inclination to drink was fre¬
quent, ard her pulfe low and quick. A blifter was im¬
mediately applied to the back; as foon as the blifter
took efleft, the head-ach and thirft entirely left her,
■and the pulfe was calm. Next day fhe arofe and was
-well.
Many fimilar inftances of infedlion have been obfer¬
ved from putting the dead into their coffins. In par¬
ticular, one man, who, from performing that duty to
his meffmate, was fo ill, even after the operation of the
vomit, as to require a blifter. In the courfe of one
week two nurfes were infe&ed by a perfon in the fmall-
pox. Both were feized in like manner with Ihiverings,
ficknefs, and head-ach; the one upon receiving the
patient’s breath, the other upon making-his bed. In
one, a pain darted into her breaft ; in the other, into
the breaft and in the fmall of the back. The com¬
plaints of the former were fpeedily removed by a vo¬
mit, though Ihe continued to have irregular returns of
fhiverings for three days afterwards. But in the latter,
though the head-ach, ficknefs, and rigors, were great¬
ly abated by the vomit, yet a eonftant heat and thirft,
with a low pulfe, and a violent pain in the breaft, in*
dicated the neceffity of applying a blifter to the affec¬
ted parts, which next morning removed all her com¬
plaints.
A perfon is often immediately fenfible of his having
received an infection from the firft attack : they gene¬
rally compare the firft impreffion to an earthy, difa-
greeable fmell, reaching down, as they exprefs it, into
their ftomach, as from a grave newly opened, but not
quite fo raw as the cadaverous ftench ; and the effedts
of it, fliivering and ficknefs, are inftantaneous. It is
a fmell difficult to deferibe ; but is well known to the
nurfes and attendants about the fick, as it ufually ac¬
companies fevers of extreme malignity, and, with the
peculiar difeharges from the bliftered parts, may be
reckoned among the moft conftant fymptoms of a bad
fever. Some compare the fmell to that of rotten ftraw.
It often refembles the difagreeable fmell of a perfon
labouring under the confluent fmall-pox at their turn,
though not foftrong. One perfon, on receiving the in¬
fedlion, was fenfible of fomething like an ekdlric ffiock
through his body. But many are not fenfible of any
effedl from an infedlion at firft; and an infedlion from
a fever will fometimes continue for many days, nay
weeks, difeovering itfelf chiefly by irregular fhiverings,
fometimes fo fevere as to oblige the patients to have
re-
Pradlce.
MEDICINE.
Febres recourfe to their beds once or twice a-day; fometimes
~~Y—J every other day. Among a number thus affe&ed, it
alfo appears, that fuch as are put into unfeafoned cham¬
bers, or have fat down on the cold ground, lain in raw
damp apartments, See. are immediately feized with a
ficknefs at ftomach, fometimes with a dangerous pur¬
ging, and often with fevers accompanied with bad fymp-
toms, which others have entirely efcaped.
It now remains to confider the proper method of
curing putrid fevers, on the fuppofition that the infec¬
tion has been allowed to operate till the blood be¬
comes radically tainted, and of confequence the ner¬
vous fyftem affefted to fuch a degree, that its power
cannot be reftored by any of the fimple medicines
above-mentioned. Here all authors agree, that a
change of air, when it can be effe&ed, is abfolutely ne-
ceifary, and often contributes more towards the remo¬
ving of the diTeafe than all the medicines that can be
exhibited. The utility of this change will appear from
what hath been formerly faid ; and we lhall only fur¬
ther allege one inltance from Dr Lind, in which the
effe&s of bad air appear to a degree almoft incredible.
“ It is remarkable (fays hp), that in the laft war, the
Englifh (hips which touched at Batavia fuffered more
by the malignant and fatal difeafes of that climate,
than they did in any other part ©f India, if we except
a fatal feurvy which once raged in that fleet at fea.
Soon after the capture of Manila, the Falmouth, a flop
of 50 guns, went to Batavia, where Are remained from
the latter end of July to the latter end of January ;
during which time flie buried 100 foldiers of the 79th
regiment and 75 of the Ihips company; not one per-
fon in the Ihip having efcaped a fit of ficknefs, except
her commander Captain Brereton. The Panther, a
Ihip of 60 guns, was there in the years 1762 and 1764;
and both times during the rainy feafon. In the former
of thefe years, Ihe buried 70 of her men ; and 92 of
them were very ill when flie left the place. In the
year 1764, during a fliort flay, 25 of her men died.
The Medway, which was in company with her, loft
alfo a great number of men. Nor was the ficknefs at
that time confined to the fhips; the whole city afford¬
ed a feene of difeafe and death : ftreets crowded with
funerals, bells tolling from morning to night, and
horfes jaded with dragging the dead in hearfes to their
graves. At that time a flight cut of the Ikin, the leaft
fcratch of a nail, or the moft inconfiderable wound,
turned quickly to a fpreading putrid ulcer, which-in 24
hours confumed the flefli even to the bone. This faft
is fo extraordinary, that, upon a fingle teftimony, cre¬
dit would hardly be given to it ; yet on board the
Medway and Panther they had the moft fatal experi¬
ence of it, and fuffered much from it.”
But where a change of air is imprafticable or in-
effettual, and where the fever hath already made fome
progrefs, Sir John Pringle generally took away fome
blood if the pulfe was full. When the fymptomsrun
high, a plentiful evacuation of that kind feemed indi¬
cated ; yet it was obferved that large bleedings gene¬
rally did harm, by finking the pulfe, and affedting the
head. Nor was a moderate bleeding to be repeated
without caution; even thofe whofe blood was fizy, un-
lefs their lungs were inflamed, were the worfe forafe-
cond bleeding. If the head only fuffered, it was much
fafer to ufe leeches than to open a vein in the arm; but
Von. XL Part I.
in the delirium with a funk pulfe, even leeclies were
hurtful. Many recovered without letting blood, but
few who loft much of it.
Vomits alfo muft be ufed with caution; for though
they may be of ufe by way of prevention, yet in the
advanced ftate of the difeafe, when the patient has all
along complained of a ficknefs at ftomach, they are
evidently unfafe. Here the antifeptic quality of fixed
air is of much ufe, and the neutral draughts given in
the aft of effervefcence are generally attended with
happy effefts. Nay, clyfters of fixed air itfelf have
been found very ferviceable. Even in very bad ftages
of the diftemper, where a putrid and colliquative loofe-
nefs has taken place, clyfters of fixed air have been
known to alleviate the fymptoms. We muft not, how¬
ever, put too much confidence in medicines of this
kind. Mild aftringent cordials, efpecially wine and
Peruvian bark, are the only refources in thefe difor-
ders. Concerning the former. Sir John Pringle ob-
ferves, in the low ftate of thefe fevers, and in great fink-
ings, which either come after unfeafonable bleedings
or long want of nourilhment, it was a moft grateful
and efficacious cordial, to which nothing was compa¬
rable. The common men had an allowance, from a
quarter to half a pint in a day, of a ftrongkind, made
into whey, or added to the panada which was their or¬
dinary food. But to others out of the hofpital, he
ufually preferibed Rhenifh or a fmall French wine,
whereof fome confumed near a quart per day, and part
of that undiluted. Nay, fo great was the virtue of
wine in this ftage of the fever, that feveral were known
to recover from the loweft condition, when, refufing the
bark on account of its tafte, they took nothing but a
little panada with wine and a volatile diaphoretic mix¬
ture every two or three hours by turns. Perhaps there
is no rule more neceffary in this ftate, than not to let
the patient when low' remain long without taking fome-
thing cordial and nourilhing; as many have been ob¬
ferved paft recovery, by being fuffered to pafs a whole
night without any fupport about the time of the crifis.
In the advanced ftate of this fever the fick are remark¬
ably low; and therefore Hoffman advifes in fuch cafes,
that they Ihould be conftantly kept in bed, and not
permitted even to fit up in it. In the laft ftage of this
fever, as well as in that of the fea-feurvy, it would feem
that the force of the heart was too fmall to convey the
blood to the brain, except when the body is in an ho¬
rizontal pofture.
But, however neceffary wine and the bark may be in
the low ftage of this fever, we muft remember, that
thefe remedies are to be adminiftered only as antifep-
tics and fupporters of the vis vita, without aiming at
thoroughly raifing the pulfe or relieving the head, or
at forcing a fweat by them, before nature points that
way, and which Sir John Pringle feldom obferved be¬
fore the 14th day. For though the patient may die be¬
fore that time if he has been largely bled, or if the
cordial medicines have been given him too freely, yet
fuch means as he made ufe of were not powerful
enough to bring on a crifis fooner.
In the low ftate of the hofpital-fever, a ftupor was
a conftant attendant, which was very apt, in the even¬
ing, to change to a flight delirium. If this was all,
as being in the common courfe, nothing was done.
But if the delirium increafed upon ufmg wine, if the
T eye*
146 M E D I
Febres ' Cyes looked wild, or tke voice became quick, there
was reafon to apprehend a phrenitis; and accordingly
it was obferved, that at fuch times all internal heating
medicines aggravated the fymptoms; and in thefe cafes
blifters were of the greateil fervice. Fomentations of
vinegar and warm water for the feet, our author is of
opinion would anfwer better than either finapifms or
blifters, provided they were long enough and often
enough applied. In the inflammatory fevers, he has
known thefe fomentations have little effeft for the firft
hour, and yet fucceed afterwards. For internal me¬
dicine, the bark was omitted for fome time, but the
patient was continued with an acidulated drink, w'z.
barley-water and vinegar ; and treated alfo with cam-
phire, pulvis contrayervs compojttus, and nitre, as was
ufual in the beginning of the fever. If the delirium
was of the low kind, a decoftion of the bark and wine
were the only remedies; for in no inftance was the de¬
lirium perfectly removed till the time of the crifis. It
muft alfo be obferved, that a delirium mayarife in pu¬
trid fevers from two oppofite errors ; one from large
and repeated bleedings, and the other from wine and.
the cordial medicines being taken too early. It ap¬
pears therefore how nice the principles are that regard
the cure ; as neither a hot nor a cool regimen will an¬
fwer with every patient, or in every ftate of the difeafe.
If a diarrhoea came on in the decline of the fever, it
was moderated, but not fupprefled, by adding an opiate
to the ufual medicines. For though the loofenefs
may be confidered as critical; yet as the fick were too
low to bear evacuations, there was a neceffity for re-
ftraining it in fome meafure; and it has often been ob¬
ferved, that when it has been treated in this manner,
about the ufual time of the crifis, the patient has fallen
into a gentle fweat, which has carried off the difeafe.
In the worft cafes of this fever, and efpecially when it
coincides with the dyftntery, the ftools are frequent¬
ly bloody; in which dangerous ftate, if any thing,
could be done, it was attempted by medicines of the
* fame kind. In proportion to the putrid nature of the
itools, opiates and aftringents were ufed with the
greatet caution.
If the difeafe terminate in a fuppuration upon one
of the parotid glands (for the gland itfelf does not
fuppurate), the abfeefs was opened without waiting
for a fludtuation, which mig vt never happen ; the pus
being often here fo vifcid, th ,/after it was ripe the part
felt nearly as hard as if the .ppuration had not begum
Almoft every patient, ;.fter the fever, complained
of want of reft, frequently of a vertigo or confufion
of the head, of a continuation of the deafnefs, or of
other fymptoms commonly called nervous. An o-
piate was then given at night ; and in the day fome
ftrengthening medicines, fuch as the bark and the
elixir of vitriol. In thefe cafes, the bark was found
not only to be the belt ftrengthener, but the fureft
prefervative againft a return of the difeafe. For this
laft intention the convalefcent was ordered about three
drachms a-day for fix or feven days together; and af¬
terwards, if he remained longer in the hqfpital, fome
fmaller quantity daily. But if there'was any appear¬
ance of a heftic fever from an inward abfeefs, the cafe
was treated accordingly. Upon comparing fome of
the remaining fymptoms of thofe who recovered, with
the condition of the. brain in thole who died and weie
CINE. Pra&icei
opened, Sir John Pringle was induced to think, that Typhus,
fome part even of that fubftance might fuppurate, and » ll/.
yet the perfon recover.
Sometimes the patient falls into an irregular intei-
mittent; which, if not of a he&ic nature from an inter¬
nal abfeefs, may proceed from neglefting to clear the
primee vise. For it is eafy to conceive, that after a
long fever of fuch a putrid nature, often attended
with langour of the bowels, the faeces may befo much
accumulated, and fo corrupted, as to occafion new
diforders. In fuch>cafes, after proper evacuation by a
purge, the bark was almoft an infallible remedy.
The Yellow Fever.
Typhus cum ffovedine cutis.
Typhus i£teroides, Sauv. fp. 7.
Febris Jlava India Occidentalis, Warren. Malignant x68
fever of Barbadbes,; Hillary'’s Difeafes of Bar-
badoes. Lining on the yellow fever of South
Carolina, Edin. phyf. and liter. Effays, vol. ii.
Mackittrick de febre flava Indiae Occidentalis, E-
din. 1766.
Defcription. This is one of the moft fatal difeafes
to which the inhabitants of warm climates are fubjeft,
and is the fame with that called, from one of its worft
fymptoms, the black vomit, which is fo terribly deftruc-
tive in fome of the warm parts of America, particu¬
larly at Carthagena. According to Dr Hillary, the yel¬
low or putrid bilious fever moft commonly feizes the pa¬
tient at firft with a faintnefs, then with a ficknefs at fto-
mach, accompanied moftly with a giddinefs of the head;,
foon after with a flight chillnefs and horror, very rarely
with a rigor, which is foon followed by a violent heat-
and high fever, attended with acute darting pains in
the head and back. A flufhing in the face, with an
inflamed rednefs and a burning heat in the eyes, great
anxiety and oppreflion about the praecordia, are the
pathognomonic iigns of the diftemper; efpecially when
attended with ficknefs at ftomach, violent retchings, and
bilious yellow vomitings, with frequent fighing. The
pulfe is now generally very quick, high, foft, and fome-
times throbbing, but never hard: in fome it is very quick ;
foft, low, and oppreffed ; the refpiration quick, full;
and fometimes difficult; the fkin very hot, and fome-
times dry, though more frequently moift. Blood
taken front the patient, even at the very beginning of
the difeafe, is often of an exceeding florid red colour;,
much rarefied and thin, and without the leaft appear¬
ance of fize ; and the craffamentum, when it has flood
till it is cold, will fcarce cohere, but fluftuates; the
ferum is very yellow.
Moft of the abovementioned fymptoms continually
increafe, and are much aggravated : the retching and
vomiting become atmoft inceffant; the anxiety great,
and fighing frequent ; great reftleffnefs; continual
toffing ; no eafe in any pofture ; little fteep, and that
difturbed and uneafy, and without any refrefliment to
the fick: and when they are fainting, they turn yel¬
low about the face and neck, inftead of turning pale ;
and as the fainting goes off, they recover their natu¬
ral colour. Thefe fymptoms generally continue to the
third day, though fometimes not longer than the firft
or fecond, in others to the end of the fourth : the firft
(hows the greater diffolution of the blood, and the
greater malignity of the difeafe; the laft, the contrary;
which
'Pra&ice. M E D I
Febres which the improper manner of treating the difeafe
v—'"Y"—*"'1 Sometimes haftens and increafes, or the proper method
retards. This may be called the firft ftadium of the
difeafe, and generally ends on the third day.
Blood taken from the fick on the fecond or third
day, is much more diffolved, the ferum more yellow,
. -and the craflamentum florid, loofe, fcarce cohering,
but undulates like lizy water when {haken, and fome-
times has dark blackifh fpots on its furface, fhowing a
ftrong gangrenefcent diathefis.
About the third day, the pulfe, which was quick
and full before, now generally finks greatly, and be¬
come very low: though fometimes it remains very
quick, yet in others it is not much quicker than when
the patient is in health, but is always low; the vo-
Tniting becomes almoft inceflant if not fo before, and
the matter thrown up is black ; the patient then be¬
comes comatofe, with interrupted deliria. - The thirft
in fome is very great, in others but little ; the pulfe
ftill low and quick, attended with cold clammy fweats,
and fometimes with deliquia. The eyes, which were
inflamed and red before, and began to be of a more
dulkiih colour, how turn yellow ; and this yellownefs
alfo foon after appears round the mouth, eyes, temples,
and neck, and in a ihort time dififufes itfelf all over the
body. But this yellownefs is fo far from being always
an encouraging prognoftic, as fome would have it,
that it moil commonly proves a mortal fymptom.
Sometimes indeed, though feldom, this fuffufion of
bile upon the furface has proved critical; but then it
did not come on till the eighth or ninth day, nor ap¬
pear till the coma and all the other bad fymptoms be¬
gan to abate; and then in proportion as the yellownefs
increafes, all the bad fymptoms decreafe. But the
cafe is moil commonly quite the reverfe; efpecially
when the yellownefs comes foon on: and then it is not
only fymptomatical, but ufhers in the moil fatal fymp¬
toms of the difeafe, viz. a deep coma, a low, vermi¬
cular, and intermitting pulfe, great haemorrhages from
yarious parts of the body, a delirium with laborious
and interrupted refpiration, great anxiety, deep figh-
ing, reftleflnefs, a fubfultus tendinum, coldnefs of the
extreme parts firil, and then all over the body, a fal¬
tering of the fpeech, tremors, and convulfions, which
are foon after followed by death. So that from the
firil appearance of the yellownefs we may fay the pa¬
tient is in the lail ilage of the difeafe, whether it ter¬
minates in death or recovery.
It has been obferved, that, in fome ftrong fanguine
conilitutions, when the patients have not been bled to
a fufficient quantity in the beginning of the difeafe,
the pulfe Has continued full, ftrong, and rapid, but ne¬
ver hard ; the face fluihed, eyes inflamed ; the tongue
dry, with great thirft and heat, till the fecond or
lail ftage of the fever is come on, when the pulfe has
fuddenly funk, and death foon after enfued. Yet in
others, who feemed to be of a plethoric habit, the
tongue has been moift all along, though they have
been delirious moll of the time, and the heat of their
Ikin and the ftrength and quicknefs of their pulfe have
continued, after the firft ftage of the difeafe was over,
pretty near to that of their natural Hate in health, till
within a few hours of their death ; and when they
have had a coma on them, one who is not well ac-
C I N E. I.
quainted with the nature of this difeafe would, from Typhi
their pulfe, heat, breathing, and other fymptoms,
have taken them to be in a natural fleep. Others, when
the pulfe has begun to fink, and the fatal period feem¬
ed to be jull approaching, to the great furprife of-all
prefent have recovered their fenfes, fat up, and talk¬
ed pretty cheerfully for an hour or two, and in. the
midft of this feeming fecurity have been fuddenly
feized with convulfions, which carried them off imme¬
diately.
In the latter ftage of this fever, the blood is fo atte¬
nuated and diffolved, that we frequently fee it flowing
not only out of the nofe and mouth, but from the
eyes, and even through the pores of the Ikin ; alfo •
great quantities of black, half-baked, or half-mortified
blood, are frequently voided both by vomiting and by
ftpol, with great quantities of yellow and blackilh pu¬
trid bile by the fame paffages ; and the urine, which was
bef.re of a high idleritious colour, is now almoft black,
and is frequently mixed with a confiderable quantity
of half-diffolved blood. The pulfe, which was much
funk before, now becomes very low, unequal, and in¬
termitting ; the breathing difficult and laborious ; and
the anxiety inexpreflible : an oppreffion with a burn¬
ing heat about the praecordia comes on, tho’ the extre¬
mities are cold, and often covered with cold clam¬
my fweats: a conftant delirium follows; and then a
total lofs of the outward fenfes as well as t!ie judge¬
ment, with livid fpots in many parts of the body*
efpecially about the prsecordia; and fometimes gan¬
grenes in other parts of the body, which are very foon
fucceeded by death.
In a fhort time after death, the body appears much
more full of livid, large, mortified fpots, particularly
about the praecordia and hypochohdres, efpecially the
right ; which parts feem, even from the firft feizure,
to be the principal feat of this terrible difeafe ; and,
upon opening the bodies of thofe who die of it, we
generally find~the gall-bladder and biliary dudls tur¬
gid, and filled with a putrid blackilh bile; and the li¬
ver, ftomach, and adjoining parts, full of livid or
blackilh mortified fpots; and the whole corpfe foon pu-
trifies after death, and can be kept but a few hours
above ground.
Dr Lind is of opinion, that the remarkable diffo-
lution of the blood, the violent haemorrhages, black
vomit, and the other fymptoms which chara&erize
the yellow fever, are only accidental appearances in the
common fever of the Weft Indies ; that they are to be
efteemed merely as adventitious, in the fame manner
as purple fpots and bloody urine are in the fmall-pox,
or as an hiccough in the dyfentery: like thefe they only
appear when the difeafe is attended with a high de¬
gree of malignity, and therefore always indicate great
danger. This opinion, he thinks, is confirmed by an
obfervation of Dr Wind’s, that in 1750 the crew of
a Dutch fhip of war were diftreffed by the yellow
fever, accompanied with the black vomit; but when
the Ihip left the harbour, and changed the noxious
land-air for one more healthy, the fever continued, but
was not accompanied with the black vomit.
Difeafes fimilar to this fever. Dr Lind informs us,
may arife in any part of the world where the air
is intenfely hot and unwholefome ; and therefore he
T 2 treats
M E D I
treats as chimerical the notion of its being imported
from one part of the world to another. An example
of this happened at Cadiz in Spain, in the months of
September and October 1764, when exceffive heat,
and want of rain for fome months, gave rife to vio¬
lent, epidemic, bilious diforders, refembling thofe of
the Weft Indies, of which 100 perfons often died in
a day. At this time the winds blew principally from
the fouth, and after fun-fet there fell an unufual and
very heavy dew.
This difeafe began commonly with alternate flight
chills and heats, naufea, pains of the head, back, loins,
and at thepit of the ftomach. Thefe fymptoms were often
followed, in lefs than 24 hours, with violent retchings,
and vomiting of a green or yellow bile, the fmell of
which was very offeniive. Some threw up an humour
as black as ink, and died foon after in violent convul-
fions and in a cold fweat. The pulfe was fometimes
funk, fometimes quick, but often varying. After the
firft day, the furface of the body wfas generally either
cold, or dry and parched. The head-ach and ftupor
often ended in a furious delirium, which cyiickly proved
fatal. The dead bodies having been examined by
order of the court of Madrid, the ftomach, mefentery,
and inteftine's, were found covered with gangrenous
fpots. rl he orifice of the ftomach appeared to have
been greatly affected, the fpots upon it being ulce¬
rated. The liver and lungs feemed to be putrid, both
from their texture and colour. The ftomach con¬
tained a quantity of an atrabilious liquor, which, when
poured on the ground, produced a fenfible effervef-
cence ; and, when mixed with fpirit of vitriol, a viof
lent ebullition enfued. The dead bodies fo quickly
turned putrid, that at the end of fix hours their fetor
was intolerable; and, in fome of them, worms were
found already lodged in the ftomach. His Majefty’s
fhip the Tweed being at that time in Cadiz bay, fe-
veral of her men were taken ill when on ftiore, but
by being carried on beard all of them recovered.
Neither did the black vomit, or any other deadly
fymptom of that fever, make its appearance in any of
the ftn’ps.
It has been a matter of much difpute, whether the
yellow fever is of an infe&ious nature or not. Some
time ago it became an objeft of confideration before
the Right Hon. the Lords Commiffioners of Trade and
Plantations, where it was urged, among other rcafons,
for not removing the feat of government and juftice
in the ifland of Jamaica from Spanifti Town to King-
ftbn, that there was danger from Greenwich hofpital,
fttuated near Kingfton, of an infe&ion from the yellow
fever being frequently communicated to that town.
On this affair a phyffcian was confulted, who had long
pradfifed in that iftand, and who gave it as his opi¬
nion, that from the yellow fever in that ifland there
was no infe&ion. This was the opinion not only of
that gentleman, but of many others who had an op¬
portunity of being well acquainted with this fever in
Jamaica. Dr Lind,, however, gives a remarkable in-
ftance of its being of an infectious nature.—A gen¬
tleman dying at Barbadoes of a yellow fever, his
wearing apparel and linen, packed up in a eheft, were
fent to his friends at Philadelphia; where, upon open¬
ing the cheft, the family was taken ill; and the clothes
feeing unluckily hung abroad .to be aired, they pre*
CINE. Practice*
fently diffufed the contagion of the yellow fever over Tyi hns.
the whole town, by which 200 perfons died. Thefe v—~y—
contradictions, Dr Lind thinks, can only be reconciled,
by fupppfing the yellow fever in the Weft Indies to be
fometimes of an infectious natiire and fometimes not.
In the defcription of the fame fever by Dr Lining,
as it appears in South Carolina, there are feveral *
particulars confiderably different from that by Dr
Hillary. According to the former, people complained
for a day or two before the attack, of a head-ach, pain
in the loins and extremities, efpecially in the knees
and calves of the legs, lofs of appetite, debility, and a
fpontaneous laffitude. Some, however, were feized
fuddenly, without any fuch previous fymptoms. After
a chillinefs and horror, with which this difeafe gene¬
rally invades, a fever fucceeded. The pulfe was very
frequent, till near the termination of the fever, and
was generally full, hard, and confequently ftrong : in
fome, it was fmall and hard; in others, foft and fmall;
but in all thofe cafes, it frequently varied in its full-
nefs and hardnefs. Towards the termination of the
fever, the pulfe became fmaller, harder, and lefs fre¬
quent. In fome there was a remarkable throbbing
in the carotids and in the hypochondria ; in the latter
of which it was fometimes fo great, that it caufed a
conftant tremulous motion of the abdomen. The heat
generally did not exceed 102 degrees of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer; in fome it was lefs; it varied frequently,
and was commonly nearly equal in all parts, the heat
about the prascordia being feldom more intenfe than
in the extremities when thefe were kept covered. In
the firft day of the difeafe, fome had frequent returns
of a fenfe of chilltnefs, though there was not any abate¬
ment of their heat. In a few, there happened fo great
a remilfion of the heat for fome hours, when at the
fame time the pulfe was foft and lefs frequent, and
the Ikin fo moift, that one from thefe circumftanees
might reafojiably have hoped that the fever would only
prove a remittent or intermittent. About the end of
the fecond day, the heat began to abate. The Ikin was
fometimes (though rarely) dry ; but oftener, and in¬
deed generally, it was moift, and difpofed to fweat.
On the firft day, the fweating was commonly profufe
and general ; on the fecond day, it was more mode¬
rate : but on both thefe, there happened frequent and
Ihort remiflions of the fweatings; at which times the
febrile heat increafed, and the patient became more
uneafy. On the third day, the difpofition to fweat
was fo much abated, that the Ikin was generally dry ;
only the forehead and backs ®f the hands continued
moift. The refpiration was by no means frequent or
difficult; but was foon accelerated by motion, or the
fatigue of drinking a cup of any liquid. The tongue
was moift, rough, and white, even to its tip and edges.
On the fecond day, its middle in fome was brown.
On the third day, the whitenefs and roughnefs of the
tongue began to abate. The thirft in very few was
great. A naufea, vomiting, or frequent retchings to
vomit, efpecially after the exhibition of either medi¬
cines or food, came on generally the third day, as the
fever began to leflen ; or rather as the fulnefs of the
pulfe, heat, and difpofitiqn to fweat, began to abate.
Some indeed, but very few, on the firft day, had a
vomiting, either bilious Or phlegmatic. . Very few
complained of anxiety or opprelfion about the praecor-
dia
Pra<5tice. M E D I
Febres dia or hypochondria, nor was there any tenfion or
liardnefs about the latter. On the firfl day they ge¬
nerally dozed much, but were afterwards very watch¬
ful. ReftlefThefs and ahnoft continual jadfatic?tis came
on the fccond day. A great defpondency attended
the lick, and the ftrength was greatly proftrated from
t, the firft attack. The pain in the head, loins, &c. of
which they had complained before the attack, were
greatly increafed, and in fome the pain in the fore¬
head was very acute and darting; but thofe pains
went generally off the fecond day. The face was
flulhed ; and the eyes were hot, inflamed, and unable
to bear much light. On the firll day, many of them
at times were a little delirious, but afterwards not
until the recefs of the fever. The blood faved at ve-
nefeftion .had not any inflammatory cruft; in warm
weather, it was florid like arterial blood, and conti¬
nued in one foft homogeneous-like'mafs, without any
feparation of the ferum after it was cold. When
there was any feparation, the craflamentum was of a
very lax texture. The ftools, after the firft day, were
fetid, inclined to a black colour, and were very rarely
bilious, foft, or liquid, excepting when forced by art;
for an obftinate coitivenefs attended the febrile ftate.
The urine was difcharged in a large quantity, was
pale, fometimes limpid, and rarely of a higher than a
ftraw colour, except when the weather was very warm,
and then it was more faturated, of a deep colour, and
difcharged in fmaller quantities. It had a large cloud,
except when it was very pale or limpid ; but more ge¬
nerally it had a copious white fediment, even on the
firft day of the fever. On the fecond day, the urine
continued to be difcharged very copioufly; in fome
it was then turbid, and depofited a more copious fedi-
ment than on the firft day : this fediment was fome¬
times of a brown iih colour ; in which cafe it was ge¬
nerally followed by bloody urine, either about the
end of the fecond or beginning of the third day 
The colour and quantity of the urine, difcharged in
equal times, were remarkably variable, being now
limpid, then of a deeper colour, now difcharged in a
larger, then in a fmaller quantity ; which could not
be afcribed to any change made either in the quantity
or quality of the drink, &c.
The fever accompanied with thofe fymptoms ter¬
minated on the third day, or generally in lefs than 72
hours from the firft attack, not by any affimilation or
coition and excretion of the morbid matter : for if by
the latter, there would have been fome critical dif-
charge by fweat, urine, ftool, or otherwife, none of
which happened; and if by the former, nothing then
would have remained but great debility. This fever.
G I N E.
however, did not terminate in either of thefe faintary Typhus
ways, excepting in fome, who were happy enough to
have the difeafe conquered in the beginning by proper
evacuations, and by keeping up a plentiful fweat, till
the total folution of the fever, by proper mild dia¬
phoretics and diluents. But thofe who had not that
good fortune, however tranquil things might appear
at this period (as great debility, and a little yellow-
nefs in the white of the eyes, feemed then to be the
chief complaint, excepting when the vomiting conti¬
nued), yet the face of affairs was quickly changed : for
this period was foon fucceeded by the fecondySWium ;
a ftate, though without any fever, much more terrible
than the firft : the fymptoms in which were the follow¬
ing. The pulfe, immediately after th e recefs of the fever,
was very little more frequent than in health, but hard
and final!. However, though it continued fmall, it
became, foon afterwards, flower and very foft; and
this foftnefs of the pulfe remained as long as the pulfe
could be felt. In many, in this ftage of the difeafe,
the pulfe gradually fubfided, until it became fcarce
perceptible ; and this, notwithftanding all the means
ufed to fupport and fill it ; and when this was the
cafe, the i6teritious-like fuffufion, the vomiting, de¬
lirium, reftleffnefs, See. increafed to a great degree.
In fome, the-pulfe, after being exceedingly fmall and
fcarce perceptible, recovered confiderably its fullnefs ;
but that favourable appearance was generally of but
Ihort continuance. The heat did not exceed the na¬
tural animal-heat; and when the pulfe fubfided, the
/kin became cold, and the face, breaft, and extremi¬
ties acquired fomewhat of a livid colour. The Ikin
was dry when the weather was cold, but was moift and
clammy when the weather was hot. The refpiration
was natural, or rather flow. Th® tongue was moift,
and much cleaner than in the former ftage ; its tip and
edges, as alfo the gums and lips, were of a more florid
red colour than ufual. Very few complained of thirft,
though they had a great defire for cold liquors. The
vomiting or retching to vomit increafed, and in fome
was fo conftant that neither medicines nor aliment of
any kind were retained. Some vomited blood ; others
only what was laft exhibited, mixed with phlegm;
and others again had what is called the black vomit (a).
The retching to vomit continued a longer or /horter
time according to the ftate of the pulfe ; for as that
became fuller, and the heat greater, the retching to vo¬
mit abated, and e contra." The inquietude was very ob¬
ftinate ; and when they dozed, their /lumbers were but
ftiort and unrefrefhing. There were fome who ‘were
drowfy ; but thefe always awaked, after the ihorteft
/Limbers, with a great dejection of fpiritsaiid ftrength.
2 The
(a) That which is called the black vomit at firft fight appears to be black ; but on a more careful examination,
it was obferved that this cobur proceeded from a great quantity of fmall flakey black fubilances which floated
in the liquor thrown, up by vomiting; but the colour of this liquor was much the fame with that which the pa¬
tient had laft drank, and was by no means black. Thofe black flakey fubftances are the bile mixed with, or
adhering to the mucus which lined the ftomach. 'For, upon diffe&ion of thofe who died of this difeale, it.
was always obferved that the mucus of the ftomach was abraded, and the bile in its cyftis was black and fome¬
times very vifeid. In a lad who died of this difeafe in the beginning of the fourth day, and who was immedi¬
ately opened, the bile was not only black, but had the confiftence of thick venice-turpentine, and was exceed-
ingly tough. On the infide of the ftomach, there were feveral carbuncles or gangrenous fpecks. And in all
thofe who were diffe&ed, and had died of this difeafe, the fame appearance*® were not only always obferved, but '
likewife the blood was very fluid, and the.veffels of the vifeera were much diftendedt--
ijo M E D I
Fcbres The jactations or reflleiTnefs were furprifing: it was
^ frequently fcarce poffible to keep the patients in bed;
though, at the fame time, they did not complain of
any anjciety or uneafmefs; but if alked how they did,
the reply was, Very •well. The debility was fo great,
that, if the patient was raifed ere& in the bed, or, in
fome, if the head was only railed from the pillow,
while a cup of drink was given, the pulfe funk imme¬
diately, and became fometimes fo fmall, that it could
fcarce be felt; at this time, they became cold, as in a
•horripilatio, but without the anferine like Ikin : their
lips and Hein, efpecially about the neck, face, and ex¬
tremities, together with their nhils, acquired a livid
colour. The delirium returned and increafed ; it was
generally conftant in thofe whofe pulfe was fmall and
fubfiding. The inflammation of the tunica conjundliva
or white of the eyes increafed much, but without
pain. A yellownefs in the white of the eyes, if it did
not appear before in the febrile ftate, became now
■rery obfervable, and that ifteritious-like colour was
dfoon diffufed over the whole furface of the body, and
was continually acquiring a deeper faffron-like colour.
In fome indeed no yellownefs was obfervable, except¬
ing in the white of the eyes, until a little before death,
when it increafed very quickly, efpecially about the
breaft and neck. There were many fmall fpecks, not
raifed above the flein, which appeared very thick in
the breaft and neck, but lefs fo in the extremities,
and were of a fcarlet, purple, or livid colour. In wo¬
men the menftrua flowed, and fometimes exceffively,
•though not at their regular period.
There was fuch a putrid diflblution of the blood in
this ftadium of the difeafe, that, befides the vomiting
-of blood formerly mentioned, and the bloody urine
foon to be taken notice of, there were haemorrhagies
from the nofe, mouth, ears, eyes, and from the parts
which were bliftered with cantharides. Nay, in the
year 1739 and 1745, there were one or two inftances
of an haemorrhagy from the flein, without any apparent
punfture or lofs of any part of the fcarf-fkin.
An obftinate coftivenefs continued in fome; in
others, the ftools were frequent and loofe; in fome
;they were black, liquid, large, and greatly fatiguing;
in others, when the ftools were moderate, even though
they were black, they gave great relief; in others,
.again, the ftools nearly refembled tar in fmoothnefs,
tenacity, colour, and coniiftence.
rl he urine was difeharged in a large quantity, in
proportion to the drink retained by the patient : it
was pale if the patient was not yellow ; but if yellow,
then it was of a deep faffron-colour : in either cafe,
it had a fediment, or at leaft a large cloud, which
remained at the bottom of the glafs; in fome, it was
very turbid ; in others it was bloody : and the quan¬
tity of blood difeharged with the urine bore always
fome proportion to the ftate of the pulfe ; when that
became fuller, the quantity of blood in the urine was
diminilhed ; when the pulfe fubfided, the bloody
urine increafed, and even returned after it had ceafed
fomc days, foon after the pulfe became fmaller. This
ftage of the difeafe continued fometimes feven or
eight days before the patient died.
When this ftadium of the difeafe terminated in
health, it was by a recefs or abatement of the vomit-
CINE. Practice. ^
ing, haemorrhagies, delirium, inquietude, ja&ations, Typhu«. ||
and i<fteritious-like fuffufion of the Ikin and white of r—^
the eyes ; while, at the fame time, the pulfe became
fuller, and the patient gained ftrength, which, after
this difeafe, was very flovvly. But when it termi¬
nated in death, thofe fymptoms not only continued,
but fooner or later increafed in violence, and were'fuc-
ceeded with the following, which may be termed the
third Jladiurn of the difeafe, which quickly ended in
death. The pulfe, though foft, became exceedingly
fmall and unequal; the extremities grew cold, clam¬
my, and livid; the face and lips, in fome, w'ere flufh- I
ed ; in others, they were of a livid colour; the livid
fpecks increafed fo fall, that in fome the whole
breaft and neck appeared livid ; the heart palpitated
ftrongly ; the heat about the pracordia inc.eafed
much ; the refpiration became difficult, with frequent
fighing ; the patient now became anxious, and ex¬
tremely reftlefs; the fweat flowed from the face, neck,
and breaft; blood flowed from the mouth, or nofe,
or ears, and in fome from all thofe parts at once ; the
deglutition became difficult; the hiccoughs and fub-
fultus of the tendons came on, and were frequent;
the patients trifled with their fingers, and picked the
naps of the bed-clothes ; they grew comatous, or
were conftantly delirious. In this terrible ftate, fome
continued eight, ten, or twelve hours before they died,
even after they had been fo long fpeechlefsy and
without any perceptible pulfation of the arteries in
the wrifts ; whereas, in all other acute difeafes, after
the pulfe in the wrifts ceafes, death follows immedi¬
ately. When the difeafe was very acute, violent con-
yulfions feized the unhappy patient, and quickly
brought this ftadium to its fatal end. After death,
the livid blotches increafed fall, efpecially about the
face, breaft, and neck, and the putrefaction began
very early, or rather increafed very quickly.
This was the progrefs of this terrible difeafe through
its feveral ftadia. Butin hot weather, and when the
fymptoms in the firft ftage were very violent, it paffed
through thofe ftages with fuch precipitation that there
was but little .opportunity of diftinguilhing its different
ftadia, the whole tragedy having been finifhed in lefs
than 48' hours. It was remarkable, that, 1. The in-
feftioH wras increafed by warm and leffened by cold
weather. 2. The fymptoms in the feveral ftadia were
more or lefs violent, according to the heat or coolnefs
of the weather. In hot days, the fymptoms were not
only more violent,-but in thofe who feemed in mode¬
rate weather to be on the recovery, or at leaft in no
danger, the fymptoms were all fo greatly heightened,
when the weather grew confiderably warmer, as fre¬
quently to become fatal. In cool days, the fymptoms
were not only milder, but many who were apparently
in great danger in hot days were faved from the very
jaws of death by the weather becoming happily cooler.
3. The difeafe was generally more fatal to thofe who
lay in fmall chambers not conveniently fi uated for the
admiffion of frefh air, to thofe of an athletic and full
habit, to ftrangers who were natives of a cold cli¬
mate, to thofe who had the greateft dread of it, and
to thofe who before the attack of the difeafe had
overheated themfelves by exercife in the fun, or by
exceffive drinking of ftrong liquors; either of which
indeed
Practice. M E D I
Febres mdeed feemed to render the body mote fufceptible of
L—f—— tjie infei^ion. Laftly, the difeafe proved moft certain¬
ly fatal to valetudinarians, or to thofe who had been
weakened by'any previous difeafe.
Although from the defcription which has now been
given of the yellow fever, it may appear to be in many
particulars very different from the remittent- fever of
warm climates; yet it is the opinion of many late
writers of great accuracy, particularly of Dr John
Hunter in his Obfervations on the Difeafes of the
Army in Jamaica, that it is to be confidered only as
a more dangerous form of the fame-difeafe. And there
can be no doubt that the remittent fever not only ap¬
pears in different feafons and fituations with very dif¬
ferent degrees of feverity; but alfo that while the re¬
mittent fever prevails in its ufual form in the Well
India iflands, fome individuals, particularly thofe who-
are newly arrived, will be affected with veiy, remark¬
able yellownefs, as well as bilious and black vomit-
ings.
Caufes of, and perfons fulfil to, this difeafe. The
yellow fever attacks principally Europeans, efpecially
thofe who-have but lately arrived in the hot climates.
Negroes are entirely exempt from it, though the mu-
lattoes and tawnies are as liable to be feized with it as
the whites themfelves. The caufe of the difeafe feems
to be a particular kind of contagion ; but Dr Lind
feems to be of opinion, that the immediate caufe of
the fymptoms is a difpofition in the glutinous part of
the blood to leparate from the others, and to become
purulent. In fome perfons who have been bled in the
yellow fever, the blood hath been obferved prodigioufly
vifcid; the craffamentum covered with a yellow gluten
half an inch in thicknefs, and impenetrable to the fin¬
ger unlefs cut by the nail; the ferum being at the fame
time of the confidence of a thin fyrup, and of a deep
yellow tinge. This ferum tailed bitter, and was taken
for a compofition of foot. The appearances on diflec-
tion, with his conclufions from them, we lhall give in
his own words : “ In a man who died on the eleventh
day of a yellow fever, whofe body emitted no bad
fmell 36 hours after death, and was Hill yellow, I
found all the bowels of the abdomen found; the liver
and fpleen were remarkably fo ; as alfo the ftomach
and inteftines. There was no fuffufion of the bile ei¬
ther in the inteliines or ftomach. The gall-bladder,
of the natural fize, contained the ufual quantity
of bile, fomewhat thicker than common, and gru-
mous(B).
“ Upon examining further, this difeafe was found to
have lain wholly on the left fide, where, within the
breaft, was found near a quart of yellowilh water, in
which were many large flakes of yellowilh gluten, ap¬
pearing, by comparifon, precifely the fame with the
thick pellicle which had covered the blood taken from
his arm. Thefe flakes bore, in feveral places a refem-
blance to a membranous fubftance beginning to be
converted into a purulent jelly. The pleura, both on
its infide and outfide, as alfo its continuation, the in-
vtfting membrane of the lungs (which in fome parts
CINE.
was greatly thickened), were covered with cakes of Typ
this gluten, hanging in fome places loofely, in others v
adhering more ftrongly; and all in different Hates of
yellow or purulent corruption. The right cavity of
the breaft, and all the other parts of his body, were
found entirely free from difeafe.
“ His complaints had been chiefly in his breaft ;
and a fmall quantity of blood, taken from him two
days before his death, was covered with an impene¬
trable, yellow, thick gluten; the red portion below it
being quite loofe.
“ In thofe fevers, I have alfo feen the difeafe entire¬
ly confined to the heart and pericardium. In one who
died the tenth day of the fever, without having been
yellow, a quantity of pus and purulent crufts were
found mixed with the water of the pericardium. The
heart in different places was excoriated; and, toge¬
ther with the in'fide of the pericardium, was lined
with a thick membranous cake, fimilar to that already
mentioned oh the lungs and pleura. In fome places
this cake had a purulent, in others a gelatinous, ap¬
pearance, exactly refembling the coagulnm of the
blood. His complaints had been, a great oppreflion
on the breaft, and an extreme difficulty ©f breathing,.
In a third perfon, who died on the thirteenth day of
the fever, above two quarts of pus and purulent jelly
were found in the cavity of the. belly. The fource of
fuch an extraordinary quantity of matter was not from
any preceding inflammation, nor any impofthume, that
we could difcover; but from innumerable ulcerations
on the furface of the inteftines,. omentum, mefentery,
and peritoneum. Neither did thofe ulcerations (or
excoriations, as they rather appeared .in feveral places)
feem to be the primary fountains of the matter, but
to have been occafioned by its acrimony.
“ This purulent appearance feems to arife merely from
an extravafation of one of the component parts of the
blood, the gluten or coagulable lymph. Blood taken
from perfons in a fever, and frequently even from
perfons in perfedl health, after Handing in a clean
veffel for a fhort time, commonly feparates into three
diftinil portions ; viz. the ferum, or water of the
blood, the red concreted mafs,: and a vifcid pellicle
termed the fze, which fpreads itfelf on the top of the
red concretion. Some time ago, when making expe¬
riments with the blood taken from perfons in the
fcurvy, 1 was furprifed to find it often covered with
that fizy cruft. This induced me to extend my expe¬
riments to large quantities of blood from different
fubjedts, which I had opportunities of infpefting at
once in fo large an hofpital. For this purpofe I one
morning ordered, ten patients in the fcurvy to be bled,
taking two ounces from each. A larger quantity was
taken, for its infpeftion, from two men in health..
That day I had occafion to prefcribe bleeding to a
woman in labour, two hours before her delivery; to
a girl of fixteen years of age affiifted with a lunacy
proceeding from the chlorofis; to three patients in the
rheumatifm; and to a perfon labouring under an ob-
ftru&ion of the liver.
1 “ From
(b) In others who died in this yellow ftate, the bile in the gall-bladder was found of a thick ropy confiftence
like pitch, but the liver never appeared in the leaft afFe&ed. Dr Lind at firft in feveral bodies, opened the
head only ; but afterwards judged that all the cavities.ought to be infpe&ed.
1^2 ' M E D I
Febres “ From a nice comparifon, and an examination of
the different blood, I found in general, that the more
fize there was on the top, and the thicker and more
vifcid this white pellicle fhowed itfelf, the concretion
Felow it was of a more loofe coherence. This was not
fo obfervable when only fome flight white ftreaks ap¬
peared on the top. But when much fize hadfeparated
itfelf, the red mafs became very foft at the bottom of
the veffel, and lefs compaft in its different parts, in
proportion to their diftance from the furface, towards
which this whitifh portion had afcended.
“ From this and from other experiments it appears,
that this cruft or pellicle is the natural gluten or ce¬
ment of the blood (called by fome the coagulable
lymphh which becomes ftrongly difpofed, in certain
circumftances and difeafes, to feparate itfelf. And
whereas the ferum and red concretion are eafily incor¬
porated together, it will be found, that this glue, af-
. ter its feparation, becomes immifcible with either. We
have, by gentle drying, converted it into a perfectly
tough elaftic membrane; and, by the means of a fmall
portion of the red mafs being left adhering to it, into
a fubftance refembling mufcular flefh; and it is capable
of undergoing various changes into cormption, in the
fame manner as either of thefe.
“ Now, I can fee no reafon why this gluten, in its
morbid ftate, may not feparate itfelf from the circu¬
lating blood, and be depofited in the cavities of the
body, as readily as the ferum does in dropfies ; the
former having always a lefs difpofition than the latter
-to incorporate with the mafs.
“ In diffefting perfons who died of fevers in Lon¬
don and Minorca, and where no infeftion was fufpeft-
ed, appearances fimilar to thefe have alfo fallen under
the infpeflion of thofe accurate anatomifts Drs Hun¬
ter and Cleghorn. Hence it may be prefumed very
difficult to diftinguifh fevers that are produced by
infection, from fome others. I cannot, however, be
induced to think, as thofe gentlemen feem to do, that
thefe preternatural fubftances which were found in the
cavities of the body are the confequence, but rather
that they are the caufe, of the inflammation and ex¬
coriations. I believe thefe fubflances to be at firft dif-
eafed extravafated gluten, and conjecture their differ¬
ent ftates greatly to depend upon the different times
at which they were depofited.
“ I h ve remarked, in a variety of dead bodies,
three different kinds of extravafation ; thefe occurred
in fuch as had died of the feurvy, of confumption,
and of fevers. In the former' of thofe difeafes, red
coagulated blood is found extravafated in almoft all
parts of the body, not only into the tela cellulofa,
but into the bellies of the mufcles, particularly of the
\gs and thighs, which often become quite fluffed and
even diftorted with large grumous maffes The in-
ieftines and mefentery are often fpotted alfo with ex-
. . fated blood; and 1 have feen large ecchymofeson
1 ,, Slomach. Thofe appearances at firft fight refem-
e; fo many diftinft mortifications ; and by this ap-
pearance fome anatomifts have been deceived; but,
upon a nice examination, the texture of the parts is
found to be found and firm. There is like wife, in
that difeafe, fometimes, an extravafation of water,
chiefly eolle&ed in, and always when in the legs con¬
fined tu, the tela ccllulofa.
N° 204.
CINE. Practice,
“ But whereas, in the limbs of fcorbutic perfons, Typhus.
it is' extremely difficult to make a good diffe&ion by  
reafon of fuch quantities of extravafated blood that
every where obftrudt the operator; fo, on the con¬
trary, the lower extremities of thofe who have died
confumptive, with fwelled legs, are, of all other fub-
jefts, in the beft ftate to afford a fatisfa&ory view of
the mufcles. The water inclofed in their legs having
infinuated itfelf, by paffing the tek cellulofa, into the *
fpaces between the mufcles, the mufcles are eafily fe-
parated from each other; and their feveral origins and
infertions may be diftindtly traced by means of their
having been cleanfed and waffied by the water in the
invefting cellular membrane. Thus there are extrava-
fations of three forts; viz. firft, the grumous mafs in
the feuryy; and this I have often remarked where no
ferum was obferved. Secondly, the ferum alone rn
anafarcous fwellings. The third and laft is what was
taken notice of in thofe who died of fevers, being the
gluten of the blood, accompanied for the moft part
with fome ferum ; both of them altogether confined
in the large cavities of the body.
“ 1 conje&ure, that in thofe fevers there is always
an ulcerous or purulent difpofition in the blood ; and
that this gluten or coagulable lymph is greatly dif-
eafed. I have frequently feen it have a true purulent
appearance foon after it was drawn off, when the pa¬
tient feemed not very ill.
“ And I further conje£lure, that the mifehief often
lies within the breaft; as alfo that the great benefit de¬
rived from the very early application of blifters, in a
great meafure flows from fo many ulcerations and vents
being timely provided for the free difeharge of thofe
purulent and tainted particles from the body.
“ If an infe&ion depends, as many have imagined,
on the admiffion of certain foreign particles into the
blood, this gluten feems to be its more immediate
feat, and to be primarily affedted by it; and a dif¬
eharge of this, as though by wafliing thofe particles
out of the body, tends in a great meafure to remove
the difeafe.
“ It is an obfervation of the beft practical writers,
that iffues and fetons are moft excellent prefervatives
againft receiving an infedliofi, nay, even that of the
plague itfelf. And indeed a fuppuration and plentiful
difeharge from a proper ulcer, whether produced by
nature or by art, feems to open a channel the beft ap¬
propriated for an exit out of the body to fome of the
moft malignant poifons. Thus the moft favourable
crifis in the plague, and in moft peftilential fevers,
happens u hen nature excites tumors kindly fuppura-
ting in the groin or arm-pits, by whofe beneficial and
plentiful difeharge the deadly poifon is expelled from
the conftitution.
“ I have obferved it to be amongft the moft certain
cbaraCteriftics of the worft fevers, that the blifters ei¬
ther do not rife and fill, or difeharge fuch yellow,
greenifli, fetid, and highly oftenfive ftuff, that even
experienced nurfes could give a pretty certain conjec¬
ture from the blifters, of the different degrees of ma¬
lignity in the fever. We have more than once endea¬
voured to conceal the bad ftate of fome patients in the
hofpital; but a difeovery was always made of their
condition in the wafh-houfe, from the linen fent there
ftaiaed with the difeharges from the bliftcred parts.
And
Pra6Mc£, M E D I
Febre^ And indeed a careful jnfpe&ion of the Hate and cKf-
charge from the blifters, together with their effe&s,
Furnifhes us, in thofe difeafes, with fome of the moll
certain diagnoltics of their nature and prognollics of
their event.”
Prognofis. This diftempcr, where it attacks with
> violence, is generally fatal; the prognofis therefore
%jmilt be commonly unfavourable, and always uncer¬
tain ; neither can any thing more be faid on this fub-
je£l, than that an abatement of the fymptoms already
enumerated affords a favourable prognoflic, and an in-
creafe of them the contrary.
Cure. The cure of this terrible difeafe, according
to Dr Hillary, is very eafy and Ample. His indica¬
tions are, i. To moderate the too great and rapid
•motion of the fluids, and abate the too great heat and
violence of the fever in the two firft days of the dif-
vafe, as much and as fafely as we can. 2. To evacu¬
ate and carry out of the body as much of the putrid
bile and other humours, and as expeditioufly and fafe¬
ly as pofiible. 3. To put a flop to the putrefcent
difpofition of the fluids, and to prevent the gangrenes
from coming on, by fuitable antifeptics.
The firft indication is anfwered by bleeding, which,
in the firft flage of this fever, is abfolutely neceflary in
fome degree : the quantity to he taken away mult be
determined by the age and ftrength of the patients,
the degree of plethora, fulnefs of the pulfe, &c.
When called in at the beginning, he orders 12, 14,
16, 18, or 20 ounces of blood to be taken away on
the firft or fecond day: and if the patient’s pulfe rife
after the firft bleeding, or if the fever ftill continue
bigh and the pulfe full, he repeats the bleeding once
on the days above-mentioned. But bleeding a third
time is feldom or never required ; neither is bleeding
on the third day almoft ever neceflary; and when it is
performed on that day, it ought to be done with the
greateft caution and judgment: neither Ihould a vein
tie opened after the third day in this fever, unkfs fome
very extraordinary fymptoms and circumftances re¬
quire it; which feldom or never happen. On that
day, indeed, the pulfe generally finks, and the blood
is in fuch a diflblved ftate, that bleeding mull be ac¬
counted highly pernicious. Neverthelefs, it is in-
difpenfably neceflary in the beginning of the diftem-
per ; and if omitted at that time, the violent heat and
motion of the blood increafe the putrefcence of the
humours to fuch a degree as to bring on the fatal con-
fequences much fooner than would otherwife have hap¬
pened.
After bleeding, we come to the fecond indication
of cure, namely, to evacuate as much of the bilious
and putrid humours as foon and as fafely as we can.
The great irritation of the flomach, by the putrid bi¬
lious humours conftantly attending this fever, with
almoft continual retchings and violent vomitings, feem
to indicate the giving of an emetic : but the llomach
is always obferved to be fo violently ftimulated and ir¬
ritated and moll commonly inflamed by the acrimony
• of the putrefcerft bile, that any emetic, even the moil
mild and gentle, given in the fmalleft dofe, brings on
an inceflant vomiting, which continues, in fpite of all
remedies, till a mortification and death enfue. Inllead
of this, it is proper to give large draughts of warm
water, which, without any additional itimulus to the
Voi.. XI. Parti,
CINE. 1
coats of the ftomach, evacuates its acrid and putrid Typh
contents, commonly with great relief to the patient: "V*
the warm water alfo a<Sls as an emollient fotus to the
inflamed coats of the ftomach; and thus abates the
inflammation, and prevents the gangrene and morti¬
fication from coming on.
After the patient has by this means vomited feven
or eight times or oftener, and difcharged a great
quantity of yellow and blackifli bilious matter as they
often do, a grain or a grain and a half of thebaic
extraft is given in order to procure fome refpite from
the violent retching, vomiting, and anxiety. The per-
fon is delired to take nothing into his ftomach for two
hours after this, by which means it is feldom or never
rejefted; and thus all the fymptoms are confiderablr
abated, the retching and vomiting either totally ceafe
or are very much leflened, fo that medicines may now
be exhibited which the ftomach would not have retain¬
ed before. Thefe are cooling acid juleps, or other
antifeptic remedies; but neither nitre nor any of its
preparations will commonly be found to {lay on the
ftomach ; nor are the nitrous medicines, or even the
common anti-emetic draughts, proper to be given in
this difeafe, even though they ftiould agree with the
ftomach, on account of their attenuating property.
If the patient has not a ftool or two after drinking
the warm water and vomiting, it is neceflary to give a
gentle purging clyfter ; and when fix or eight hours
reft have been obtained, a gentle antiphlogiftic and
antifeptic purge, in order to evacuate by ttool as much
of the bilious matter as we poftibly can. Or if the
patient has a purging before, which fometimes though
very rarely happens, a dofe of toafted rhubarb is given,
and an antifeptic anodyne after it has operated, to abate
and check the too great purging, but not to ftop it,
as this evacuation has been always obferved to be of
fervice, provided it be not too violent.
After this indication is completely anfwered, the
next is to exhibit fuch proper antifeptic medicines as
may ftop the putrefcent difpofition of the fluids. Here
the Peruvian bark would feem to be the moft pro¬
per remedy; but unluckily the ftomachs of the pa¬
tients in this difeafe are fo much irritated, and fo apt
to rejedt every thing, that the bark cannot be retain¬
ed in any form whatever. In this cafe Dr Percival re¬
commends columbo-root, theinfufion of which is found
to be a powerful antiemetic and antiputrefcent medi¬
cine, and might perhaps fo far alter the ftate of the
ftomach as to make it bear the bark. Dr Hillary,
however, who was ignorant of the virtues of columbo,
fubftituted the radix ferpentariec Virginians with fuc-
cefs. A flight infufion of this root not only fat eafily
on the ftomach of the patients, but moderately raifed
the pulfe and fever, both of which are now too low.
The following receipt was found the moft agreeable
and efficacious.
R. Rad. ferpent. Virginian, jjii.
Croc. Ang. jfs. M. et infnnde vafe claufo in aq bul.
q. per horam unam ut col. jjvi. Adde aq. menth.
fimp. jui. Vin. Maderienf. jjiv. Syr. croc, vel fyr.
emccon. Elix. vitriol, acid. q. f. ad grat. aci-
dior. fapor. Exhibe cochlearia duo vel tria fingulis
horis vel bihoris, vel fepius pro re nata.
By the ufe of this medicine, and f-ft light nourifh-
ment taken in fmall quantities, the pulfe is ufually kept
U up
154 M EDI
Fcbres up and the didemper goes off. But if, after taking
this a little while, we find that the pulfe does not rife,
hut on the contrary that a coldnefs of the extreme
parts comes on, the medicines muft be made more
warming, by increafing the quantity of the fnake-root
and faffron, or by adding vinum croceum, confeSio car-
’ diaca, or the like, but not by the ufe of volatile fpirits
and falls, which hurt by their ftimulating aifd diffolving
qualities. Blifters our author reprobates in the ftrong-
til terms, and affirms that he has feen the place where
a blifter was applied turned perfeftly black and fpha-
celated ; fo that if the fpine and end of the ribs had
not hindered, a large fquare paffage would have been
opened into the cavity of the thorax, had the patient
lived a few hours after it.
At the fame time that the flrength of the patient is
kept up by the medicines above-mentioned, or by o-
thers fimilar, he gave repeated gentle purgatives every
fecond or third day, and fometimes, when the fymp?
toms were very urgent, every day, for four or five
days fucceffively. But if proper methods be taken in
the beginning of the difeafe, it is feldom that fuch a
repetition of purging is neceffary; and the Do&or gives
the following remarkable inftance of the efficacy of
this method of treating the difeafe : “ A young man
about 24 years of age, furgeon to a Guinea (hip, was
brought into a houfe where I was vifiting a patient t
he was of a fanguine robuft conftitution, and a lover
of fpirituous liquors, and had been drunk three days
and nights fucceffively, and in that condition had run
feveral races on the hot fea-ffiore, near noon, with the
bailors, in the heat of the fun; and to complete his fol¬
ly, lay the laft night, after that exercife, in the open
air under a tamarind-tree all the night, where he was
feized in the morning with all the fymptoms of this fe¬
ver, in the moft violent manner that I have e,ver feen
any one. In this condition^ie was brought to the houfe
where I was: his retching and vomiting were fo in-
ceffant, that he could not get time to fay yes, or no,,
to the queftions which I afleed, without waiting fome
time for it, each time; his eyes were red and inflamed,
attended with a burning heat, as ufual in the begin¬
ning of this fever; and he had all the other fymp¬
toms which attend the firft attack of this fever in the
moft violent manner, which I need not repeat. I or*
tiered §xvi. of blood to be taken from him, which was
very florid, thin, and much diffolved; and then directed
him to drink warm water freely, and to vomit eight or
ten times; and after that to take extras. ‘Thebaic.
gr. jfs. and take nothing for two hours after it. But I
being gone, and he finding that he vomited with more
eafe, lefs ficknefs and retching, with the warm water,
than he did before, and being much alarmed at his ha¬
ving this fever, he drank three gallons of the water,
and brought up great quantities of yellow and blackiffi
bilious matter with it, and walhed his ftomach effec¬
tually. He then took the extr. thebaic, and dept
three or four hours after it; and the vomiting ceafed :
he took fome panada, and four hours after that the
purge of manna and tamarinds, &c. which gave him.
eight (tools, and carried a good deal more of the pu¬
trid bilious matter off downwards ; and got fome reft
after it: he then took of an antifeptic julep often, and
light nourKhment, a little acid, at the intervals; and
repeated the purge on the third day, as directed.
CINE, Practice,
Being called out of the town, I did not fee him till Typhu*.
the fourth morning after; he faid that he had follow- —v—^
ed my directions; and I found him free from the fever
and all its fymptoms, but weak and low, and his (kin
a little.yellow, but much lefs fo than ufual, unlefs when
the bilious matter is thus carried off. I ordered him
to take elix. vitrioli acid. gut. lx. three or four times
a-day for a few days, in an infufion of mint-leaves with
a little fnake-root, made as tea; which he did, and
foon recovered perfectly well in feven or eight days
time.
“ This patient being feized in fo violent a manner,
and recovering in fo (hort a time, and fo near to the
rule which the elegant Celfus recommends, Cit'o, tuto,
et jucunde, not only confirmed the above manner of
reafoning on the caufe and nature of this difeafe to be
right, but made me determine to follow the fame me¬
thod as near as I poffibly could ever fince, and I muft
add, with the fame good fuccefs alfo, when I am
called fo early in the difeafe that I can ftriCtly pur-
fue it: which is too feldom the cafe ; for in general
the phyfician is not called till the fourth or fifth
day, or after, when the putrid acrid bilious matter is
a great part of it carried into the blood, which it has
fo diffolved and brought its whole mafs into a colliqua- .
ted, putrid, gangrenefeent ftate, that the belt of me¬
thods, and the moft efficacious medicines, however ju-
dicioufly timed and applied, are precarious and uncer¬
tain ; or fometimes it is fo far advanced, that the ableft
phyfician can do no more than tell the relations of the
fick that it is too late, and that they can live but a
few hours : for I know no difeafe in which the reco¬
very of the patient fo much depends upon the right or
wrong method of treating it, at the very firft attack or
beginning of the difeafe, as this fever does: for by
thus difeharging and carrying the putrid, acrimoni¬
ous, bilious matter, out of the body before much of it
is carried into the blood, not only moft of the bad
fymptoms which attend the fecond ftate of the fever are
prevented from coming on, but the hasmorrhagies, and
the yellownefs of the (kin, &c. alfo, and the fever foon
taken off too ; for I have never feen any haemorrhagy
come on, and but little yellownefs, or in fome none,
when they were thus treated.
“ And when the laft ftage of this fever is come on
before we are called in, provided that it is not at the
very latter end of it, I have always found that this me¬
thod of gentle purging, whenever the before-mention¬
ed fymptoms indicate it, and a liberal ufe of the anti¬
feptic medicines in the intervals, has been fo fuccefsful,
that I have feen but two patients that have died in this
fever during the eight years paft in which I treated
it in this manner; and one of them was fo weak that
he could not take a fpoonful of any thing, and fo near
his end that he died about two hours after without
taking any medicine ; and the other killed himfelf by
drinking a gallon of cold water in lefs than three hours
time (after taking half an ounce of manna in the morn¬
ing), which (truck fuch a coldnefs into his whole body
that he died ; though I have vifited feveral every year,
and in fome years a great many: therefore I take the
liberty of recommending this method to ethers, and
wi(h it to be as fuccefsful to all.”
To the genus of typhus alfo belong all thofe fevers
attended with very profufe and debilitating fweats, and
which
Pradllce. M E D I
Ftbres which have fometlmeg, not without good reafon, been
  accounted plagues ; fuch as the Englilh fweating fick-
nefs, Miliaris fudatoria, Smiv. fp. 5. Ephemera fu-
datoria, Sauv. fp. 7. Ephemera Britannica, Caius de
ephem. Britan.
i69 Genus VI. SYNOCHUS.
Synochus Sauv. gen. 81. Lin. 13.
v Lenta Lin. 14.
Phrenitis Fog. 18.
Febris continua putrida Boerh. 730.
This is a contagious diftcmper, being a complica¬
tion of a fynocha and typhus ; for the defcription and
cure of which, we mult of confequence refer to what
hath been already faid concerning thefe difeafes.
The HeBk Fever.
*70 Heftica, Sauv. gen. 83. Lin. 24. Vog. 80. Sag. 684.
This difeafe is reckoned by Dr Cullen to be merely
fymptomatic ; as indeed feems very probable, fince it
very generally accompanies abforptions of pus into the
blood from internal fuppurations, or indeed frc.-m fuch
as are external, provided they be very large or of a
bad kind.
Defcripihn. The bell, indeed the only proper, de¬
fcription of this diforder we have is that by Dr Heber-
den. According to him, the appearance of the he&ic
fever is>not unlike that of the genuine intermittent;
from which, however, the difeafe is very different in
its nature, while at the fame time it is much more
dangerous. In the true intermittent, the three ftages
of cold, heat, and fweat, are far more diffindbly mark¬
ed, the whole fit is much longer, the period which it
obferves is more conftant and regular, and the inter-
miffions are more perfedl, than in the heftic fe¬
ver. For in the latter, even in the cleareft remif-
fion, there is ufually a feveriffv quicknefs perceptible
in the pulfe, which feldom fails to exceed the ut-
moft limit of a healthy one by at leaft iq ftrokes in
a minute.
The chillnefs of the heftic fever is fometimes fuc-
ceeded by heat, and fometimes immediately by a fweat
without any intermediate ftate of heat. The heat will
fometimes come on without any remarkable chillnefs
preceding; and the chillnefs has been obferved to go
off without being followed either by heat or fweat.
The duratiofl of thefe ftages is feldom the fame for
three fits together ; and as it is not uncommon for one
of them' to be wanting, the length of the whole fit
muft vary much more than in the true intermittent;
but in general it is much (horter.
A patient fubjefted to hedtic fever is little or no¬
thing relieved ’by the coming on of the fweat; but is
often as anxious and reftlefs under it as during the
chillnefs or heat. When the fweat is over, the fever
will fometimes continue ; and in the middle of the fe¬
ver the chillnefs will return ; which is a moft certain
mark of this difeafe.
The heftic fever will return with great exa&nefs,
like an intermittent, for two or perhaps three fits ; but
Dr Heberden informs us, that he does not remember
ever to have known it keep the fame period for four
fits fucceffively. The paroxyfm will now and then keep
off for 10 or 12 days; and at other times, efpecially
CINE.
when the patient is very ill, it will return fo frequent¬
ly on the fame day, that the chillnefs of a new fit will "
follow immediately the fweat of the former. It is not
unufual to have many threatenings of a Ihivering in
the fame day 5 and fome degree of drowfinefs is apt
to attend the ceffation of a fit.
The urine in a true intermittent is clear in the fits
and turbid in the intervals ; but in the heftic fever it is
liable to all kinds of irregularity. It will be equally
clear or turbid in both ftages; or turbid in the fits and
clear in the intervals ; and fometimes it will be, as in
a true intermittent, clear during the fever, and thick
at the going off.
He&ic patients often complain of pains like thofc
of the rheumatifm, which either affe& by turns almoft
every part of the body, or elfe return conftantly to the
fame part; which is often at a great diftance from the
feat of the principal diforder, and, as far as is known,
without any peculiar connexion with it. Thofe pains
are fo violent in fome patients, as to require a large
quantity of opium. As far as Dr Heberden has ob¬
ferved, they are moft common, where the heftic arifes
from fome ulcer open to the external air, as in cancers
of the face, breaft, &c. Joined with this fever, and
arifing probably from one common caufe, he has been
furprifed to fee fwellings of the limbs, neck, or trunk
of the body, rife up almoft in an inftant, as if the part
was all at once grown fatter. Thefe fwellings are not
painful, hard, or difeoloured, and they continue for fe»
veral hours.
Dr Heberden has feen this fever attack thofe who
feemed in tolerable health, in a fudden and violent
manner, like a common inflammatory one ; and like
that, alfo, in a very (hort time bring them into im¬
minent danger of their lives ; after which it has be¬
gun to abate, and to afford hopes of a perfeft reco¬
very. But though the danger might be over for the
prefent, and but little of a fever remain; yet that little
has foon demonftrated,that it was kept up by fome great,
mifehief within, and, proving unconquerable by any
remedies, has gradually undermined the health of the
patient, and never ceafed except with his life. This
manner of its beginning, however, is extraordinary.
It much oftener diffembles its ftrength at firft ; and
creeps on fo flowly, that the fubje&s of it, though tliey
be not perfectly well, yet for fome months hardly
think themfelves ill; complaining only of being fooner
tired with exercife than ufual, of want of appetite,
and of falling away. But gentle as the fymptoms
may feem, if the pulfe be quicker than ordinary, fo as
to have the artery to beat 90 times and perhaps 120
times in a minute, there is the greateft reafon to be
apprehenfive of the event. In no diforder, perhaps,
is the pulfe of more ufe to guide our judgment than in
the he&ic fever: yet even here we muft be upon our
guard, and not truft entirely to this Criterion; for one
in about 20 patients, with all the worft figns of decay
frpm fome incurable caufe, which irrefiftibly goes on
to deftroy his life, will Ihow not the fmalleft degree of
quicknefs, nor any other irregularity of the pulfe, to
the day of his death.
Caujes, &c. This fever will fupetvene whenever
there is a great collection of matter formed in any part
of the body ; but it more particularly attends upon the
U 2 inflam-
M E D I
inflammation of a fcirrhotis gland, and even upon one
that is flight and only juft beginning ; the fever grow¬
ing worfe in proportion as the gland becomes more
inflamed, ule.red, or gangrenous. And fuch is the
lingering nature of thofe glandular diforders, that
the firftof thofe ftageswill continue for many months,
and the fecond for fome years.
If this fcirrhous inflammation be external, or in the
lungs, or fome of the abdominal vifcera, where the
difturbance of their functions plainly points out the
feat of the diforder, no doubt can be entertained con¬
cerning the caufe of the fever. But if the part affec¬
ted be not obvious to the fenfes, and its precife func¬
tions be not known, the he&ic, which is there only
part of the train of another difeafe, may be miftaken
for the primary or only one.
Lying-in women, on account of the violence fu-
ftained in delivery, generally die when affected with
this fever. Women of the age of near 50 and up¬
wards are particularly liable to it. For, upon the
ceffation of their natural difcharge, the glands of
the breafts, ovaries, or womb, too commonly begin
to grow fcirrhous, and proceed to be cancerous.
Not only thefe, but the glandular parts of all the
abdominal vifcera, are difpofed to be affe&ed at this
particular time, and to become the feats of incurable
diforders.
The injuries done to the ftomach and liver by hard
drinking are attended with fimilar fymptoms, and ter¬
minate in the fame manner.
Dr Heberden obferves, that the flighteft wound by
a fine pointed inftrument is known upon fome occa-
fions to bring on the greateft difturbances, and the
moft alarming fymptoms, nay even death itfelf. For
not only the wounded part will fwell and be painful,
but by turns almoft every part of the body ; and very
diftant parts have been known to come even to fuppu-
ration. Thefe fymptoms are conftantly accompanied
with this irregular intermittent, which lafts as long as
any of them remain,.
Prognofts. This anomalous fever is never lefs dan¬
gerous than when it belongs to a kindly fuppuration,
into which all the difeafed parts are melted down, and
for which there is a proper outlet.
The fymptoms and danger from fome fmall punc¬
tures, with their concomitant fever, moft frequently
give way in a few days ; though in fome perfons they
have continued for two or three months, and in others
have proved fatal.
The inflammation of internal fcirrhous glands, or of
thofe in the breafts, fometimes goes off, and the fever*
which depended upon it, ceafes; but it much oftener
happens, that it proceeds to cancerous and gangrenous
ulcers, and terminates only in death. Death is alfo,
almoft univerfally, the confequence of heftic fever
from tubercles of the lungs, which have in general at
feaft been confidered as glandular bodies in a fcir¬
rhous ftate.
Cure. It is not to be expefted that the fi\me re¬
medies will in every cafe be adapted to. a fever
which, arifing from very different caufes, is attend¬
ed with fuch a variety of fymptoms. A mixture
of afafetida and opium has in fome perfons feemed
Angularly ferviceable in this fever, when brought on
by a fmall wound j but in moll other cafes the princi-
C I N E. Pra&icc,
pal if not the foie attention of the phyfician mull be Heibca.
employed in relieving the fymptoms, by tempering the 'v ll,—
heat, by preventing both coftivenefs and purging, by
procuring fleep, and by checking the fweats. If, at the
fame time, continues Dr Heberden, he put the body
into as good general health as may be, by air, exer-
cife, and a proper coUrfe ofjnild diet, he can perhaps
do nothing better than to leave all the reft to nature.
In fome few fortunate patients, nature appears to have
fuch refources, as may afford reafon for entertaining
hopes of cure, even in very bad cafes. For fome have
recovered from this fever attended with every fymptom
of an abdominal vifeus incurably difeafed, after all
probable methods of relief from art had been tried in
vain, and after the flelh and ftrength were fo exhaufted
as to leave fcarce any hopes from nature. In thofe
deplorable circumftances, there has arifen a fwelling
not far from the probable feat of the diforder, and
yet without any difcoverable communication with it.
This fwelling has come to an abfeefs ; in. confequence
of which the pulfe has foon returned to its natural
ftate, as have alfo the appetite, flefh, and ftrength.
What nature has performed in thofe rare cafes. Dr
Heberden acquaints us, he has often endeavoured to
imitate, by making iffues or applying blifters near
the feat of the difeafe j but he cannot fay with the
lame fuccefs.
It feems at prefent. Dr Heberden obferves, the
opinion of many practitioners, that the gangrenes will
be flopped, and fuppuration become more kindly, by
the ufe of Peruvian bark ; and therefore this remedy
is always either advifed or permitted in the irregular
fever joined with fuppurations and gangrenes. But
he affirms he does not remember ever to have feen any
good effeCt from the bark in this fever unattended,
with an apparent ulcer; and even in gartgrenes it fo
often fails, that in fuccefsful cafes, where it has been
adminiftered, there muft be room for fufpicion that
the fuccefs was owing to another caufe. Dr Heber¬
den acknowledges at the fame time, that he never faw.
any harm from the bark, in thefe, or indeed in any
other cafes, except a flight temporary purging or
ficknefs, where it has happened to difagree with the
ftomach, or where the latter has been loaded by ta¬
king the medicine too fall, cfpccially in dry bolufes
wrapped in wafer-paper.
In heCtic illneffes, where all other means have proved
ineffectual, a journey to Bath is ufually propofed by
the friends, and wiihed for by the fick; but Dr He¬
berden juftly obferves,. that, befides the fatigue and
many inconveniences of a journey to a dying perfon,,
the Bath waters are peculiarly hurtful in this fever*
which they never fail to increafe, and thereby ag¬
gravate the fufferings and haften the death of the
patient..
Order II. PHLEGMASIiE. jyj
Phlegmafias membranofae et parenchymatofae, Sauv.
Clafs HI. Ord. I. II. Sag. 605.
Morbi febriles phlogiftici, Lin. Clafs HI..
Febres continuae compofitae inflammatorise, V.
Morbi acuti febriles, Boerh. 770.
Febres inflammatorias, Hojfm. II. 105. Junch.Gi..
The phlegmafiae, or topical inflammations, are a
very numerous affemblage of difeafes. Their great
very
Practice. MED
PhJejfiTia. charafter!flics are, the general fymptoms pf fever, and
f*® a topical inflammation, attended wkh the lefion of fome
t_u * important funftion. And in moft inftances, when
blood is drawn, it is found upon coagulation to be co¬
vered with a buffy coat- Under this order, many
important genera are comprehended, each requiring
a feparate confideration.
173
*73
Genus VII. PHLOGOSIS.
Sp. I. Phlogosis phlegmone.
Phlegmone auCtorum, Sauv. gen. 15. Lin. 39.
Vog. 351.
Inflammatio, Lin. 231. Boerh. 370. Junck. 20.
This difeafe is a fynocha fever, accompanied with an
inflammation of fome particular parteitherexternalorin-
ternal, and confequently it varies very much in its form
and the degree of danger attending it, according to the
fxtuation and fun&ions of the part affedted with topical
inflammation. To this fpecies, therefore, belong the
following difeafes.
Furunculus, Sauv. gen. 18. Vog. 352.
Terminthus, Vog. 381.
Pupula, Lin. 275. Sauv. p. 6.
Varus, Vog. 436. Lin. 269. Sauv. p. 7.
Bacchia, Lin. I'jq.
Gutta Rofea, Sauv. gen. 4.
Gutta rofacea, Vog. 437.
Hordeolum, Sauv. gen. 27. Lin. 276. Vog. 434.
Otalgia, Sauv. gen. 197. Lin. 44. Vog. 148.
Dolor otalgicus, Hojm. II. 336.
Parulis, Vog. 362.
Maftodynia, Sauv. gen. 210. Vog. 133.
Paronychia, Sauv. gen. 21. Lin. 258. Vog. 345.
Arthrocace, Sauv. gen. 78. Lin. 256.
Paedarthrocace, Vog. 419-
Spina ventofa, Boerh. 526.
Phimofis, Sauv. gen. 22. Lin. 297. Vog. 348.
Paraphimofis, Vog. 349.
For the cure of inflammations, Dr Cullen lays down
the following'1 indications. 1. To remove the remote
Caufes when they are evident and continue to operate.
2. To take oft’ the phl@giftic diathefis affedting the
whole fyftem, or the particular part. 3. To take off
the fpafm of the particular part by remedies applied to
the whole fyftem or to the part itfelf.
The means of removing the remote caufes will readi¬
ly occur, from confidering the particular nature and
circumftances of the different kinds. Acrid matters
muft be removed, or their adtion muft be prevented,
by the application of demulcents. Comprefling and
overftretching powers muft be taken away; and from
their feveral circumftances, the means of doing fo will
be obvious.
The means of taking off the phlogiftie diathefis of
the fyftem are the fame with thofe already mentioned
under the cure for fynocha. The means of taking off
the fpafm alfo from the particular part, are much the
time with thofe already mentioned. Only it is to be
remembered, that topical bleedings, fuch as cupping
tvith Icarifications, applying leeches, &c. are in this
cafe much more indicated; and that fome of the other
remedies are to be dire&ed more particularly to the
part affedted, as ftiall be more fully confidered when
we treat of thofe difeafes attended with particular in-
iammations.
I C I N E. 157
When a tendency to fuppuration is perceived, the Phlogofis.
proper indication is to promote the produdtion of per- —v——**
fedt pus as much as poflible. For this purpofe various
remedies, fuppofed to poffefs a fpecific power, have
been propofed: but it does not appear that any of them
are poffeffed'of a virtue of this kind; and, in Dr Cul¬
len’s opinion, all that can be done is to favour the
fuppuration by fuch applications as may fupport a mo¬
derate heat in the part, by fome tenacity confine the
perfpiration, and by an emollient quality may weaken-
thecohefion of the teguments, and favour their erofion.
As all abfeeffes are occaiioned by the effufion of fluids,
and as in the cafe of certain effufions a fuppuration be¬
comes not only unavoidable but defirable, it may be
fuppofed that moft of the means of procuring a refo-
lution by diminifliing the force of circulation, &c-
ought to be avoided. But as we obferve on the one
hand, that a certain degree of increafed impetus, or o£
the original fymptoms of inflammation, is necefl’ary to-
produce a proper fuppuration; fo it is then efpecially
neceffary to avoid thofe means of refolution which may
diminifti too much the force of circulation. And on
the other hand, as the impetus of the blood, when vio¬
lent, is found to prevent the proper fuppuration; fo, in
fuch cafes, though a tendency to fuppuration may have
begun, it may be proper to continue thofe means of
refolution which moderate the force of the circulation^
With refpedf to the opening of abfeeffes when com¬
pletely formed, fee the article Surgery.
When an inflammation has taken a tendency to gan¬
grene, that event is to be prevented by every poflible
means; and thefe muft be different according to the
nature of the feveral caufes : but after a gangrene has
in fome degree taken place, it^ean be cured only by.
the feparation of the dead froth the living parts. This,
in certain circumftances can be performed, and molt:
properly, by the knife. In other cafes it can be. done-
by exciting a fuppuratory inflammation, on the verge
of the living part, whereby its cohefion with the dead,
part may be every where broken off, fo that the latter
may fall off by itfelf. While this is doing, it is pro¬
per to prevent the further putrefadfion of the part, and:
its fpreading wider.. For.this purpofe various antifep-
tic applications have been propofed 1 but Dr Cullen is
of opinion, that while the teguments are entire, thefa
applications can hardly have any effedt; and therefore,
that the fundamental procedure muft be to fcarify the
part fo as to reach the living fubftance, and, by the.
wounds made there, to excite the fuppuration required..
By the fame incifions alfo we give, accefs to anti-
feptics, which may both prevent the progrefs of the
putrefadlion in the dead, and excite the inflammation
neceffary on the. verge of the. living, parts
When the gangrene-proceeds from the.lofs of tone,
and when this communicated to the neighbouring parts
prevents that inflammation which, as we have faid, is
requifite to the feparation of the dead parts from the
living,, it will be neceffary to obviate this lots of tone
by tonic medicines given internally; and for this pur¬
pofe the Peruvian.bark has been found to be moft ef¬
fectual. But when the gangrene arifes from the vio¬
lence, of inflammation, the bark may not only fail of.
proving a remedy, but may do harm : for its power;
• .-nic is efpecially fuited to thofe cafes of gangrene.
v. inch proceed from an original lofs. of tone, as in tha
cafe;
I5s M E D I C I N E. Praaice.
Phlestma* cafe of palfy and edema; or in thofe cafes wliere a
. flai lofs of tone takes place while the original inflammatory
* fymptoms are removed.
On the other hand, Mr Bell is of opinion, that in*
cifrons made with a view to admit the operation of an-
tifeptic remedies in gangrenes, as well as the remedies
themfelves, muft be pernicious from the irritation they
occafion, and from the danger of wounding blood-
veflels, nerves, ortendoris, and alfo.by allowing a free
pafiage for the putrefeent fluids into the parts not
yet aff'e&ed. And unlefs they be carried fo deep as
to reach the found parts, applications of the antifeptic
kind can never have any effedt in anfwering the pur-
pofe for which they were intended. The fame author
alfo remarks, that all the advantages commonly obferved
from the great number of applications recommended for
gangrene, are obtained with more eafe, and generally
too with more certainty, from the ufe of fome gentle
stimulating embrocation ; which, by exciting a flight
irritation upon the furface, efpecially when afiifted by
n free ufeof thePeruvian bark, producesforthemoil part
fuch a degree of inflammation as is wiflred for. With
this view he has frequently known a weak folution of
fal ammoniac, a drachm of the fait to two ounces of vi¬
negar and fix of water, form a mixture of a very pro¬
per ftrength for every purpofe of this kind. But the
degree of ilimulus can eafily be either increafed or di-
minifhed according to circumltances, by ufing a larger
or fmaller proportion of the fait.
Whenever, either by the means recommended, or by
a natural exertion of the fyftem, a flight inflammation .
appears between the difeafed and found parts, we may
in general, with tolerable certainty, expect, that in due
time the parts will be feparated; and when a full fup-
puration is once fairly eftabliflred, there can be little
doubt that the mortified parts will be foon and eafily
removed.
A complete feparation being effefted, the remaining
fore is to be treated in the manner deferibed under the
.-article Surgery; with a proper attention, at the fame
time, to the fupport of the general fyftem by the con¬
tinuance of a nouriftiing diet, and the bark with fuch
quantities of wine as may feem necefl'ary.
With regard to the bark, however, it is proper to
take notice of another cafe of mortification in which it
is likewife unfuccefsful, as well as in that attended with
an high degree of inflammation; and that is, in thofe
mortifications of the toes and feet, common in old
people, or which arife from any caufe increafing the
rigidity of the veffels to fuch a degree as to prevent
the motion of the fluids through them. In this cafe
Mr Pott has difeovered, that all kinds of warm appli¬
cations are very unfuccefsful; but that by the free ufe
of opium, together with fedatives and relaxants exter¬
nally applied, he has frequently feen the tumefaction
of the feet and ancles fubfide, the Ikin recover its na¬
tural colour, and all the mortified parts feparate in a
very fhort time, leaving a clean fore. But as to fca-
rifications, or any other attempt to feparate artificially
the mortified from the found parts, he thinks them
very prejudicial, by giving pain; which is generally of
itfelf violent in this difeafe, and which feems to have a
great fhare in producing the other evils.
The other terminations of inflammation either do
act admit of any treatment except that of preventing
them by refolution, or properly belong to the article
Surgery. ——v—^
Sp. II. Phlogosis erythema. 174
Erythema, Sauv. gen. 11.
Eryfipelas au&orum, Vog. 345.
Hieropyr. F'og. 344.
Anthrax, Sauv. gen. 19. Lin. 2^2. Fog. 35$.
Carbo et carbunculus ainftorum.
Erythema gangrsenofum, Sauv. fp. 7.
Erythema a frigore.
Erythema pernio, Sauv. fp. 4
Pernio, I.in. 249. Vog. 350.
Erythema ambuflio, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelas ambuftio, Sauv. fp. 4.
Combuftura, Lin. 245.
Combuftio, Boerh. 476.
Encaulis, Vog. 7,^.
Erythema ab acri alieno applicato.
Eryfipelas Chinenfe, Sauv. fp. 7.
Erythema ab acri inquilino.
Erythema intertrigo, Sauv. fp. 5.
Intertrigo, Lin. 247. Vog. 502.
Erythema a cempreflione.
Erythema paratrima, Sauv. fp. 6.
Erythema a pun&ura, Sauv. fp. 9.
Eryfipelas a vefpis, Sauv. fp. 19.
Pfydracia a vefpis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Erythema cum phlegmone.
Eryfipelas phlegmonodes au&orum.
Erythema cum cedemate.
Eryfipelas fymptomaticum, Sauv. fp. 6.
The word erythema doth not apply to any primary
difeafe, but to a great number of thofe cutaneous in¬
flammations denominated by another general term, viz.
the eryfipelas, or “ St Anthony’s fire;” and which being
commonly fymptomatic, of fome other inflammation or
diforder, are to be removed only by removing the pri¬
mary difeafe : the erythema is found fcarcely to bear
any kind of warm application to itfelf; and is very apt,
if treated as a primary difeafe, to terminate in a gan¬
grene of the part affedted, or fome other diforder ftill
more dangerous. The difference between the phlegmon
or preceding fpecies, and erythema, according to Dr
Cullen, is, that, in the former, the inflammation feems
particularly to affedi the veffels on the internal fiirface
of the ikin, communicating with the lax adjacent cel¬
lular texture; whence a more copious effufion, and fhat
too of ferum convertible into pus, takes place. In
the erythema the affedtion is of the veffels on the ex¬
ternal furface of the ikin communicating with the rete
mucofum, which does not admit of any effufion but
what feparates the cuticle and gives occafion to the
formation of a blifter, while the fmaller fize of the
veffels admits only of the effufion of a thin fluid very
feldom convertible into pus. For the cure of the fever
attended with erythema or eryfipelas, fee below; and
for the external treatment of erythema, fee the article
Surgery.
Genus VIII. OPHTHALMIA.
Inflammation of the Exes.
Ophthalmia, Sauv. gen. 196. Lin. 43. Vog. 341.
Sag. 231. Junck. 24.
Chemofis, Vog. 46.
Oph-
7
Pra&ice. MED
Phlegrna- Ophthalmites, PPeg- 47.
fua Jnflammatio oculorum, ffrjfm. II. 165.
"^_v Ophthalmia taraxis, Sauv, fp. 1.
Ophthalmia humida, Sauv. fp. 8.
Ophthalmia chemofis, Sauv. fp. 12.
Ophthalmia eryfipelatofa, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ophthalmia puftulofa, Sauv. fp- 6.
Ophthalmia phly&senodes, sauv. fp. 21.
Ophthalmia choroeidea, Sauv. fp. 13.
Ophthalmia tenebricofa, Sauv. fp. xo.
Ophthalmia trachoma, Sauv. fp. 4.
Ophthalmia ficca, Sauv. fp. 5.
Ophthalmia angularis, Sauv. fp. 14.
Ophthalmia tuberculofa, Sauv. fp. 3.
Ophthalmia trichiafis, Sauv. fp 2.
Ophthalmia cancrofa, Sauv. fp. 15.
. Ophthalmia a fynechia, sauv. fp. 16.
Ophthalmia a lagophthalmo, Sauv. fp. 17.
Ophthalmia ab dcomate, Sauv. fp. 18.
Ophthalmia ab ungue, Sauv. fp. 19.
Ophthalmia a cornese fiftula, Sauv. fp. 20.
Ophthalmia uveae, Sauv. fp. 22.
Ophthalmia metaftatica, Sauv. fp. 24.
Ophthalmia fcrophulofa, Sauv. fp. 9.
Ophthalmia fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 11.
Ophthalmia febricofa, Sauv. fp. 23.
From reading this long lift of diftin&ions which
author^ have invented in.the ophthalmia, it is evident,
that by far the greateftpart of them are fymptomatic,
or merely the confequences of other diforders prefent
in the habit; and therefore the remedies muft be
dire&ed towards the removal of thefe primary difor¬
ders ; and when they are gone the opthalmia will be
removed of courfe. Dr Cullen obferves, that the in¬
flammation of the eye may be confidered as of two
kinds; according as it is feated in the membranes of
the ball of the eye, when it is named ophthalmia mem-
Iranarum; or as it is feated in the febaceous glands
placed in the tarfus, or edges of the eye-lids, in which
cafe it may be termed ophthalmia tarji. Thefe two
kinds are very frequently connedled together, as the
one may excite the other; but they are ftill to be di-
ftinguilhed according as the one or the other may hap¬
pen to be the primary affection.
1. The inflammation of the membranes of the eye af-
fedts efpecially, and moft frequently, the adnata, and
appears in a turgefcence of its veffels; fo that the red
veffels which are naturally there, become not only in-
creafed in fize, but many more appear than in a natu¬
ral ftate. This turgefcence of the veffels is attended
with pain, efpecially upon the motion of the ball of
the eye; and this irritation, like every other, applied
to the furface of the eye, produces an effufion of tears
from the lacrymal gland.
The inflammation commonly, and chiefly, affe&s
the adnata fpread on the anterior part of the bulb of
the eye ; but ufually fpreads alfo along the continua¬
tion of the adnata sn the infide of the palpebrae ; and
as that is extended on the tarfus palpebrarum, the ex-
cretories of the febaceous glands opening there are
alfo frequently affe&ed. When the affefition of the
adnata is coniiderable, it may be communicated to the
fubjacent membranes of the eye, and even to the reti¬
na itfelf; which thereby acquires fo great fenfibility,
I C I N E. 159
that every imprefiion of light becomes painful. The Ophthal-
jnflammation of the membranes of the eye is in diffe- n‘n' .
rent degrees, according as the adnata is more or lefs T
affected, or according as the inflammation is either of
the adnata alone, or of the fubjacent membranes alfo ;
and upon thefe differences, different fpecies have been
eftablilhed; but they feem all to differ only in degree,
and are to be cured by the fame remedies more or lefa
employed. ,
The proximate caufe of ophthalmia is not different
from that of inflammation in general; and the dif¬
ferent circum(lances of ophthalmia may be explained •
by the difference of its remote caufes, and by the dif¬
ferent parts of the eye which it happens to affedl; gs
may be underlined from wdiat has been already faid.
We lhall therefore proceed to give an account of the
method of cure.
The great objedts to be aimed at in the treatment
of ophthalmia, are, in the firil place, the refolution
of the inflammation which has already taken place
and, fecondly, the removal of thofe confequences which
frequently arife from the inflammation, efpecially if
it have been of long Handing. But befides thefe,
while it has appeared from former obfervation, that
there is a peculiar difpofition to the difeafe, pra&ices
may often be fuccefsfully employed to combat this dif¬
pofition, and thus prevent the return of the affedlion.
The ophthalmia membranarum requires the reme¬
dies proper for inflammation in general; and when the
deeper-feated membranes are affedled, and efpecially
when a pyrexia is prefent, large general bleedings may
be neceffary. But this laft is feldom the cafe ; and,
for the moft part, the ophthalmia is an affection mere¬
ly local, accompanied with little or no pyrexia. Ge¬
neral bleedings therefore have little effedt upon it, and
the cure is chiefly to be obtained by topical bleedings,,
that is, blood drawn from the veffels near the inflamed
part; and opening the jugular vein, or the temporal
artery, may be confidered as in fome meafure of this
kind. It is commonly fufficient to apply a number of
leeches round the eye ; but it is perhaps ftill better
to draw blood by cupping and fcarifying upon the
temples. In many cafes, the moft effedlual remedy;
is to fcarify the internal furface of the inferior eye-lid,,
and to cut the turgid veffels upon the adnata itfelf.
Befides blood-letting, purging, as a remedy fuited
to inflammation in general, has been confidered as pe¬
culiarly adapted to- inflammation in any part of the
head, and therefore to ophthalmia ; and it is fometimes
ufeful: but, for the reafons given before with refpeft
to general bleeding, purging in the cafe of ophthal¬
mia does not prove ufeful in any proportion to the eva¬
cuation excited.—For relaxing the fpafm in the part,
and taking off the determination of the fluids to it,
bliftering near the part has commonly been found ufe¬
ful. When the inflammation does not yield to the
application of blifters after topical bleeding, great
benefit is often obtained by fupporting a difcharge
from the bliftered part, under the form of an iffue, by
which me.ms a more permanent determination of
blood from the part is obtained.
It is probably alfo on the fame principle that the
good effe&s obtained from the ufe of errhine medicines
in obftinate cafes of ophthalmia are to be accounted
for. By thefe errhines, in particular, which occaflom
and£
j6o M E D I
FM_fSfma« and fupport for fume time a great difeharge from the
, lai nofe, great benefit has often been obtained. The
powder of ai'arabacca, or the infufion of hippocafta-
num, fouffed up the nofe at bed-time in proper dofes,
are often prodmftive of the beft effe&s, when many
ether remedies have been tried in vain.
Ophthalmia, as an external inflammation, admits of
topical applications. All thofe, however, which in-
•creafe the heat and relax the vefiels of the part, prove
hurtful; and the admiflion of cool air to the eye, and
the application of cooling and aftringent medicines,
’ which at the fame time do not produce irritation,
prove ufeful. Of all thefe the Solution of acetated
lead, afliduoufly applied, k perhaps the beft. In the
cure of this diftemper, indeed, all irritation muft
carefully be avoided, particularly that of light; and
the only certain means of doing this is by keeping the
patient in a very dark chamber.
2. In the ophthalmia tarfi, the fame medicines may be
neceflary, as have been already recommended, for the
ophthalmia membranarum. However, as the ophthal¬
mia tarfi may often depend upon an acrimony depoiit-
ed in the febaceous glands of the part, fo it may re¬
quire various internal remedies according to the variety
of the acrimony in fault ; for which we muft refer to
the confideration of fcrophula, fyphilis, or other dif-
eafes with which this ophthalmia may be connected ;
nnd where thefe ftiall not be evident, certain remedies
more generally adapted to the evacuation of acrimony,
fuch as mercury, may be employed. In the ophthal¬
mia tarfi, it almoft conftantly happens that fome ul¬
cerations are formed on the tarfus. Thefe require the
application of mercury and copper, which alone may
fometimes cure the whole affedtion ; and they may be
-ufeful even when the difeafe depends upon a fault of
the whole fyftem.
Both in the ophthalmia membranarum, and in the
-ophthalmia tarfi, it is neceflary to obviate that glueing
together of the eye-lids which commonly happens in
fleep ; and which may be done by infinuating a little
-of any mild undtuous medicine between the eye-lids be¬
fore the patient ftiall go to ileep.
The flighter kinds of inflammations from the dull
•or the fun, may be removed by fomenting with warm
milk and water, adding a fmall portion of brandy ;
and by anointing the borders of the eye-lids with un-
guentum tut'ur, or the like, at night, efpecially when
thofe parts are excoriated and fore. But in bad cafes,
after the inflammation has yielded a little to evacua¬
tions, the cataplafma aluminis of the Tendon pharma¬
copoeia fpread on lint, and applied at bed-time, has been
found the beft external remedy. Before the ufe of
the latter, the folution of white vitriol is preferibed
with advantage; and in violent pains it is of fervice
to foment frequently with a decoftion of white poppy-
heads. One of the moil common and moil difagree-
able confequences of ophthalmia, is an offufeation of
the cornea, fo far obftrufting the pafiage of light as
to diminifh or prevent vifion. This is fometimes fo
•confiderable as to admit of removal by operation :
but in ilighter cafes it may often be removed by the
application of different gentle efcharotics ; and in this
way, without the leaft danger of any inconvenience,
good effefts are often obtained, from gently iutrodu-
N:i 204.
CINE, Praftlce,
cing into the eye at bed-dme n powder confiding of Optuhaf
equal parts of cryftals af tartar and fugar. mi:‘’ ,
Where there is a difpofition to frequent returns of *"”"v
this affedlion, the Peruvian bark is often employed
with fuccefs in combating it: But nothing in general
anfwers better than frequent and regular cold bathing
of the eyes.
Genus IX. PHRENITIS. I7g i
Pbrenzt, or Inflammation of the Brain.
Phrenitis, Sauv. gen. 101. Lin. 25. Sag. gen. 301.
Boerh. 771. Hoffin. II. 13 I. Junck. 63.
Phrenifmus, Vog. 45.
Cephalitis, Sauv. gen. 109. Sag. gen. 310,
Sphacelifmus, Lin. 32.
Phrenitis vera, Sanat. fp. 1. Boerh. 771.
Phrenitis idiopathica, ’Junck. 63.
Cephalalgia inflammatoria, Sauv. fp. 9.
Cephalitis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 3.
Cephalitis firiafis, Sauv. fp. 4.
Siriafis, Vog. 34.
Cephalitis Littriana, Sauv. fp. 5.
Dr Cullen obferves, that the true phrenitis, or in¬
flammation of the membranes or fubftance of the brain,
is very rare as an original difeafe : butv as a fymptom
of others, much more frequent; of which the follow¬
ing kinds are enumerated by different authors.
Phrenitis lynochi pleuriticas, Sauv. fp. 2.
Phrenitis fynochi fatlguineoe, Sauv. ip. 4.
Phrenitis calentura, Sauv. fp 11.
Phrenitis Indica, Sauv fp. 12
Cephalitis aEgyptiaca, Sauv. fp. 1.
Cephalitis epidemica anno 1310, Sauv. fp. <5,
Cephalitis verminofa, Sauv. fp. 7.
Cephalitis cerebelli, Sauv. fp. 8.
Phrenitis miliaris, Sauv fp. 3.
Phrenitis variolofa, Sauv fp. 5.
Phrenitis morbillofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Phrenitis a plica, Sauv. fp. 8.
Phrenitis aphrodifiaca, Sauv. fp. 9.
Phrenitis a tarantifmo, Suav fp 14.
Phrenitis hydrophobica, Sauv. fp. 15.
Phrenitis a dolore, Sauv. fp. 13.
Cephalitis traumatica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Defcription. The figns of an impending phrenitis
are, immoderate and continual watchings; or if any
fleep be obtained, it is difturbed with dreams and
gives no refrefliment; acute and lafting pains, efpe¬
cially in the hind part of the head and neck; little
thirll; a great and flow refpiration, as if proceeding
from the bottom of the bread; the pulfe fometimes
fmall and flow, fometimes quick and frequent; a fup-
preflion of urine; and forgetfulnefs. The diftemper
when prefent may be known by the following figns:
The veins of the head fwell, and the temporal arteries
throb much; the eyes are fixed, fparkle, and have a
fierce afpeft; the fpeech is incoherent, and the pa¬
tient behaves very roughly to the by-ftanders, with
furious attempts to get out of bed, not indeed conti¬
nually, but returning as it were by paroxyfms; the
tongue is dry, rough, yellow, or black; there is a
coldnefs of the external parts ; a pronenefs to anger;
chattering of the teeth ; a tremblirig of the hands,
7 with
IVaftide. M E D I
Phir«m:: with winch the Tick feem to he gathering fotnething,
and adlually do gather the n?J>s off the bed-clothes.
, , . * Caufes of, and perfotu fubjeS tc, this diforder. People
of a hot and bilious habit of body, and fueh as are of
a pafiionate difpofition, are apt to be affe&ed with
phrenitis. In t: fame danger are thofe who ufe much
fpices, or are given to hot and fpirituouS liquors)
who have been txnofed more than ufual to the fun*
or obliged to undergo immoderate Undies or Watchings)
who are ful je£t to head-achs, or in whom fotne cu-
ftomary hemorrhages have been Hopped ; or the dif-
eafe may arife from fome injury offered to the head
externally. Dr Pringle obferves, that the phrenitis)
when cohfidered as an original difeafe* is apt to attack
foldiers in the fummer-feafon when they are expofed
to the heat of the fun, and efpecially when afleep and
in liquor A fymptomatie phrenitis is alfo more fre-
■quent in the army than elfewhere, oh account of the
violence done to all fevers when the fick are carried in
Waggons from the camp to an hofpital, where the very
noife or light alone would be fufficient* with more de¬
licate nat res, to raife a phrenzy From thefe and fi-
tnilar caufes, a Hate of aftive inflammation* affefting
fome parts within the cranium, is produced: and there
can be no doubt* that froin this all the fymptoms of
the difeafe arife, and particularly that peculiar delirium
Which chara&erifes it. But in what manner local
difeafes, even of the brain itfelf, produce affe&ioris of
the mind, we are ftill totally in the dark.
Prognqfis Every kind of phrenitis, whether idio¬
pathic of fyittptomatic, is attended with a high degree
of danger; and* unlefs removed before the fourth day*
a gangrene or fphacelus of the meninges readily takes
place, and the patient dies delirious The following
are the moft fatal fymptoms: A continual and furious
delirium, with watching 5 thin watery urine, white
faeces, the urine and ftools running off involuntarily,
or a total fupprtfiion of thefe excretions; a ready dif¬
pofition tb become ftupid* or to faint; trembling, ri
gor, chattering of the teeth, convulfions, hiccough*
coldnefe of the extremities, trembling of the tongue,
fhrill voice, a fudden ceffation of pain, with apparent
tranquillity. The following are favourable. Sweats*
apparently critical, breaking out; a feeming effort of
nature to terminate the difeafe by a diarrhoea; a large
hemorrhagy. from the nofe ; fwellings of the glands
behind the ears; haemorrhoids.
Cure From what h >s beeh faid of the theory of
this difeafe, the Qitre muff entirely depend on obtaining
a refolution of the inflammation. he objefts chiefly
to be aimed at with this view are, 1. The removal of
fuch exciting caUftS as continue to operate. • 2. The
diminution of the momentum of the blood in the cir¬
culating fyftertt in general. 3 The diminution of
impetus at the brais in particular: and. 4. The avoid¬
ing circutnliances which tend either to accelerate the
motion of the blood or to give determination to the
head.
Different praftices may be tifed with thefe inten¬
tions ; bu? hei-e the molt powerful remedies are to be
immediately employed. Large and repeated bleedings
are efpecially neceffary ; and thefe too taken from
veffels as near Us pofiible to the part affefted The
opening the temporal artery has been recommended,
*nd with fome reafon: but as the pradtice is attended
Von. XI. Part I.
CINE. 161
with fome inconveniences, perhaps the Opening of the Phrenitis'
jugular veins may prove more effcdtual ; with which* »
•however, may be joined the drawing of blood from the
temples by cupping and fcarifying. It is alfo pro¬
bable, that purging may be of more ufe in this than
in fome other inflammatory affe&ions* as it may ope¬
rate by revulfion. For the fame purpofe of revulfion,
warm pediluvia are a remedy, but rather ambiguous.
The taking off the force of the blood in the veffels of
the head by an eredt pollure is generally ufeful. Bu¬
ffering is alfo ufeful, but chiefly when applied near to
the part affefted. In fhort, every part of the antiphlo-
giftic regimen is here neceffary, and particularly the
adrtiiffion of cold air. Even cold fubffances applied
to the head have been found ufeful 5 and the applica¬
tion of fuch refrigerants as vinegar is certainly proper.
Opiates are thought to be hurtful in every inflammatory
ftatv of the brain. On the whole* however, it muff be
remarked, that pra&itioners are very uncertain with re¬
gard to the means proper to be ufed in this difeafe ; and
tlu more fo, that the fymptoms by which the difeafe is
commonly judged to be prefent* appear fometimes
without any internal inflammation; and on the other
hand, difiedlions have (ho n that the brain has been
inflamed, where few of the peculiar fymptoms of in¬
flammation had appeared before.
Genus X. CYNANCHE. 177
CynaUche, Sauv. gen. 110. Lin. 5 :. Sag gen. 300.
Angina, Vog. 49 Hffm II 1 2 JuntL 30.
Angina inflammatcria, Boerd. -98.
Sp. I CYNANCHE TONSILLARIS.
The Jiamnat ry fr UNSY.
Cynanche tonfillaris, rmrv . fp. i.
Anginas inflamm .tori*, fp 5 Boerh. Soy.
Dfaiption. This is an inflammation ef the mucous
membrane of the fauces, affedting principally that con¬
geries of mucous follicles which forms the tonfils; and
from thence fpr ading along the velum and'uvula, fo
as frequently to affedt every part of the mucous mem¬
brane. The difeafe appears by-fotne tumor and rednefa
of the parts ; i attended with a painful and difficult
deglutition ; a trouble fome clamminefs of the mouth
and throat; a frequent but difficult excretion of mu¬
cus; and the •whole is accompanied with,pyrexia. The
inflammation and tumor are commonly at firft moll
confiderable in one torifil; and afterwards,* abating in
that, increafe in the other This difeafe is not con¬
tagious
(Safes of andperfons fuhjeB ter, this diforder. This
difeaf is commonly occafioned by cold externally ap¬
plied, particularly about the neck. It affedts efpecially
the young and fanguine; and-a difpofition to it is often
acquired by habit It occurs efpecially in the fpring
and autumn, when viciffitudes of heat and cold fre¬
quently take plac-’.
Prognofu. This fpecies of quinfy terminates fre¬
quently by refolution, fometimes by fuppuration, but
hardly ever by gangrene; though in fome'eaf s doughy
fpots appear on the fauces : the prognofis therefore is
generally favourable.
we As the principal morbid affe&ion in this
difeafe, oa v^hich all its charadterifing fymptoms im-
-X mediately
M E D I
groa mediately depend, is tlie aftive inflammation in the
® tonfila and neighbouring parts, the object firft and
principally to be aimed at in the cure is to obtain a
refolution of this inflammation. Sometimes, however,
it is neceflary to have recourfe to pra&ices, with the
view of obviating urgent fymptoms before a refolution
can be effe&ed: and in other cafes, where a refolution
cannot be obtained, it muft be the aim of the practi¬
tioner to promote a fpeedy and favourable fuppuration.
After fuppuration has taken place, the proper means
of promoting a difeharge of the purulent matter will
conclude the cure. Here fome bleeding may be ne¬
ceflary; but large and general evacuations are feldom
beneficial. The opening of the ranular veins feems to
be an infignificant remedy, according to Dr Cullen,
but is recommended as efficacious by Sir John Pringle:
more benefit, however, may in general be derived from
leeches to the external fauces. The inflammation may
be often relieved by moderate aftringents, and particu¬
larly by acids applied to the parts affedted. In many
cafes, nothing has been found to give more relief than
the vapour of warm water received into the fauces.
Befides thefe, bliftering, and flill more frequently
rubefacient medicines, are applied with fuccefs, as well
as antiphlogiftic purgatives; and every part of the an-
tiphlogiftic regimen is to be obferved, except the ap¬
plication of cold. Sir John Pringle reccmmends a
thick piece of flannel moiftened with two parts of
common fweet oil, and one of fpirit of hartffiorn (or
in a larger proportion, if the ikin will bear it), to be ap¬
plied to the throat, and renewed once every four or five
hours. By this means the neck, and fometimes the
whole body, is put into a fweat, which after bleeding
either carries off or leffens the inflammation. When
the difeafe takes a tendency to fuppuration, nothing
will be more ufeful than the taking into the fauces the
fleams of warm water. Benefit is alfo obtained from
poultices applied to the external fauces. When the
abfeefs is attended with much fwelling, if it break not
fpontaneoufly, it ought to be opened by a lancet; and
this does not require much caution, as even the in¬
flammatory ftate may be relieved by fome fcarification
of the tonfils. When this difeafe runs very rapidly to
fuch a height as to threaten fuffocation, it is fometimes
neceffary to have recourfe to bronchotomy as the only
mean of faving the life of the patient. But there is
reafon to believe that this operation has fometimes been
employed where it was not neceffary : and we may
fafely venture to fay, that it is but feldom requifite;
infomuch that Dr Cullen tells us, he has never in
his pradtice feen any cafe requiring bronchotomy.
Sp. II. CrNANCHE MALIGNA.
The malignant, putrid, or ulcerous sore throat*
Cynanche maligna, Sauv. fp. 3.
Cynanche ulcerofa, Sauv. var. a. Journ. de Med.
I758*
Cynanche,. gangraenofa, Sauv. var. b. Journ. de
Med. 1756.
Ulcera faucium et gutturis anginofa et lethalia, Hif-
panis Garrotillo, Lud. Mercat. confult. 24.
Angina ulcerofa, Fothergill’s Account of the ulce¬
rous fore throat, edit. 1751 • Huscham on the ma¬
lignant ulcerous fore throat, from 1751 to 1753-
CINE. Pra&ice.
Febris epidemica cum angina ulcitfculofa, Douglas’s Cynanche.
Pra&ical Hiflory, Bofton 1736  
Angina epidemica, Rujfd, Oecon. Natur. p. 105.
Angina gangramofa, Withering’s Differt. Inaug. E-
dinb. 1766.
Angina fnffocativa, Bard’s Inquiry, New-York,
I77I-
Angina maligna, JohnJlone on the malignant Angina,
Worcefter, 1779.
Hijlory and defeription This diftemper is not par¬
ticularly deferibed by the ancient phyficians; though
perhaps the Syrian and Egyptian ulcers mentioned by
Aretanis Cappadox, and the peftilent ulcerated tonfils
we read of in Aetius Amideus, were of this nature.
Some of the fcarlet fevers mentioned by Morton feem
alfo to have approached near to it. In the beginning
of the laft century, a difeafe exadlly fimilar to this is
deferibed by the phyficians of that time, as raging
with great violence and mortality in Spain and fome
parts of Italy; but no account of it was publifhed in
this country till the year 1748, when a very accurate
one was drawn up by Dr Fothergill, and in 1752 by
Dr Huxham. The latter obferves, that this difeafe
was preceded by long, cold, and wet feafons; by which
probably the bodies of people were debilitated, and
more apt to receive contagion, which poffibly alfo might
be produced by the ftagnant and putrid waters.
The attack of this difeafe was very different in dif¬
ferent perfons. Sometimes a rigor, with fulnefs and
forenefs of the throat, and painfulfliffnefs of the neck,
were the firft fymptoms complained of. Sometimes
alternate chills and heats, with fome degree of giddi-
nefs, drowfinefs, or head-ach, uffiered in the diftemper.
It feized ojhers with much more feveriffi fymptoms ;
great pain of the head, back, and limbs ; a vaft op-
. preffion of the praecordia, and continual fighing Some
grown perfons went about for fome days in a drooping
ftate, with much uneafinefs and anxiety, till at laft they
were obliged to take to their beds.—Thus various was
the difeafe, fays Dr Huxham, at the onfet. But it com¬
monly began with chills and heats, load and pain of
the head, forenefs of throat, and hoarfenefs ; fome
cough, ficknefs at ftomach, frequent vomiting and-
purging, in children efpecially, which were fometimes-
very fevere ; though a contrary ftate was more com¬
mon to the adult. There was in all a very great de¬
jection of fpirits, very fudden weaknefs, great heavi-.
nefs on the breaft, and faintnefs, from the very begin¬
ning. The pulfe in general was quick, fmall, and
fluttering, though fometimes heavy and undulating.
The urine was commonly pale, thin, and crude ; how¬
ever, in many grown perfons, it was paffed in fmall
quantities and high-coloured, or like turbid whey.
The eyes were heavy, reddiffi, and as it were weeping 4
the countenance very often full, fluffied, and bloated,
though fometimes pale, and funk.
How flight foever the diforder might appear in the
day-time, at night the fymptoms became greatly ag¬
gravated, and the feveriffi habit very much increafed,
nay, fometimes a delirium occurred on thd* very firft
night; and this exacerbation conftantly returned thro*
the whole courfe of the difeafe. Indeed, when it was..
confiderably on the decline, our author fays he has.
been often pretty much furprifed to find his patient
4 had.:
Pra&ice. M E D I C I N E<(
Phlegma- had pafled the whole night in a phrenzy, whom he had and arms of the vefy nurfes that attended them : as
fi* j£ft tolerably cool and fedate in the day. this ulceration of the noftrils came on, it commonly
"" Some few hours after the ieizure, and fometimes caufed an almoft inceffant fneezing in the children;
cotemporary with it, a fwelling and forenefs of the but few adults were -affefted with it, at leaft. to any
throat was perceived, and the tonfils became very confiderable degree. It was furpriling what quantities
tumid and inflamed, and many times the parotid and of matter fome children difcharged this way, which
maxillary glands fwelled very much, and very fud- they would often rub on their face, hands, and arms,
denly, even at the very beginning; fometimes fo and blifter‘them all over. A fudden ftoppage of this
much as even to threaten ilrangulation. The fauces rheum from the mouth and noftrils adually choaked
alfa very foon appeared of a high florid red, or rather, feveral children ; and fome fwallowed fuch quantities
ef a bright crimfon, colour, very ftiining and glofly; of it, as occafioned excoriations of the inteftines, vio-
and moft ‘ commonly on the uvula, tonfils, velum pa- lent gripings, dyfentery, &c. nay, even excoriations
latinum, and back part of the pharynx, feveral whitifti of the anus and buttocks. Not only the noftrils,' fau-
or afli-coloured fpots appeared fcattered up and down, ces, &c. were greatly affected by this extremely {harp
which oftentimes increafed very fall, and foon covered matter, but the wind-pipe itfelf was fometimes much
one or both the tonfils, uvula, See. thofe in the event corroded by it, and pieces of its internal membrane
proved floughs of fuperficial ulcers (which fometimes, were fpit up, with much blood and corruption ; and
however, eat very deep into the parts). The tongue the patients lingered on for a confiderable time, and
?.t this time, though only white and moift at the top, at length died tabid; though there were more frequent
was very foul at the root, and covered with a thick inftances of its falling fuddenly and violently on the
yellowifh or brown coat. The breath alfo now be- lungs, and killing in a peripneumonic manner,
gan to be very naufeous; which offenfive fmell in- Dr Huxham was aftonifhed fometimes to fee fevera!
creafed hourly, and in fome became at length intole- fwallow with tolerable eafe, though the tumor of the
rable, and that too fometimes even to the patients tonfils and throat, the quantity of thick mucus, and the
themfelves. rattling noife in breathing, were very terrible; which
The fecond or third day every fymptom became he thinks pretty clearly {hows, that this malignant
much more aggravated, and the fever much more con- quinfy was more from the acrimony and abundance of
fiderable; and thofe that had ftruggled with it tole- ' the humours than the violence of the inflammation,
rably well for 30 or 40 hours, were forced to fubmit. Moft commonly the angina came on before the ex-
The reftleffnefs and anxiety greatly increafed, as well anthemata ; but many times the cuticular eruption
as the difficulty in fwallowing. The head was very appeared before the fore-throat, and was fometimes
giddy, pained, and loaded; there was generally more very confiderable, though there was little or no pain
or lefs of a delirium; fometimes a pervigilium and per- in the fauces : on the contrary, a very fevete angina
petual phrenzy, though others lay very ftupid, but feized fome patients that had no manner of eruption ;
often ftarting and muttering to themfelves. The {kin and yet, even in thefe cafes, a very great itching and
was very hot, dry, and rough ; there was very rarely defquamation of the fkin fometimes enfued; but this
any difpofition to fweat. The urine was pale, thin, was chiefly in grown perfons, very rarely in children,
crude; often yellowifh and turbid. Sometimes a vo- In general, however, a very confiderable efflorefcence
miting was urgent, and fometimes a very great loofe- broke out on the furface of the body, particularly in
Befs, in children particularly. The floughs were now children; and it moft commonly happened the fecond,
much enlarged, and of a darker colour, and the fur- third, or fourth day : fometimes it was partial, fome-
rounding parts tended much more to a livid hue The times it covered almoft the whole body, though very
breathing became much more difficult; with a kind feldom the face : fometimes it was of an eryfipela-
ef a rattling ftertor, as if the patient was aftually tous kind; fometimes more puftular: the puftules
ftrangling, the voice being exceeding hoarfe and hoi- frequently eminent, and of a deep fiery red co¬
low, exactly refembling that from venereal ulcers in lour, particularly on the breaft and arms ; but often-
the fauces : this noife in fpeaking and breathing was times they were very fmall, and might be better felt
fo peculiar, that any perfon in the leaft converfant with than feen, and gave a very odd kind of roughnefs to
the difeafe might eafily know it by this odd noife; the Ikin. The colour of the efflorefcence was com-
from whence indeed the Spanifh phyficians gave it the monly of a crimfon hue, or as if the Ikin had been
name of garotillo, exprelfing the noife made by perfons fmeared over with juice of rafben ies, and this even to
when they are ftrangled with a vope. Our author ne- the fingers ends; and the {kin appeared inflamed and
ver obferved in one of them the flirill barking noife fwoln, as it were; the arms, hands, and fingers, were
that we frequently hear in inflammatory quinfies. The often evidently fo, and very ftiff, and fomewhat pain-
breath of all the difealed was very naufeous; of fame ful. This crimfon colour of the {kin feemed indeed
infufferably fetid, efpecially in the advance of the di- peculiar to this difeafe. Though the eruption feldom
ftemper tosrerifis; and many about the fourth or fifth failed of giving fome manifeft relief to the patient, as
day fpit off a vaft quantity of {linking purulent mucus to anxiety, ficknefs at ftomach, vomiting, purging,
tinged fometimes with blood; and fometimes the mat- &c. yet there was obferved an univerfal fiery eruption
ter was quite livid, and of an abominable fmell. The on fome perfons, without the leaft abatement of the
noftrils likewife in many were greatly inflamed and ex- fymptoms, nay almoft every symptom feemed more ag-
coriated, continually dripping down a moft {harp ichor gravated, particularly the fever, load at breaft, anxiety,
or fanious matter, fo excclfively acrid, that it not only delirium; and our author knew more than one or two
corroded the bps, cheeks, and hands of the children patients die in the moft raging phrenzy, covered with
that laboured under the difeafe, but even the fingers the moft univerfal fiery raffl he ever faw:-fo that, as in
X 2 the
164 MED I
Phlegma- the highly confluent fmall-pox, it feemed only to de-
flae note the quantity of the difeafe, as he terms it.
' J * ~ He had under his care a young gentleman, about
12 years of age, whofe tongue, fauces, and ton-
fils, vere as black as ink, and he fwallowed with ex¬
treme difficulty ; he continually fpit off immenfe quan¬
tities of a black, fanious, and very fetid matter, for
at leaf! eight or ten days :—about the feventh day, his
fever being fomewhat abated, he fell into a bloody
dyfentery, though the bloody, fanious, fetid expec¬
toration flill continued, with a moft violent cough.
He at length indeed got over it, to the very great
furprife of every one that faw him. Now, in this pa¬
tient, a fevere and univerfal rafh broke out upon
the fecond and third day ; and the itching of his
fkin was fo intolerable, that he tore it all over his
body in a moft fhocking manner: yet this very
great and timely eruption very little relieved his fever
and phrenzy, or prevented the other dreadful fymp-
toms mentioned,
An early and kindly eruption, however, was moft
commonly a very good omen; and, when fucceeded by
a very copious defquamation of the cuticle, one of the
moft favourable fymptoms that occurred; but when the
eruption turned of a dufky or livid colour, or prema¬
turely or fuddenly receded, every fymptom grew
worfe, and the utmoft danger impended, efpecially
if purple or black fpots appeared up and down, as
fometimes happened; the urine grew limpid, and
convulfions came on, or a fatal fuffocation foon clofed
the tragedy.
The difeafe was generally at the height about the
fifth or fixth day in young perfons, in the elder not
fo foon; and the crilis many times was not till the
uth or 12th, and then very imperfedt: fome adults,
however, were carried off in two or three days;
the diftemper either falling on the lungs, and killing
in a peripneumonic manner; or on the brain, and the
patient either died raving or comatofe. In fome, the
difeafe brought on a very troublefome cough, puru¬
lent expectoration, hasmoptoe, and hedtic; in which
they lingered on for feveral weeks, and then died
tabid. 4
If a gentle eafy fweat came on the third or fourth
day ; if the pulfe became more flow, firm, and equal;
if the floughs of the fauces call off in a kindly manner,
and appeared at the bottom tolerably clean and florid ;
if the breathing was more foft and free, and fome de¬
gree of vigour and quicknefs returned in the eyes; all
was well, and a faiutary crifis followed foon by a con¬
tinuance of the fweat, and a turbid, fubfiding, farina¬
ceous urine, a plentiful expedtoration, and a very large
defquamation of the cuticle. But if a rigor came on,
and the exanthemata fuddenly difappeared or turned
livid ; if the pulfe grew very fmall and quick, and the
ikin remained hot and parched as it were, the breath¬
ing more difficult, the eyes dead and glaffy, the urine
pafe and limpid, a phrenzy or coma fucceeded, with a
coldxfh clammy fweat on the face or extremities ; life
was defpaired of; efpecially if a fingultus and choak-
ing or gulping in the throat attended, with fudden,
liquid, involuntary, livid flools, intolerably fetid. In
fome few patients Dr Huxham obferved, fome time be¬
fore the fatal period, not only the face bloated, fallow,
fhining, and greafy as it were, but tlie whole neck very
CINE. Pra6Uce*
muchfwoln, and of a cadaverous look; and even the whole Cynancha,. j
body became in fome degree cedematous; and the im-  
preffion of a finger would remain fixed in a part, the
fkin not rifing again as ufual; an indication that the
blood ftagnated in the capillaries, and that the elafti-
city of the fibres was quite loft.
Medical writers are ftill much divided in opinion,,
whether the cynanehe maligna is to be confidered as
the fame difeafe with the fcarlatina anginofa, after¬
wards to be treated of, or not. This queftion wilt
afterwards come to be more fully difeuffed. At pre-
fent we may only obferve, that although ulcerous fore
throats of a malignant nature often appear fporadical-
ly, yet that the difeafe above deferibed appears only
as an epidemic, and is always the confequence of con¬
tagion.
Prognofts. This may be eafily gathered from the
above defeription. The malignant and putrid tendency*
of the difeafe is evident, and arj inereafe of the fymp¬
toms which arife from that putrefeent difpofition of the
body muft give an unfavourable prognoftic ; as, on the
contrary, a decreafe of thefe, and an apparent increafe
of the vis vita, are favourable : in general, what is
obferved to be favourable in the nervous and putrid
malignant fevers, is alfo favourable in this, and vice
verfa.
Caufes Since the accurate accounts given by Dr
Fothergill and Huxham ©f the epidemics which pre¬
vailed about 50 years ago, this difeafe has frequently,
been obferved at times epidemic in almoft: every diffe¬
rent part of Britain. Like fmall-pox, meafles, and chin-
cough, it feems in every cafe to be the effeift of a pecu¬
liar and fpecific contagion. It has been obftrved to pre¬
vail, equally generally in every lltuation, and at every
feafon ; and on expofure to the contagion, no age. fex, ^
or condition, is exempted from it. But the having once
had the difeafe, feems in this affeftion to afford the fame
fecurity againit future contagion as in the fmall-pox :
at leaft: inftances, where it can be faid that the fame
individual has been twice affefted with it, are both-
very rare and very doubtful, as well as in fmall-pox.
Cure. Like other febrile contagions, the malig¬
nant ulcerous fore throat is terminated only by a na¬
tural courfe; and the chief bufinefs of the prafti-
tioner is to combat unfavourable occurrences. In
this the feptic tendency of the difeafe is chiefly to
be kept in view. The debility with which it is
attended renders all evacuations by bleeding and pur¬
ging improper, except in a few inftances where the
debility is lefs, and the inflammatory fymptoms more,
confiderable. The fauces are to be preferved from the.
effefts of the acrid matter poured out upon-them, and
are therefore to be frequently wafted out by antifeptic
gargles or injections ; and the putrefeent flate of the.
whole fyftem ftould be guarded againft and corrected
by internal antifeptics, efpecially by the Peruvian bark
given in the beginning and continued through the
courfe of the difeafe. Great benefit is alfo often derived}
from the liberal ufe of the mineral acids. Both the vitrio¬
lic and muriatic, in a ftate of proper dilution, have been
highly extolled by different medical writers, and are
productive of the heft effects in actual practice, when
they can be introduced to a fufficient extent. Eme¬
tics, both by vomiting and naufeating, prove ufefuk
When any coniiderable tumor occurs, blifters applied
extei-
Practice. M E D I
Phiegma- externally will be of fervice, and in any cafe may be
li* proper to moderate the inflammation.
^ <  Very lately, the internal ufe of the capficum annu-
um, or Cayenne pepper as it is commonly called, has
been highly celebrated in this- affection ; and it is
particularly faid to have been employed with Angular
fuccefs in the Weft Indies.-
0 Sp. III. Cynanche trachealis.
• % The Croup
Cynanche trachealis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Cynanche laryngea anclorum,. Eller de cogn. et cu-
raod. morb. fe<ft. 7.
Anginas inflammatorias, fp. I. Boerh. 801.
Angina latens et difficilis, Dodon. obf. 18.
Angina interna, Tulp. 1. 1. obf. 51.
Angina perniciofa, Greg. Horjl. Obf. 1. iii. obf. I.
Suftocatio ftridula. Home on the Croup.
Afthma infantum,. Millar on the Afthma and Chin-
coughs
Afthma infantum fpafmodicum, Rujh, Differtation,
L.ond. 1770.
Cynanche ftridula, Crawford Difisrt, Inaug. Edin.
17 71 •
Angina epidemica anno 1743. Molloy apud Rutty’s
Hiftory of the weather.
Morbus ftrangulatorius, Starr, Phil. Tranf. n° 495.
Morbus truculentus infantum, Franco/, ad Viadrum
et in vicinia graffans ann. 1758. C. a Bergen.
A nova. N. C. tom. ii. p. >57.
Catarrhus fuffocativus Barbadenfis ann. 1758. Hil¬
lary's Difeafes of Barbadoes.
Angina inflammatoria infantum,Oecon. nat.
p. 7°.
Angina golypofa five membranacea Michealls. Ar-
gentorati 1778, el au&ores ab eo allegati.
The beft defcription of this difeafe we have in Dr
Cullen’s Praftice of Phyfic. He informs us, that it
confifts in an inflammation of the glottis, lary. x, or
upper part of the trachea, whether it affe<ft the mem¬
branes of thefe parts or the mufcles adjoining. It
may arife firft in thefe parts, and continue to fubfift in
them alone t or it may come to affedt thefe parts from
the cynanche tonfillaris, or maligna, fpreading into
them.
In either way it has been a rare occur/ence, and few
inftances of it have been marked and recorded by phy-
ficians. It is to be known by a peculiar-croaking found
of the voice, by difficult refpiration, with a fenfe of
ftraitening about the larynx, and by a pyrexia attend¬
ing it.
From the nature of thefe fymptoms, and from the
difleCtion of the bodies of perfons who died of.this dif¬
eafe, there is no doubt of its being of an inflamma¬
tory kind. It does not, however, always run the
courfe <t>f inflammatory affe&ions; but .frequently pro¬
duces fuch an obftrudtion of the paffage of the air, as
fuffocates, and thereby proves fuddenly fatal.
It particularly proves fatal, in confequence of the
trachea being obftrudtcd by a membranous fubftance
lining the infide of it, and very nearly approaching in
appearance to the inflammatory exudation often dif-
covered on the inteftinal canal in thofe dying of en¬
teritis. , 3.,
CINE.
165:
If we judge rightly of the nature of this difeafe, Cynartche.
it will be obvious, that the cure of it requires the vt'
moft powerful remedies of inflammation to be em¬
ployed upon the very firft appearance of the fymptoms.
When a fuffocation is threatened, whether any reme¬
dies can be employed to prevent it, is not yet deter¬
mined by fufficient experience: but it is evident,
that in certain cafes the life of the patient can be pre-
ferved only by the removal of that matter which ob-
ftrudfs the paflage of air through the trachea.
The accounts which books have hitherto given us
of inflammations of the larynx, and the parts connec¬
ted with it, amount to what we have now faid ; and
many inftances are recorded of the difeafe happening
in adult perfons : but there is a peculiar affedtion of
this kind happening to infants, which has been
little taken notice of till lately. Dr Home is the
firft who has given any diftindt account of this difeafe ;
but, fince he wrote, feveral other authors have taken
notice of it, and have given different opinions con¬
cerning it.
T his difeafe feldom attacks infants till after they
have been weaned. After this period, the younger
they are, the more they are liable to the difeafe. The
frequency of it becomes lefs as children become more
advanced ■, and there are few inftances of children above
12 years of age being affedted with it. It attacks-
children of the midland countries, as well as thofe
who live near the fea ; but it occurs much more fre¬
quently at certain places than at others. It does not
appear to be contagious ; and its attacks are fre¬
quently repeated in the fame child. It is often ma-
nifeftly the effedt of cold applied to the body ; and
therefore appears moft frequently in the winter and
fpring feafons. It very commonly comes on with the
ordinary fymptoms of a catarrh ; but fometimes the
peculiar fymptoms of the difeafe Ihow themfelves at
the very firft.
Thefe peculiar fymptoms- are the following : A
hoarienefs, with fome.flirillnefs and ringing found,
both in fpeaking and coughing, as if the noife came
from a brazen tube. At the fame time, there is a
fenfe of pain about: the larynx, fome difficulty of re¬
fpiration,with a whizzing found in infpiration, as if
the paffage of the air were ftraitened. The cough
which attends it, is commonly dry ; and if any thing
be fpit up, it is a matter of a purulent appearance, and
fometimes films refembling portions of a membrane.
With all thefe fymptoms, there is a frequency of
pulfe, a reftleffnefs, and an uneafy fenfe of heat.
When the internal fauces are viewed, they are fome¬
times without any appearance of inflammation ; but
frequently a rednefs, and even fwelling, appears ; and
fometimes there is an appearance of matter like to
that rejedted by . coughing, together with the fymp¬
toms now deferibed, and particularly with great dif¬
ficulty of breathing, and a fenfe of ftrangling in the
fauces^ by which the-patient is fometimes fuddenly
taken off.
Many diffedlions have been made of infants who
had died of this difeafe, and almoft conftantly there
has appeared a preternatural fubftance, apparently
membranous, lining the whole internal furface of the
upper part of the trachea, and extending in the fame
manner
M E D I
i«a- mannes* downwards into feme of its ramifications.
e , This preternatural membrane may be eafily fepara-
ted, and fometimes has been found feparated in part,
from the fubjacent proper membrane of the trachea.
This laft is commonly found entire, that is, without
any appearance of erofion or ulceration ; but it fre¬
quently fhows the veftiges of inflammation, and is co¬
vered by a matter refembling pus, like to that rejected
by coughing ; and very often a matter of the fame
kind is found in the bronchiae, fometimes in confide-
rable quantity.
From the remote caufes of this difeafe ; from the
catarrhal fymptoms commonly attending it} from the
pyrexia conftantly prefent with it; from the fame
kind of preternatural membrane being found in the
trachea when the cynanche maligna is communicated
to it; and from the veftiges of inflammation on the
trachea difeovered upon difledtion ; we muft conclude,
that this difeafe conlifts in an inflammatory affe&ion
of the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea,
producing an exudation analogous to that found on
the furface of inflamed vifeera, and appearing partly
in a membranous cruft, and partly in a fluid form re¬
fembling pus.
Though this difeafe confifts in an inflammatory af-
feftion, it does not commonly end either in fuppuration
or gangrene. The troublefome circumftance of it
feems to confift rn a fpafm of the mufcles of the glot¬
tis, threatening fuffocation.
When this difeafe terminates in health, it is by re-
folution of the inflammation, by ceafing of the fpafm
of the glottis, by an expe&oration of the matter ex¬
uding from the trachea, and of the crufts formed
there, and frequently it ends without any expeftora-
tion, or at leaft with fuch only as attends an ordinary
catarrh. But in fome inftances, a falutary termina¬
tion has very fpeedily taken place, in confequence
of the difeharge of the membranous fubftance from
the trachea, even under its proper tubular form.
When the difeafe ends fatally, it is by a fuffocation
feemingly depending upon a fpafm affefting the glot¬
tis ; but fometimes, probably, depending upon a quan¬
tity of matter filling the bronchia, or obftru&ing the
trachea.
As we fuppofe the difeafe to be an inflammatory af¬
fection, fo we attempt the cure of it by the ufual re¬
medies of inflammation. Bleeding, both general and
topical, has often given immediate relief, and, by be¬
ing repeated, has entirely cured the difeafe. Blifter-
ing alfo, near to the part affeCted, has been found ufe-
ful; Upon the firft attack of the difeafe, vomiting,
immediately after bleeding, feems to be of confider-
able ufe, and fometimes fuddenly removes the difeafe.
Bui emetics are ftill more ufeful in advanced periods.
By the employment of thefe, the matter obftruCting
the trachea, and inducing fpafmodic affeftions, has of¬
ten been fuccefsfully removed, when the fituation of
the patient feemed to be almoft defperate. And as
in the progrefs of the difeafe frefti effufions of this
matter are very apt to take place, the frequent repe ■
tition of emetics becomes neceflary. It is often ne-
cefiary to have recourfe to thofe operating the moft
expeditioufly, fuch as vitriolated zinc even in large
dofes. In every ftage of the difeafe, the antiphlogi-
CINE. Praaice.
ftic regimen is neceflary, and particularly the frequent Cynanche.
ufe of laxative glyfters. Though we fuppofe that a *
fpafm affefting the glottis is often fatal in this dtfeafe,
antifpafmodic medicines have not in general been
found of great fervice. Some, however, have ftrongly
recommended the ufe of afafoetida under the form of
injection } others place great confidence in oil, or oily
mixtures, taken by the mouth : but more immediate
benefit is derived from tepid bathing, and the employ¬
ment of vitriolic ether, both externally and internally.
Sp. IV. Cynamche pharyngea. 18l
Cynanche pharyngea, Sauv. fp. 6. E/Ier de cogn.
et cur. fe&. 7.
Angina inflammatoriae, fp 4. Boerh. 804.
This is not materially different from the cynanche
tonfillaris ; only that the inflammation is faid to begin
in the pharynx, though Dr Cullen fays he never knew
an inftance of it. The fymptoms are almoft the fame,
and the cure is precifely fo with that of the cynanche
tonfillaris.
Sp. V. Cynanche parotid^a. igj
Cynanche parotidasa, Sauv. fp. 14. GaUts Or'eii,-
lons et Ourles, Tijfot Avis au peuple, n° 116.
Encyclopedic, au mot Oreillons.
Angina externa, Jlnglis the Mumps, Rujfel cecon.
natur. p.114. Scoftx the Branks.
Catarrhus Bellinfulanus, Sauv. fp. 4.
Oflervazioni di Girol. Gafpari, Venez. 1731.
Oflervazioni di Targ. Tozetti, Racolta ima, p. 175.
This is a difeafe well known to the vulgar, but
little taken notice of by medical writers. It is often
epidemic, and manifeftly contagious. It comes on
with the ufual fymptoms of pyrexia, which is foon af¬
ter attended with a confiderable tumor of the exter¬
nal fauces and neck. The fwelling appears firft as
a glandular moveable tumor at the corner of the
lower jaw ; but it foon becomes uniformly diffufed
over a great part of the neck, fometimes on one fide
only, but more commonly on both. The fwelling
continues to increafc till the fourth day ; but from
that period it declines, and in a few days more goes
off entirely. As the fwelling of the fauces recedes,
it not unfrequently happens that fome tumor af-
fe&s the tefticles in the male fex, or the breafts in
the female. Thefe tumors are fometimes large,
hard, and fomewhat painful; but are feldom either
very painful or of long continuance. The pyrexia
attending this difeafe is commonly flight, and goes
off with the fwelling of the fauces; but fometimes,
when the fwelling of the tefticles does not fucceed to
that of the fauces, or when the one or the other has
been fuddenly repreffed, the pyrexia becomes more
confiderable, is often attended with delirium, and has
fometimes proved fatal.
As this difeafe commonly runs its courfe without ei¬
ther dangerous or troublefome fymptoms, fo it hardly
requires any remedies. An antiphlogiftic regimen, and
avoiding cold, are all that will be commonly neceffary.
But when, upon the receding of the fwellings, the py¬
rexia comes to be confiderable, and threatens an affec¬
tion of the brain, it will be proper, by warm fo¬
mentations,
Pra&ice. M E D I
Phlegma- mentations, to bring back the fwelling; and by vomit-
fi;e ing, bleeding, or bliftering, to obviate the confequen-
ces of its abfence.
183 Genus XL PNEUMONIA.
Febiis pneumonica, Hoffm. II. 136.
*84 Sp. I. Peripneumonia.
Peripneumony, or Inflammation of the Lungs.
Peripneumonia, Sauv. gen. 112. 34. Vog.
51. Sag. gen. 311. Boerh. 820 Juncker 67.
Peripneumonia pura five vera Aucftorum, Sauv.
fP- r‘
Peripneumonia gaftrica, Sauv. fp. 11. Morgagn.
de cauf. et fed. Epift. xx. art. 30, 31.
Peripneumonia catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 6.
Peripneumonia notha, Sydenh. feft. 6. cap. 4.
Boerh. 867. Morgagni de cauf. et fed. Epili.
xxi. 11.—15.
Peripneumonia putrida, Sauv. fp. 2.
Peripneumonia ardens, Sauv. fp. 3.
Peripneumonia maligna, Sauv. fp. 4.
Peripneumonia typhodes, Sauv. fp. 5.
Amphimerina peripneumonica, Sauv. fp. rj.
Sp. II. Pleuritis.
* The Pleurify, or Inflammation of the Pleura.
Pleuritis, Sauv. gen. 103. Lin. 27. Vog. 56. Sag.
gen. 303. Boerh. 875. Junck. 67.
Paraphrenefis, Sauv gen. 102. Lin. 26.
Paraphrenitis, Vog. 55. Boerh. 907.
Diaphragmitis, Sag. gen. 304.
Pleuritis vera, Sauv. fp. 1. Boerh. 875'. Verna
princeps morb. acut. pleuritis, 1. 1. cap. 2. 3.
Zeviani della parapleuritide, cap. 3. Morgagni
de fed. et cauf morb. Epift. xx. art. 56. xxi. 45.
IVendt de pleuritide, apud Sandfort, thef. ii.
Pleuritis pulmonis, Sauv. fp. 2. Zevian. dell, para-
pleur. iii. 28, &c.
Pleuropneumonia, pleuro-peripneumonia, peripneu-
mo-pleuritis Auftorum. Baronius de pleuri-pneu-
monia. 111. Halleri opufcul. patholog. obf. 13.
Morgagni de fed. et cauf. Epift. xx. and xxi. paf-
fim. Cleghorn, Minorca, p. 247. Trillerde pleuri¬
tide, aph. 1, 2, 3 cap. i. 8. Huxham, Diflert on
pleurifies, &c. chap. i. Ill, Pringle, Dif. of the
army.
Pleuritis convulfiva, Sauv. fp. 13. Bianch. Hift. hep.
vol. i. p. 234.
Pleuritis hydrothoracica,,Sauv. .fp. 15. Morgagni de
cauf. et fed. xx. 34.
Pleuritis dorfalis, Sauv. fp. 3., Verna,-p. 3: cap. 8.
Pleuritis mediaftini, Sauv. fp 3. P. Sal. Div. de
affec. part. cap. 6. Friend, Hift. Med. de Aven-
zoare.
Mediaftina, Vog. 52;
Bleuritis pericardii, Sauv. fp. 5; Verna, p. iii.
cap. 9.
Parapleuritis, Zeviani della parapleuritide. .
Pleurodyne parapleuritis, Sauv. fp. 19.
Paraphrenefis diaphragmatica, Sauv. fp. I. De Haen.
Rat. med. i. 7. iii. p. 31.
Paraphrenefis pleuritica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Paraphrenefis hepatica, Sauv. fp. 3.
CINE. v6j
Under the general head of Pneumonia, Dr Cullen Pneumo-
comprehends all inflammations of the thoracic vifcera, nia‘ ,
or membrane lining the infide of that cavity ; as the ' *
fymptoms do not fufficiently diftinguifli the feat of the
affection, nor does a difference in the fituation of the
affe&ed place make any difference in the cure.
Defcription. Pneumonic inflammation, however va¬
rious in the feat, always difcovers itfelf by pyrexia,
difficult breathing, cough, and pain in fome part of
the thorax. It almoft always comes on with a cold
ftage, and is accompanied with the other fymptoms of
pyrexia ; though in fome few inftances the pulfe may
not be more frequent, nor the heat of the body increa-
fed .beyond what is natural. Sometimes, the pyrexia is
from the beginning accompanied with the other fymp¬
toms ; but frequently it is formed fome hours before
them, and particularly before the pain be felt. The
pulfe for the moft part is frequent, full, ftrong, hard,
and quick ; but, in a few inftances, efpecially in ths
advanced ftate of the difeafe, it is weak,, foft, and at
the fame time irregular. The difficulty of breathing-
is moft confiderable in infpiration, both becaufe the
lungs do not eafily admit of a full dilatation, and be¬
caufe the dilatation increafes the pain attending the
difeafe. The difficulty of breathing is alfo greater
when the patient is in one pofture of the body rather
than another. It is generally greater when he lies o»
the fide affected; though fometimes th£ contrary hap¬
pens. Very often the patient cannot lie eafy upon ei¬
ther fide, and can find eafe only when lying on the
back ; and fometimes he cannot breathe eafily, except
when in fomewhat of.an ere& pofture. The cough, in
different cafes, is more or lefs urgent or painful. It
m fometimes dry, or without any expedtoration, efpe¬
cially in the beginning of the difeafe; but more com¬
monly it is, even from the beginning, moift,. and the
matter fpit up various both in confiftenee and colour,,
and frequently, it is ftreaked with blood. The pain is
alfo different in different cafes, and felt in different parts
of the thorax, but moft frequently in one fide. It has
been faid to affedt the right, fide more frequently than
the left; but. this is uncertain, and we are fure that the.
left fide has been very often affedled. Sometimes it is
felt as if it was under the ftemum; fometimes in the back,
between the fhoulders; and when in the fides, its place
has been higher or lower,. more forward or .backward
but the place of all moft frequently affedted is about*
the fixth or feventh rib, near the middle of its
length, or a little more forward. The pain is often-
fevere and pungent; but fometimes more dull and ob-
tufe, with a fenfe of weight rather than of pain. It*,
is moft efpecially fevere and pungent when occupy¬
ing the place, laft mentioned. For the moft part itc
continues fixed in one part, but fometimes fhoots from*:
the fide t® the fcapula on one hand, ,or to the fternum 1
and clavicle on the other..
Dr Cullen fuppofes that .th'e difeafe is always feat—
ed, or at.leaft begins, in fome part of the pleura, ta¬
king that, membrane, in its greateft extent,, as now
commonly underftood ; that is, as covering not only,
the internal, furface. of the cavity of the thorax, but al¬
fo as forming the mediaftinum, and as extended over r
the pericardium, and over the whole furface of the.
lungs. But as the fymptoms never clearly indicate,
. wher.ee
l68 M E D I
Phlecrma- vvhere the feat of the difeafe is, there is but little foun-
. Ration for (he different names by which it has been
■wn y diftinguilhed. The term pleurlfy is improperly limited
to that inflammation which begins in and chiefly af-
fedts the pleura coftalis. This our author thinks is a
rare occurrence ; and that the pneunomia much more
frequently begins in the pleura invefting the lungs,
producing all the fymptoms which belong to what
hath been called the pleuritis vera. The word perip -
neumony has been applied to an inflammation begin¬
ning in the parenchyma, or cellular texture of the
lungs, and.having its feat chiefly these. But to Dr
Cullen it feems very doubtful if any acute inflamma¬
tion of the lungs, or any difeafe which has been call
ed peripneuruony, be of that kind. It feems probable,
that every acute inflammation begins in membranous
parts ; and in every diffedlion of perfons who have died
of pei ipneumony, the external membrane of the lungs,
or fome part of the pleura, has appeared to have been
4 confiderably affedted. An inflammation of the pleura
covering the upper furface of the diaphragm, has been
diftinguiflied by the appellation of paraphrenitis, as fup-
pofed to be attended with the peculiar fymptoms of
delirium, rifus fardnnicus, and other convulfive mo¬
tions : but it is certain, that an inflammation of that
portion of the pleura, and affedling alfo even the muf
cular fubftance of the diaphragm, has often taken
place without Any of theTymptoms above-mentioned ;
. and neither the diffedtions which have fallen under Dr
Cullen’s obfervation, nor any accounts of diffedlionsj
fupport the opinion that an inflammation of the pleura
covering the diaphragm is attended with delirium more
commonly than apy other pneumonic inflammation.—
It is to be obferved, however, that though the inflam¬
mation may begin in one.particular part of the pleura,
the morbid afleclion is commonly communicated to the
whole extent of the membrane.
The pneumonic inflammation, like others, may ter¬
minate by refolution, fuppuration or gangrene : but
it has alfo a termination peculiar to itfelf ; namely,
when it is attended with an effufion of blood into the
cellular texture of,die lungs, which, foon interrupt¬
ing the circulation of the blood through the vifeus,
produces a fatal fuffocation. This indeed appears to
be the moft common termination of pneumonic inflam¬
mation when it ends fatally ; for upon the diffedtion
of almoft every perfon who has died of this dileafe, it
appears that fuch an effufion had happened. From
the fame diffedtions we learn, that pneumonic inflam
mation commonly produces an exiudation from the in¬
ternal furface of the pleura, which appears partly as a
foft vifeid craft, often of a compact membranous form,
covering every where the furface of the pleura, and
particularly thofe parts vvhere the lungs adhere to the
.pleura coftalis, or mediaftinum ; and this cruft feems
always to be the cement of iuch adheiion. The fame
exfudation (hows itfelf alfo by a quantity of a ferous
fluid commonly found in the cavity of the thorax ; and
fome exfudation or effufion is uiually found to have
been made into the cavity of the pericardium. It
feems likewife probable, that an effufion of this kind
is fometimes made into 'the cavity of the bronchite ;
for in fopie perfons who have died after labouring
under a pneumonic inflammation for a few days only,
the bronchi* have been found filled with a confider-
-N5 205.
CINE, Practice.
able quantity of ferous and thickiib fluid, which mu ft Pueumo-
be confidered rather as the effufion abovementioned, :ia-
having had its thinner parts taken off by refpiration, —
than as a pus fo fuddenly formed in the inflamed part.
It is, however, not improbable, that this effufion, as
well as that made into the cavities of the thorax and
pericardium, may be a matter of -the fame kind with
that which in other inflammations is poured into the
cellular texture of the parts inflamed, and there con¬
verted into pus; but in the thorax and pericardium it
does not always put on this appearance, becaufe the
cruft covering the furface prevents the abforption of
the thinner part. This abforption, however, may be
-compenfated in the bronchi*, by the drying power of
the air ; and therefore the effulion into them may af-
fume a more purulent appearance. In many cafes of .
pneumonic inflammation, when the expe&oration is
very copious, it is difficult to fuppofe that the whole
^proceeds from the mucous follicles of the bronchi*;
and it feems probable that a great part of it may come
from the eftufed ferous fluid juft mentioned ; and this
4oo will account for the appearance of the expeftora-
tion being fo often purulent. Perhaps the fame thing
will account for that purulent matter found in the
bronchi*, which Mr de Haen fays he had often ob¬
ferved when there was no ulceration in the lungs,-
and which he accounts for in a very ftrange manner,
namely, by fuppofing a pus formed in the circulating
blood.
Dr Cullen is of opinion, that the effufion into the
bronchi* above-mentioned often concurs with the ef4
fulion of red blood into the cellular fubftance of the
lungs to occafion the fatal fuffocation which frequent¬
ly terminates peripneumony : that the effufion of ferum
alone may have this effedl : and that the erum poured
out in a certain quantity, rather than any debility in
the powers of expeftoration, is the caufe of that ceffa-
tion of fpitting which precedes the fatal event; for irt >
many cafes the expectoration has ceafed, when no other
fymptoms of debility have appearfed, and when, upon
difledtion, the bronchi* have been full of liquid matter.
Nay, it is even probable, that in fome cafes fuch an
eftufion may take place without any fymptoms of vio¬
lent inflammation ; and in other cafes the eftufion ta¬
king place may feem to remove the fymptoms of in¬
flammation which had appeared before, and thus ac¬
count for thofe unexpe&ed fatal terminations which
have fometimes happened.
Pneumonic inflammation feldom terminates by refo¬
lution, without being attended with fome evident eva¬
cuation. An h*morrhagy from the nofe happening ott
fome of the firlt days of the dileafe has fom^times put
an end to it ; and it is faid, that an evacuation from
the h*morrhoidal veins, a bilious evacuation by ftool,
and an evacuation of urine with a copious fediment,
have feverally had the fame effect; but fuch occur¬
rences have been rare. The evacuation moft frequent¬
ly attending, and feemlng to have the greateft effedl in
promoting refolution, is an expedt ration of a thick,
white, or yellowifh matter, a little ftreaked with blood,
copious, and brought'up without much or violent
coughing. Very frequently the refolution of this dif¬
eafe is attended with, and perhaps produced by, a fweat,
winch is warm, fluid, copious, over the whole body,
and attended with an abatement of the frequency of
' . the
PradHce. M E D I
Phlegma- the pulfe, heat of the body, and other febrile fymp-
ilx toms. Although, from the hiftory now given, it ap-
* pears that pleurify and-peripneumony cannot with
propriety be confidered as different difeafes, yet it is
certain that in different cales this affe&ion occurs
with an affemblage of fymptoms feparate and diftinft.
Thus even Dr Cullen himfelf, in his Nofology, has
defined plenritis to confift in pyrexia, attended with
pungent pain of the fide, painful refpiration, difficulty
of lying down, particularly on the affedted fide, and
diftreffing cough, in the beginning dry, but afterwards
humid, and often with bloody expedioration. While
again he has defined peripneumony to confift in pyrexia,
• attended with adull pain under the fternum and between
the ftioulders, anxiety, difficulty of breathing, humid
• cough, expedtoration generally bloody, a foft pulfe, and
a tumid livid appearance of the countenance. It is
highly probable, that the firft of thefe fets of fymp¬
toms chiefly arifes from a ftate of adftive inflammation,
and the fecond from effufion. Thus, in certain cafes,
the fymptoms may appear perfedtly feparate and dif-
tindf ; but more frequently both inflammation and ef¬
fufion are united; and thus the fymptoms in both defi-
'iiitions are in general combined in the fame patient.
Caufes of, and per Jons fubjeff to, this diforder. The
remote caufe of pneumonic inflammation is commonly
cold applied to the body, obftrudlingperfpiration, and
determining to the lungs, while at the fame time the
lungs themfelves are expofed to the adfion of cold.
Thefe circumftances operate chiefly when an inflamma¬
tory diathefis prevails in the fyftem ; and therefore
thofe principally affedted with this difeafe are perfons
of the greateft vigour, in cold climates, in the winter
feafpn, and particularly in the fpring, when viciffitudes
of heat and cold are frequent. This difeafe, however,
may arife in any feafon when fuch varieties take place.
Other remote caufes alfo may have a fhare in- produ¬
cing this dillemper ; fuch as every means of obftrudt-
ing, ftraining, or otherwife injuring, the pneumonic
organs. The pneumonic inflammation has fometimes
been fo much an epidemic, that it hath been fufpedl-
ed of depending on a fpecific contagion ; but Dr
Cullen never met with an inftance of its being conta¬
gious.
Prognfts. In pneumonic inflammations, a violent
pyrexia is always dangerous. The danger, however,
is chiefly denoted by the difficulty of breathing. When
the patient can lie on one fide only ; when he can lie
on neither fide, but only on his back ; when he cannot
breathe with tolerable cafe, except when the trunk
of his body is eredt; when even in this pofture the
•breathing is very difficult, and attended with a turge-
fcence and flufhing of the face, with partial fweats
about the head and neck, and an irregular pulfe ; thefe
circumftances mark the difficulty of breathing in dif¬
ferent degrees ; and confequently, in proportion, the
-danger of the difeafe. A frequent violent cough, ag¬
gravating the pain, is always the fymptom of an obfti-
nate difeafe ; and as the difeafe is feldom or never re-
folved without fome expectoration, fo a dry cough
muft always be an unfavourable fymptom.
Thfe proper charadteriftics of the expedtoration have ‘
been already laid down ; and though an expedtoration
which has not thefe mirks muft: indicate a doubtful
Vox.. XI. Part I.
CINE. 169
ftate of the difeafe, yet the colour alone can give no Pneumo
certain prognoftic. An acute pain, very much inter- nia- ,
rupting infpiration, is always the mark of a violent dif- ' v
eafe ; but not of a more dangerous difeafe than an ob-
tufe pain attended with very difficult refpiration.
When the pains, which had at firft affedted one fide
only, flrall afterwards fpread into the other ; or when,
leaving the fide firft affedted, they pafs entirely into the
other ; thefe are always marks of a dangerous difeafe.
A delirium coming on during a pneumonic inflamma¬
tion is always a fymptom denoting much danger.
When pneumonic diforders terminate fatally, it is
on one or other of the days of the firft week, from the
third to the feventh. This is the moil common cafe ;
but, in a few inftances, death has happened at a later
period. When the difeafe is violent, but admitting of
refolution, this alfo happens frequently in the courfe of
the firft week ; but in a more moderate difeafe the re¬
folution is often put off to the fecond week. The dif¬
eafe generally fuffers a remiffion on fome of the days
from the third to the feventh : which, however, may
be often fallacious, as the difeafe fometimes returns
again with as much violence as before ; and in fuch a
cafe with great danger. Sometimes it difappears on
the third day, while an eryfipelas makes its' appearance
on fome external part; and if this continue fixed, the
pneumonic inflammation does not recur. If the difeafe
continue beyond the 14th day, it will terminate in a
fuppuration, or Phthisis. The termination by gan¬
grene is much more rare than has been imagined : and
when it does occur, it is ufually joined with the termi¬
nation by effufion ; the fymptoms of the one being
hardly diftinguifhable from thofe of the other.
Cure. This muft proceed upon the general plan
mentioned under Synocha; but, on account of the
importance of the part affefted, the remedies muft be
employed early, and as fully as poffible : and thefe are
chiefly directed with one of three views, viz. for ob¬
taining a refolution of the inflammation in the tho¬
rax, for mitigating the urgent fymptoms before a re¬
folution can be effedted, and for counteradling or ob¬
viating the confequences of the difeafe. Venefeftion is
the remedy chiefly to be depended oh ; and may be
done in either arm, as the furgeon finds moft conve-
venient; and the quantity taken away ought in gene¬
ral to be as large as the patient’s ftrength will allow.
The remiffion of pain, and the relief of refpiration,
during the flowing of the blood, may limit the quanti¬
ty to be then drawn ; but if thefe fymptoms of relief
do not appear, the bleeding ftiould be continued to a
confiderable extent, unlefs fympto'ms of a beginning
fyncope come on. It is feldcm that one bleeding,
however large, will cure this difeafe ; and though the
pain and difficulty of breathing may be much relieved
by the firft bleeding, thefe fymptoms commonly and
after no long interval recur, often with as much vio¬
lence as before. In this cafe the bleeding is to be re¬
peated even on the fame day, and perhaps to the fame
quantity as before. Sometimes the fecond bleeding
may be larger than the firft. There are perfons who,
by their conftitution, are ready to faint even upon a
fmall bleeding ; and in filch perfons this may prevent
the drawing fo much blood at firft as a pneumonic in¬
flammation may require : but as the fame perfons are
Y found
(70 M E D I
Ph’e^ma- found to tear after-bleedings better than the firft, this
, u* r allows the fecond and fubfequent bleedings to be
J'/ ' larger, and to fuch a quantity as the fymptoms of the
difeafe may feem to require.
iBletdings are to be repeated according to the Hate
of the fymptoms, and they will be more effectual when
pra&ifed in the courfe of the firlt three days than af¬
terwards ; but they are not to be omitted though four
days of the difeafe may already ha^e elapfed. If the
phyfician has not been called in time, or tire firft bleed¬
ings have not been fufficftmtly hirge, or even though
they fhould have procured fome remifilon, yet upon the
return of the urgent fymptoms, bleeding may be re¬
peated at any time within the firft fortnight, or even
after that period, if a fuppuration be not evident, or if
after a feenimg folution the difeafe (hall have returned.
With refpedt to the quantity of blood which may
be taken away with fafety, no general rules can be gi¬
ven ; as it.muft be very different according to the date
of the difeafe, and the conftitution of the patient. In
an adult male of tolerable ftrengtb, a pound avoirdu¬
pois of blood is a full bleeding. Any quantity above
20 ounces is a large, and any quantity below 12 is a
fmall, bleeding. An evacuation of four or five pounds,
in the courfe of two or three days, is generally as much
as moft patients will bear ; but if the intervals between
the bleedings, and the whole of the time during which
the bleedings have been employed, have been long, the
quantity taken upon the whole may be greater.
When a large quantity of blood hath been taken
from the arm, and it is doubtful if more can be taken
in that manner with fafety, fome blood may ftill'be
taken by cupping and fcarifying. This will efpecially
be proper, when the recurrence of the pain, rather than
the difficulty of breathing, becomes the urgent fymp-
tom ; and then the cupping and fcarification (hould he
made as near as poffible to the pained part.
An expefloration fometimes takes place very early
in this difeafe t but if the fymptoms continue urgent,
the bleedings muft be repeated notwithftanding the ex-
pe&oration : but in a more advanced date, and when
the fymptoms have fuffered a confiderable remiffion, we
may then truft the cure to the expe&oration alone. It
is not obferved that bleeding, during the firft days of
the difeafe, ftops expeftoration ; on the contrary, it
hath been often found to promote it; and it is only in
a more advanced ftate of the difeafe, when the patient
has been already exhaufted by large evacuations and a
continuance of his illnefs, that bleeding feems to put
a ftop to expectoration ; and even then, this ftoppage
feems not to take place fo much from the powers of
expectoration being weakened by bleeding, as by its
favouring the ferous effufion in the bronchiae, already
taken notice of.
Befides bleeding, every part of the antiphlogiftic re¬
gimen ought here to be carefully employed : the pa¬
tient muft keep out of bed as much as he can bear;
muft have plenty of warm diluting drinks, impregna¬
ted with vegetable acids, accompanied with nitre or
fome other cooling neutral fait; and the belly alfo
ought to be kept open by emollient glyfters or cool¬
ing laxative medicines. Vomiting in the beginning
is dangerous; but in a fomewhat advanced ftate of the
difeafe emetics have been found the heft means of pro¬
moting expeftoration. Fomentations and poultices
C I N T. Pradiee.
to the pained part have been found ufeful ; but blifter- Pneumo-
ing is found to be much more effeClual. A blifter, nt3"
however, ought not to be applied till at lea ft one bleed- ~ /—*■*»
ing hath been premifed, as venefeCHon is lefs effectual
when the irritation of a blifter is prefent. If the dif¬
eafe be moderate, a bliller may be applied immediately
after the firft bleeding ; but in violent cafes, where it
may be prefumed that a fecond bleeding may foon be
neceffary after the firft, it will be proper to delay
the blifter till after the fecond bleeding, when it may
be fuppofed that the irritation occafioned by the blifter
will be over before another bleeding becomes neceffary.
It may frequently be of ufe in this difeafe to repeat
the bliftering ; and in that cafe the plaffers (hould al¬
ways be applied fomewhere on the thorax, for when
applied to more diftant parts they have little effeCI.
The keeping the bliftered parts open, and making what
is called a perpetual blijler, has much lefs effeCt than a
repeated bliftering.
Many methods have been propofed for promoting
expectoration, but none appear to he fufficiently ef¬
fectual ; and fome of them, being acrid ftimulant fuh-
ftances, are not very fafe. The gums ufually em¬
ployed feem to be too heating ; the fquills lefs fo; but
they are not very powerful, and fometimes inconve¬
nient, by the conftant naufea they occafion. The vo¬
latile alkali may be of fervice as an expeCtorant, but
it ought to be referved for an advanced ftate of the
difeafe. Mucilaginous and oily demulcents appear to
be ufeful, by allaying that acrimony of the mucus-
which occafions too frequent coughing ; and which
coughing prevents the ftagnation and thickening of
the mucus, and thereby its becoming mild.. The re¬
ceiving into the lungs the (learns of warm water, im¬
pregnated with vinegar, has often proved ufeful in
promoting expectoration; and, for this purpofe, the
machine called the Inhaler* lately invented by
Dr Mudge of Plymouth, promifes to be of great
fervice. But of all others, the antimonial emetics*
given in naufeating dofes, promife to be the moll
powerful for promoting expeCloration. The kermes
mineral hath been greatly recommended ; hut doth
not feem to be more efficacious than emetic tartar
or antimonial wine ; and the dofe of the kermes is
much more uncertain than that of the others. ,1
Though this difeafe often terminates by a fponta-
neous fweating, this evacuation ought not to be ex- .
cited by art, unlefs with much caution. When, aftei
fome remiffion of the fymptoms, fpontaneous fweats
arife, they may be encouraged; but it ought to be
without much heat, and without ftimulant medicines.
If, however, the fweats be partial and clammy only,
and a great difficulty of breathing dill remain, it will
be very dangerous to encourage them.
Phyficians have differed much with regard to the
ufe of opiates in pneumonic affedlions. It appears,
however, that, in the beginning of the difeafe, and
before bleeding and bliftering have produced fome
remiffion of the pain, and of the difficulty of breath¬
ing, opiates have a bad tendency, by their increa-
fing the difficulty of breathing and other inflam¬
matory fymptoms. But in a more advanced ftate of
the difeafe, when the difficulty of breathing has abated,
and when the urgent fymptom is a cough, proving the
chief caufc of the continuance of pain and want oi
reft.
practice. M E D I
Hhlegma refl, opiates may be employed with great advantage
. fla: and fafety. The interruption, of the expectoration
" v which they feem to occafion, is for a ihort time only;
and they feem often to promote it, as they occafiori a
ftagnation of what was by frequent coughing difii-
pated infenfibly: and therefore give the appearance of
what phyficians have called concotled matter.
Opium combined with calomel has of late been
highly extolled in this and other inflammatory difeafes
by Dr Hamilton of Lynn-Regis; who has given a full
account of the fuccefe attending his practice with this
remedy, for the fpace of 16 years, in the 9th volume
of the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries. And fince
his recommendation, the fame remedy has often been
employed by others with great benefit.
Vomica, or Alfcefs of the Lungs.
Vomica, Boerh. R35, Junck. 35.
Pleurodyne vomica, Sauv. fp. 21.
This fometimes follows pneumonia, though the cafe
is not frequent. The fymptomsof it fo much refemble
the phthifis, that it can molt properly be treated of
under that head.
*87 Empyema.
This is another confequence of a pneumonia termi¬
nating unfavourably, and is occafioned by the effufion
of a quantity of purulent matter into the cavity of the
thorax, producing a lingering and painful diforder,
very often incurable.
Defcriptwn. The firft fign of an empyema is a
ceifation of the pain in the breaft, which before was
continual: this is followed by a fenfation of weight
on the diaphragm ; and a fluctuation of matter, fome¬
times making a noife that may be heard by the by-
ftanders: the acute fever is changed into a hedtic, with
an exacerbation at night: a continual and troublefome
dry cough remains. The refpiration is exceedingly
difficult, becaufe the lungs are prevented by the mat¬
ter from fully expanding themfelves. The patient
can lie eafily on that fide where the matter is eifufed,
but not on the other, becaufe then the weight of the
matter on the mediaftinum produces uneafinefs. The
more the heftic heat is augmented, the more is the
body emaciated, and its ftrength decayed. In fome
there is danger of fuffocation when they Hoop down,
which goes off when they alter that poflure of the
body ; and in fome there is a purulent fpitting.—
Thefe fymptoms are accompanied with great anxiety,
palpitations of the heart, and faintings. Sometimes
the patients have a fenl'ation like a hot vapour afcend-
ing from the cavity of the thorax to their mouth. Ci¬
thers, in a more advanced ftate of the difeafe, have a
putrid tafte in the mouth- At the fame time, profufe
night-fweats waile the body, and greatly weaken the
patient. The face at firft grows red on that fide where
the matter lies, at laft the Hippocratic face comes on,
and the eyes become hollow. The pulfe, efpecially
on the affedted fide, is quick, but more frequently in¬
termitting. Sometimes the nails are crooked, and
puftules appear on the thorax; and frequently, ac¬
cording to the teftimony of Hippocrates, the feet fwell,
and, on the affefted fide of the breall, there is an in¬
flation and fwelling of the ikin.
CINE. 171
Caufes, &c. An empyema may arife either from Empyema,
the burfting of a vomica of the lungs, or from a fup- v—•
puration taking place after the inflammatory ftage of
the pneumonia; or fometimes from a fuppuration in.
the cafe of a quinfy, when the inflammation had ex¬
tended to the afpera arteria, from, whence arifes a
kind of bloody fpittle, and the patients are affli&ed
with an empyema, unlefs they die on the 7th day of
the difeafe, according to the obfervation of Hippo¬
crates. It may arife alfo from external violence, as
wounds of the thorax, Sec. blood extravafated, cor¬
rupted, or changed into pus. Like the vomica,, it is
a rare diftemper, but may attack all thofe fubjetff to
pneumonia.
Prognojis. Very few recover after an- empyema
has been once formed, efpecially if the operation of
paracentefis be neglected. After this operation is per¬
formed, if a great quantity of bloody fetid pus be dif-
charged, if the fever continue, and if the patient fpit
up a purulent, pale, frothy, livid, or green matter,
with a decay of ftrength, there is. no hope: But
when a fmall quantity of pus, of a white colour, not
very fetid, is dffcharged; when the fever and thiril
prefently ceafe, the appetite returns, and faeces of a
good confiftence are dlfcharged, the ftrength alfo. re¬
turning in fome degree ; there is then hope of a per¬
fect recovery. If the matter be not dried up in feven
weeks time, the difeafe readily changes to a fillulous
ulcer, which is very difficult to cure. An empyema
affedlfng both fides of the thorax, is more dangerous
than that which affefts only one-
Cure. This confifts in evacuating the purulent
matter contained in the cavity of the thorax, which is.
belt done by the operation of paracentefis. See the
article Surgery. Afterwards the ulcer is to be
treated with abftergent and confolidating medicines,
and the fame internal ones are to be given as in. a
Phthisis.
Gen. XIII. CARDITIS, ^
InJJammatlon of the Heart.
Carditis, Sauv. gen. in. Vog. 54.
Pericarditis, Vog. 53.
Carditis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. r. Senac. Traite de
Cceur, lib. iv. chap. 7. Mtckel, Mem. de Berlin,
I"^6-
Eryfipelas pulmonis, Lomm. Obferv. lib. ii.
Defcription. This difeafe is attended with all the
fymptoms of pneumonia, but in a higher degree ; it
is befides faid to be accompanied with hydrophobic
fymptoms, fainting, palpitation of the heart, a feem-
ing madnefs, a funk and irregular pulfe, watery eyes,
and a dejefted countenance, with a dry and black
tongue. On diffedlion, the heart and pericardium are
found very much inflamed, and even ulcerated, with
many poly pous concretions.
Caufes, 8cc. The fame as in the.pneumonia.
Prognofs. In the carditis the prognofis is more
unfavourable than in the pneumonia ; and indeed, un¬
lefs the difeafe very quickly terminates, it mull prove
fatal, on account of the conftant and violent motion of
the heart, which exafperates the inflammation, and in-
creafes all the fymptoms.
Cure. Here bleeding is neceflary in as great a
Y 2 degree
172
Phlegma- decree as the patient can poffibly bear, together with
fi* bliflering, and the antiphlogiftie regimen likewife car-
■—'r~~~ r;ed to a greater height than in the pneumonia; but
the general method is the fame as in other inflamma¬
tory difeafes.
189 Genus XIV. PERITONITIS.
inflammation of the Peritoneum.
Sp. I. Inflammation of the Peritoneum properly fo
called.
Peritonitis, Vog. 62. Lieutad. Hifl. anat. med.
lib. i. obf. 3. Raygerus apud eund. lib. i. obf. 341.
Morgagn. de fed. LVII. 20.
190 Sp. II. Inflammation of the Peritoneum extended
over the Omentum.
Epiploitis, Sauv. gen. 106. Sag. gen. 308.
Omentitis, Vog. 6
Omenti inflammatio, Boerh. 958. et 111. Van Swie-
ten. Comm. Stork. An. Med. I. 132. Hulme on
the puerperal fever.
191 Sp. III. Inflammation of the Peritoneum ftretched
over the Mefentery.
Mefenteritis, Vog. 60.
Enteritis mefenterica, Sauv. fp 4.
J92 Genus XV. GASTRITIS.
Inflammation of the Stomach.
jpj A. Gastritis Phlegmonodea, or the genuine Gaflntis.
Gaftritis legit'ima, Sauv. fp. I. Eller, de cogn. et
cur. morb. feft. xii. Haller, obf. 14. hift. 3.
Lieut. Hifl:. ahat. Med. lib i. 74.
Gaftritis eryfipelatofa, Sauv. fp 4.
Cardialgia inftammatoria, Sauv. 13. 'Tralles, de
opio,-fe£l. ii p. 23 f.
These difeafes Dr Cullen has thought proper to
confider all under the general bead of Gastritis, as
there are no certain figns by which they can be diftin-
guiftied from each other, and the method of cure muft
be the fame in all.
Defcription. The inflammation of the ftomach is
attended with great heat and pain in the epigaftric
region, extreme anxiety, an almoft continual and pain¬
ful hiccough, with a moft painful vomiting of every
thing taken into the ftomach. Sometimes a temporary
madnefs enfues ; and there is
MEDICINE. Pra&ice.
external injuries, fuch as wounds, contufions, &c.— Gaftritis*
It affefts chiefly thofe of a plethoric habit and hot v {
bilious conftitution.
Prognnfis.*' This difeafe is always very dangerous,
and the prognofis doubtful, which alfo muft always be
in proportion to the feverity of the fVmptoms. A’
ceffation of pain, coldnefs about the prsecordia, great
debility, with a languid and intermitting pulfe, with
an abatement of the hiccough, denote a gangrene and
fpeedy death. From the fenfibility of the'ftomach
alfo, and its great connection with the reft of the
fyftem, it muftrbe obvious, that an inflammation of
it, by whatever caufes produced, may be attended with
fatal cpnfequences ; particularly, by the great debility
it produces, it may prove fuddenly fatal, without run¬
ning through the tifual courfe of inflammations.—Its
tendency to admit of refolution may be known by its
having arifen from no violent caufe, by the moderate
ftate of the fymptoms, and by a gradual remiifton of
thefe fymptoms in the courfe of the firit or at moft of
the fecond week of the difeafe. The tendency to-
gangrene may be fufpe&ed from the fymptoms con-
tinushg with unremitting violence notwithftanding the
life- of proper remedies, and a gangrene already begun
may be known by the fymptoms above-mentioned,
particularly great*debility and fudden eefiation of pain..
The tendency to fuppuration may be known by the
fymptoms continuing but in a moderate degree for
more than one or two weeks, and by a conliderable
remifiion of the pain while a fenfe of weight and an¬
xiety ftill remain. When an abfcefs has been formed,
the frequency of the pulfe is firft abated: but foon
after it ihcreafes, with frequent cold Ihivering, and an
exacerbation in the afternoon and evening; followed
by night-fweats, and other fymptoms of hedlic fever.
Thefe at length prove fatal, unlefs the abfcefs open
into the cavity of the ftomach, the pus be evacuated
by vomiting, and the ulcer foon healed.
Cure. It appears from difleftions, that the ftomach.
may very often be inflamed when the charatteriilic
marks of it have not appeared ; and therefore we are
often expofed to much uncertainty in the cure. But
when we have fufficient evidence that a ftate of aftive
inflammation has taken place in the ftomach, the
principal objeift to be aimed at is to obtain a refolu¬
tion. Before, however, this can be accomplilhed, it
will often be neceflary to employ meafures with the*
the view of obviating urgent fymptoms. When the fymp-
inftance
Edinburgh Medical Eflays of the diforder being toms appear in the manner above defcribed, the cure ,
attended with an hydrophobia. The pulfe is generally is to be attempted by large and repeated bleedings em-
more funk than in other inflammations, and the fever ployed early in the difeafe; and from thefe we are
inclines to the nature of a typhus. The diforder is not to be deterred by the weaknefs of the pulfe, for
commonly of the remitting kind, and during the re- it will commonly become fuller and fofter after the
millions the pulfe frequently intermits During the operation. A blifter ought atfo to be applied to the
height of the difeafe., a mortal phrenzy frequently region of the ftomach ; and the cure will be aflifted
flipervenes. The difeale terminates on the fourth, by fomentations of the whole abdomen, and by fre-
feventh, ninth day, or from the eleventh to the quent emollient and laxative glyfters. The irritabi-
fifteenth ; and is more apt to end in a gangrene than lity of the ftomach in this difeafe will admit of no me-
pneumonic inflammations, and more frequently in a dicines being thrown into it; and if any can be fup-
fcirrhus than in an abfcefs pofed neceflary, they muft be exhibited in glyfters.
Caufes, &c. The inflammation of the ftomach Diluting drinks maybe tried; but they muft be of
may arife from any acrid fubftance taken into it; from the very mildeft kind, and given in very fmall quanti-
a vehement pafGon; too large draughts of cold liquor, ties at a time. Opiates, in whatever manner exhi-
efpecially when the perfon is very hot; from afurfeit; bited, cannot be retained in the ftomach. during the-
a ftoppage of perfpiration ; repullion of the gout ; ftrft days of the difeafe ; but when the violence of
inflammations of the neighbouring vifcera j or from the difeafe lhall have abated, and when the pain and:
vomiting
Practice. M E D I
Phlegma- vomiting recur at intervals only, opiates given in
glyfters may frequently be employed with advantage ;
L““'v and after bleeding and blifters no remedy is more ef-
fedfual either in allaying the pain or vomiting. As
foon as the ftomach will retain any laxative, gentle
refrigerant cathartics, taken by the mouth, fuch as
the foda phofphorata, foda tartarifata, or the like,
are produ&ive or great benefit. A tendency to gan¬
grene in this difeafe is to be obviated only by the
means juft now mentioned ; and when it does actually
fupervene, it admits of no remedy. A tendency to
fuppuration is to be obviated by the fame means em¬
ployed early in the difeafe. After a certain period it
cannot be prevented by any means whatever ; and,
when actually begun, muft be left to nature; tfie only
thing that can be done by art being to avoid all irri¬
tation.
IQ4 B. Gastritis Ertsipflatosa, or the Eryjipelatous
G aftrtits.
Defcription. This fpecies of inflammation takes
place in the ftomach much more frequently than the
former. From diffeftions it appears that the ftcynadi
has been often affe&ed with inflammation, when
neither pain nor fever had given any notice of it; and
fuch is juftly looked upon to have been of the eryfipe-
latous kind. This kind of inflammation alfo is efpe-
cially to be expedled from acrimony of any kind ap¬
plied to the ftomach; and wo uld certainly occur much
more frequently, were not the interior furface of this
organ commonly defended by mucus exfuding in large
quantity from the numerous follicles placed immedi¬
ately under the villous coat. On many occafions,
however, the exfudation of mucus is prevented, or the
liquid poured out is of a lefs vifcid kind, fo as to be
lefs fitted to defend the fiibjacent nerves; and it is in
fuch cafes that acrid matters may readily produce an
eryfipelatous affe&ion of the ftomach.
In many cafes, however, this kind of inflammation
cannot be difcovered, as it takes place without pain,
pyrexia, or vomiting: but in fome cafes it may;
namely, when it fpreads into the oefophagus, and ap¬
pears on the pharynx and on the whole internal fur-
face of the mouth. When therefore an eryfipelatous
inflammation affe&s the mouth and fauces, and there
fnall be at the fame time in the ftomach an unufual
fenfibility to all acrids, and alfo a frequent vomiting,
there can be little doubt of the ftomach’s being affec¬
ted in the fame manner. Even when no inflammation
appears in the fauces, if fome degree of pain be felt
in the ftomach, if there be a want of appetite, an
anxiety and frequent vomiting, an unufual fenfibility
with regard to acrids, fome thirft, and frequency of
pulfe, there will then be room to fufpeft an inflamma¬
tion in the ftomach ; and fuch fymptoms, after fome
time, have been known to difcover their caufe by the
inflammation fifing to the fauces or mouth. Inflam¬
mation of this kind is often difpofed to pafs from one
place to another on the fame furface, and, in doing fo,
to leave the place it had at firft occupied. Such an
inflammation has been known to fpread fucceflively
along the whole traft of the alimentary canal; o'cca-
fioning, when in the inteftines, diarrhoea, and in the
ftomach vomitings ; the diarrhoea ceafing when the
■vomitings came on, and the vomitings on the coming
©n of the diarrhoea.
Cattfes* &c. An eryfipelatous inflammation, may
CINE. t
arife from acrid matters taken into the ftomach; or G;ft i
from fome internal caufes not yet well known. It v~
frequently occurs in putrid difeafes, and in thofe.re¬
covering from fevers.
Cure. ' When the difeafe is occafioned by acrid
matters taken internally, and thefe may be fuppofed
ftill prefent in the ftomach, they are to be waihed out
by drinking a large quantity of warm and mild medi¬
cines, and exciting vomiting. At the fame time, if
the nature of the acrimony and its proper correfior
be known, this fhould be thrown in ; or if a fpecitic
correftor be not known, fome general demulcents
fhould be employed.
Thefe meafures, however, are more Anted to pre¬
vent than to cure inflammation after it has taken
place. When this laft may be fuppofed to have happen-
pened, if it be attended with a fenfe of heat, with
pain and pyrexia, according to the degree of thefe
fymptoms, the meafures propofed for the cure of the
other kind are to be more or lefs employed. When
an eryfipclatous inflammation of the ftomach has arifen
from internal caufes, if pain and pyrexia occur, bleed¬
ing may be employed in perfons not otherwife weak¬
ened ; but in cafe of its occurring in putrid difeafes,
or where the .patients are already debilitated, bleed¬
ing is inadmifiible ; all that can be done being to
avoid irritation, and only throwing into the ftomach
what quantity of acids and acefcent aliments it fnail
be found able to bear. In fome conditions of the
body in which this difeafe is apt to occur, the Peru,
vian bark and bitters may fleem to be indicated ; bqt
an eryfipelatous ftate of the ftomach will feldom allow
them to be ufed.
Genus XVI. ENTERITIS,.. 195:
Inflammation of the Intestines.
Enteritis, Sauv. gen. 105. Hn. 2 9. Eog- 57. Sag.
gen. 307.
Inteftinorum inflammatio, Boerh. 959.
Febris inteftinorum inflammatoria ex mefenterio,
Hojfm. II. 170.
Sp. I. Enteritis Phlegmonod&a, or the sicute Enteritis. 3 9©
Enteritis iliaca, Sauv. fp. I.
Enteritis colica, Sauv. fp_2. Boer!;. 963.
Defcription. This difeafe fhows itfelfby a fixed pain
in the abdomen, attended with fever, vomiting, and efo-
ftivenefs. The pain is often felt in different parts of
the abdomen, but more frequently fpreads over the
whole, and is particularly violent about the navel.
Caufes, &.c. Inflammations of the inteftines may
arife from the fame caufes as thofe of the ftomach ;
though commonly the former will more readily occur
from cold applied to the Jower extremities, or to the
belly itfelf. It is alfo found fupervening on the fpaf.
modic colic, incarcerated hernia, and volvulus.
Prognefts. Inflammations of the inteftines have the
fame terminations with thofe of the ftomach, and the
prognofis in both cafes is much the fame.
Cure. The cure of enteritis is in general the fame-
with that of gaftritis: but in this difeafe there is com¬
monly more opportunity for the introduction of li¬
quids, of acid, acefcent, and other cooling remedies,,
and even of laxatives ; but as a vomiting frequently
attends the enteritis, care muft be taken not to excite
that vomiting by the quantity or quality of any thing.
throw m
174 M E D I
P'nlfpjma- tlirown into the ftomach. With regard to the fuppu-
t ^ ration and gangrene of the inteftines following the en-
teritis, the obfervations made rtfpe&ing thefe termi¬
nations of ^aftritis are equally applicable in this dif-
eafe.
Sp. II. Enteritis EnYSirF.r./iTos/i, or Eryfipehtous
Enteritis.
Concerning this nothing farther can be faid, than
what hath been already delivered concerning the ga-
ftritis.
' Genus XVII. HEPATITIS.
'Inflammation of the Eiver.
Hepatitis, Sauv. gen. 113. Lm. 35. Vog. 58. Sag.
gen. 312. Boerh. 914. Hojfm. II. 14. jfunck.
66;
Defcription. The inflammation of the liver is
thought to be of two kinds, acute and chronic ; but
the latter very often does not difeover itfelf except by
an abfeefs found in the liver after death, and which
is fuppofed to have been occafioned by fome degree of
inflammation ; for this reafon the chronic inflammation
often efcapes obfervation, and we fliall here only treat
of the acute hepatitis.
The acute hepatitis is attended with confiderable fe ¬
ver ; a frequent, ftrong, and hard pulfe ; high colour¬
ed urine; an acute pain in the right hypochondrium,
increafed by preffing upon the part. The pain is very
often in fuch a part of the fide as to make it appear
like a pleurify ; and frequently, like that, is increafed
on infpiration. The difeafe is alfo commonly attended
with a cough, which is generally’ dry, but fometimes
moift; and when the pain thus refembles a pleurify, the
patient cannot lie. eafily except upon the fide affefted.
The pain is frequently extended to the clavicle, and to
the top of the flioulder; and is attended fometimes
with hiccough,andfometimeswithvomiting. Some have
added jaundice, or a yellownefs of the eyes, to the
fy’mptoms of this diftemper; but experience fhows that
it has often occurred without any fuch fymptom.
When hepatitis is of the chronic kind, depending
more on an. accumulation and effufion in the liver,
than in an increafed a&ion of its fmall veflels, the pa¬
tient complains rather of, a fenfe of weight than
of pain ; and the fever is by no means either acute or
conftant: but it often returns in paroxyfms fome-
what refembling the attacks of an intermittent. This
difeafe is very flow in its progrefs, frequently’ conti¬
nuing for many months, and at laft terminating in a
very confiderable fuppuration. In moft cafes, how¬
ever, it may be difeovered by careful examination of
the region of the liver externally. By this means, a
confiderable enlargement of that vifeus may in gene¬
ral be difeovered.
Caufes, See. The remote caufes of hepatitis are not
always to be difeerned, and many have been afligned
on a very uncertain foundation. It has been fuppofed
that the difeafe may be an affeftion either of the ex¬
tremities of the hepatic artery, or thofe of the vena
portarum ; and the fuppofition is by no means impro¬
bable. The opinion, however, moft commonly adopted
is, that the acute hepatitis is an affeftion of the exter¬
nal membrane of the liver, and the chronic kind an af-
C 1 N F- Praaice.
fe&ion of the parenchyma of that vifeus. The acuta Hepa iris
difeafe may be feated either on the convex or concave   v ^
furface of the liver; and in the former cafe a more
pungent pain and hiccough may be produced, and the
refpiration is more confiderably affe&ed. In the
1 itter there occurs lefs pain ; and a vomiting is pro¬
duced, commonly by fome inflammation communi¬
cated to the ftomach. The inflammation on the con¬
cave furface of the liver may be readily communica¬
ted to the gall-bladder and biliary dufts: and this
perhaps, is the only cafe of idiopathic hepatitis attend^
ed with jaundice.
Prognofts. The inflammation of the liver, like
others, may end by refolution, fuppuration, or gan¬
grene ; and the tendency to the one or to the other of
thofe events may be known from what has been al¬
ready mentioned concerning the prognofis in gaftritis.
The refolution of hepatitis is often the confequence ofj
or is attended with, evacuations of different kinds. A
haemorrhage, fometimes from the nofe, and fometimes
from the haemorrhoidal veffels, gives a folution of the
difeafe. Sometimes the fame thing is accompliflied by
a bilious diarrhoea ; and fometimes the refolution is
attended with fweating, and an evacuation of urine
depofiting a copious fediment. Sometimes it may be
cured by an eryfipelas appearing in fome external part.
When the difeafe has ended in fuppuration, the pus
colle&ed may be difeharged by the biliary dufts} or,
if the fuppurated part does not adhere any where
clofely to the neighbouring parts, it may be dif¬
eharged into the cavity of the abdomen: but if,
during the firft ftate of inflammation, the affedfed’
part of the liver fliall have formed a clofe adhe-
fion to fome of the neighbouring parts, the dif-
charge after fuppuration may be various, according
to the different feat of the abfeefs. When feated on
the convex part of the‘liver, if the adhefion be to the
peritonaeum lining the common teguments, the pus
may make its way through thefe, and be difeharged
outwardly: or if the adhefion Ihall have been to the
diaphragm, the pus may penetrate through this, and
into the cavity of the lungs ; from whence it may be
difeharged by coughing. When-the abfeefs is feated
on the concave part of the liver, in confequence of ad-
hefions, the pus may be difeharged into the ftomach
or inteftines; and into thefe lalt, either direaiy, or
by the intervention of the biliary dudts. Upon a
confideration of all thefe different circumftances there¬
fore, together with the general principles of inflam¬
mation, muft-the pfognofis of this difeafe be efta-
bliftied.
Cure. For the cure of hepatitis, we muft have re-
Courfe to the general means of removing other inflam¬
matory diforders. Bleeding is to be ufed according
to the degree of fever and pain. Blifters are to be
applied : fomentations of the external parts, emoUient
glyfters, gentle laxatives, diluents and refrigerants
are alfo ufeful. The cure, however, particularly in
warm climates, where the difeafe is much more common
than it is in Britain, is chiefly trufted to mercury.
Not only in cafes of the chronic kind, but in acute
hepatitis alfo, after an attempt has been made to al-
legate the urgent fymptoms by bleeding and blifter-
ing, recourfe is immediately had to this powerful mi-
nerah It is employed by different praftitioners, and
in different cafes, under various forms. Some are
Practice. Rtf E D I
Phlegma- very fond of the ufe of calomel. But the preference
is in general given, and perhaps with juftice, to fric-
Lj r~~ tion- with mercurial ointment over the region cf the
liver. But under whatever form it may be employed,
it is hecefiary that it (hould be introduced to fuch an
extent as to keep the patient on the verge of falivation
for fome length of time ; the duration being regulated
by the circumftances of the cafe.
From the liberal ufe of mercury, there can be no
doubt that a fucceisful refolution has been obtained
in many cafes, which would otherwife have infallibly
terminated in fuppuration. But. notwithflanding the
moil careful employment of it in fome cafes, fuppura¬
tion will enfue ; and then it is very doubtful whether
any benefit will be derived from the continuance of it.
Buc when a fuppuration has been formed, and the
abfcefs points outwardly, the partmuilbe opened, the
pus evacuated, and the ulcer healed according to the
ordinary methods in uie for healing abfceifes and ul¬
cers in other parts.
199 Genus XVIII. SPLENITIS.
Inflammation of the Sp leen.
Splenitis, Sauv. gen. 114. Lin. 36. Vog. 59.
Junck. 67. Sag. gen. 315.
Litnis inflammatio, Boerh. 938. & Van Swiden.
Comm.
Splenitis phlegmonodaea, Sauv. fp. 1. Forejl, 1. xx.
obf. 5. 6. De Hcien, apud Van Sovieten, p. 958.
Pleurftis fplenica, Sauv. fp. 19.
Splenalgia hippuratoria, Sauv. fp. 3.
Defcription. '1 his* difeafe, according to Juneler,
comes on with a remarkable ihiveting fiicceeded by a
moil intenfe heat and very great third;; a pain and
tumor are perceived in the left hypochondrium, and
the paroxyfms for the mod part affume a quartan
form. When the patients expofe themfelves for a little
to the free air, their extremities immediately grow very
cold. If an hasmorrhagy happens, the blood flows out
of the left nodril. The other fymptoms are the fame
with thofe of the hepatitis. Like the liver, the fpleen
often is alfo lubjedl to a chronic inflammation, which
often happens after agues, and is called the ague cake,
though that name is alfo frequently given to a feir-
rhous tumor of the liver fucceeding intermittents.
Caufes, &c. The caufes of this didemper are In
general the fame with thofe of other inflammatory dif-
orders; but thofe which determine the inflammation to
that particular part more than another, are very much
unknown. It attacks perfons of a very plethoric and
fanguine habit of body rather than others.
Prognofis. What has been faid of the inflammation
of the liver applies alfo to that of the fpleen, tho’ the
latter is lefs dangerous than the former. Here alfo a
vomiting of black matter, which in other acute dif-
eafes is fuch a fatal omen, fometimes proves critical,
according to the tedimony of Juncker. Sometimes the
haemorrhoids prove critical; but very often the inflam¬
mation terminates by feirrhus.
Cure. This is not at all different from- what has
been already laid down concerning the hepatitis.
400 Genus XIX. NEPHRITIS.
Inflammation of the Kidneys.
Nephritis, Sauv. gen. 115, Lin. 37. Vog. 6$.
Sag. gen. 314.
CINE. 175
Nephritis vera, Sauv. fp. f. Nephritis.
Defcription. The nephritis has the fame fymptoms
in common with other inflammations; but its diilin-
guifiring mark is the pain in the region of the kidney,
which is fometimes obtufe, but more frequently pun¬
gent. The pain is not increafed by the motion of the
trunk of the body fo much as a pain of the rheumatic
kind affe&ing the fame region. It may alfo frequently
be didinguifhed by its (hooting along the courfe of'
the ureter, and it is often attended with a drawing up
of the tedicle, and a numbnefs of the limb on the fide
affedled ; though indeed thefe fymptoms mod com¬
monly attend the inflammation arifing from a calculus
in the kidney or ureter. The difeafe is alfo attended
with frequent vomiting, and often with codivenefs and
colic pains. The urine is mod commonly of a deep
red colour, and is voided frequently and in a fmall
quantity at a time. In more violent cafes the urine is
commonly colourlefs.
Caufes, &c. The remote caufes of this difeafe
may be various; as external contufion, violent or long-
continued riding ; drains of the mufcles of the back
incumbent on the kidneys; various acrids in the courfe
of circulation conveyed to the kidneys; and perhaps-
fome other internal caufes not yet well known : the
mod frequent is that of calculous matter obflrudling
the tubuli uriniferi, or calculi formed in the pelvis of
the kidneys, and either dicking there or falling into
the ureter.
Prognofis. This is not different from that of other/
inflammatory difeafes.
Cure. When any of thofe caufes operating as in*
ducing the inflammation dill continue to adl, the firft
object in the cure mud be the removal of thefe : but
the principal intention to be had in view, is the re¬
folution of the inflammation which has already taken
place. But when, notwithdanding efforts for this •
purpofe, the dileafe terminates in fuppuration, it mud
be the endeavour of the pra&itioner to promote the
difeharge of purulent matter, and the healing of the-
ulceration in the kidney.
Thefe different objects are principally accomplifhed
by bleeding, external fomentation, frequent emollient
glydcrs, antiphlogidic purgatives, and by the free
ufe of mild and demulcent liquids. The ufe of
bliders is fcarce admiflible, or at lead will require,
great care to avoid any conlxderable abforption of the
cantharides.
The other fpecies of nephritis enumerated by au-.-
thors are only fymptomatic.
Genus XX. CYSTITIS.
20 i~
Infammation of the Bladder.
Cyflrtis, Sauv. gen. 108. Lin. 31. F"og. 66*
Sag. gen. 309.
Inflammatio Veficas, Hoffm. II. 157.
The Cystitis from Internal Cdufes.
Cyditis fpontanea, Sauv. fp. I.
The Cystitis from External Caufes.
Cyditrs a cantharidibus, Sauv. fp. a.
Cyditis traumatica, Sauv. fj>. 3.
5
204
203.;
The
M E D I
* The inflammation of the bladder from internal caufes
is a very rare diftemper; and when it does at any time
occur, is to be cured in the fame manner with other in¬
flammations, avoiding only the ufe of cantharides.'
When the difeafe arifes from the internal ufe of thefe
flies, camphor is recommended, befides other cool¬
ing medicines, and particularly cooling and emollient
glyfters.
Genus XXL HYSTERITIS.
Inflammation of the Uterus.
Hyfteritis, Lin. 38. Vog. 61,.
Metritis, Sauv. gen. 107. ~ Sag. gen. 315'.
Inflammatio et febris uterina, Hojfm II. 156.
Defcription. This difeafe is often confounded with
that called the puerperal or child-bed fever; but is
eflentially difl.in<ft from it, as will be fliown in its
proper place. The inflammation of the uterus is of¬
ten apt to terminate by gangrene : there is a pain
in the head, with delirium; and the uterine re¬
gion is fo excedingly tender, that it cannot bear the
moft gentle preflure without intolerable pain. When
the fundus uteri is inflamed, there is great heat, throb¬
bing, and pain, above the pubes ; if its poftenor part,
the pain is more confined to the loins and redlum, with
a tenefmus; if its anterior part, it flioots from thence
towards the neck of the bladder, and is attended with
a frequent irritation to make water, which is void¬
ed with difficulty; and if its fides or the ovaria are
affefted, the pains will then dart into the inlide of the
thighs.
Caufesy See. Inflammations of the uterus, and in¬
deed of the reft of the abdominal vifeera, are very apt
to take place in child-bed women ; the reafon of which
feems to be the fudden change produced in the habit,
and an alteration in the cohrfe of the circulating
blood by the contra&ion of the uterus after delivery.
The preifure of the gravid uterus being fuddenly taken
off from the aorta defeendens after delivery, the refift-
n~e to the impulfe of the blood paffing through all
/ veffels derived from it, and diftributed to the con-
guous vifeera, will be confiderably leffened : it will
lerefore rufh into thole veffels with a force fuperior
0 their refiftaace; and, by putting them violently on
the ftretch, may occafion pain, inflammation, and fe¬
ver. This contra&ion of the uterus alfo renders its vef-
fels impervious to the blood which had freely paffed
through them for the fervice of the child during
pregnancy ; and confequently a much larger quantity
will be thrown upon the contiguous parts, which will
ftill add to their diftenfion, and increafe their tenden¬
cy to inflammation.
Prognofif. An inflammation of the uterus general¬
ly may be expefted to produce an obftrudlion of the
lochia; but the fever produced feldom proves fa¬
tal, unlefs the inflammation be violent, and end in a
gangrene. . - '
Cure. This is to be attempted by the fame general
means already recommended, and the management of
this diforder entirely coincides with that of the puerpe¬
ral fever.
Genus XXII. RHEUMATISMUS. -
The Rheumatism.
Rheumatifmus, Sauv. gen. 185. Lin. 6z. Fog.
138. Boerh. 1400. Junck. 19,
N° 205.
CINE, Pra&ice.
Dolores rheumat:ci et arthrkici, Hojfm. II. 3x7, Rheumadf-
Myofitis, Sag. gen. 301. rn^U8- f
The Acute Rheumatism. *
Rheumatifmus acutus, Sauv. fp. r.
Rheumatifmus vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 2.
A. The Lumbago, or Rheumatifm in the mufcles of the 206
Lo'ns.
Lumbago rheumatica, Sauv. gen. 212. Sag. p. I.
Nephralgia rheumatica, Satav. fp. 4.
B. The Sciatica, Ifchiasy or Hip-Gout. 207
Ifchias tfieumaticum, Sauv. 213. fp. 10.
C. The Baflard Pleurisy, or Rheumatifm in the mufcles 208
of the Thorax.
Pleurodyne rheumatica, Sauv. gen. 148. fp. 3.
Pleuritis fpuria, Boerh. 878.
The other fpecies, which are very numerous, are all
fymptomatic; as,
Lumbago plethorica, Sauv.. fp. 3.
Ifchias fanguineum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Pleurodyne plethorica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Rheumatifmus hyftericus, Sauv. Ip. 7.
Ifchias hyftericum, Sauv. fp. 3.
Pleurodyne hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Rheumatifmus faltatorius, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne flatulenta, Sauv. fp. 4.
Pleurodyne a fpafmate, Sauv. fp. 9.
Rheumatifmus fcorbuticus, Sauv. fp. 4.
Lumbago fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Pleurpdyne fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. it.
Ifchias fyphiliticum, Sauv. fp. 7.
Pleurodyne venerea, Sauv. fp. 5.
Lumbago fympathica, Sauv. fp. 13.
a mefenterii glandulis induratis
a pane reate iumido, purulento, feirrhofo, putrit
ab induratis pyloro, vena cava, pancreate
a rene feirrhofo, put ref ado
ab abj Cceffu circa vena cave bifurcationem
a vermibus intra renes.
Lumbago a faburra, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne a cacochylia, Sauv. fp. 7.
Rheumatifmus faltatorius verminofus, Sauv. Ip. 8.
Ifchias verminofum, Sauv. fp. 8.
Pleurodyne verminofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Rheumatifmus metallicus, Sauv. fp. 10.
Lumbago a hydrothorace, Sauv. fp. 14.
Lumbago pfeudoifehuria, Sauv. fp. 16.
Pleurodyne a rupto cefophago, Sauv. fp. 20.
Pleurodyne rachitica, Sauv. fp. 13.
Lchias a fparganofi, Sauv. fp. y.
Pleurodyne catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 14.
Rheumatifmus necrofeos, Sauv. fp. 14.
Rheumatifmus dorfalis, Sauv. fp. 11.
Lumbago a fatyriafi, Sauv. fp. 15.
Rheumatifmus febricofus, Sauv. fp. 9.
Lumbago febrilis, Sauv. fp. 4,
&c. See.
Defcription. The rheumatifm is particularly diftin-
guiflied by pains affe&ing the joints, and for the moft
part the joints alone; but fometimes alfo the mufcular
parts. Very often they fhoot along the courfe of the
mufcle#
Pradice. M E D I
yhlegma- mufcies from one joint to another, and are always much
ilx increafed by the -aftion of the muicles belonging to the
'' '"'l joint or of joints affe£fed. The larger joints are thofe
moll frequently affetled, fuch as the hip-joint and
knees of the lower extremities, and the fhoulders and
elbows of the upper ones. The ancles and wrifts are
alfo frequently affedled ; but the fmaller joints, fuch as
thofe of the toes or fingers, feldom fulfer. Sometimes
the difeafe is confined to one part of the body, yet
very frequently it affects many parts of it; and then it
begins with a cold -ftage, which is immediately fuc-
ceeded by the other fymptoms of pyrexia, and parti¬
cularly by a frequent, full, and hard pulfe. Some¬
times the pyrexia is formed before any pains are per¬
ceived ; but more commonly pains are felt in particu¬
lar parts before any fymptoms of pyrexia occur.
When no pyrexia is prefent, the pain may be confined
to one joint only; but when any confiderable pyrexia
takes place, though the pain may chiefly be felt in
one joint, yet it feldom happens that the pains do not
affedi feveral joints, often at the very fame time, but
for the moft part Ihifting their place, and having aba¬
ted in one joint they become more vialent in another.
They do not commonly remain long in the fame joint,
but frequently Ihift from one to another, and fome-
limes return to joints formerly affeCled; and in this
manner the difeafe often continues for a long time.
The fever attending thefe pains has an exacerbation
every evening, and is moll confiderable during the
night, when the pains alfo become more violent; and
it is at the fame time that the pains Ihift their place
from one joint to another. Thefe feem to be alfo in¬
creafed during the night by the body being covered
more clofely, and kept warmer.
A joint, after having been for fome time affedled
with pain, commonly becomes alfo alfeCled- with fome
fwelling and rednefs, which is painful to the touch. It
feldom happens that a fwelling coming on does not
take off the pain entirely, or fecure the joint againlt
a return of it. This difeafe is commonly attended
with more or lefs fweating, which occurs early, but is
feldom free or copious, and feldom either relieves from
the pains or proves critical. The urine is high co¬
loured, and in the beginning without fediment. This,
however, does not prove entirely critical, for the dif¬
eafe often continues long after fuch a fediment has ap¬
peared in the urine. The blood is always fizy. The
acute rheumatifm differs from all other inflammatory
difeafes, in not being liable to terminate in fuppura-
tion: this almolt never happens; but the difeafe
fometimes produces effufions of a tranfparent gelati¬
nous fluid into the Iheathes of the tendons: but if
thefe effufions be frequent, it is certain that the liquor
muff very frequently be abforbed; for it very feldom
happens, that confiderable or permanent tumors have
been produced, 'or fuch as required to be opened and
to have the contained fluid evacuated. Such tumors,
however, have fometimes occurred, and the opening
made in them has produced ulcers very difficult to
heal.
Sometimes the rheumatifm will continue for feveral
weeks ; but it feldom proves fatal, and it is rare that
the pyrexia continues to be confiderable for more than
two or three weeks. While the pyrexia abates in
its violence, if the pains of the joints continue, they
Vox.. XI. Part I.
CINE. 177
are lefs violent; more limited in their place, being Rheiiniatl‘-
Confined commonly to one or a few joints only ; and nius' .
are lefs ready to change their place.
It is often a very difficult matter to diftinguifh
rheumatifm from gout: but in rheumatifm there in
general occurs much lefs affedtion of the ftomach ; it
affedls chiefly the larger joints, and feveral of thefe
are often affedled with fevere pain at the fame time :
it occurs at an earlier period of life than gout ; it is
not obferved to be hereditary ; and it can in general
be traced to fome obvious exciting caufe, particularly
to the a61 ion of cold,
Caufej, &.c. This difeafe is frequent in cold, and
more uncommon in warm, climates. It appears moft
frequently in autumn and fpring ; lefs frequently in
winter, while the froft is conftant ; and very feldom
during the heat of fummer. It may, however, occur
at any feafon, if viciffitudes of heat and cold be for the
time frequent. For the moft part, the acute rheuma¬
tifm arifes from the application of cold to the body
when unufually warm ; or when the cold is applied
to one part of the body, whilft the other parts are
kept warm ; or laflly, when the application of the
cold is long continued, as when moift or wet clothes
are applied to any part of the body.—Thefe caufes
may affe6t perfons of all ages; but the rheumatifm
feldom appears either in very young or in elderly
perfons, and moft commonly occurs from the age of
puberty to that of 35. Thefe caufes may alfo affedl
perfons of any conftitution, but they moft commonly
affecl thofe of a fanguine temperament.
With refpe6l to the proximate caufe of rheumatifm,
there have been various opinions. It has been im¬
puted to a peculiar acrimony; of which, however,
there is no evidence^ and the conlideration of the re¬
mote caufes, the fymptoms, and cure, render it very
improbable. A difeafe of a rheumatic nature, how¬
ever, may he occafioned by an acrid matter applied to
the nerves, as is evident from the tooth-ach, a rheu¬
matic affehlion generally ariiing from a carious tooth.
Pains arifing from deep-feated fuppurations may alfo
refemble the rheumatifm ; and many cafes have oc¬
curred in which fuch fuppurations occafioned pains
refembling the lumbago and ifehias; hut from what
hath been already faid, it feems improbable that ever
any rheumatic cafe fhould end in fuppuration.
The proximate caufe of rheumatifm hath by many
been fuppofed to be a lentor in the fluids obftrudting
the veffels of the part; but in the former part of this
treatife, fufficient reafons have been already laid down
for rejedling the dodlrine of lentor. While we cannot
therefore find either evidence or reafon for fuppofing
that the rheumatifm depends on any change in the
Hate of the fluids, we muft conclude that the proxi¬
mate caufe of it is the fame with that of other inflam¬
mations not depending upon a dire6t ilimulus.
In the cafe of rheumatifm, it is fuppofed that the
moft common remote caufe of it, that is, cold applied,
operates efpecially on the veffels of the joints, thefe
being lefs covered by a cellular texture than thofe of
the intermediate parts of the limbs. It is farther
fuppofed, that the application of cold produces a con-
ftrielion of the extreme veffels, and at the fame time
an increafe of tone or phlogiftic diathefis in the courfe
of them, from which arifes an increafed impetus of
Z the
178 M K D I
FWegma. t],e blood, and at the fame time a refiftance to the
a free paffage of it, and confequently inflammation and
- pain* It is alfo fuppofed, that the refiftance formed,
excites the vis medicatrix to a further increafe of the
impetus of the blood; and to fupport this, a cold
iftage arifes, a fpafm is formed, and a pyrexia and phlo-
giftic diathefls are produced in the whole fyftem.
Hence the caufe of rheumatifm appears to be exactly
analogous to that of inflammations depending on an
increafed afflux of blood to a part while it is expofed
to the action of cold. But there feems to be further
in this difeafe fome peculiar affe&ion of the mufcular
fibres. ’Thefe feem to be under fome degree of rigi¬
dity ; and therefore lefs eafily admit of motion, and
are pained upon the exertions of it. This alfo feems
to be the affeftion which gives opportunity to the
propagation of pains from one joint to another, and
which are moft feverely felt in the extremities termi¬
nating in the joints, becaufe beyond thefe the ofcilla-
fions are not propagated. This affe&ion of the muf¬
cular fibres explains the manner in which ftrains and
fpafms produce rheumatic affe&ions; and, on the
■whole, fhows, that with an inflammatory affedtion of
the fanguiferous fyftem, there is alfo in rheumatifm a
peculiar affe&ion of the mufcular fibres, which has a
confiderable fhare in producing the phenomena of the
difeafe. And it would even appear, that in what has
commonly been called acute rheumatifm, in contradi-
ftinftion to the chronic, of which we are next to
treat, there exifts not only a ftate of aftive inflamma¬
tion in the affedfed parts, but alfo of peculiar irrita¬
bility ; and that this often remains after the inflamma¬
tion is very much diminiflied or has even entirely
ceafed. Hence a renewal of the inflammation and re¬
currence of the pain take place from very flight caufes;
and in the treatment of the difeal'e both the ftate of
inflammation and irritability muft be had in view.
Cure. Few counteradting the ftate of a&ive inflam¬
mation, the chief aim of the pradlitioner muft be to
diminifh the general impetus of the circulation, and
the impetus at the part particularly affedted. For
counteradting the ftate of irritability, he muft endea¬
vour to remove the difpofition to encreafed a diion in
the veflels to prevent the adiion of caufes exciting
painful fenfations ? and to obviate their influence on
the part. The cure therefore requires, in the firft
place, an antiphlogiftic regimen, and particularly a to¬
tal abftinence from animal-food, and from all fermented
cr fpirituous liquors; fubftituting a mild vegetable or
milk diet, and the plentiful ufe of foft diluting liquors.
On this principle alfo, blood-letting is the chief remedy
of acute rheumatifm. The blood is to be drawn in large
quantity} and the bleeding is to be repeated in pro¬
portion to the frequency, fulnefs, and hardnefs of the
pulfe, and the violence of the pain. For the moft
part, large and repeated bleedings during the firft
days of the difeafe feem to be neceflfary, and accord¬
ingly have been very much employed: but to this
feme hounds are to be fet; for very profufe bleedings
occafion a flow recovery, and if not abfolutely effec¬
tual, are ready t® produce a chronic rheumatifm.
To avoid that debility of the fyftem which general
bleedings are apt to occafion, the urgent fymptom of
pain may be tjften relieved by topical bleedings; and
CINE, Practice,
when any fwelling or rednefs have come upon a joint, Rheumatif-
the pain may very certainly be relieved by topical niUf’
bleedings: but as the pain and continuance of the " 1 f
difeafe feem to depend more upon the phlogiftic dia-
thefis of the whole fyftem than upon the affection of
particular parts, fo topical bleedings will not fupply
the place of the general bleedings propofed above.
_ To take off the phlogiftic diathefis prevailing in this
difeafe, purging may be ufeful, if procured by medi¬
cines which do notftimulate the whole fyftem, as neu¬
tral falls, and other medicines which have a refrigerant
power. Purging, however, is not fo ufeful as bleeding in
removing the phlogiftic diathefis; and when the difeafe
has become general and violent, frequent ftools are in¬
convenient, and even hurtful, by the motion and pain
which they occafion.
Next to blood-letting, nothing is of fo much fervice,
both in alleviating the pains in this difeafe and in re¬
moving the phlogiftic diathefis, as the ufe of fudo-
rifics: and of all the piedicines belonging to this clafs,
what has commonly been known by the name of Do¬
ver’s powder, a combination of powder of ipecacuan
and opium, is tire moft convenient and the moft ef¬
fectual. Copious fweating, excited by this medicine,
and fupported for 10 or 12 hours by tepid diluents,
fuch as decoCfion of the woods, or the like, will in
moft inftances produce a complete remiffion of the
!>ain : and by this practice, combined with blood-
etting and proper regimen, the difeafe may often be
entirely removed.
If, however, after complete intermiffions from pain
for fome length of time have been obtained by thefe
means, it be found that there is a great tendency to a
return of the pains without any obvious caufe, recourfe
may be had with very great benefit to the ufe of the
Peruvian bark. By the early ufe of this, where a
complete intermiffion from pain is obtained, the ne-
ceflity of repeated blood-letting and fweating is often
fuperfeded; but where a complete remiffion cannot be
obtained, it has been fufpefted by fome to be hurtful:
and in thefe cafes, when blood-letting and fudorifics
have been pufhed as far as may be thoug-ht prudent
without being produ&ive of the defined effedf, very
great benefit is often, obtained from the ufe of calomel
combined with opium, as recommended in the Edin¬
burgh Medical Commentaries by Dr Hamilton o£
Lynn-Regis.
In this difeafe, external applications are of little
fervice. Fomentations in the beginning of the difeafe
rather aggravate than relieve the pains. The rubefa-.
cients and camphire are more effedfual: but they
commonly only fhift them from one part to another,
and do not prove any cure of the general affeftiom
BMering may alfo be very effe&ual in removing the
pain from a particular part; but will be of little
ufe, except where the pains are much confined to one
place..
ARTHRODYNIA, or Chronic Rheumatism. JOf)
Rheumatifmus chronicus Auftorum.
Defcription. When the pyrexia attending the acute
rheumatifim has ceafed ; when the fwelling and rednefs
of the joints are entirely gone, but pains ftill-continue
to affett certain joints, which remain ftiff, feel uneafy
upon
Pra&ice. M E D I
Phlegnu- upon motion, clianges of weather, or in the night-time
only, the difeafe is then called the chronic rhcumatifm,
v as it often continues for a very long time.
The limits between the acute and chronic rheuma-
tifms are not always exaftly marked. When the
pains are ftill ready to fhift their place; when they
are efpecially fevere in the night-time; when, at the
fame time, they are attended with fome degree of py¬
rexia, and with fome fwelling, and efpecially fome
rednefs, of the joints; the difeafe is to be confidered as
partaking of the nature of the acute rheumatifm. But
when there is no longer any degree of pyrexia remain¬
ing ; when the pained joints are without rednefs;
when they are cold and ftiff; when they cannot eafily
be made to fweat; or when, while a free and warm
fweat is brought out on the reft of the body, it is only
clammy and cold on the pained joints; and when, fur¬
ther, the pains of thefe are increafed by cold, and re¬
lieved by heat, applied to them; the cafe is to be con-
fidered as that of a purely chronic rheumatifm : or
perhaps more properly the firft of the conditions now
defcribed may be termed the ftate of irritability, and
the fecond the ftate of atony.
The chronic rheumatifm, or rather the atonic, may
affett different joints; but is efpecially apt to affedt
thofe which are furrounded with many mufcles, and
thofe of which the mnfcles are employed in the molt
eonftant and vigorous exertions. Such is the cafe of
the vertebra: of the loins, the affedfion of which is
named lumbago; or of the hip-joint, when the difeafe
is named ifchias or fciatica.
Violent ftrains and fpafms occurring on fudden and
fomewhat violent exertions, bring on rheumatic affec¬
tions, which at firft partake of the acute, but very foon
change into the nature of the chronic, rheumatifm.—
Such are frequently the lumbago, and other affedtions,
which feem to be more feated in the mufcles than in
the joints. The diftindtion of the rheumatic pains
from thofe refembling them which occur in the fiphy-
iis and fcurvy muft be obvious, either from the feat of
the pains, or from the concomitant fymptoms peculiar
to thofe difeafes. The diftindtion of the rheumatifm
from the gout will be more fully underftood from what
is laid down under the genus Podagra.
Caufes, See. The phenomena of the purely chronic
rheumatifm lead us to conclude, that its proximate
caufe is an atony both of the blood-veffels and of the
mufcular fibres of the part affedfed, together with
fuch a degree of rigidity and contraftion in the latter
as frequently attend them in a ftate of atony: and in¬
deed this atony, carried to a certain extent, gives rife
to a ftate ofparalyfis, with an almoft total lots of mo¬
tion in the affedfed limbs. The paralytic ftate of
rheumatifm therefore may be pointed out as a fourth
condition of the difeafe, often claiming the attention
of the pradfitioner.
Cure. From the view juft now given of the proxi¬
mate caufe of chronic rheumatifm, the chief indication
of cure muft be, to reftore the adfivity and vigour of the
part, which is principally to be done by increafing
the tone of the moving fibres, but which may fome-
times alfo be aided by giving condenfation to the
fimple folid. When, howeveV, the difeafe has dege¬
nerated into the ftate of paralyfis, the objedfs to be
aimed at are, the reftoration of a due condition to the
CINE. 179
nervous energy in the part affedfed ; the obtaining Rheumatif'
free circulation of blood through the veffels of the
part; and the removal of rigidity in membranes and
ligaments.
For anfwering thefe purpofes, a great variety of re¬
medies, both external and internal, are had recourfe
to. The chief of the external are, the fupporting the
heat of the part, by keeping it conftantly covered with
flannel; the increafing the heat of the part by exter¬
nal heat, applied either in a dry or humid form ; the
diligent ufe of the flefh-brufh, or other means of fric¬
tion; the application of eledlricity in fparksor fhocks;
the application of cold water by affufion or immerfion;
the application of effential oils of the moft warm and
penetrating kind; the application of fait brine; the
employment of the warm bath or of the vapour baths,
either to the body in general or to particular parts;
and, laftly, the employment either of exercife of the
part itfelf as far as it can eafijy bear, or by riding or
other modes of geftation.
The internal remedies are, Large dofes of effen¬
tial oils drawn from refinous fubftayces, fuch as tur¬
pentine. Subftances containing fuch oils, as guatac.
Volatile alkaline falts. Thefe or other medicines
are diredted to procure fweat ; and calomel, or iome
other preparation of mercury, in fmall dofes, may becon-
tinued for fome time. Befides thefe, there are feveral
others recommended. The cicuta, aconitum, and hy-
ofeiamus, have in particular been highly extolled;
and an infufion of the rhododendron chryfanthum is
faid to be employed by the Siberians with very great
fuccefs. An account of the Siberian mode of practice
is given by Dr Matthew Guthrie of Peterlburgh, in
the fifth volume of the Edinburgh Medical Commen¬
taries, and has been followed with fuccefs at other
places.
G.XXIV. ODONTALGIA, the Tooth-ach. ti%
Odontalgia, Sauv. gen. 198. Lin. 45. Fog. 145.
Sag. gen. 157. Junck. 25.
Odontalgia five rheumatifmus odontalgicus, Hojfm.
II. 330-
Odontalgia cariofa, Sauv. fp. 1.
Odontalgia fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Odontalgia catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 3.
Odontalgia arthritica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Odontalgia gravidarum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Odontalgia hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Odontalgia ftomachica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Defcription. This well-known difeafe makes its
attack by a moft violent pain in the teeth, moft fre¬
quently in the molares, more rarely in the incifbrii,
reaching fometimes up to the eyes, and fometimel
backward into the cavity of the ear. ' At the' fame
time there is a manifeft determination to the head,
and a remarkable tenfion and inflation of the veffels
takes place, not only in the parts next to that where
the pain is feated, but over the whole head.
Caufes, See. The toothach is fometimes merely a
rheumatic affeftion, arifing from cold, but more fre¬
quently from a carious tooth. _ It is alfo a fymptom
of pregnancy, and takes place in fome nervous difor-
ders; it may attack perfons at any time of life, tha’
it is moft frequent in the young and plethoric.
Curt'
18o M E D I
Phlegma- Cure. Many empirical remedies have been propofed
, for the cure of the tooth-ach, but none have in any
degree anfwered the purpofe. When the afFeftion is
purely rheumatic, bliiiering behind the ear will almoit
always remove it ; but when it ptoceeds from a ca¬
rious tooth, the pain is much more obftinate. In this
cafe it has been recommended to touch the pained
part with a hot iron, or with oil of vitriol, in order to
deitroy the aching nerve ; to hold ftrong fpirits in the
mouth ; to put a drop o£ oil of cloves into the hollow
of the tooth, or a pill of equal parts of opium and
camphire: but one of the moft ufeful applications of
this kind is ftrong nitrous acid, diluted with, three or
four times its weight of fpirit of wine, and introduced
into the hollow of a tooth from which great pain
arifes, either by means of an hair pencil or a little
cotton. The Peruvian bark has alfo been recom¬
mended, and perhaps with more juilice, on account of
its tonic and antifeptic powers ; but very often all thefe
remedies will fail, and the only infallible cure is to
draw the tooth. See Surgery.
2ll
*13
314
3x5
Genus XXlV. PODAGRA, the Gout.
Podagra, Vog. 175. Boerh. .\2g^.
Febris podagrica, Vog. 69.
Arthritis, Sauv. gen. 183. Lin. 60. Vog. 139. Sag.
geh. 142.
Dolor podagricus et arthriticus verus, Hoffm. II.
359-
Dolores arthritic?, Hoffm. II. 317.
AiFeCtus fpaftico-arthritici, jfunck. 46.
Sp. I. The Regular Gout,
Arthritis podagra, Saw. fp. x.
Arthritis rachialgica, Sauv. fp. 11,
Arthritis seftiva, Sauv. fp. 4.
Sp. II. The Atonic Gout.
Arthritis melancholka, Sauv. fp. 6.
Arthritis hiemalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Arthritis chlorotica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Arthritis afthmatica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Sp. III. The Retrocedent Gout,
Sp. IV. The Mifplaced Gout.
Defcription. What we call a -paroxjfm of the gout is
principally conftituted by an inflammatory affedfion of
iome of the joints. This fometimes comes on fudden-
ly, without any warning, but is generally preceded by
feveral fymptoms ; fuch as the ceafing of a fweating
which the feet had been commonly affedted with be¬
fore ; an ynufual coldnefs of the feet and legs; a fre¬
quent numbnefs, alternating with a fenfe of prickling
along the whole of the lower extremities; frequent
cramps of the mufcles of the legs; and an unufuai
turgefcence of the veins.
While thefe fymytoms take place in the lower ex¬
tremities, the body is affefted with fome degree of
torpor and languor, and the fundfions of the llomach
in particular are more or lefs difturbed. The appe¬
tite is diminifhed ; and flatulency, or other fymptoms
of indigeftion, are felt. Thefe fymptoms take place
for feveral days, fometimes for a week or two, before
a paroxyfm comes on; but commonly, upon the day
^ ^ PradHce,
immediately preceding it, the appetite becomes keener Podagra,
than ufual. —y—w
The circumftances of paroxyfms are chiefly the fol¬
lowing. They-come on moft commonly in the fpring,
and fooner or later according as the vernal heat fuc-
ceeds fooner or later to the winter’s cold ; and, per¬
haps fooner or later alfo, according as the body may
happen to be more or lefs expofed to viciffitudes of
heat and cold.
The attacks are fometimes felt firft in the evening,
but more commonly about two or three o’clock in the
morning. The paroxyfm begins with a pain affecting
one foot, moft commonly in the ball or iirft joint of
the great toe, but fometimes in other parts of the
foot. With the attack of this pain, there is com¬
monly more or lefs of a cold fhivering; which, as
the pain increafes, gradually c cafes ; and is fucceeded
by a hot ftage of pyrexia, which continues for the
fame time with the pain itfelf. From the firft attack,
the pain becomes, by degrees, more violent, and con¬
tinues in this ftate with great reftleffnefs of the whole
body till next midnight, after which it gradually re¬
mits ; and, after-it has continued for 24 hours from
the commencement of the firft attack, it commonly
ceafes almoft entirely ; and, with the coming on of a
gentle fweat, allows the patient to fall alleep. The pa¬
tient, upon coming out of this fleep in the morning,
finds the pained part affe&ed with fome rednefs and
fwelling, which, after having continued for fome days,
gradually abate.
When a paroxyfm has thus come on, although the
violent paiin after 24 hours be coniiderably abated,
the patient is not entirely relieved from it. For fomi
days he has every evening a return of more confider-
able pain and pyrexia, and thefe continue with more
or lefs violence till morning. After going on in this
manner for feveral days, the difeafe fometimes goes
entirely off, not to return till after a long interval.
When the difeafe, after having thus remained for
fome time in a joint, ceafes entirely, it generally
leaves the perfon in very perfect health, enjoying
greater eafe and alacrity in the' functions of both bo¬
dy and mind than he had for a long time before ex¬
perienced.
At the beginning of the difeafe, the returns of it are
fometimes only once in three or four years: but as it ad¬
vances, the intervals become fliorter, and at length the
attacks are annual; afterwards they come twice each
year; and at length recur feveral times during the
courfe of autumn, winter, and fpring; and as, when
the fits are frequent, the paroxylms become alfo
longer, fo, in the advanced ftate of the difeafe, the pa¬
tient is hardly ever tolerably free from, it, except per¬
haps for two or three months in fummer.
The progrefs of the difeafe is alfo marked by the
parts which it affedbs. At firft, it commonly affeit#
one foot only ; afterwards every paroxyfm affetts both
feet, the one after the other ; and as the difeafe pro¬
ceeds,. it not only affedls both feet at once, but, after
having ceafed in the foot which was fecondly attacked,
returns again into the firft, and perhaps a fecond time
alfo into the other. Its changes of places are not only
from one foot to another, but from the feet into other
joints, efpecially thofe of the upper and lower extre¬
mities ; fo that there is hardly a joint of the body
which,
Praflice. M El D
Phlegm*- which, on one occafion or other, is not afFe&ed. It
. fometimes affefts two difl'erent joints at the very fame
™ ’ time ; but more commonly it is at any one timefevere
in a Angle joint only, and paffes in fucceflion from
one joint to another; fo that the patient’s affliction is
often protrafted for a long time.
When the difeafe has often returned, and the pa-
ro'xyfms have become very frequent, the pains are com¬
monly lefs violent than they were at firft; but the pa¬
tient is more affeCted with ficknefs, and the other
fymptoms of the atonic gout, which fflall be hereafter
mentioned.
After the firft paroxyfm of the difeafe, the joints
which have been affeCted are entirely reftored to their
former fupplenefs and ftrength : but after the difeafe
has recurred very often, the joints affeCted do neither
fo fuddenly nor entirely recover their former ftate, but
continue weak and ftiff; and thefe effeCts at length pro¬
ceed to fuch a degree, that the joints lofe their mo¬
tion entirely.
In many perfons, but not in all, after the difeafe has
frequently* recurred, concretions of a chalky nature are
formed upon the outfide of the joints, and for the moft
part immediately under the fldn. The matter feems
to be depofited at firft in a fluid form, afterwards
becoming dry and firm. In their firm ftate, thefe con¬
cretions are a hard earthy fubftance, very entirely fo-
luble in acids. After they have been formed, they
contribute, with other circumftances, to deftroy the
motion of the joint.
In moft perfons who have laboured under the gout
for many years, a nephritic affeCtion comes on, and
difcovers itfelf by all the fymptoms which ufually at¬
tend calculous concretions in the kidneys, and which
we (hall have occafion to defcribe in another place.
All that is neceffary to be obferved here is, that the
nephritic affe&ion alternates with paroxyfms of the
gout; and that the two affeCtions, the nephritic and
the gouty, are hardly ever prefent at the lame time.
This alio may be obferved, that children of gouty or
nephritic parents commonly inherit one or other of
fhefe difeafes ; but whether the principal difeafe of
the parent may have been either gout or nephritis
alone, fome of the children have the one and fome
the other. In fome of them, the nephritic affection
occurs alone, without any gout fupervening; and this
happens to be frequently the cafe with the female chil¬
dren of gouty parents.
In the whole of the hiftory already given, we have
defcribed the moft common form of the difeafe, and
which therefore, however diverfified in the progrefs of
it, may be ftill called the regular ftate of the gout 
'Upon fome occafions, however, the difeafe affumes
different appearances : but as we fuppofe the difeafe
to depend always upon a certain diathefis, or difpofi-
tion of the fyftem; fo every appearance which we can
perceive to depend upon that fame difpofition, we ftill
confider as a fymptom and cafe of the gout. The prin¬
cipal circumftance, in what we term the regular gout,
is the inflammatory affe&ion of the joints j and what-
evei fymptoms we can perceive to be eonne&ed with,
or to depend upon, the difpofition which produces
that inflammatory affe&ion, but without its taking
place or being prefent at the fame time, we name the
irregular gout.
I C I N E. I
Of fuch irregular gout there are three different Podagr
Hates, which may be named the atonic, the retrocedent, w--y*“
and the mifplaced gout.
The firft is, when the gouty diathefis prevails in the
fyftem ; but, from certain caufes, does not produce the
inflammatory affeftion of the joints. In this cafe, the
morbid fymptoms which appear, are chiefly affeftions
of the ftomach, fuch as lofs of appetite, indigeftion,
and its various attendants of ficknefs, naufea, vo¬
miting, flatulency, acid eru&ations, and pains in the
region of the ftomach. Thefe fymptoms are frequent¬
ly accompanied with pains and cramps in feveral parts
of the trunk and the upper extremities of the bodv,
which are relieved by the difcharge of wind from the
ftomach. Together with thefe affeftions of the fto¬
mach, there commonly occurs a coftivenefs ; but
fometimes a loofenefs, with colic pains, Thefe affec¬
tions of the alimentary canal are often attended with
all the fymptoms of hypochondriafis, fuch as dejection
of mind, a conftant and anxious attention to the
flighted: feelings, an imaginary aggravation of theie,
and an apprehenfion of danger from them.
In the fame atonic gout, the vifcera of the thorax
alfo are fometimes affected, and palpitations, faintings,
and afthma, oecur.
In the head alfo occur headachs, giddinefs, apo-
ple£tic and paralytic affections.
When the feveral fymptoms now mentioned occur
in habits having the marks of a gouty difpofition,
this may be fufpeCted to have laid the foundation of
them; and efpecially when either, in fuch habics, a
manifeft tendency to the inflammatory affection has
formerly appeared, or when the fymptoms mentioned
are intermixed with and are relieved by fome degree
of the inflammato.ry gout. In fuch cafes there can
be no doubt of eoniidering the whole as a ftate of the
gout.
Another ftate of the difeafe we name the retrocedent
gout. This occurs when an inflammatory ftate of the
joints has, in the ufual manner, come on, but without
ariling to the ordinary degree of pain and inflammation;
or at leaft without thefe continuing for the ufual time}
or without their receding gradually in the ufual man¬
ner ; thefe affetrions of the joints fuddenly and entirely .
ceafe, while fome internal part becomes affected. The
internal part moft commonly attacked is the ftomach ,•
which then is affeCted with anxiety, ficknefs, vomit¬
ing, or violent pain : but fometimes the internal part
is the heart, which gives oecafion to a fyncope ; fome¬
times it is the lungs, which are affected with afthma ;
and fometimes it is the head, giving occafion to apo¬
plexy or palfy. In all thefe cafes there can be no
doubt that the fymptoms are all a part of the fame dif-
eafe, however different the affeCtion may feem to be in
the parts which it attacks.
The third ftate of irregular gout, which we name
the mifplaced, is when the gouty drathefis, inftead of
producing the inflammatory affeCtion. of the joints,
produces an inflammatory affeftion of fome internal
part, and which appears from the- fame fymptoms that
attend the inflammations of thofe parts arifing from
other caufes.
Whether the gouty diathefis does ever produce fuck
inflammation of the internal parts without having firit
produced it in the joints, or whether the inflammation
>i%2 M E D 1 G
Pblegma- of the internal part be always a tranflatian from the
^ i joints previoufly affe&ed, we dare not determine; but,
v ' even fuppofmg the latter to be always the cafe, we think
the difference of the afte&ion of the internal part mull
ft ill diftinguifh the mifplacfd from what we have named
the retrocedent gout.
With regard to the mifplaced gout, Dr Cullen,
whom we here follow* tells us, that he never met with
any cafes of it in his practice, nor does he find any di-
ilinctly marked by practical writers, except that of a
pneumonic inflammation.
There are two cafes of a tranflated gout; the one
of which is an affection of the neck of the bladder,
producing pain, llrangury, and a catarrhus vefine:
the other is an affedtion of the redtum, fometimes in¬
dicated by pain alone in that part, and fometimes by
haemhorrhoidal fymptoms. In gouty perfons fuch af-
fedtions have been known to alternate with inflamma¬
tory affedtions of the joints; but whether thefe be¬
long to the retrocedent or to the mifplaced gout, our
author pretends not to determine.
It is commonly fuppofed, that there are fome cafes
of rheumatifm which are fcarcely to be diftinguifhed
from the gout: but thefe, Dr Cullen thinks, are but
few; and that the two difeafes may be for the moil
part diftinguiftied with great certainty, by obferving
the predifpofition, the antecedent circumftances, the
parts affedted, the recurrences of the diieafe, and its
connedlion with the fyilem; which circumilances,
for the moil part, appear very differently in the two
difeafes.
Caufesy &c. The gout is generally an hereditary
difeafe : but fomc perfons, without any hereditary dif-
pofition, feem to acquire it; and in fome an hereditary
difpofition may be counteradled from various caufes. It
attacks the male fex efpecially; but it fometimes, tho’
more rarely, attacks alfo the female. The females
liable to it are thofe of the more robuft and full
habits; and it very often happens to thofe before the
.menlliual evacuation hath ceafed. Dr Cullen hath alfo
found it occurring in feveral females whofe menftrual
evacuations were more abundant than ufual.
The gout feldom attacks eunuchs; and when it does,
feems to fall upon thofe who happen to be of a robufl
habit, to lead an indolent life, and to live very full. It
attacks efpecially men of robufl: and large bodies, who
have large heads, are of full and corpulent habits, and
whofe Heins are covered with a thicker rete mucofum,
which gives a coarfer furface. To fpeak in the ftyle of
the ancient phyficians, the gout will feldom be found to
attack thofe of a fanguine, or fuch as are of a purely
melancholic temperament ; but very readily thofe of a
cholerko-fanguine temperament. It is, however, very
difficult to treat this matter with precifion. The gout
feldom attacks perfons employed in conftant bodily
labour, or thofe who live much upon vegetable ali¬
ment. It does not commonly attack men till after
the age of 35 ; and generally not till a Hill later pe¬
riod. There are indeed inftances of the gout appear¬
ing more early ; but thefe are few in comparifon of
the others. When the difeafe does appear early in life,
it feems to be in thofe who have the hereditary difpo-
iition very ftrong, and to whom the remote caufes here¬
after mentioned hive been applied in a very conflde-
iable degree.
I N E. Pra&ice.
As the gout is an hereditary difeafe, and affe&s Podagra.
men particularly of a certain habit, its remote caufes 1 'T—*
may be confidercd as predifponent and occafional.
The predifponent caufe, as far as exprefled by exter¬
nal appearances, has been already marked ; and phy¬
ficians have been very confldent in affigning.the occa-
fional caufes: but in a difeafe depending fo much up¬
on a predifpofition, the affigning occafional caufes
muft be uncertain; as in the predifpofed the occa-
fional caufes may not always appear, and in perfons
not predifpofed they may appear without effeft ; and
this uncertainty mull particularly affeft the cafe of the
gout.
The occafional caufes of the difeafe feem to be of
two kinds. Firft, thofe which induce a plethoric
flate of the body. Secondly, thofe which in ple¬
thoric habits, induce a ftate of debility. Of the lirll
kind are a fedentary, indolent manner- of life, and a
full diet of animal-food. Of the fecond kind of occa¬
fional caufes which induce debility are excefs in venery;
intemperance in the ufe of intoxicating liquors; indi-
gettion, produced either by the quantity of quality of
the aliments; much application to ftudy or bufinefs,
night-watching, exceffive evacuations ; the ceafing of
ufual labour ; a fudden change from a very full to a
very fpare diet; the large ufe of acids and acefcents ;
and laftly, cold applied to the lower extremities. The
former feem to a& by increafing the predifpofi¬
tion ; the latter are commonly the exciting caufes,
both of the firft attacks, and of the repetitions of the
difeafe.
With refpeft to the proximate caufe of the gout, it
has generally been thought that it depends on a cer¬
tain morbific matter always prefent in the body; and
that this matter, by certain caufes, thrown upon the
joints or other parts, produces the feveral phenomena
of the difeafe.
This do&rine, however ancient and generally re¬
ceived, appears to Dr Cullen to be very doubtful.
For,
Firft:, there is no dire& evidence of any morbific
matter being prefent in perfons difpofed to the gout.
There are no experiments or obfervations which fhow
that the blood or other humours of gouty perfons are
in any refpedl different from thofe of others. Previous
to attacks of the gout, there appear no marks of any
morbid ftate of the fluids ; for the difeafe generally at¬
tacks thofe perfons who have enjoyed the moll perfeA
health, and appear to be in that ftate when the difeafe
comes on. At a certain period of the difeafe, a pecu¬
liar matter indeed appears in gouty perfons ; but this,
which does not appear in every inftance, and which
appears only after the difeafe has fubftfted for a long
time, feems manifeftly to be the effed, not the caufe, of
the difeafe. Further, though there be certain acrids
which, taken into the body, feem to excite the gout,
it is probable that thefe acrid* operate otherwhe ia
exciting the difeafe, than by affording the material
caufe of it. In general, therefore, Dr Cullen thinks
there is no proof of any morbific matter being the
caufe of the gout.
Secondly, the fuppofitions concerning the particu¬
lar nature of the matter producing the gout, have been
fo various, and fo contradictory, as to allow us to
conclude, that there is truly no proof of the exiltence
of
Pradice. MEDICINE. 183
Ph!egma- Gf any 0f them. With refpedl to many of thefe fup-
, 133 pofitlons, they are fo inconfiftent with chemical phi-
lofophy, and with the laws of the animal cecomony,
that they mud be entirely rejected-
Thirdly, the fuppofition of a morbific matter gs the
caufe, is not confiftent with the phenomena of the dif-
eafe, particularly with its frequent and fudden tranfla*
tions from one. part to another.
Fourthly, the fuppofition is further rendered im¬
probable by this, that, if a morbific matter did exift,
its operation (hould be fimilar in the feveral part* which
it attacks: whereas it feems to be very different, be¬
ing ftimulant, and exciting inflammation, in the joints;
but fedative and deftr*ying the tone in the'ftomach :
which, upon the fuppofition of the fame particular
matter afting in both cafes, is not to be explained by
any difference in the part affefted.
Fifthly, Some fafts alledged in proof of a morbific
matter, are not fufficiently confirmed ; fuch as thofe
which would prove the difeafe to be contagious. There
is, however, no proper evidence of this, the fafts given
being not only few, but exceptionable, and the nega¬
tive obfervations innumerable.
Sixthly, Some arguments brought in favour of a
morbific matter are founded upon a miltaken explana¬
tion. The difeafe has been fuppofed to depend upon
a morbific matter, becaufe it is hereditary. But the in¬
ference is not juft: for moft hereditary difeafes do not
depend upon arty morbific matter, but upon a parti¬
cular conformation of the ftrufture of the body tranf-'
mitted from the parent to the offspring; and this laft
appears to be particularly the cafe in the gout. It
may be alfo obferved, that hereditary difeafes depend¬
ing upon a morbific matter, appear always much more -
«arly in life than the gout commonly does.
Seventhly, The fuppofition of a morbific matter be4
ing the caufe of the gout, has been hitherto ufelefa, as
it has not fuggefted any fuccefsful method of cure.
Particular theories of gout have often corrupted the
praftice, and have frequently led from thofe views
which might have been ufeful, and from that practice
which experience had approved. Further, though
the fuppofition of a morbific matter has been generally
received, it has been as generally negledled in prac¬
tice. When the gout has affedted the ftomach, no¬
body thinks of' corredting the matter fuppofed to be
prefent there, but merely of reftoring the tone of the
moving fibres.
Eighthly, The fuppofition of a morbific matter is
quite fuperftuous: for it explains nothing, without fup-
pofing that matter to produce a change in the ftate of
the moving powers; and a change in the ftate of the
moving powers; produced by other caufes, explains
every circumftance without the fuppofition of a morbi¬
fic matter ; and it may be obferved; that many of the
caufes exciting the gout, do not operate upon the
ftate of the fluids, but diredlly and folely upon that
of the moving powers.
Laftly, Dr Cullen contends that the fuppofition of
a morbific matter is fuperfluous ; becaufe, without
that, the difeafe can be explainrdj he thinks, in a
manner more confifteht with its phenomena, with the
laws of the animal (economy, and with the method
of cure which' experience has approved. We now
proceed to give, this explanation j but, before ente*>
ing upon it', we muft premife feme general obferva- Podagra,
tions which Dr Cullen Hates. «
The firft obfervation is, That the gout is a difeafe of
the whole fyftem, or depends upon a certain general
conformation and ftate of the body, which manifeftly
appears from the fa els above mentioned. But the ge¬
neral ftate of the fyftem depends chiefly upon the ftate
of its primary moving powers; and therefore the gout
may be fuppofed to be an affeftion of thefe chiefly.
The fecond obfervation is, That the gout is. mani¬
feftly an affeftion of the nervous fyftem; in which the
primary moving powers of the whole fyftem are lodged.
The occafional or exciting caufes arg almoft all fuch
as aft direftly upon the nerves and nervous fyftem ;
and the greater part of the fymptoms of the atonic or
retrocedent gout are manifeftly affeftions of the fame
fyftem. This leads us to feek for an explanation of
the whole of the difeafe, in the laws of the nervous
fyftem, and particularly in the changes which may
happen in the balance of its feveral parts.
The third obfervation is. That the ftomach, which
has fo univerfal a confent with the reft of the fyftem,
is the internal part that is the moft frequently, and
often very confiderably, affefted by,the gout. The pa-
roxyfms of the difeafe are commonly preceded by an
affeftion of the ftomach; many of the exciting caufes
aft firft upon the ftomach, and the fymptoms of the
atonic and retrocedent gout are moft commonly and
chiefly affeftions of the fame organ. This obfervation
leads us to remark, that there is a balance fubfiiting
between the ftate of the internal and that of the ex¬
ternal parts; and, in particular, that the ftate of the
ftomach is connefted with that of the external parts,
fo that the ftate of tone in the one may be communi¬
cated to the other.
Thefe obfervations being premifed, Dr Cullert offers
the following pathology of the gout.
In fome perfons there is a certain vigorous and ple¬
thoric ftate of the fyftem; which at a certain period of,
life is liable to a lofs of tone in the extremities. This
Is in fome meafure communicated to the whole fyftern,
but appears more efpecially in the funftions of the fto¬
mach. When this lofs of tone occurs while the energy
of the brain ftill retains its vigour, the vis medicatri
naturais excited to reftore the tone of the parts; and'
accomplifhes it, by exciting an inflammatory affeftion
in fome part of the extremities. When this has fub-
fifted for fome days, the tone of the extremities and
of the whole fyftem is reftored, and the patient re¬
turns to his ordinary ftate of health.
This is the eourfe of things in the ordinary form of
the difeafe, which we name the regular gout; but there
are circumftances of the body, in which this courfe is
interrupted or varied. 'Thus, when the atony has
taken place, if the reaftion do not fucceed, the atony
continues in the ftomach, or perhaps in other internal
parts ; and produces that ftate which Dr Cullen, for
reafons now obvious, qamed the atonic gout.
A fecond cafe of variation in the courfe of the gout ”
is, when to the atony the reaftion and inflammation
have to a certain degree fucceeded, but from caufes
either internal or external the tone of the extremities
and perhaps of the whole fyftem is weakened ; fo that
the inflammatory ftate, before it htid either proceeded *
to the degree, or continued for the time, requifite for
medicine.
Practice.
gnia- reftoring the tone of the fyftem, fuddenly apd entirely
!a ceafes: whence the ftomach, and other internal parts,
v relapfe into the ftate of atony ; and perhaps have that
increafed by the atony communicated from the extre¬
mities : all which appears in what has been termed
the retrocedent Jlate of the gout.
A third cafe of variation from the ordinary courfe
of the gout, is, when to the atony, ufually preceding,
&n inflammatory rea&ion fully fucceeds, but has its
ufual determination to the joints by fome circumftances
prevented; and is therefore diredlcd to fome internal
part, where it produces an inflammatory affection, and
that ftate of things which we have named the rw/placed
gout.
Though this theory of Dr Cullen’s be fupportcd
with much ingenuity, yet we may confidently venture
to affert, that on this fubjeft he has been lefs fuccefs-
ful in eftablifhing his own opinion, than in combating
thofe of others; and this theory, as rvell as others
formerly propofed, is liable to numerous and unfur-
moiintable objections. According to the hypothefis,
a vigorous and plethoric habit fliould in every cafe
exift prior to the appearance of gout; which is by no
means confident with fa£t; nor is it true that a vi¬
gorous and plethoric habit is liable at a certain age
to a lofs of tone in the extremities; which is another
neceffary condition in the hypothefis. Lofs of tone
often occurs in the extremities without exerting any
peculiar influence on the ftomach ; and why a lofs of
tone in the ftomach fhould excite the •vis medicatrix na¬
tural, to reftore it by exciting an inflammatory affec¬
tion in fome part of the extremities, is very incon¬
ceivable. Were the hypothefis true, every dyfpeptic
patient fhould infallibly be affe<fted with gout; which,
however, is by no means the cafe. In ihort, every flep
in the theory is liable to Hnfurmountable objections; and
it by no means, any more than former hypothefes, ex¬
plains the phenomena of the difeafe, particularly what
Dr Cullen has himfelf fo accurately pointed out, the
connexion of gouty with calculous complaints.
A very ingenious work has lately been publifhed by
an anonymous author, entitled “ a Treatife on Gravel
and upon Gout;” in which the fources of each are in-
veftigated, and effectual means of preventing or re¬
moving thefe difeafes recommended. In this treatife
an attempt is made to prove, that both difeafes de¬
pend upon a peculiar concreting acid, the acid of
calculi, or the lithic acid, as it has been ftyled by fome.
He fuppofes this acid, conftantly prefent to a certain
degree in the circulating fluids, to be precipitated by
the introduction of other acids ; and in this manner
he explains the influence of acid wines and other li¬
quors, as claret, cyder, &c. inducing gout; forhecon-
iiders the circumftancc chiefly conffituting the dif¬
eafe as being an inflammation in parts of which the
functions have been interrupted by the redundant
acid precipitated. Although this theory be fupport¬
cd with much ingenuity, yet it is alfo liable to many
objections. The fudden attack of the affcCtion ; its
fudden tranfition. from one part of the body, to ano¬
ther; the inftant relief of one part when another comes
to be affeCted; and the various anomalous forms w'hich
the difeafe puts on, having an exaCt refemblance to
different affeCtions; are altogether irreconcileable to
the idea of its depending on any fixed ©bftruCtion at
Nc 205.
a particular part arifing from concreting acid. Nor
does the plan of prevention and cuie which he pro-
pofes, and which confiits chiefly in abftinence from
acid and in the deftruCtion of acid, by any means cor-
refpond in- every particular to be belt eftablifhed faCts
jefpeCting the treatment .of gout; to which we next
proceed.
Cure. In entering upon this, we muff obferve, in the
fir ft place, that a cure has been commonly thought im-
pofiible ; and we acknowledge it to be very probable,
that the gout, as a difeafe of the whole habit, and
very often depending upon original conformation, can.
not be cured by medicines, the effeCIs of which are al¬
ways very traniitory, and feldom extend to the produ¬
cing any confiderable change of the whole habit.
It would perhaps have been happy for gouty per-
fons if this opinion had been implicitly received by
them; as it would have prevented their having been
fo often the dupes of felf-interefted pretenders, who
have either amufed them with inert medicines, or have
rafhly employed thofe of the moft pernicious tendency.
Df Gullen, who has treated of the cure of the difeafe
with great judgment, as he has done the theory with
much ingenuity, is much difpofed to believe the impoffi-
bility of a cure of the gout by medicines; and more cer¬
tainly ftill inclined to think, that, whatever may be the
poffible power of medicines, yet no medicine for curing
the gout has hitherto been found. Although almoft
every age has prefented a new remedy, all hitherto of¬
fered have, very foon after, been either negledled as
ufelefs, or condemned as pernicious
But, though unwilling to admit the power of medi¬
cines, yet he contends, that a great deal can be done
towards the cure of the gout by a regimen : and he
is firmly perfuaded, that any. man who, early in life^
will enter upon the conftant praftice of bodily labour,
and of abftinence from animal-food, will be preferved
entirely from the difeafe.
Whether there be any other means of radically cu¬
ring the gout, the Doftor is not ready to determine.
There are hiftories of cafes of the gout, in which
it is faid, that by great emotions of mind, by wounds,
and by other accidents, the fymptoms have been fud-
dertly relieved, and never again returned ; but how
far thefe accidental cures might be imitated by art,
or would fucceed in other cafes, is at leaft extremely
uncertain.
The pra&ices proper and neceffary in the treatment
of the gout, are to be confidered under tw o heads:
Firjl, As they are to be employed in the intervals of
paroxyfms ; or, fetondly. As during the time of thefe.
In the intervals of paroxyfms, the indications are, to
prevent altogether the return of paroxyfms; or at leaft
to render them lefs frequent, and more moderate. Du¬
ring the time of paroxyfms, the indications are, to
moderate the violence and ihorten the duration of them
as much as can be done with fafety.
It has been already obferved, that the gout may be
entirely prevented by conflant bodily exercife, and by
a low diet ; and Dr Cullen is of opinion, that this pre¬
vention may take place even in perfons who have a he¬
reditary difpofition to the difeafe. Even when the dif-
pofition has difcovered itfelf by feveral paroxyfms of
inflammatory gout, he is perfuaded that labour and
abftinence will abfolutely prevent any returns of it for
Practice. M E D I
• Phkgma- the reft of life. Thefe, therefore, are the means of an-
 <iaB fM'eiing the firft indication to be purfqed in the inter-
v vals of paroxyfms.
Exercife in perfons difpofed to the gout, in DrCuI-
len’s opinion, has effedt by anfwering two purpofes :
One of thefe is the ilrengthening of the tone of the
extreme veflels; and the other, the guarding againft a
plethoric ftate. For ti e former, if exercife be em¬
ployed early in life, and beTore intemperance has weak¬
ened the body, a very moderate degree of it will an¬
swer the purpofe; and, for the, latter, if abftinence be
at the fame time obferved, little exercife will be ne-
ceffary.
With refpedt to exercife, this in general is to be ob¬
ferved, that it fhould never be violent; for, if violent,
it cannot be long continued, and mull always endan¬
ger the bringing on an atony in proportion to the
violence of the preceding exercife.
It is alfo to be obferved, that the exercife of gefta-
tion, though confiderable and conftant, will not, if it
be entirely without bodily exercife, anf«er the purpofe
in preventing the gout. For this end, therefore, the
exercife muft be in fome meafure that of the body; and
muft be moderate, but at the fame time conftant and
continued through life.
In every cafe and circumftance of the gout in which
the patient retains the ufe of his limbs, bodily exer¬
cife, in the intervals of paroxyfms, will be always ufe-
ful; and in the beginning of the difeafe, when the
difpolition to it is not yet ftrong, exercife may prevent
a paroxyfm which otherwife might have come on. In
more advanced ftates of the difeafe, however, when
there is fome difpofition to a paroxyfm, much walking
will bring it on; either as it weakens the tone.of the
lower extremities, or as it excites an inflammatory dif¬
pofition in them ; and thus it feems to be that {trains
•or eontufions often bring on a paroxyfm of the gout,
Abftinence, the other part of the proper regimen
for preventing the gout, is of more difficult applica¬
tion. If an abftinence from animal food be entered
upon early in life, while the vigour of the fyftem is
yet entire, Dr Cullen has no doubt of its being both
fafe and effedtual: but if the motive for this diet ffiall
not have occurred till the c< nftitution has hem broken
by intemperance, or by the decline of life, a low diet
may then endanger the bringing on an atonic ftate.
Further, if a low diet be entered upon only in the
decline of life, and be at the fame time a very great
-change from the former manner of living, the with¬
drawing of an accuflomed ftimulus of the fyftem may
readily throw this into an atonic ftate.
The fafety of an abftemiou courfe may he greater
or lefs according to the management of it. It is ani¬
mal food which efpecially difpofes to the plethoric and
inflammatory ftate, and that food is to be therefore
•efpecially avoided ; but: on the other hand, vegetable
aliment of the lovveft quality is in danger of weak¬
ening the fyftim tod much by not affording fuf-
ficient nouriihment, and more particularly of weaken¬
ing the tone of the ftomach by its acefcency. It is
therefore a diet ef a middle nature that is to be cho-
fen ; and milk is precifdy of this kind, as containing
Loth animal and vegetable matter.
As approaching to the nature of milk, and as being
a vegetable matter containing the greateft portion of
, Vol. XL Part I.
CINE.
nourifliment, the farinaceous feeds are next to be cho- Poda
fen, and are the food moft proper to be joined with '—'-v
milk.
With refpeft to drink, fermented liquors are ufeful
only when they are joined with animal food, and that
by their acefcency; and their ftimulus is only necef-
fary from cuftom. When, therefore, animal food is
to be avoided, fermented liquor- are unneceflary ; and
by increafing the acefcency of vegetables, thefe liquors
may be hurtful. The ftimulus of fermented or fpiri-
tuous liquors is not neceffary to the young and vigo¬
rous, and when much employed impairs the tone of
the fyflem, Thefe liquors, therefore, are to be avoid¬
ed, except fo far as cuftom and the declining ftate of
the fyftem may have rendered them neceflary. For
preventing or moderating the regular gout, water is
the only proper drink.
With refpeeft to an abftemious courfe, it has been
fuppofed, that an abftinence from animal food and fer¬
mented liquors, or the living upon milk and farinacea
alone for the fpace of one year, might be fufficient for
a radical cure of the gout: and it is poffible that, at
a certain period of life, in certain circumftances of the
conftitution, fuch a meafure might anfwer the purpofe.
But this is very doubtful ; and it is more probable,
that the abftinence muft, in a great meafure, be con¬
tinued, and the milk-diet be perfifted in, for the re¬
mainder of life. It is well known, that feveral per¬
fons who had entered on an abftemious courfe, and
had been thereby delivered from the gout, have, how¬
ever, upon returning to their former manner of full
living, had the difeafe return upon them with as much
violence as before, or in a more irregular and more dan¬
gerous form.
It has been alleged, that, for preventing the return
of the gout, blood-letting or fcarifications of the feet,
frequently repeated, and at ftated times, may be prac-
tifed with advantage; but of this Dr Cullen tells'us
he has had no experience; and the benefit of the prac¬
tice i- not, as far as we know, confirmed by the obfer-
fervation of any other pra&itioner.
Exercife and abftinence are the means of avoiding
the plethoric ftate which gives the difpofition to the
gout ; and are therefore the means propofed for pre¬
venting the paroxyfms, or at leaft for rendering them
lefs frequent and more moderate. But many-circum¬
ftances prevent the fteadinefs neceffary in purfuing
thefe meafures : and therefore, in fuch cafes, unlefs
great care be taken to avoid the exciting caufes, the
difeafe may frequently return ; and, in many cafes,
the preventing of paroxyfms is chiefly to be obtain¬
ed by avoiding thofe exciting caufes already enume¬
rated.
A due attention in avoiding thefe different caufes
will certainly prevent fits of the gout; and the taking
care that the exciting caufes be never applied in a
great degree, will certainly render fits more moderate
when they do come on. But, upon the whole, it will
appear, that a ftrift attention to the general conduft
of life, is in this matter neceffary.; and therefore, when
the predifpofition has taken place, it will be extremely
difficult to avoid the difeafe.
Dr Cullen is firmly perfuaded, that, by obviating
the predifpofition, and by avoiding the exciting caufes,
the gout mav be entirely prevented ; but, as the mea-
Aa Cures
M E D 1
fores rfeeeiTary Tor this 'ptirpofo will, in moft cafes, be
purfoed with difficulty, and even with reluctance, men
have been very defirous to find a medicine which might
ahfWer the purpofe without any rellrairit on their man¬
ner of living. To gnitify this defire, phyficians have
propofed, and, to take advantage of it, empirics have
fdgne'd, many remedies. Of what nature feveral of
thefe remedies have been, it is difficult to fay : but of
thofe which are unknown, we conclude, from their
having been only of temporary fame, and from their
having foon fallen into negledf, that they have been
either inert or pernicious, and therefore ffiall make no
inquiry after them ; and ffiall now remark only upon
-one or two known remedies for the gout which have
been lately in vogue.
One of thefe is what has been /amed in England
the Portland powder. This is not a new medicine,
but is mentioned by Galen, and, with fome little va¬
riation in its compofition, has been mentioned by the
writers of almoll every age fince that time It ap¬
pears to have been at times in faffiion, and to have a-
gain fal'jn into negleft ; and Dr Cullen thinks that
this lafl has been owing to its having been found to
be, in many inftances, pernicious. In every inilance
■which he has known of its exhibition for the length
of time preferibed, the perfons who had taken it were
indeed afterwards free from any inflammatory affec¬
tion of the joints ; but they were affeded with many
fymptoms of the atonic gout; and all, foon after fi-
niffiing their courfe of the medicine, have been at¬
tacked with apoplexy, afthma, or dropfy, which proved
fatal.
Another remedy which has had the appearance of
preventing the gout, is an alkali in various forms; fuch
as the fixed alkali, both mild and cauftic, lime-water,
foap, and abfdrbent earths; and of late the alkaline
aerated water has been more faffiionable than any
other. Since it became common to exhibit thefe me¬
dicines in nephritic and calculous cafes, it has often
happened that they were given to thofe who were at
the fame time fubjeft to the gout; and it has been
obferved, that under the ufe of thefe medicines, gouty
perfons have been longer free from the fits of their
difeafe. That, however, the ufe of thefe medicines
lias entirely prevented the returns of gout. Dr Cullen
does not know; beeaufe he never puffied the ufe of
thofe medicines for a long time, being apprehenfive
that the long-continued ufe of them might produce a
hurtful change in the ftate of the fluids.
As the preventing the gout depends Very much on
fupporting the tone of the ftomach, and avoiding in-
digeftion ; fo coftivenefs, by occafioning this, is very
hurtful to gouty perfons. It is therefore neceflary for
fuch perfons to prevent or remove coftivenefs, and by
a laxative medicine, when needful; but it is at the fame
time proper, that the medicine employed ffiould be
fuch as may keep the belly regular, without much pur¬
ging. Aloetics, rhubarb, magnefia alba, oleum ricini,
or flowers of fulphur, may be employed, as the one or
the other may happen to be beft foiled to particular
perfons.
Thefe are the feveral meafutes to be purfoed in the
intervals of the parOxyfms; and we are next to men¬
tion the meafores proper during the time of them.
As- during the time of paroxyfms the body is in a
Cine. iva&rce.
feveriffi ftate, no irritation fficuld then life added to it; Podagiu.
every part, therefore, of the antiphlogiftic regimen, v
except the application of cold, ought to be ftriAly ob¬
ferved.
Another exception to the general rule may occur
when the tone of the ftomach is weak, and when the
patient has been before much accuftonied to the ufe
of ftrong drink ; for then it may be allowable, and
even neceffary, to give feme animal-food and a little
wine.
That no irritation is to be added to the fyftem du¬
ring the paroxyfms of gout, except in the cafes men¬
tioned, is agreed upon among phyficians: but it is a
more difficult matter to determine, whether, during
the time of paroxyfms, any meafures may be purfued
to moderate the violence of reaction and of inflamma¬
tion. Dr Sydenham has given it as his opinion, that
the more violent the inflammation and pain, the pa-
roxyfm will be the fliorter, as well as the interval be¬
tween the prefent and the next paroxyfm longer:
and,'if this opinion be admitted as juft, it will forbid
the ufe of any remedies which might moderate the
inflammation; which is, to a certain degree, undoubt- ■
edly neceffary for the health of the body. On the
other hand, acute pain prefles for relief; and although
a certain degree of inflammation may feem abfolutely
neceflary, it is not certain but that a moderate degree
of it may anfwer the purpofe ; and it is even pro¬
bable. that in many cafes the violence of inflammation
may weaken the tone of the parts, and thereby invite
a return of paroxyfms. It feems to be in this way,
that, as the difeafe advances, the paroxyfms become
more frequent.
From thefe laft confiderations, it feems probable,
that, duiing the time of paroxyfms, fome meafures
may be taken to moderate the violence of the inflam¬
mation and pain, and particularly, that in iirft paro¬
xyfms, and in the young and vigorous, blood-letting at
the arm may be praftifed with advantage : but this
praftice cannot be repeated often with fafety; becauffe
blood-letting not only weakens the tone of the fyflem,
but may alfo conti ibute to produce plethora. How¬
ever, bleeding by leeches on the foot, and upon the
inflamed part, may be pradlifed and repeated with
greater fafety; and inftances have been known of its
having been employed with fafety to moderate aud
ffiorten paroxyfms ; but how far it may be carried, we
have not had experience enough to determine.
Befides bipod-letting and the antiphlogiftic regi¬
men, it has been propofed to employ remedies for mo¬
derating the inflammatory fpafm of the part affe6ied,
fuch as warm bathing and emollient poultices. Thefe
have fometimes been employed with advantage and
fafety; but, at other times, have been found to give
occafion to a retroceffion of the gout.
Bliftering is a very effe&ual means of relieving and
difeuffing a paroxyfm of the gout; but has alfo fre¬
quently had the effeft of rendering it retrocedent. The
flinging with nettles is analogous to bliftering; arid
probably would be attended with the fame danger.
The burning with moxa, or other fobftance-', is a re¬
medy of the fame kind; but though not found hurtful,
there is no fofficient evidence of its proving a radi¬
cal cure.
Camphire, and fome aromatic oils, have the power
Pra&ice. M E D I
Phlegma- of allaying the pain, and of removing the inflammation
^1X from the part affe&ed: but thefe remedies commonly
' make the inflammation only fliift from one part to an¬
other, and therefore with the hazard of its falling up¬
on a part where it may be more dangerous; and they
have fometimes rendered the gout retrocedent.
From thefe reflections it will appear, that fome dan¬
ger mult attend every external application to the parts
affeCted during a parbxyfm ; and that therefore the
common practice of committing the perfon to patience
and flannel alone, is eftablilhed upon the belt founda¬
tion Opiates gi%e the moft certain relief from pain ;
but, when given in the beginning of gouty paroxyfms,
it has by fome been thought that they occalion thefe
to return with greater violence. When, however, the
paroxyfms lhall have abated in their violence, but ft ill
continue to return, fo as to occafion painful and reft-
lefs nights, opiates may be given with fafety and ad¬
vantage ; efpecially in the cafe of perfons advanced in
life, and who have been often affe&ed with the dif-
eafe. When, after paroxyfms have ceafed, fome fwel-
ling and ftiffnefs Hill remain in the joints, thefe fymp-
toms are to be difcufied by the diligent ufe of the
flelh-brufh. Purging immediately after a paroxyfm
will be always employed with the hazard of bringing
it on again.
Thus far of the regular gout. We now proceed
to confider the management of the difeafe when it has
become irregular.
In the atonic gout, the cure is to be accompliflied
by carefully avoiding all debilitating caufes; and by
employing, at the fame time, the means of ftrengthen-
ing the fyftem in general, and the ftomach in particu¬
lar.
For ftrengthening the fyftem in general, Dr Cullen
recommends frequent exercife on horfeback, and mo¬
derate walking. Cold bathing alfo may anfwer the
purpofe ; and may be fafely employed, if it appear to
be powerful in ftimulating the fyftem, and be not ap¬
plied when the extremities are threatened with any
pain.
For fupporting the tone of the fyftem in general,
when threatened with atonic gout, fome animal food
ought to be employed, and the more acefcent vege¬
tables ought to be avoided. In the fame cafe, fome
wine alfo may he neceflary; but it fhould be in mode¬
rate quantity, and of the leaft acefcent kinds ; and if
every kind of wine ftiall be found to increafe the aci¬
dity of the ftomach, ardent fpirits and water muft be
employed.
For ftrengthening the ftomach, bitters and the Pe¬
ruvian bark may be employed ; but care muft be taken
that they be not conftantly employed for any great
length of time
The moft effe&ual medicine for ftrengthening the
ftomach is iron, which may be employed under various
preparations ; but the belt appears to be the ruft in
tine powder, which may be given in large dofes.
For fupporting the tone of the ftomach, aromatics
may be employed; but ftiould be ufed with caution,
as the frequent and copious ufe of them have an op-
pofite efiedt, and they (hould therefore be given only
in compliance with former habits, or for palliating pre-
fent fymptoms
When the ftomach happens to be liable to indigc-
CINE. 1S7
ftion, gentle vomits miy be frequently given, and pro- Podagra,
per laxatives (hould be always employed to obviate or
to remove coftivenefs.
In the atonic gout, or in perfons liable to it, to
guard againft cold is efpecially neceflary; and the mofl:
certain means of doing this, is by repairing to a warn*
climate during the winter feafon. In the more violent
cafes, bliftering the lower extremities may be ufeful;
but that remedy (hould be avoided when any pain
threatens the extremities. In perfons liable to the
atonic gout, iffues may be eftabliflied in the extremi¬
ties as in fome meafure a fupplement to the difeafe.
A fccond cafe of the irregular gout, is the retro¬
cedent.
When this affeft* the ftomach and inteftines, relief
is to be inftantly attempted by the free ufe of ftrong
wines, joined with aromatics, and given warm; or, if
thefe (hall not prove powerful enough, ardent fpirits
muft be employed, and are to be given in a large dofe.
In moderate attacks, ardent fpirits, impregnated with
garlic or with afafoetida, may be employed ; or, even
without the ardent fpirits, a folution of afafeetida,
with the volatile alkali, may anfwer the purpofe. O-
piates are often an effeftual remedy ; and may be join¬
ed with aromatics, As ip the eleftuarium opiatum ;
or they may be ufefully joined with volatile alkali
and camphire. Mu(k has like wife proved ufeful in
this difeafe.
When the affeftion of the ftomach is accompanied
with vomiting, this may be encouraged, by taking
draughts of warm wine, at firlt with water, and af¬
terwards without it; having at length recourfe, if ne¬
ceflary, to fome of the remedies above mentioned, and
particularly the opiates.
In like manne):, if the inteftines be affe&ed with
diarrhoea, this is to be at firlt encouraged by taking
plentifully of weak broth ; and when this (hall have
been done fufficiently, the tumult is to be quieted by
opiates.
When the retrocedent gout (hall affeft the lungs,
and produce afthma, this is to be cured by opiates, by
antifpafmodics, and perhaps by bliftering on the back
or brcalt.
When the gout, leaving the extremities, (hall affefl
the head, and produce pain, vertigo, apoplexy, or
palfy, our refources are very precarious. The moft
probable means of relief is, bliftering the head ; and,
if the gout (hall have receded very entirely from the
extremities, blifters may be applied to thefe alfo. To¬
gether with thefe blifterings, aromatics, and the vola¬
tile alkali, may be thrown into the ftomach.
The third cafe of the irregular gout is the mifplaced;
that is, when the inflammatory affetlion of the gout,
inftead of falling upon the extremities, falls upon fome
internal part. In this cafe, the difeafe is to be treat¬
ed by blood-letting, and by fuch other remedies as
w'ould be proper in an idiopathic inflammation of the
fame parts.
Whether the tranflation fo frequently made from the
extremities to the kidneys, is to be confidered as an
inftanoe of the mifplaced gout, feems uncertain : but
Dr Cullen is difpofed to think it fomething different;
and therefore is of opinion, that, in the nephralgia cal-
culvfa produced upon this occafion, the remedie. of in¬
flammation.are to be employed no farther than they
A a 2 may
M E D I
may be otberwife. fometimes neceflary in that difeafe,
arifing from other caufes than the gout.
To this diflertation on the gout, taken from the
works of our late learned profeffor, we cannot help
fubjoining a very uncommon cafe publifhed by Dr Sa¬
muel Pye in the London Medical Tranfaftions, where
the gout would feem to have been occafioned by a
morbific matter, and to' have been cured by the eva¬
cuation of it.
“ Mr Major Rook, furgeon and apothecary in Up¬
per Shadwell, of about 45 years of age, a fober, tem¬
perate man, of a good habit of body, accuitomed to-
no difeafe but the gout; the returns of the fits where¬
of had never been more frequent than once in 12 or
14 month , about the month ®f June 1752 was
feized with a.very fevere paroxyfm of the gout. As I
had known fome extraordinary effe£ls proceeding from
a vegetable diet in that dirtemper, particularly in one
gentleman, who, by a total abllinence from all manner
of food except cow’s milk, and that without bread,
. had cured himfelf of this difeafe ; and who, at the
time I mentioned the cafe to my friend, was in the
13th year of his milk-diet; I perfuaded Mr Rook to
try what vegetables would do for him: he readily
complied, and entered upon it immediately, with a re-
folution, that, if it anfvvered his expeftation, he would
renounce fifli and flefh for ever.
“ But after the moft religious abftinence from ani¬
mal food of every kind for eleven weeks, being vifited
by a gentle attack in both feet, he returned immedi¬
ately to his animal food. This paroxyfm continued
but 48 hours; but in March 1753 was fucceeded by
a very fevere one in both feet.
“ The pain in his feet, heels, and ankles, increafed
with great violence for about 10 or 12 days; till at
length he was in the moft extreme agonies; fuch as
he had never felt before, and fuch as almoft made him
raad. In the height of this extremity, the pains (it
is his own expreffion) from the feet, heels, and ankles,
flew as quick as lightning dire&ly to the calves of his
legs ; but remaining there not half a minute, and not
in the leaft abating of their extreme violence (though
the feet, heels, and ankles, were left entirely free from
pain), from the calves, after a fhort Itay of about half
a minute, the pains afeended with the fame velocity
as before to both the thighs, at the fame time leaving
the calves of the legs free from pain: from the thighs,
in lefs than the fpace of one minute, and as quick as
before, they arrived at the abdomen; and after giving
the patient one moft fevere twitch in the bowels, they
reached the ftomach : here the pains and here the fit
ended, upon the patient’s vomiting up about a pint
and a half of a green aqueous liquor, but fo extremely
corrofive, that he compared it to the ftrongeft mineral-
acid.
“ This extraordinary crifis happened at about two
is the morning: immediately after this difehairge ha
fell afleep, and flept till feven or eight, and waked
perfeftly eafy in every part, no figns of the diftemper
remaining but the fwelling and tendemefs of his feet;
both of which went off gradually, fo that in two days
he was able to walk about his bufinefs.
“ The next fit feized him in February 1754, in the
" common way ; but was lefs violent than the former,
and continued for about fix weeks; during which time
CINE. Pradllce;.
he had three increafed paroxyfms, or diftinft fmart Fodagia..
fits, which held him about two hours each ; in the ' 
laft of which he had the fame critical difeharge, by vo¬
miting of the fame corrofive matter, preceded by the
fame uncommon fymptoms as in the fit of 175-3 ^ut
mending every hour, he was able the very next day to-
walk, and attend his patients, with more eafe than af¬
ter the firft mentioned fit; for the fwelling abated much
fooner, and in three days difappeared.
“ I have faid, that this laft fit was attended with
three diftindl paroxyfms, the laft of which ended asv
above : yet to {how tlie diipofition of nature, in this
cafe, to throw off the offending humour in this her
new way/it is remarkable, that in the two firft of
thefe increafed paroxyfms of pain, the patient declared,
to me that he never had the leaft eafe till he had vo¬
mited ; but as there was no tranflation of the pain be¬
fore thefe vomitings, there was none of that corrofiye
matter to be difehaged; nothing but the common
"contents of the ftomach Was to be feen. .Thefe vo¬
mitings, however, procured the patient fome eafe; .but
the fit of the gout went on till the third paroxyfm was.
over, which ended as has been related.
“ As the crifis in this cafe is uncommon, I muft
take notice of a fymptom or two, which were no lefs
extraordinary, in both thefe fits of the gout.
“ A moft profufe fweat attended the patient every,
morning during the whole courfe of the fits; which
was fo very offenlive-, and at the fame time his breathe
fo uncommonly flunking, that neither the patient him.
felf, nor thofe who waited oa him, were ever fenlible
of the like.
“ His linen was tinged as with faffron; and his urine
very high coloured, of almoft as deep a red as claret: ,
but, upon the critical vomitings, every one of thefe
fymptoms difappeared with the difeafe,
“ On the 9th of December 1755, he: was attacked
again in one foot. The fymptoms, however, were fo
very mild, that he took no notice of them to his fami¬
ly till the 12th : from that day the. pain was aggra¬
vated, and the fwelling greatly increafed, by walking
and riding in a coach. On the 17th it became ex¬
tremely violent, particularly in the heel ; when it in-
ftantaneoufly left the parts affefted, and in the fame
manner and with equal velocity (as in the two former
fits), it flew into the calves of his legs, thighs, and
abdomen; and when it had reached the ftomach, it
caufed him to vomit the fame kind of corrofive acid as
in the two former fits;. and though- the quantity was -
no more than a tea-fpoonful, he became perfectly well
in two days.
“ The fame fymptoms of fetid urine, and offenfive
fweats, attended the patient in this fhort paroxyfm as-
in thofe of 17 53 and 1754; the fweat continued but
two nights, and the urine fetid only 48 hours.
“ As Mr Rook had experienced fo great and hap¬
py effe&s from the former critical vomitings, he was
greatly, difappointed upon finding the quantity evacua¬
ted fo very fmall; for which reafon he immediately at¬
tempted to increafe it, by drinking three pints of warm,
water (which, was at hand), but in vain j for neither
that, nor the ufe of his finger, could provoke to an
evacuation, which was begun and finiftied by nature :
for though the quantity evacuated was fo very fmall,,
yet as it was equally corrofive, and produced the fame
effeft.
Practice* MED!
phlfgma tiTeft, the difcharge mufl be accounted as truly criti-
. fia:, cal as the others were.
 ' “ During the iirll of thefe fits, in the year I752>
a hard tumor had appeared on the fide of the meta-
tarfus near the middle of the right foot, which conti¬
nued till after the third critical vomiting; when it was
redblved, and totally difappeared, upon the difcharge
of a vifcid matter like the white of an egg, with a
few fmall chalk-ltones from the end of the middle toe
of the fame foot. Thif difcharge happened about four
or five days before the patient was feized with a regu¬
lar fit in April 17 $5. But it is to be, remarked, that
this laft fit continued three or four weeks, and went
off in the common way, without, any of the critical
difcharges of vomiting, urine, dr fweat; but left on
one hand three, and on the other two, fingers loaded
with chalk ftones ; with this peculiar fymptom, that
when the weather was cold thofe fingers were affedted
w ith a nioft exquifite pain, which was always removed
by heat.
il But not long after this laft mentioned fit, a large
quantity of chalk-ftones were extracted from the bot¬
tom of the left foot, near the ball of the great toe, and
that from time to time.for about three or four months.
On the 9th of January 1756 (the wound occafion-
ed by the chalk-ftones being ftill open'', he was feized
with a fever, without any fymptom of the gout: the
fever went off on the third day, with the fame kind of
critical fweat and. urine as always accompanied the
acid vomitings in the fore mentioned fits. On the
fourth day from the attack of the fever, a fit of the
gout came on, vvith the common fymptoms, in both
feet; which continued with violence for about a week,
with frequent retching and vomiting, but without
bringing up more than the common contents of the
ftomach. At this time an uncommon itching in the
bottom of the foot and ball of the great toe from
whence the chalk-ftones had been extradled, torment¬
ed the patient.for five or fix hours; upon his gently
rubbing the part, he was very fenfible of a fluctuation
of fome matter, which foon appeared to flow at firft
in. fmall quantities from the open orifice in the ball
of the toe: upon preffing the part, about a tea-cup full
of a liquid chalky matter was colledted. The next
morning the patient made a large opening with an im-i
pofthume knife, which produced more than half a pint
of a bloody ferous matter, full of chalk ftones, which
proved as truly critical as the vomitings of the corro-
five acid did in the cafes above mentioned ; for the
orifice from whence the chalk ftones firft iffued, was.
very foon healed, and the gentleman continues in per-
f«dl health.”
CINE. 189
do. It frequently, according to Sauvages, attacks the Aithropuo.
pfoas mufcle and occafions excruciating pains, and ^1S'
then colledtions of matter. " ~v
The only cure is, if fiippuration cannot be prevented,
to lay open the part where the matter is contained,
which would otherwife be abiorbed, and occafion a
fatal hedtic.
216
Genus XXV. ARTHROPUOSIS.
Lumbago pfoadica, Sauv. fp. 6. ForJyce,. Pradlice
' of Phyfie, P. IL p. 70.
Lumbago apoftematpfa,,Sauv. fp. 12.
Lumbago ab arthrocace, Sauv- fp. 17.
Ifchias ex abfceffu, Sauv. .fp. 6.
Morbus coxarius, De Haw, Rat. Med. Vol. I.
c. xxxii.
This is a difeafe very much refembling the rheuma-
tifm ; but differing both from it and the gout, in that
it. occafions fupgurations, which they feldora or never
Oader. III. EXANTHEMATA,
Exanthemata, Sag. Clafs X.
Phlegmafia; exanthematicas, Sauv. Clafs III. Ord. I.
Morbi exanthematici, L/«.-Clafs I. Ord 11.
Febres exanthematicae. Fog. Clafs I. Ord. II.
Genus XXVI. ERYSIPELAS.
St Anthony’s Fire.
Eryfipelas Sauv. gen. 97. Lin. to. Sag. gen. 296.
Febris eryiipelacea, Fog. 68. Ihjfm. II. 98.
Sp. I. Erysipelas with Blifters.
Eryfipelas rofa, Sauv. fp. 1, Sennert de fehr. lib. ii.
c. 15.
Febris eryfipelatofa, Sydenham, feft. vi. cap. 5.
Eryfipelas typhodes, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelas peftilens, Sauv. fp. 5.
Eryfipelas contagiofum, Sauv. fp. 9.
Defcription. The eryfipelas of the face, where this
affedtion very frequently appears, comes on with a
cold ftiivering, and other fymptoms of pyrexia. The
hot ftage of this is frequently attended with a confu-
fion of the head, and feme degree of delirium; and
almoft always with drowfinefs, and perhaps coma.
The pulfe is always frequent, and commonly full and
hard.—When thefe fymptoms have continued for one,
two, or at molt three days, an erythema appears on
fome part of the face. This at firft is of no great
extent; but gradually fpreads from the part it tirft
occupied to the other parts of the face, till it has
affected the whole; and frequently from the face it
fpreads over the hairy fcalp, or defcends on fome
part of the cheek. As the rednefs fpreads, it com¬
monly leaves, or at leaft is abated in the parts it had
before occupied. All the parts which the rednefs
affefts are alfo affected with, fome fwelling, which
continues for fome time after the rednefs has abated.
The whole face becomes confiderably turgid; and
the eye-lids are often fo much fwelled as entirely to
Ihut up the eyes. When the rednefs and fwelling
have continued for fome time, there commonly arife,
fooner or later, blifters of a larger or fmaller fize on
feveral parts of the face. Thefe contain a thin colour-
lefs liquor, which fooner or later runs out. The fur-
face of the flcin, in the. bliftered places, fomecimes
becomes livid and blackifti but this feldom goes-
deeper, or difcovers any degree, of gangrene a lie Cling
the Ikin. On the parts of the face not affefted with
blifters, the cuticle fuffers, towards the end of- the
difeafe, a coniiderable defquamation. Sometimes the -
tumor of the eye-lids ends in a fuppuration.
The inflammation coming upon the face does not .
produce any remiflion of the fever which had befote
prevailed ; and fometimes the fever increafes with the -
fpreading and increafing inflammation. The inflamma¬
tion-
217"
M E D I
■Exanthe- tion commonly continues for eight or ten days ; and,
, mata' for the fame time, the fever and fymptoms attending
^ 1 it alfo continue. In the progrefs of the difeafe, the
delirium and coma attending it fometimes go on in-
creafing, and the patient dies apople&ic on the feventh,
ninth, or eleventh day of the difeafe. In fuch cafes
it has been commonly fuppofed, that the difeafe is
tranflated from the external to the internal parts.
But Dr Cullen thinks that the affe&ion of the
brain is merely a communication from the external
affe&ion, as this continues increafing at the fame
time with the internal. When the fatal event does
not take place, the inflammation, after having affected
the whole face, and perhaps the other external parts
of the head, ceafes, and with that the fever alfo ; and,
without any other crifis, the patient returns to his
ordinary health. This difeafe is not commonly con-
tagious; but as it may arife from an acrid matter
externally applied, fo it is poflible that the difeale
may fometimes be communicated from one perfon to
another. Perfons who have once laboured under this
difeafe are liable to returns of it.
Prognojis. The event of this difeafe may be fore-
feen from the Hate of the fymptoms which denote
more or lefs the affeftion of the brain. If neither
delirium nor coma come on, the difeafe is feldom
attended with any danger ; but when thefe fymp¬
toms appear early in the difeafe, and are in a confi-
elerable degree, the utmoft danger is to be appre¬
hended.
Cure. The ery.fipelas of the face is to be cured,
according to opinion of moft pra&itioners,
much in the none manner as phlegmonic in 'mma-
tions; by blood-letting, cooling purgatives, .d by
employing every part of the antiphlogiftic regimen.
Many obfervations, however, would lead us to con¬
clude, that in not a few cafes the concomitant fever
has here a tendency to the typhoid type ; and there¬
fore evacuations apparently ferviceable in the firft in-
ftance have afterwards a bad effeft. The evacuations
of blood-letting and purging are to be employed more
cr lefs according to the urgency of fymptoms ; parti¬
cularly thofe which mark an affection of the brain. As
the pyrexia continues, and often increafes with the in¬
flammation of the face, fo 'the evacuations above-
mentioned are to be employed at any time of the
difeafe. When, however, the fever, in place of
marks of the phlogiflic diathefis. particularly a full,
hard, and ftrong pulfe, is attended with fymptoms of
great debility, and with a fmall pulfe eafily compref-
fible; evacuations, particularly under the form of blood¬
letting, muft be ufed with very great caution. Even
in fuch cafes, however, the ufe of refrigerant cathar¬
tics may Hill be perfifted in with more fafety and
greater advantage. But whether evacuants have been
employed or not, when fymptoms of debility run to
a great height, and marks of a. putrefeent tendency
appear, recourfe mull be had to wine and the Peru¬
vian bark. In cafes which at the commencement re¬
quire evacuation, thtfe are often in the after periods
employed with very great benefit.
in this, as in other difeafes of the head, when that
part happens to be the feat of eryfipelas, it is pro¬
per to put the patient, as often as he can eafily bear
it, into fomewhat of an ere& pofture; and as in
CINE. Pra&lce.
this difeafe there is always an external affection, fo Eryfipela?.
various external applications have been propofed to be  y——^
made to the part affefted ; but almoft all of them are
of doubtful effedi.
An eryfipelas frequently appears on other parts of
the body befides the face, and fuch other eryfipelatou*
inflammations frequently end in fuppuration; but
thefe cafes are feldom dangerous. At coming on they
are fometimes attended with drowfinefs, and even
with fome delirium ; but this feldom happens, and
thefe fymptoms do not continue after the inflamma¬
tion is formed ; and Dr Cullen does not remember to
have feen an inftance of the tranllation of an inflam¬
mation from the limbs to an internal part; and though
thefe inflammations of the limbs be attended with
pyrexia, they feldom require the fame evacuations as
the eryfipelas of the face.
Sp. II. Erysipelas with PhlySetue.
Eryfipelas zofter, Sauv. fp. 8.
Zona; Anglis, The Shingles, RuJJd de tab. gland,
p. 124. Hift. 35.
Herpes zofter, Sauv. fp. 9.
This differs from the former in no other way than
in being attended with an eruption of phlyftenae or
fmall watery bladders on feveral parts of the body.—
The method of cure is the fame.
Gen. XXVII. PESTIS, the Plague. 22i
Peftis, Sauv. gen. 91. Lin. 2. Juncl. 78.
Febris peftilentialis, Vog. 33. Hoffm. II. 93.
Peftis benigna, Sauv. fp. 2. Peftis Mafiilienfiy,
Clafs III. Traite de la pefte, p. 41. Ejufdem
peftis, Cl. 5 to Traite, p. 228.
Peftis remittens, Sauvl fp. 9.
Peftis vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1. Peftis Mafiil. Cl. ii.
Traite, p. 38. Ejufd. Cl. iii. & iv. Traitc,
p. 225, See. IValdfchmiilt. de pefte Holfatica,
apud Halleri DiflT. Pratt, tom. v. Chenot. de pefte
Tranfylvanica, 1755, 1759, De Haen, Rat. Med.
pars xiv.
Peftis Egyptiaca, Sauv. fp. 11. Alpin. de Med.
Egypt.
Peftis interna, SauvAy. 3. Peft. Maffil. Cl. I. Traitc,
p. 37—224,
Hiflory. Of this diftemper Dr Cullen declines gi¬
ving any particular hiftory, becaufe he never faw it;
from the accounts of other authors, however, he is
of opinion, that the circumftances peculiarly charac-
teriftic of it, efpecially of its more violent and dan¬
gerous ftates, are, 1. The great lofs of ftrength in
the animal fun&ions, which often appears early in the
difeafe. 2. the ftupor, giddinefs, and confequent
ftaggering, which refembles drunkennefs, or the head-
ach and various delirium, all of them denoting a great
diforder in the fun&ions of the brain. 3. Anxiety,
palpitation, fyncope, and efpecially the weaknefs and
irregularity of the pulfe, denoting a confiderable di-
fturbance in the a&ion of the heart. 4. Naufea and
vomiting, particularly the vomiting of bile, which ftiowa
an accumulation of vitiated bile in the gall-bladder and
biliary dufts, and from thence derived into the in-
teftines and ftomach ; and which denote a confiderable
fpafm, and lofs of tone in the extreme vefiels on the
^ 4. furface
Pra£tic£. MEDICINE
ICxa^the- furface of the bod/. 5. The buboes and carbuncles,
ma:a which denote an acrimony prevailing in the fluids;
Ll * and, laftly. The petechi.e, haemorrhages, and colli¬
quative diarrhoea, which denote a putrcfcent ten¬
dency prevailing in a great degree in the mafs of
Blood.
To thefe charafteriftics of the plague enumerated
by Dr Cullen, we (hall add one mentioned by Sir John
Pringle, which, though perhaps lefs frequent than
the ®thers, yet feems worthy of notice. It is this,
That in the plague there is an extraordinary enlarge¬
ment of the heart and liver. In nine difl'e&ions of
bodies dead of the plague at Marfeilles, this extraor¬
dinary enlargement of the heart is taken notice of in
all of them, and of the liver in feven of them. The
account was fent to the Royal Society by M. Didier,
One of the phyficians to the king of France, and has
been puhlifhed in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions In
the firlt cafe, the author takes notice, that “ the heart
was of an extraordinary bignefs; and the liver was of
double the natural fize.—Cafe 2. The heart was of a
prodigious bignefs, and- the liver much enlarged.—
Cafe 3. The heart double the natural bignefs.—Cafe 4.
The heart was very large, and the liver was bigger
and harder than ordinary.—C^fe c. The heart was of
a prodigious bignefs.—Cafe 6. The heart was larger
than in its natural ftate ; the liver alfo was very large.
— Cafe 7. The heart was of a prodigious fize, and
the liver was very large.—Cafe 8. The heart was
much larger than natural, and the liver of a prodi¬
gious lize.—Cafe 9. The heart was double the natural
bigntfs, and the liver was larger than ordinary.”—
This preternatural enlargement Dr Pringle thinks is
owing to the relaxation of the folid parts, by which
means they become unable to reiift the impetus of
blood, and therefore aie eafily extended ; as in the cafe
of infancy, where the growth is remarkably quick.
And a fimilar enlargement he takes notice of in the
fcurvy, and other putrid difeafes.
A very elaborate work has lately been publifhed on
the fubjeft of the plague by Dr Patrick Ruflel, for¬
merly phylician to the Britifti fa&ory at Aleppo. In
this work, a very full hiftory is given of the various
forms and varieties of the difeafe. He makes particular
obfervations on the following fymptoms, which, in ad¬
dition to the peftilential eruptions, he confiders as the
moll important concomitants of plague, viz. fever, deli¬
rium, coma, impediment or lofsof fpeech, deafnefs, mud-
dinefs of the eyes, white tongue, ftate of the pulfe, re-
fpiration, anxiety, pain at the heart, inquietude^ de¬
bility, fainting, convulfion, appearances of the urine,
perfpiration, vomiting, loofenefs, and haemorrhagy ;
and he concludes thefe remarks with fome obferva¬
tions on the occurrence of the plague with pregnant
women. To point out more diftinftly the liable va¬
rieties of the difeafe, he arranges the peftilential ca¬
fes which fell under his obfervation at Aleppo under
fix claftes : and he concludes his defcription with a
very minute and particular account of the peftilential
eruptions, appearing under the worm either of buboes,
carbuncles, or other exanthemata The prefence of
the two firft, he obferves, either feparately or con-
jun&ly, leaves the nature of the diftemper unequivo¬
cal. But fatal has been the error of ralhly pronoun-
eiag a diftemper not to be a plague from their ab-
fence. Buboes a Heeled the Inguinal, axillary, paro¬
tid, maxillary, and cervical glands. But the firlt were
the mod commonly affefted, and the two latter feldom
obferved to fwell, without either the parotid fwell-
ing at the time or Toon after. Of the carbuncles, Dr
Rmflel deferibes five different varieties. The other
exanthemata, which he obferved fometimes, though
lefs frequently, attending the plague, were petechiae, .a
marbled appearance of the fldn, an eryfipelatous red-
nefs, ftreaks of a reddifh purple or livid colour, vi-
bices or weals, and large blue or purple fpots, the
macula magna of authors. In fome cafes, in extraor¬
dinary concurrence of eruptions took place, which
was chiefly obferved among children under 10 years
of age
Caufes, &c. From a confideration of the fymptoms
above-mentioned, Di Cullen concludes, that the plague
is owing to a fpecific contagion, often fuddenly pro¬
ducing the moll confiderable debility in the nervous
fyftem or moving powers, and a general putrefeency
in the fluids. Dr Ruffel alfo confiders the difeafe as-
being univerfally ihe conlequence of what may be call¬
ed pejlilential contagion ; and has judieioufly repelled the
obje&ions which have been brought againll this doc¬
trine.
Prevention. Here wc mull refer to all thofe me¬
thods of preventing and removing the incipient con¬
tagion of putrid fevers, which have been fo fully enume¬
rated. Dr Cullen is perfuaded that the difeafe never-
arifes in the northern parts of Europe, but in confe-
quence of being imported from fome other country..
The magiftrate’s firft care therefore ought to be to.
prevent the importation ; and this may generally be
done by a due attention to bills of health,, and to the
proper performance of quarantines. With refpeift to-
the latter, he is of opinion, that the quarantines of
perfons may with fafety be much lefs than 40 days;;
and if this were allowed, the execution of the quaran¬
tine would be more exadfc and certain, as the tempta¬
tion to break it would be in a great meafur-e avoided..
With refpecl to the quarantine of goods, it cannot be-
perfect unlefs the fufpe&ed goods be unpacked, duly
ventilated,, and other means be employed’ for cor-
refting the infection they may carry ; and if all this
be properly done, it is probable that the time com¬
monly preferibed for quarantine may be alfo fhor-
tened.
A fecond meafure in the way. of prevention is re¬
quired, when an infedtion has reached and prevailed in>
any. place, to prevent that infedtion from: fpreading in¬
to others. This can only be done by preventing the
inhabitants or the goods of any infedled place from
going out of it till they have undergone a proper
quarantine.
The third meafure, and which ought to be em¬
ployed with great care, is, to prevent the infedlion
from fpreading among the inhabitants of a-place in
which it has arifen. And. in this cafe, a great deal
may be done by the magiftrate, i By allowing as,
many of the inhabitants as are free from infedlion, and
are not neceflary to the fervice of the place, to go out
of it. 2. By difeharging all aflemblies, or unnecef-
fary intercourfe of the people. 3. By ordering fome
neceflary communications to be performed without
contact. 4. By inaking fuch arrangements and pro-
viflonsi
i Q2 MED
, Dxantlie- vifionsas may render it cafy for the families remaining
, rn'lta to flint themfelves up in their own houfes. 5 By al¬
lowing perfons to quit houfes where an infeftion ap¬
pears, upon condition that they go into lazarettoes.
6. By ventilating and purifying, or deftroying, at the
public expence, all infefted goods. 7. By avoid¬
ing hofpitals, and providing feparate apartments for
; infefted perfons
The fourth and lail part of the bufmefs of preven¬
tion refpe&s the condudf of perfons neceflarily remain-
■ing in infefted places, efpecially thofe obliged to have
fome communication with perfons infe&ed. Thofe
obliged to remain in places infe&ed, but not to have
any near communication with the fick, muft avoid all
near communication with other perfons or their goods;
and it is probable, that a fmall diftance will ferve, if,
at the fame time, there be no ftream of air to carry
.the effluvia of perfons or goods to fome diftance. Thofe
■who tire obliged to have a near communication with
the fick ought to avoid any of the debilitating caufes
which render the body fufceptible of infedtion, as a
fpare diet, intemperance in-drinking, excefs in venery,
cold, fear, or other deprelftng paffions of the mind.
A full diet of animal food is alfo to be avoided, be-
caufe it increafes the irritability of the body, and fa¬
vours the operation of contagion ; and indigeftion,
whether from the quantity or quality of the food, con¬
tributes very much to the fame.
Beiides thefe, it is probable that the moderate ufe
of wine and fpirituous liquors, moderate exercife, and
•the cold bath, may be of ufe ; tonic medicines alfo, of
-which the Peruvian bark is defervedly accounted the
chief, may likewife be ufed with fome probability' of fuc-
-cefs. if any thing is to be expedited from antifeptics,
X)r Cullen thinks camphor preferable to any other. In
general, however, every one is to be indulged in the
.medicine of which he has the beft opinion, provided
it is not evidently hurtful. Whether iffues be ufeful in
■preferving from the effedts of contagion, is a matter of
-doubt. Dr Ruflel in his treatife enters very fully
into the coniideration of the means of prevention,
'both with refpedt to quarantines, lazarettoes, and bills
-of health. He is of opinion, that the prefent laws on
,thefe .fubjedls are in many refpe&s defedlive : and he
^thinks, that a fet of new regulations would have the
• beft chance of a deliberate and impartial difcuflion in
the fenate, if the inquiry were taken at a time free
• from all apprehenfion of immediate danger.
Cure. Here, according to Dr Cullen, the indica-
• tions are the fame as in fever in general, but are not
:all equally important. The meafures for moderating
the violence of reaftion, which operate by diminifhing
•the action of-the heart and arteries, have feldom, he
thinks, any place here, excepting that the antiphlogt-
-ftic regimen is generally proper. Some phylicians
tliave recommended bleeding, and Sydenham even feems
.to think-it an -eftejftual cure ; but Dr Cullen -uppofes,
that for the moft part it is vmneceflary, and in many
-cafes might do much hurt. Dr Ruffel, however,
who. on this fubjedt fpeaks from experience and adtu-
:itl obfervation, is of a differenLJoptnion. With moft
of his patients, a.ftngle bleeding was employed-with
-advantage ; and even where the fick under his infpec-,
lion were bled oftener than once, he did not find that
-the low ftate was thereby hurried oq, Purging has
N0 20J*
I C I
N E. Pra&ice.
alfo been recommended ; and in fome degree it may Pcftis.
be ufeful in drawing off the putrefcent matter fre-
quently prefent in the intellines; but a large evacua¬
tion this way may certainly be hurtful.
The moderating the violence of readHon, as far as
it can be done, by taking off the fpafm of the ex¬
treme veffels, is a meafure, in Dr Cullen’s opinion,
of the utmoft necefiity in the cure of the plague ; and
the whole of the means formerly mentioned, as fuited
to this indication, are extremely proper. The giving
an emetic, at the firft approach of the difeafe, would
probably be of great fervice ; and it is probable, that,
at fome other periods of the difeafe, emetics might be
ufeful, both by evacuating bile abounding in the ali¬
mentary canal, and by taking off the fpafm" of the ex¬
treme veffels. Indeed Baron Alh, and fome other
of the Ruffian praftitioners, reprefent the early
and repeated ufe of emetics as the only effe&ual mode
of cure.
From fome principles with refpeft to fever in gene¬
ral, and with refpeft to the plague in particular, Dr
Cullen is of opinion, that after the exhibition of the
firft vomit, the body fhould be difpofed to fweat; but
this fweat Ihould be raifed only to a moderate degree,
though'it muft be continued for 24 hours or more if
the patient bears it eafily. The fweating is to be ex¬
cited and cohdudted according to the rules laid down
under Synocha ; and rnuft be promoted by the plen¬
tiful ufe of diluents rendered more grateful by vega-
table acids, or more powerful by being impregnated
with fome portion of neutral falls. To fupport the
patient under the continuance of the fweat, a little
weak broth, acidulatedwith the juice of lemons, may
be given frequently, and fometimes a little wine if
the heat of the body be not conftderable. If fudorific
medicines are judged neceffary, opiates will be found
moft effe&ual and fafe; but they ftiould not be com¬
bined with aromatics, and probably may be more ef-
fedtual if joined with a portion of emetics and of neu¬
tral falls. But if, notwithftanding the ufe of emetics
and fudorifics in the beginning, the difeafe fflould ftill
continue, the cure muft turn upon the ufe of means
for obviating debility and putrefcency ; and for this
purpofe tonic medicines, efpecially the Peruvian bark,
and cold drink, are the moft proper. For the treat¬
ment of buboes and carbuncles, fee the article Sur-
Genus XXVIII. VARIOLA. 222
The Small-pox.
Variola, Sauv. gen. 92. Tin. 3. Sag. gen. 290.
Febris variolofa, Vo". 3$. Hoffm. II. 49.
Variolas, Boerh: 1371. jmcl. 76.
Sp. I. The DifUncl Small-pox. 22^
Variola difcreta benigna, Sauv. fp. 2.
Variolas regulates diferetae, Sydenh. fe&. iii. cap. 2.
Variolas difcretas fimplices, Helvet. Ob. fp. i4
Variola difcr-eta complicata, Sauv. ip. 2. Helvet.
fp. 2.
Variolas anomalas, Sydenh. feed. iv. cap. 6.
Variola difereta dyfenteriodes, Sauv. fp. 4. Sy¬
denh. feet. iv. cap. 1.
Variola difcreta veficularis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Variola difcreta cfyftallina. Mead devariol. cap. 2.
Variola
FrafUce.
Examhe-
2Z4
M E D I
Variola difcreta verrncofa, Sauv. fp. 6. Mead
ibid.
Variola difcrcta filiquofa, Sauv. fp. 7. Freind
Oper. p. $58.
Variola difcreta miliaris, Sauv. fp. 8. Helvet. Obf.
fp- 3-
Sp. II. The Confluent Small-pox,
Variola confluens, Sauv. fp. 9.
Variola regulares confluentes, ana. 1667. Syden¬
ham, fe£t. iii. cap. 2.
Variolse confluentes fimplices, Heloet. Obf. fp. I.
Variola confluens cryftallina, Sauv. fp. 10.
Variola japonica, Keinpfer.
Veliculse diva; Barbarse, C. Pis. Obf. 149.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. Obf. fp. f.
Variola confluens cohaerens, Sauv- fp. 11.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 2.
Variola confluens nigra, fp. 12. Sydenham>
fe£t. v. cap. 4.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 3.
Variola fanguinea. Mead de variolis, cap. 2.
Variola confluens corymbofa, Sauv. fp. 13.
Variola confluens maligna, Helvet. fp. 4.
Defcription. In the diftindt fmall-pox, the difeafe
begins with a fynocha or inflammatory fever. It
generally comes on about mid-day, with feme fymp-
toms of a cold ftage, and commonly with a confi-
derable langour and drowfinefs. A hot ftage is foon
formed, and becomes more conliderable on the fecond
and third day. During this courfe children are liable
to frequent ftartings from their flumbers; and adults,
if they are kept in bed, are difpofed to much fweat-
ing. On the third day, children are fometimes
affe&ed with one or two epileptic fits. Towards the
end of the third day the eruption commonly appears,
and gradually increafes during the fourth ; appearing
firft on the face, and fucceffively on the inferior
parts, fo as to be completed over the whole body on
the fifth day. From the third day the fever abates,
and agalnft the fifth it entirely ceafes. The eruption
appears firft in fmall red fpots hardly eminent, but by
degrees rifing into pimples There are generally but
few on th^ face; but, even when more numerous, they
are feparate and diftinft from one another. On the
fifth or fixth day, a fmall veficle, containing an almoft
colourlefs fluid, appears on the top of each pimple.
For two days thefe veficles increafe in breadth only,
and there is a fmall hollow pit in their middle, fo that
they are not raifed into fpheroidical puftules till the
eighth day. Thefe puftules from their firft formation
continue to be furrounded with an exadlly circular in*
flamed margin, which when they are numerous diffufes
fpme inflammatien over the neighbouring'lkin, fo ast©
give fomewhat of a damalk-rofe colour to the fpaces
between the puftules. As the puftules'increafe in fize,
the face fwells confiderably if they are numerous
-on it; and the eye-lids particularly are fo much
fwelled, that the eyes are entirely ftiut. As the difeafe
■proceeds, the matter in the puftules becomes by degrees
more opaque and white, and at length affumes a
yellowifti colour. On the 11th day the fwelling of
the face is abated, and the puftules ftem quite fiill.
On the top of each a darker fpot appears; and at this
Vot. XI. Part I.
CINE.
place the puftule, on the nth day, or foon after, is
fpontaneoufly broken, and ti portion of the matter-
oozes out j in confequence of which the puftule is
ftrriveiled, and fubfides ; while the matter oozing put
dries, and forms a cruft upon its furface. Sometimes
only a little of the matter oozes out, and what remains
in the puftule becomes thick and even hard. After
fome days, both the crufts and the hardened puftulee
fall off, leaving the Ik in which they covered of a
browniftr red colour ; nor doth it refume its natural
colour till many days after. In fome cafes, where
the matter of the puftules has been more liquid, the
crufts formed frem it are later in falling off, and the part
they covered fuffers fome defquarnation, which occa-
fions a fmall hollow or pit in it.
-On the legs and hands the matter is frequently
abforbed; fo that at the height of the difeafe, thefe
puftules appear as empty as veficles. On the icth
and 11 th days, as the fwelling of the face fubfides,
a fwelling arifes in the hands and feet ; but which
again fubfides as the puftules come to maturity.
When the puftules on the face are numerous, fome
degree of pyrexia appears on the loth and 1 ith
days ; but difappears again after the puftyles are fully
ripened, or perhaps remains in a very flight degree
till the puftules on the feet have finilhed their courfe j
and it is feldom that any fever continues longer in the
diftinft fmall-pox. When the puftules are numerous
on the face, upon the fixth or feventh day fome uneafi*
nefs of the throat, with a hoarfenefs of the voice, comes
on, and a thin liquid is pouied out from the mouth.
Thefe fymptoms increafe with the fwelling of the
face 5 and the liquids of the mouth and throat be¬
coming thicker are with difficulty thrown out ; and
there is at the fame time fome difficulty in fwallowing,
fo that liquids taken in to be fwallowed are frequently
rejefted or thrown out by the nofe. But all thefe
affedbions of the fauces are abated as the fwelling of
the face fubfides.
In the confluent fmall-pox all the fymptoms above-
mentioned are much more fevere. The eruptive fever
particularly is more violent; the pulfe is more fre¬
quent and more contra died, approaching to that ftate
of pulfe which is obferved in typhus. The coma is
more confiderable, and there is frequently a delirium.
Vomiting alfo frequently attends, efpecially at the
beginning of the difeafe. In very young infants
epileptic fits are fometimes frequent on the firft days
of the difeafe, and fometimes prove fatal before any
eruption appears, or they uftier in a very confluent
and putrid fmall pox. But at the fame time, it has
been juftly remarked by Dr Sydenham, and other ac¬
curate obfervers, that epileptic attacks more frequent-
lyprecedediftindtand mild than malignant and confluent
fmall-pox. The eruption appears in the confluent more
early on the third day, and it is frequently preceded or
accompanied with an eryfipelatouselflorefcence. Some¬
times the eruption appears in dufters, like the meafles.
When the eruption is completed, the pimples are al¬
ways more numerous upon the face, and at the fame
time fmaller and lefs eminent. Upon the eruption the
fever fuffers fome rerniffion, but never goes off entire¬
ly ; and after the fifth or fixth day it increafes again,
and continues to be confiderable throughout the re¬
maining part of the difeafe. The veficles formed on
B b the
194 M E D I
Exar the- the top of the pimples appear fooner ; and while they
mata increafe in breadth, they do not retain a circular, but
v are every way of an irregular figure. Many of them
run into one another, infomuch that very often the
face is covered with one veficle rather than with a
number of puftules. The veficles, as far as they are
anyway feparated, do not arife to a fpheroidal form,
but remain flat, and fometimes the whole of the face
is of an' even furface. When the puftules are in any
meafure feparated, they are not bounded by an in¬
flamed margin, but the part of the flcin that is free
from puftules is commonly pale and flaccid. The li¬
quor that is in the puftules changes from a clear to an
opaque appearance, and becomes whitifh or brownifli,
but never acquires the yellow colour and thick com-
fiftence that appears in the diftinft fmall-pox. The
fwelling of the face, which only fometimes attends
the diftinft fmall pox, always attends the confluent
kind ; it alfo comes on more early, and arifes to a
greater height, but abates confiderably on the tenth
or eleventh day. At this time the puftules or veficles
break and flirivel; pouring out at the fame time a
liquor, which is formed into brown or black crufts,
which do not fall off for a long time after Thofe
of the face, in falling off, leave the ikin fubjeft to a
defquamation, which pretty certainly produces pit-
tings. On the other parts of the body the puftules
of the confluent fmall-pox are more diftinft than on
the face ; but never acquire the fame maturity and
confiftence of pus as in the properly diftindl kind —
The falivation, which fometimes only attends the
diftintt fmall-pox, very conftantly attends the conflu¬
ent ; and both the falivation and the'affe&ion of the
fauces above-mentioned are, efpecially in adults, in a
higher degree. In infants a diarrhoea comes frequent¬
ly in place of a falivation.
In this kind of fmall-pox there is often a very con-
fidcrable putrefcency' of the fluids, as appears from
petechiae, from ferous veficles, under which the (kin
(hows a difpofition to gangrene, and from bloody urine
or other haemorrhages; all of which fymptoms fre¬
quently attend this difeafe. In the confluent fmall-
pox alfo, the fever, which had .only fuffered a remiflion
from the eruption to the maturation, at or immediate¬
ly after this period is frequently renewed again with
confiderable violence. This is what has been called
the fecondary fever, and is of various duration and
event.
Caufes, &c. It is evident that the fmall-pox is
originally produced by a contagipn ; and that this
contagion is a ferment with refpedt to the fluids of the
human body, which affimilates a great part of them to
its own nature ; or, at lead, we have every reafon to
believe that a fmall quantity of contagious matter in¬
troduced, is fomehow multiplied and increafed in the
circulating fluids of the animal body. This quantity
paffes again out of the body, partly by infenfible per-
fpiration, and partly by being depofited in puftules :
The caufes which determine more of the variolous mat¬
ter to pafs by perfpiration, or to form puftules, are
probably certain circumftances of the (kin, which de¬
termine more or lefs of the variolous matter to (lick in
it, or to pafs freely through it. The circumftance of
the (kin, which feems to determine the variolous matter
CINE. Pra&ice.
to ftick in it, is a certain date of inflammation de- Variola.
pending much on the heat of it: thus we have many *
inftances of parts of the body, from being more heated,
having a greater number of puftules than other parts?
Thus parts covered with plafters, efpecially thofe of
the ftimulant kind, have more puftules than others.
—Certain circumftances alfo, fuch as adult age,
and full living, determining to a phlogiftic diathefis,
feem to produce a greater number of puftules, and
mice verfa. It is therefore probable, that an inflam¬
matory ftate of the whole fyftem, and more particu¬
larly of the flcin, gives occafion to a greater number of
puftules ; and the caufes of this may produce mod of
the other circumftances of the confluent fmall-pox, fuch
as the time of eruption, the continuance of the fever,
the effufion of a more putrefcent matter, and lefs fit
to be converted into pus, together with the form and
other circumftances of the puftules.
Prognofis. The more exa&ly the difeafe retains
the form of the diftimft kind, it is the fafer ; and the
more completely the difeafe takes the form of the
confluent kind, it is the more dangerous. It is only
when the diftindt kind (hows a great number of pu¬
ftules on the face or otherwife, by fever or putref¬
cency, approaching to the circumftances of the con¬
fluent, that the diftindt kind is attended with any
danger.
In the confluent kind the danger is always very
confiderable ; and the more violent and permanent
the fever is, the greater the danger ; and efpecially
in proportion to the increafe of the fymptoms of pu¬
trefcency. When the putrid difpofition is very great,
the difeafe fometimes proves fatal before the eighth
day; but in moft cafes death happens on the ele¬
venth, and fometimes not till the fourteenth' or feven-
teenth day.
Though the fmall-pox may not prove immediately
fatal, the more violent kinds are often followed by a
morbid ftate of the body, fometimes of very dan¬
gerous event. Thefe confequences, according to Dr
Cullen, may be imputed fometimes to an acrid matter
produced by the preceding difeafe, and depofited in
different parts ; and fometimes to an inflammatory
diathefis produced and determined to particular parts
of the body.
Cure. The art of medicine hath never yet afforded
a method of preventing the eruption of the fmall-pox
after the contagion is received ; all that can be d >ne is,
to render the difeafe more mild, which is generally ef¬
fected by Inoculation. It is not to be fuppofed that 225.
the mere giving of the infection artificially could make
any difference in the nature of the difeafe, was it not
that certain precautions are commonly ufed in the cafe
of thofe who are inoculated, which cannot be ufed
in the cafe of thofe who receive them naturally.—•
Thefe meafures, according to Dr Cullen, are chiefly
the following.
1. The choofing for the fubjeil.of inoculation per-
fons otherwife free from difeafe, and not liable from
their age or otherwife to any incidental difeafe.
2. The choofing that time of life which is moft fa¬
vourable to a mild difeafe.
3. The choofing for the praftice a feafon moft fa.-
vourable to a mild difeafe.
4. The
^ra^ice. MED!
Exanthe- 4. The preparing the perfon to be inoculated, by
. fa^ta enjoining abftinence from animal-food for fome time
before inoculation.
5. The preparing the perfon by courfes of mercu¬
rial and antimonial medicines.
6. The taking care at the time of inoculation to
avoid cold, intemperance, fear, or other circumftances
which might aggravate the future difeafe.
7. After thefe preparations and precautions, the
fchoofing a fit matter to be employed in inoculation,
by taking it from a perfon of a found conftitution,
and free from any difeafe, or fufpicion of it; by ta¬
king it from a perfon who has had the fmall-pox of
the moft benign kind ; and laftly, by taking the mat¬
ter from fuch perfon as foon as it has appeared in the
puftules, either on the part inoculated, or on other
parts of the body.
8. The introducing, by inoculation, but a fmall
portion of the contagious matter;
9. After inoculation, the continuing of vegetable
diet, and the employment of mercurial and antimonial
medicines, and at the fame time employing frequent
purging.
17. Both before and after inoculation, taking care
to avoid external heat, either from the fun, artificial
fires, warm chambers, much clothing, or being much
in bed ; and, on the contrary, expofing the perfon to
a free and cool air.
t 1. Upon the appearance of the eruptive fever, the
rendering that moderate by the employment of pur¬
gatives ; by the ufe of cooling and antifeptic acids;
and efpecially by expofing the perfon frequently to a
cool, and even a cold air, at the fame time giving free¬
ly of cold drink.
12. After the eruption, the continuing the applica¬
tion of cold air, and the ufe of purgatives, during
the courfe of the difeafe, till the puftules are fully ri¬
pened.
On thef1 meafures Dr Cullen obferves, that, as the
common infe&ion may often feize perfons under a dif-
eafed ftate, which may render the fmall-poX more vio¬
lent, it is evident that inoculation muft have a great
advantage by avoiding fuch concurrence. But as the
avoiding of this may in the mean time frequently
leave perfons expofed to the common infe&ion, it is
well worth while to inquire what are the difeafed ftates
which fhould reftrain from the praftice of inoculation.
This is not yet fufficiently afcertained: for it hath
been obferved, that the fmall-pox has often occurred
with a difeafed ftate of the body, without being there¬
by rendered more violent 5 and it hath alfo been ob¬
ferved, that fome difeafes of the fie in are equally inno¬
cent. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that they are difeafes
of the febrile kind, or fuch ailments as induce or ag¬
gravate a febrile ftate, that efpecially give the Concur¬
rence which is moft dangerous with the fmall-pox. He
is alfo of opinion, that though a perfon be in a dif¬
eafed ftate, if that ftate be of uncertain nature and
effeft, and at the fame time the fmall-pox are very
Common in the neighbourhood, fo that it muft be eXr
tremely difficult to guard againft the common infe&ion,
it will always be fafer to give the fmall-pox by inocu¬
lation than to leave the perfon to take them by the
common infection.
CINE.
Though inoculation has been pra&ifed with fafety
upon perfons of all ages, yet there is reafon to con¬
clude, that adults are more liable to a violent difeafe
than perfons of younger years. At the fame time it
is obferved, that children, in the time of their firft
dentition, are liable, from the irritation of that, to
have the fmall-pox rendered more violent; and that in¬
fants, before the time of dentition, upon receiving the
contagion of the fmall-pox, are liable to be affli&ed
with epileptic fits, which frequently prove fatal. Hence
it is evident, that though circumftances may admit
and approve of inoculation at any age, yet for the
moft part it will be advantageous to choofe perfons af¬
ter the firft dentition is over, and before the time of-
puberty. But, in large cities in particular, if the ope¬
ration be delayed till after dentition, the patient muft
run many rifles of accidental infeftion, and thus many
will be cut off by the natural fmall-pox who might
have been faved by more early inoculation. Accord¬
ingly, in towns efpecially, it is now the common prac¬
tice to inoculate infants when only three or four months
old ; and indeed accidents fo rarely happen, that it
is almoft impoffible to conceive that greater fuccefs
can be obtained at any other period of life.
The operation of inoculation may be performed at
any feafon of the year ; yet as it is certain that the
cold of winter may increafe the inflammatory, and the
heats of fumme'r increafe the putrefeent, ftate of the
fmall-pox, it is highly probable that. inoculation may
have fome advantage from avoiding the extremes either
of cold or heat.
As the ufe of animal-food may increafe both the
inflammatory and putrefeent ftate of the human body,
fo it muft render perfons, in receiving the contagion of
the fmall-pox, lefs fecure againft a violent difeafe;
and therefore inoculation may derive fome advantage
by enjoining abftinence from animal-food for fome
time before the operation is performed : but Dr Cul¬
len is of opinion, that a longer lime is neceffary than
what is commonly preferibed.
Mercurial and antimonial preparations may have
fome effeft in determining to a more free perfpiration,
and therefore may be of fome ufe in preparing a per¬
fon for the fmall-pox ; but there are many obferva-
tions which render their ufe doubtful. The quantity
of both thefe medicines, particularly the antimony,
commonly employed, is too inconfiderable to have any
effe&s. Mercurials indeed have been often employed
more freely ; but even their falutary effects have not
been evident, and they have fometimes been manifeftly
produ&ive of mifehief. It is therefore much to be
doubted, whether inoculation really derives any benefit
from thefe preparatory courfes or not.
It has been often obferved, in the cafe of almoft all
contagions, that cold, intemperance, fear, and fome
other circumftances, concurring with the application
of the contagion, have greatly aggravated the future
difeafe ; jt muft undoubtedly be the fame in the cafe
of the fmall-pox : and it is certain that inoculation
muft derive a great advantage, perhaps its principal
one, from avoiding the concurrences above-mentioned.
It has commonly been fuppofed, that inoculation
derives fome advantage from the choice of the matter
employed in it; but it is very doubtful if any choice
B b 2 be
'9-S
Variola*
igS M E D I
Ex an the- be here necefiary, or can be of any benefit in deter-
. ni"u mining the ftate of the difeafe. It is not indeed pro*
bable that there is any difference of contagion pro*
ducing the fmall-pox ; for there- are innumerable in-
ftances of the contagion arifing from a perfon who la¬
bours under the diftinft fmall-pox producing the con¬
fluent kind, and the contrary. Since the pra&ice of
inoculation hath been introduced, it has alfo been ob-
ferved, that the fame variolous matter would in one
perfon produce the diflindf and in another the confluent
fmall-pox. It is therefore highly probable, that the
difference of the fmall-pox does not much depend upon
any difference of the contagion, but upon fome diffe¬
rence in the ftate of the perfons to whom it is applied,
or in the ftate of certain circumftances concurring
with the application of the contagion.
Some have fuppofed, that inoculation has an advan¬
tage over the natural infe&ion, by introducing only a
fmall portion of contagious matter into the body; but
this is by no means well afeertained. It is not known
what quantity of contagion is introduced into the
body by the common infection of the fmall-pox; and
it is probable the quantity is not great: nor, though it
were larger than that thrown in by inoculation, is it
certain what the effedls would be. A certain quan¬
tity of ferment maybe neceffary to excite fermenta¬
tion in a given mafs; but when that quantity is given,
the fermentation and affimilation are extended to the
whole mafs ; and we do not find that a greater quan¬
tity than is juft neceffary, either increafes the a&ivjty
of the fermentation, or more certainly fecures the
afiimilation of the whole. In the cafe of the fmall-
pox, a confiderable difference in the quantity-of the
contagion introduced hath not fhown any effe&s in
modifying the difeafe.
Purging has the effeft of diminifhing the activity
of the fanguiferous fyftem, and of obviating the in¬
flammatory ftate of it; and therefore it is probable,,
that the frequent ufe ®f cooling purgatives gives a
confiderable advantage to the practice of inoculation ;
and probably this is alfo obtained by diminifhing the
determination to the ikin. It feems alfo probable,
that mercurials and antimonials are ufeful only as they
make part of the purging courfe.
It is probable that the ftatc of the fmall-pox de¬
pends very much upon the ftate of the eruptive fever,
and particularly in avoiding the inflammatory ftate of
the fkin ; and therefore it is alfo probable, that the
meafures taken for moderating the eruptive fever,
and inflammatory ftate of the fkin, are the greateft
improvement which has been made in the practice of
inoculation. The tendency of purging, and the ufe
of acids to this purpofe, is fufficiently obvious : and
upon the fame grounds we fhould fuppofe that blood¬
letting might be ufeful; but probably this has been
omitted, and perhaps other remedies might be fo, fince
we have found a more powerful and effeftual one in the
application of cold air and the ufe of cold drink.
It hath been the practice of inoculators to continue
the ufe of purgatives and the application of cold air
after the eruption ; but it cannot be faid to give
any particular advantages to inoculation, and the
employment of purgatives feems often to have led to
an abufe. When the ftate of the eruption is deter-
soined, when the number of puftults is very fmall,
CINE. Prafttee.
and the fever has entirely ceafed, the fafety of the Variol*..
difeafe may be faid to be afeertained, and further ~ v
remedies abfolutely fuperfluous: in fuch Cafes there¬
fore the ufe of purgatives is unneeeffary, and may be
hurtful.
It remains now only to confider the treatment of
the fmall-pox, when the fymptoms are violent, as may
fometimes happen, even after inoculation and every
remedy and precaution have been ufed. The caufe
of this is not afeertaiaed, but it feems to be a putref-
cent tendency of the fluids. When therefore, from
the prevailing of fmall-pox as an epidemic, and more
efpecially when it is known that a perfon not former¬
ly affected with the difeafe has been expofed to the
infe&ion, if fuch perfon (hould be attacked with the
fymptoms of fever, there can be little doubt that it
is the fever of the fmall-pox, and therefore he is to
be treated in every refpetft as if he had received the
difeafe by inoculation. He is to be freely expofed to
cool air, to be purged, and to have cooling acids given
liberally. If thefe meafures moderate the fever, no¬
thing more is necefl'ary : but if the nature of the
fever be uncertain ; or if, with fufpicions of the fmall-
pox, the fever be violent; or even if, knowing the
diftemper to be the fnaall-pox, the meafures above-
mentioned do not moderate the fever fufficiently;
venefe&ion will be proper; and more efpecially if the
perfon be an adult, of a plethoric habit, and ac-
cuftomed to full living. In the fame circumftances it
will always be proper to give a vomit; w-hich is ufeful
in the beginning of all fevers, and efpecially in this,
where a determination to the ftomach appears by pain
and fpontaneous vomiting.
It frequently happens, efpecially in infants, that,,
during the eruptive fever of the fmall-pox, convulftons
occur. Of thefe, if only one or two fits appear on
the evening preceding the eruption, they give a
prognoftic of a mild difeafe, and require no remedy i.
but if they occur more early, are violent, and fre¬
quently repeated, they are very dangerous, and re¬
quire a fpeedy remedy ; and here bleeding and Wa¬
tering are of no fervice, the only effectual medicine is
an opiate given in a large dofe.
Thefe are the remedies neceffary during the erup¬
tive fever; and if, upon the eruption, the puftules on
the face are diftindt, and. their number few, the difeafe
requires no further remedies. But when, upon the.
eruption, the number of pimples on the face is com-
fiderable,, when they are not diftindt; and efpecially.
if, upon the fifth day, the fever does not fuffer a confi¬
derable remiflion; the difeafe. ftill requires a great deal ,
of attention.
If, after the eruption, the fever ffiall ftill continue,,
the avoiding of heat and the continuing to expofe the
body to a cool air will ftill be proper. If the fever
be confiderable, with a full hard pulfe, in an adult
perfon, a bleeding will.be neceffary, and more cer¬
tainly a cooling purgative: but it will be feldom ne¬
ceffary to repeat the bleeding, as a lofs of ftrength
very foon comes on; but the repetition of a purga¬
tive, or the frequent ufe of laxative glyfters, is com¬
monly advantageous.
When a lofs of ftrength, with other marks of a
putrefeent tendency of the fluids, appears, the Peru¬
vian bark muft be given in fubftance, and in large;
-quantity*
H PratfUce. M E D I
Jtxanthe* quantity. In th« fame cafe, the ufc of acids and of
, Hiata nitre is advantageous, and commonly it is proper alfo
« ' to give wine very freely. From the fifth day of the
difeafe throughout the whole courfe of it, it is proper
to give an opiate once or twice a-day ; taking care at
the fame time to obviate coftjvenefs, by purgatives or by
laxative glyfters. From the eighth to the eleventh day
of a violent difeafe, it will be proper to lay on blitters
fuccefiively on different parts of the body, and that
without regard to the parts being covered with pu-
itules. Blitters are alfo to be applied to the external
fauces, in cafe of difficult deglutition, and vifeid fa-
liva and mucus, which are thrown out with difficulty,
at the fame time that detergent gargles are to be dili¬
gently ufed. During the whole courfe of this difeafe,
when a confiderable fever is prefent, antimonial medi¬
cines, in naufeating dofes, have by fome been alleged to
be employed with advantage; and in this way they have
often the effedt of moving the belly. But the great di-
ftrefs which patients fuffer from a (late of conftant nau-
fea is hardly to be borne ; and every advantage which
can be had from this pra&ice may be obtained by
cafier means.
The remedies above-mentioned are frequently pro¬
per from the fifth day till the fuppurntion be finiffied.
But after that period the fever is fometimes continued
and increafed ; or fometimes, when there was little or
no fever before, a fever now arifes and continues with
eqnfiderable danger ; this is called the fecondary fever,
and requires a particular treatment.
When the fecondary fever follows the diftindl fmall-
pox, and the pulfe is full and hard, the cafe is to be
treated as an inflammatory affection, by bleeding and
purging ; but the fecondary fever which follows the
confluent kind is to be confidered as a putrid difeafe,
and bleeding is improper. Some purging may be ne-
ceffary, but the remedies to be chiefly depended upon
are the Peruvian bark and acids. When the fecohdary
fever firft appears, whether after a diftindl or confluent
fmall-pox, it is ufeful to exhibit an antimonial emetic
in naufeating dofes, but in fuch a manner as to pro¬
duce fome vomiting. For avoiding the pits which fre¬
quently follow the fmall-pox, no method hitherto pro-
pofed feems to be fufficiently certain.
On the fubjeeft of inoculation, Baron Dimfdale, a
very celebrated writer, informs us, that were it left to
his choice, he would decline inoculating children under
two years old ; becaufe within that period they are ex-
pofed to all the dangers of dentition, fevers, fluxes,
convulfions, and other accidents, fufficiently difficult
in themfclves to manage in fuch tender fubje&s.
In regard to conftitution, Baron Dimfdale obferves,
that greater liberties may be taken than were formerly
judged admiffible. Perfons afflicted with various chro¬
nic complaints, of fcrophulous, fcorbutic, and arthritic
habits; perfons of unwieldy corpulency, and of in¬
temperate, irregular lives; have all paffed through this
difeafe with as much facility as the moft temperate,
healthy, and regular. But thofe who labour under
any acute or critical difeafe, or its effects, are ob-
vioufly unfit and improper fubje&s. So likewifc are
thofe in whom are evident marks of corrofive acrimo¬
nious humours, or who have an evident debility of the
whole frame from inanition or any other caufe. All
luck require to be treated in a particular manner pre-
6
CINE. j'97
vioustothe introdu&ion of this difeafe. Conflitutions Variola,
difpofed to frequent returns of intermittents, feem like-
wife juftly exceptionable; efpecially as the prepara¬
tory regimen may in fome habits increafe this tenden¬
cy. Baron Dimfdale, however, has known inftances
of fevere ague-fits attacking perfons between the infer-
tion of the matter and the eruption of the fmall-pox,
and even during maturation, when the Peruvian bark
has been given liberally and with much fuccefs; the
principal bulinefs, in the mean time, fuffering no in¬
jury or interruption.
Among the circumftances generally confidered as
more or lefs propitious to inoculation, the feafon of
the year has been reckoned a matter of fome impor¬
tance. Spring and autumn have been generally recom¬
mended, as being the moft temperate feafons ; the
cold of winter and the fummer-heats having been
judged unfavourable for this purpofe. But BaronBimf-
dale remarks, that experience does not juftify thofe opi¬
nions ; for, according to the beft obfervation he has
been able to make, inoculated perfons have generally
had more puftules in fpring than at any other time
of the year ; and epidemic difeafes being commonly
moft frequent in autumn, efpecially fluxes, intermit¬
tents, and ulcerated fore throats (all which are liable
to mix more or lefs with the fmall pox), the autumn,,
upon this account, does not feem to be the moft fa¬
vourable feafon in general.
Baron Dimfdale's opinion is, that confidering the'
furpriftng and indifputable benefits ariiing at all times
to patients in the fmall-pox, from the free admiffion of
frefh cool air and evacuations, we may fafely inoculate
at all feafons, provided care be taken to fereen the pa¬
tients as much as poffible from heat in fummer, and to
prevent them from keeping themfeives too warm and
too much ffiut up. as they are naturally difpofed to
do, from the weather in winter. When feafons, how¬
ever, are marked with any peculiar epidemics, of fuch«
a kind efpecially as may render a mild difeafe more
untra&able, it may perhaps be moft prudent not to in¬
oculate while fuch difeafes are prevalent-
In dire&ing the preparatory regimen, .Baron Dimf¬
dale principally aims at the following points, viz. To *
reduce the patient, if in high health, to a lower and
more fecure ftate ; to ftrengthen the conftitution, if
too low; to correft what appears vitiated; and to
clear the ftomach and bowels, as much as may be, ,
from all crudities and their effe&s. With this view
he orders fuch of his patients as conftitute the firft
elafs above-mentioned, and who are by much the majo¬
rity, to live in the following manner: To abftain from-'
all animal food, including broths, and likewife butter
and cheefe;. from all fermented liquors,. excepting,
fmall beer, which is allowed fparingly .; and from all
fpices, and whatever is endued with a manifeft heat¬
ing quality. The diet is to confift ef pudding, gruel, ,
fago, milk, rice-milk, fmit-pyes, greens, roots, and
vegetables of any of the kinds in feafon, prepared or,
raw. Eggs, though not to be eaten alone, are al¬
lowed in puddings, and butter in pye-cruft. The
patients are to be careful that they do not eat fuch a
quantity as to overload their ftomachs, even of this
kind of food. Tea, coffee, or chocolate, are per¬
mitted for breakfaft, to thofe who choofe or are ac--
ouftomed to them-
la,
M E D I
In tins m&nri^r they Afe to proceed about nine or
ten days before the operation ; during which period,
at nearly equal diftances, they are directed to take
three dofes of the following powder, either made into
pills or mixed with a little fyrup or jelly, at bed-time,
'and a dofe of Glauber’s falts diffolved in thin water-
: guel, each fucceeding morning.
The powder is compofed of eight grains of calomel,
the fame quantity of the compound powder of crab’s-
claws, and one eighth part of a grain of emetic tartar.
Inftead of the latter, Baron Dimfdale has fometimes
fubftituted two grains of precipitated fulphur of anti¬
mony. In order to facilitate the divifion of the dofes,
a large quantity is prepared at once, and great care
taken that the feveral ingredients be well mixed.
This quantity is ufually fufficient for a healthy ftrong
man ; and the dofe mfift be leffened for women or
children, according to their age and ftrength, as Well
as for perfons advanced in years.
The firft dofe is generally ordered at the commence¬
ment of the courfe; the fecond, three or four days af¬
ter; and the third about the eighth or ninth day. The
Baron choofes to inoculate the day after the laft dofe
has been taken. On the days of purging, broths are
allowed, and the patients are defired to abftain from
unprepared vegetables.
What has been faid concerning the preparation,
muft be confidered as proper only for the young or
middle-aged, in a good ftate of health: but among
thofe who are defxrOus of inoculation, are often found
tender, delicate, and weakly women; men of bad fta-
mina, valetudinarians by conftitution, by illnefs, or
intemperance ; alfo aged perfons, and children ; and
for all fuch a very different treatment muft be direc¬
ted. Here a milder courfe of medicine, rather of the
alterative than purgative kind, is preferable; and in
many inftances, an indulgence in fome light animal-
food, with a glafs or two of wine in cafe of lownefs, is
not only allowable, but neceffary to fupport a proper
degree of ftrength, efpecially in advanced age.
Children, whofe bowels are often tender, and ought
not be ruffled by ft tong purges, yet require a mild
mercurial, and bear it well. Befides emptying the
bowels of crudities, it is a good fecurity againft worms
and their effe&s, which fometimes produce very alarm¬
ing and even fatal diforders.
Inattention to the particular ftate of health of
thofe who are entering upon the preparatory courfe,
has been produ&ive of great mifchief. This is chiefly
obfervable refpefting the indifcreet ufe of mercurials,
by which a falivation has often been raifed, to the
rifle of impairing good conftitutions, and the ruin of
fuch as were previoufly weak and infirm. The di-
ftin&ions and treatment neceffary, will be obvious to
thofe who are acquainted with the animal economy
and medical practice.
The time of menftruation has generally been the
guide in refpeft to the inoculation of women, that the
whole of the difeafe may be over within the menftrual
period. Baron Dimfdale informs us, that he obferves
this rule, when he can choofe his time without any
inconvenience, and he inoculates foon after the evacua¬
tion ceafes; tho’ he has no reafon to decline perform¬
ing the operation at any time.
C 1 N E. Pradlics. >
Women with child have likewife been inoculated, Variola. JJ
and done well; but the ftate of pregnancy feems un¬
favourable to the procefs, which ought therefore not
to be hazarded without fome urgent reafon. Baron
Dimfdale has not inoculated any woman whom he
knew to be pregnant j but on fome who concealed
their pregnancy he has performed the operation, with¬
out producing a mifearriage; the hope of which event,
he fufpedts, had rendered them defirous of the pro¬
cefs. One of thofe had a child born nine weeks after
inoculation, at the full time, with diftin6t marks of the
difeafe, though the mother had very few puftules.
The manner moft commonly pradtifed in this coun¬
try for communicating the fmall-pox by inoculation,
has of late been the following: A thread was drawn
through a ripe puftule, and well moiftened with mat¬
ter. A piece of this thread was infinuated into a fuper-
ficial incifion made in one or both arms, near the part
where iffues are ufually fixed; and being covered with
a plafter, was there left for a day or two.
Very different methods of inoculation, however,
are purfued ; two of which Baron Dimfdale has fre-.
quently pradtifed and deferibes; but he informs us,
that the following has proved fo. invariably fuocefsful,
as to induce him to give it the preference.
The patient to be infedted being in the fame houfe,
and, if no objedtion be made to it, irt the fame room,
with one who has the difeafe, a little of the variolous
matter is taken from the place of infertion, if the fub-
jedt be under inoculation ; or a puftule, if in the na¬
tural way. On the point of a lancet, fo that both fides
of the point are moifteried.
With this lancet an incifion Is made in that part of
the arm where iffues are ufually placed, deep enough
to pafs through the fcarf-fkin, and juft to touch the
fl-dn itfelf; and in length as (hort as polfible, not more
than one eighth of an inch. v
The little wound being then ftretched Open between
the finger and thumb of the operator, the incifion is
moiftened with the matter, by gently touching it with
the flat fide of the infedted lancet. This operation is
generally performed in both arms, and fometimes in
two places in one arm, a little diftant from each
other. For as Baron Dimfdale ,has not obferved any
inconvenience from two or three incifions, he feldom
trufts to one ; that neither he nor his patient may be
under any doubt about the fuccefs of the operation
from its being performed in one place only.
Baron Dimfdale has alfo tried the following me¬
thod, with the faine fuccefs as that above deferibed ;
but he does not fo much approve of it, becaufe he has
been credibly informed that it has fometimes failed in
the pradtice of others. A lancet being moiftened with
the variolous fluid in the fame manner as in the other,
is gently introduced, in an oblique manner, between
the fcarf and true Ikin, and the finger of the operator
is applied on the point, in order to wipe off the infec¬
tion from the lancet, when it is withdrawn. In this
method, as well as in the former, a little blood will
-fometimes appear; but Baron Dimfdale neither draws
‘Hood with defign, nor does he think there is any ne-
•ceflity of wiping it off before the matter is intro-
■dttced.
In both thefe ways of inoculating, neither plafter,
5 bandage,
? Practice. M E D I
Exanthe- bandage, nor covering is applied, nor in any refpeft
*^ata neceflary.
' v Baron Dimfdale informs us, that thofe methods of
producing this difeafe have never once failed him; and
experience has fufficiently proved that there is no dan¬
ger from additional infection by the natural difeafe at
the fame time. He therefore makes no fcruple of ha¬
ving the perfon to be inoculated, and the perfon from
whom the infeffion is to be taker, in the fame room;
nor has he ever obferved any ill confequence attend¬
ing this pradfice. But he advifes the inoculated pa¬
tients (though perhaps there be no neceffity for that
precaution) to be afterwards feparated from places of
infedtion till certain figns of fuccefs appear, when all
reitraint is removed, there being then no danger from
accumulation.
Baron Dimfdale remarks, that it feems to be of no
confequence whether the infedting matter be taken
from the natural or inoculated fmall-pox. He has
ufed both, and never has been able to »difcover the
leaft difference, either refpedting the certainty of in-
fedfion, the progrefs, or the event. He therefore takes
the infedtion from either, as opportunity offers, or at
the option of the patients or their friends.
Neither is it of nny confequence whether the mat¬
ter be taken before, or at the crifis of, the diftemper.
It is generally fuppoftd, that the fmall-pox is not inr
! - . fedtious till after the matter has acquired a certain de¬
gree of maturity; and in the common method of ino¬
culation this is fo much attended to, that when tha
operation has proved ineffedtual, the failure has been
afcribed to the unripenefs of the matter.
But, as the author remarks, it appears very clearly
from the prefent pradfice of inoculation, that fo foon
as any nroifture can be taken from the infedfed part of
an inoculated patient, previous to the appearance o£
any puftules,. and even previous to the eruptive fever,
this moiflure is capable of communicating the fmall-,
pox with the utmoft certainty. Baron .Dimfdale has
taken a little clear fluid from the .elevated pellicle on
the incifed part, even fo early as the fourth day after
the operation ; and has at other times ufed matter ful*
ly digefted at the crifis, with equal fuccefs. In ge¬
neral, however, he prefers taking the matter for infec¬
tion during the eruptive fever, as he fuppofes it at that
time to have its utmoft adtivity.
In all cafes, when he takes matter from an. inocula¬
ted perfon, it is from the place where it was inferted;
as he is always fure to find infedtion there if the dif¬
eafe fucceeds, and always of fufficient energy.
It may appear ftrange that no bandage, drefling, or
application whatfoever, is ufed to the part infedted ;
but that the moft fimple incifion being made, and
moiftened with the fmalleft particle of the recent fluid
matter, the whole is committed to nature. This me¬
thod, however, the Baron obferves, is perfedtly right:
hecaufe the application of either plafter or unguent, as
is the ufual .pradhice, will occafion an inflammation on
fome fleins; and, in all, tend to disfigure the natural ap¬
pearance ot the incifion, and prevent our forming a
proper judgment of the progrefs of the infedtion.
If neither an inoculated patient be at hand, nor any
one in the neighbourhood : has a diflindl kind of the
natural difeafe, a thread may be ufed as in the com¬
mon manner, provided it be very recently infedted; but
C I N E. 199
Baron Dimfdale is of opinion, that the thread ought to Variola.
be ufed as foon as pofiible after being charged with
the infedting matter.
The method of inoculation recommended by Ba¬
ron Dimfdale’ is now almoft univerfally adopted ; or
at leaft if any change has taken place, the operation
is, if poffible, ftill more fimplified. Without the trouble
of bringing to the fame houfe both the perfon from
whom the contagion is to be taken and the perfon
to whom it is to be given, the operator in general-
carries the matter about with him on what is called a
rejervoir lancet. For this purpofe a common lancet,
may be employed ; but one, the blade of which is
accurately inclofed in a metallic cafe, fo conftrudled
as to prevent the accefs of the air, and at the fame
time not to rub off the matter, is certainly preferable.
The infedlious matter on this lancet is gently moift¬
ened by holding it for a few feconds over tbe fteam
of warm water; and by rubbing on it the point of
another lancet, as much is taken off as is fufficient
for giving the- difeafe, which is done by introducing
this infeded point under the fcarf-lkin, in the manner
Baron Dimfdale has recommended. Where freffi mat¬
ter can be had, it, is always preferable: but where
this cannot be obtained, a lancet may be infe&ed from
a dry puftule, though kept for many months, by
moiftening it in warm water; particularly if care has.
been taken to preferve it from the a&ion of exter¬
nal air by keeping it in a.clofe phial. ■
A due attention to the progrefa of infedion, difeo-
verable by the part where the operation was perform-,
ed, is a neceffary circumftance; becaufe a juft progno-
ftic may thence be fometimes formed of the future ftate
of the diftemper, and indications may be taken from
the. different appearances on the arm, that will enable
us to prevent inconveniences.
Baron Dimfdale obferves, that1 the former method
of covering the place of incifion with a plafter, and
continuing upon it dreffinga of one fort or other, pre¬
vented much ufeful information of this kind. They
precluded any judgment by the touch, and fometimes
rendered that by the eye equivocal.
The-day after the operation is performed, though
it takes eifed, little alteration is difcoverable. On the
fecond day, if the part ,be viewed with a lens, there
generally appears a kind of orange-coloured ftain.
about the incifion, and the furrounding flein feems to
contrad. At this time Baron. Dimfdale ufually gives
the following medicine at going to bed, either mixed
with a little of any kind, of jelly, or more frequently,
made into a pill.
Calomel, and compound powder of crab’s-claws, of
each three grains ; emetic tartar, one-tenth of a
grain.
A quantity of this medicine ihould be carefully
prepared at once, in order to make, the divifion more
exad.
On the fourth, or fifth day, upon applying the fin¬
ger, a hardnefs is perceptible to the touch. The pa¬
tient feels an itching on the part, which appears flight-
ly inflamed; and under a kind of vefication is feen a
little clear fluid, the part refembling a fuperficial burn.
About the fixth, moft commonly fome pain and ftiffi-
nefsis felt in the axilla; a circumftance which not only
foretels the near approach of the eruptive fymptoms,
but
.fcSO MED!
Etatnhe- but is a fign of a favourable progrefs of the difeafe.
miita Sometimes on the feventh, oftener on the eighth day,
fymptoms of the eruptive fever appear ; fuch as flight
remitting pains in the head and back, fucceeded by
tranfient fhiverings and alternate heats, which con¬
tinue in a greater or lefs degree till the eruption be
perfedfed. At this time alfo it is ufual for the pa¬
tient to complain of a very difagreeable tafte in his
mouth, the breath is always fetid, and there enfues a
fmell peculiar to the variolous eruptive fever.
The inflammatioa in the arms at this time fpreads
fall; and, upon viewing it with a good glafs, the inci-
fion for the moft part appears furrounded with an in¬
finite number of fmall confluent puftules, which increafe
in fize and extent as the difeafe advances. On the tenth
or eleventh day, a circular or oval efflorefcence is ufual-
ly difcovered furraunding the incifion, and extending
fometimcs near half round the arm, but more frequent¬
ly to about the fize of a (hilling ; and being under the
cuticle, is fmooth to the touch and not painful. This
appearance alfo is favourable. It accompanies erup¬
tion ; every difagreeable fymptom ceafes ; and at the
fame time it certainly indicates the whole affair to be
over, the pain and fliffnefs in the axilla alfo going
-off.
The feverifh fymptoms are for the moft part fo mild,
as fcldom to require any afliftance, except a repetition
of the fame medicine that was diredded on the fecond
night aftei the operation ; and next morning the fol¬
lowing laxative draught (hould be given, to procure
three or four (tools.
Infufion of fenna two ounces, manna half an ounce,
tinfture of jalap two drachms.
Thefe are given as foon as the eruptive fymptoms
are perceivable, if they feem to indicate any uncom¬
mon degree of vehemence.
It has been obferved, that by attending to the
progrefs of infedtion, we may in general he able to
prognofticate with fome degree of certainty the iflTue
of the diftemper. Particular incidents will ever hap¬
pen, but not fufficient to invalidate the propriety of
gejreral rules.
If the appearances already defcribed are obferved
early, a very favourable event may be expedited ; but
it happens in fome cafes, that the fuccefs of the ino-
'culation is barely perceptible, the colour about the
vjound remaining pale, inftead of changing to red or
inflamed ; the edges of the incifion fpread but little,
they remain almoft entirely flat, and are attended nei¬
ther with itching nor uneafinefs of any kind. Nay,
fometimes on the fifth, and even the fixth day, the al¬
teration is fo little as to render it doubtful whetherthe
infeftion has taken place.
When matters are in this (late, Baron Dimfdale cb-
ferves the appearance is unfavourable, implying a late
and more untoward difeafe: To prevent which, he
diredls the powder or . pill to be taken every night;
and In cafe it fails to operate by ftool, or there be the
leaft difpofition to coftivenefs, an ounce of Glauber’s
falls, or more commonly the laxative draught already
-mentioned, is given in the morning, once or twice, as
the cafe may require. This courfe forwards the in¬
flammation, which is always a defirable circumftance;
it being in general obferved, that an early progrefs on
the arm, and an early commencement of the eruptive
N,J 205.
CINE, Pra&ice.
complaints, portend that the diftemper will be mild Variola,
and favourable ; and on the contrary, when both are » J
late, the fymptoms he tells us are ufually more irregu¬
lar and unfavourable.
Further experience^ however, has by no means fully
confirmed his opinion in this particular. On the con¬
trary, even where the progrefs of infedlion in the arm
has been uncommonly flow, a difeafe in the mildeft.
poffible form has fucceeded. There is therefore no good
reafon why a praftitioner (hould be alarmed at an
uncommonly flow progrefs, or (hould in fuch inftances
employ more internal remedies than he would do in
other cafes. And fome, whofe practice in inoculation
has been very extenfive, have even remarked, that
when infants are inoculated, they have never obferved
epileptic acceffions, the moft alarming forerunners of
the difeafe, in thofe cafes where the progrefs of the
arm has been flow.
The management recommended by Baron Dimf¬
dale at the period of eruption differing eflentially from
that of former praftitioners, and being a matter of
great importance, he gives the following explicit di-
.redtions on this head, advifing that they may be pur-
fued with firmnefs and moderation.
Inftead of the patient being confined to his bed or
his room, when the fymptoms of the eruptive fever
come on, he is direfted, as foon as the purging me¬
dicine has operated, to keep abroad, as much as he
can bear, in the open air, be it ever fo cold ; always
taking care not to (land dill, but to walk about mode¬
rately while abroad. He is alfo diredled, if thirfty,
to drink cold water.
Baron Dimfdale obferves, that this treatment feems
as hard at firft to the patients as it muft appear lin¬
gular to thofe who are unacquainted with fuch prac¬
tice ; but the effedts are fo falutary, fo conftantly con¬
firmed by experience, and an eafy progrefs through
every ftage of the difeafe depends fo much upon it,
that he admits of no exception, unlefs the weather be
extremely fevere and the conftitution very delicate-
Fie adds, it is indifputably true, that, in the few in¬
ftances where the fymptoms of eruption have run very
high, the patients being averfe to any motion, and
fearing the cold as the greateft evil; yet when, under
thofe circumftances, he has perfuaded them to rife out
of bed, and go out of doors, though led fometimes
by two afliftaots, and has allowed them to drink as
much cold water as they chofe, they have not fuffered
the leaft unfavourable accident: on the contrary, af¬
ter they have been prevailed upon to comply with
thofe dire&ions, they find their fpirits revived; an in¬
clination for nourifliment returns; they reft well; a
gentle fweat fucceeds, accompanied with a favourable
eruption ; and the fever feems to be entirely extin-
guifhed.
Cool regimen during the eruptive fever is now almoft
univeffaily adopted ; but like other ufeful remedies
it has not unfrequently been abufedr And practition¬
ers ought never -to forget, that inoculated patients
are not, more than the reft of the human fpecies, ex¬
empted from injuries from cold, which is unqueftion-
ably a powerful caufe of difeafe. Unlefs, therefore,
in cafes where very conliderable morbid heat is indu¬
ced by the eruptive fever, by which a temporary de¬
fence is unqueftionably afforded againft the aftion of
external
Practice. M E D I
Exafrthe- external cold, the bad cffefts which may refult from
, mata it are never to be overlooked. And there is even rea-
- fon to believe, as may indeed be inferred from Baron
Dimfdale’s obfervations, that the difeafe is more mo¬
derated by the aftion of pure and free air than by
cold. Accordingly inoculation is performed with
very great fuccefs even in the warmeft feafons and fi-
g. tuations of warm climates.
In general, the complaints in this Hate are very mo¬
derate, and attended with fo little illnefs that the pa¬
tient eats and fleeps well the whole time. A few pu-
ftules appear, fometimes equally difpofed ; fometimes
the inflammations on the arms fpread, and are fur-
rounded with a few puftules, which gradually advance
to maturity ; during which time, for the moft part,
the eruption proceeds kindly, and there is much more
difficulty to reftrain the patients within due bounds,
and prevent their mixing with the public, thereby
fpreading the infection, than there was at firfl: to pre¬
vail upon them to go abroad. During this time me¬
dicine is feldom wanted; the cooleft air feems the befl:
cordial; and if any uncommon languor happens, a
bafon of fmall broth, or a glafs of wine, is allowed
in the day, or fome white-wine whey at bed-time ;
which are indeed at any time allowed to tender, aged,
or weakly perfons.
With thefe exceptions, the patients are hitherto
kept very fcrupuloufly to the diet at firft directed.
But after the eruption is completed, they are, if oc-
cafion requires, indulged in a little well-boiled meat
of the lighteft kind, as chicken, veal, or mutton.
The above-mentioned regimen, the cooling altera¬
tive purges, and the free ufe of cool air at the feafon
of eruption, almoft univerfally prevent either alarming
fymptoms or a large crop of puftules. Baron Dimf-
dale has feen a few with fuch a quantity of puftules,
though diftinft, that he has neither advifed nor allow¬
ed them to go out of the houfe. But the generality
of his patients, when the eruptions are few, amufe
themfelves abroad, within proper limits, with the p‘u-
ftules upon them.
This pratStice, however, the Baron neither enjoins
nor maintains to be neceflary; but he has not been
able to obferve that any inconvenience has arifen from
it. He alfo informs us, that, how ftrange foever it
may appear, thofe who are moft adventurous, feem to
enjoy better fpirits, and are more free from com¬
plaints, than others who are inclined to keep within
doors.
Thofe who have the difeafe in the flighteft manner
firft defcribed, viz. without any appearance of erup¬
tion but on the inoculated part, are foon permitted to
go about their ufual affairs : and many inftances have
happened of very induftrious poor men, who have im¬
mediately returned to their daily labour, with a cau¬
tion not to intermix with thofe who have not had the
diftemper, for fear of fpreading it; and with injunc¬
tions to take, two or three times, of the purge already
dire&ed, or as many dofes of Glauber’s falts. Thofe
who have the difeafe in a greater degree, are confined
fomewhat longer; and, if there be the leaft difpofition
to coftivenefs, a very mild laxative is now and then ex¬
hibited ; as the progrefs to maturation appears rather
to be advanced than retarded by fuch means.
When the maturation is completed, and there is
Vol. XI. Part I.
CINE.
nothing farther to fear from the diftemper, Baron
Dimfdale allows his patients gradually to change their -
courfe of diet, from the perfe&ly cooling kind, to one
a little more generous ; recommending firidlly to all a
return to their ordinary animal-diet, with much cau¬
tion and reftraint upon their appetites, both in refpeft
of food and fermented liquors.
He obferves it is not often that we are under the
neceffity of making any application to the part where
the infertion of the variolous matter was made. It moft
commonly heals up, and is covered with a fcab, about
the time when, in a natural way, all the fmall-pox
would have been dried up. But in fome cafes the in-
cifions continue to difcharge a purulent matter a long¬
er time. In thefe inftances it is fufficient to cover the
part with the white cerate, or any other mild empla-
ftic fubftance, which may at once prevent the linen
from adhering to the fore, and defend it from the air.
As in thefe cafes the part remains unhealed from fomc
peculiar caufe in the habit, it will be neceffary to give,
gentle purgatives, and proper alteratives, as particular
exigencies may require.
After defcribing the ufual progrefs of the fmall-pox
from inoculation, Baron Dimfdale remarks that there
are frequent deviations from this courfe, which may
embarrafs an unexperienced pra&itioner, and create a
real difficulty, as well as apprehenficns of danger.
He therefore proceeds to relate the means for remo¬
ving thofe fymptoms, and the doubts refpefting the
event.
The fymptom he firft notices, and which, though
it very rarely happens, fometimes gives much trouble,
is great ficknefs, accompanied with vomiting, in the
eruptive ftate of the difeafe. For this complaint it is
always neceffary in the firft place to clear the ftomach;
which may he effefted, either by ordering the patient
to drink plentifully of warm liquids to promote vo¬
miting ; or perhaps more properly, by giving to an
adult one grain of tartarifed antimony, mixed with ten
grains of compound powder of crab’s-claws ; taking
care to diminifh the dofe for very young and weak
fubjefts.
This ufually throws off fome bilious matter by vo¬
mit, fometimes procures ftools, or occafions a mode¬
rate fweat,and generally adminifters relief. If, however,
no ftools fhould follow from this medicine, and the fick¬
nefs ftiould remain, a gentle laxative almoft certainly
procures a refpite, and the appearance of the eruption
entirely removes the complaint.
Another deviation, of yet greater confequence,
which fometimes happens towards the time of the erup¬
tion, and is often, though not always, accompanied
with great ficknefs, is an eryfipelatofls efflorefcence.
If this ffiows itfelf on the fkin partially, and here and
there in patches, it is not very alarming, and foon
wears off. But fometimes the whole furface of the bo¬
dy is covered with a rafh intimately mixed with the
variolous eruption, and fo much refembling the moil'
malignant kind of confluent fmall-pox as fcarcely to
be diftinguiihed from it. In fome fuch cafes, accom¬
panied with petechia and livid fpots, Baron Dimfdale
has been much alarmed ; not being able by infpe<2:ion
only, though affifted by glaffes, to determine whether
what he faw was an inoffenfive raih, or tokens of the
greatdl malignity. Very ftrift attention, however, ha*
Cc " enabled
502
Eianthe- enabled him to diftingui/h the difference clearly ; and
t niafa for affifting others in fuch a difcrimination, he makes
' the following remarks.
The real and effential diflFerence is to be gathered from
the concomitant fymptoms. In the eryfipelatous or
variolous rafh, there is not fo much fever, nor is the
reftleffnefs or pain of the head or loins fo confiderable,
neither is there that general proftration of itrength ;
all which are ufual attendants on a confluent fmall-pox,
efpecially when accompanied with fuch putrid appear¬
ances. Befides, upon a careful examination, there
may fometimes be difcerned a few diftimSt puflules,
larger than the reft, mixed with the rafh, which are
the real fmall-pox. In thofe cafes the patients are
ordered to refrain from cold water, or any thing cold;
and to keep within doors, but not in bed. If any
iicknefsyet remains, a little white-wine whey, or other
temperate cordial, is advifed ; and this method has
been fo generally fuccefsful, as to prevent any alarm¬
ing complaint. After two or three days, the fkin
changes from a florid to a dufley colour, a few diftinft
puftules remain, and advance properly to maturation,
without any farther trouble enfuing from this formi¬
dable appearance.
This rafh has often been miftaken for the confluence
it fo much refembles; and has afforded occafion for
fome pra&itioners, either ignorantly or difingenuoufly,
to pretend, that, after a very copious eruption of the
confluent pox, they can by a fpecific medicine dif-
charge the greater part of the puftules, leaving only
as many diftinft ones as may fatisfy the patient that
he has the difeafe.
Baron Dimfdale informs us, that rafhes of the kind
above deferibed frequently happen during the prepa¬
ration (whether owing to the regimen, or medicine,
or both, he does not determine), and caufe the opera¬
tion to be poftponed. But he has obferved, that in fuch
cafes they are apt to return at the time of the eruption
of the fmall-pox.
In general, as has been already faid, the fymptoms
which precede eruption commence at the end of the
feventh or on the eighth day inclufive from the opera¬
tion ; but it often happens that they appear much
fooner, and fometimes much later than this period.
Baron Dimfdale has feen fome cafes in which the dif¬
eafe has come on fo fuddenly after infeftion, and with
fo little complaint or uneafinefs, that the whole affair
has been terminated, purges taken, and the patient
returned home perfeftly well, in a week; before others,
inoculated at the fame time, from the fame patient,
and under the fame circumftances, have begun to com¬
plain.
In this cafe, the inoculated part ftiows early certain
marks of infection, fometimes on the very next day,
or the day after, when the incifion will often appear
confiderably inflamed and elevated. The patient about
this time frequently makes fome of the following com¬
plaints, viz. chillnefs, itchings, and flight pricking
pains in the part, and fometimes on the ftioulder; gid-
dinefs, drowzinefs, and a flight head-ach, fometimes
attended with a feverifh heat, but often without any.
The account which patients themfelves give of their
feelings is, in fome, as if they had drank too much,
and in others, as if they had caught a cold. Thofe
complaints feldono lail 24 hours, often net fo long,
Practice.
and with frequent tntenniffions j never, fo far as our VarUa,
author remembers, riling to a degree that requires '—v—
confinement. During the continuance of thofe com¬
plaints, the inflammation of the arm advances apace,
and feels hard to the touch : but upon their wearing
off, the inflamed appearances gradually diminilh, and
the part dries to a common fmall fcab; the Ikin, that
was before red, turns livid, and the difeafe entirely ^
vanilhes. In fome inftances, thofe fymptoms attack
much later ; even on the feventh or eighth day, when
an eruption might be expe&ed in confequence of them,
yet none appears ; but the arm gets well very foon,
and the difeafe is at an end.
In this irregular fort of the diforder there have,
however, been fome examples where a few eruptions
have appeared, and probably in confequence of the in¬
oculation : yet the puftules have not looked like the
true fmall-pox, neither have they maturated like them,
nor lafted longer than three days ; about which time,
for the moft part, they have dried away.
When this irregular kind of the difeafe firft occur¬
red in Baron Dimfdale’s praftice, he was in doubt
whether the patients were quite fecure from any future
attacks of the diftemper. In order to be fatisfied of
this point, he inoculated them a fecond time, caufing
them to affbeiate with perfons in every ftage of the
difeafe, and to try all other means of catching the in-
fe&ion. This method has been pra&ifed with the
generality of fuch patients ever fince, yet without a
fingle inftance of its producing any diforder. Baron
Dimfdale, therefore, now makes no fcruple of pro¬
nouncing them perfetlly fafe ; and experience has en¬
abled him to foretel, for the moft part, in two or three
days after the operation, whether the difeafe will pafs
in this flight manner.
Upon the fecond inoculation, however, the incifed
parts are uncommonly inflamed for a day or two, juft
in the fame manner as has in numerous inftances been
obferved, as well in thofe who, though certain of ha¬
ving had the fmall-pox in the natural way, have fub-
mitted to inoculation for the fake of experiment, as in
others, who, being doubtful whether they have had
the difeafe or not, have been inoculated in order to be
fatisfied. But in all fuch cafes, the parts foon became
well ; nor did any of thofe appearances which have
been deferibed as the conftant attendants on inocula¬
tion, as pain in the head, giddinefs, marks of infec¬
tion in the arm, See. enfue. Neither can thofe ap¬
pearances ever be produced upon a perfon who has had
the fmall-pox before, either in the natural way or by
inoculation.
Another irregularity deferving notice is, that fome¬
times upon the abatement of the fever and other fymp¬
toms, after the appearance of feveral puftules, and
when the eruptive ftage of the difeafe feems comple¬
ted, it neverthelefs happens that freih eruptions come
out, and continue doing fo daily, for four, five, or
even fix days fucceffively; preceded fometimes by a
flight pain in the head, though more frequently they
appear without any new difturbance. Thofe are gene¬
rally few, of fhort duration* and feldom come to ma¬
turity. Baron Dimfdale, however, has feen four cafes*
in which, after a ceffation of complaints, and an ap¬
pearance of few puftules, the eruptive ftage of the dii-
eafe Vvas thought to be over, yet in two or three day*
MEDICINE,
Pratfllce. M E D I
Exar the- a frefli fit of fever has attacked the patients, and af-
tnata ter a {hort illnefs a quantity of new puRules has broke
out far exceeding the firft number, and thofe remain¬
ed and matured completely.
Someof the Baron’s own patients, and, as he has been
credibly informed, thofe of other inoculators, have had
confiderable eruptions of this kind after they returned
home; which have probably given occafion for the re¬
ports of feveral having had the difeafe in the natural
way after inoculation. But in confirmation that thofie
reports are ill-grounded, he obferves, that in all the
cafes of this fort which have occurred in his own prac¬
tice, or, as far as he can learn, in that of others,
the fecond or latter crop of puftules has always
happened within the time ufually allowed for the pro-
grefs of the fmall-pox from inoculation ; before the
inflammation on the arm has ceafed, and fooner than
we can fuppofe them to have been produced by infec¬
tion received in the natural way. When this has hap¬
pened, it has been to perfons in whom, after a flight
eruption and abatement of fymptoms, the difeafe has
prematurely been judged to be quite over, and they
have therefore been permitted to return to their fami¬
lies.
An appearance, more alarming and more dangerous
than any of thofe which have already been taken no¬
tice of, is the occurrence of epileptic fits. For al¬
though it has been remarked, that thefe are often the
forerunners of a mild difeafe, both in cafes of acci¬
dental and likewife of intentional contagion ; yet it
is undeniable, that in not a few inftances they have of
themfelves proved fatal. Wherever, therefore, an epi¬
leptic fit occurs, it naturally claims the attention of
the pra&itioner. The occurrence of future fits is
beft prevented by the employment of tinfture of
opium, taking off the tendency to inordinate aftion
by giving at leaft a temporary diminution of irritabi¬
lity ; and on the fame principle, when during a fit
the patient is able to fwallow, nothing is more effec¬
tual either in ftiortening the fit or diminifhing its fe-
verity, than a dofe of laudanum accommodated to the
age and condition of the patient. Confiderable bene¬
fit may be derived from any volatile alkaline fpirit, fitch
as fpirit of hartfliorn, the favourite remedy of Dr Sy¬
denham in fuck cafes. But the beft effects may be
obtained from the ufe of the tepid bath, which is not
only of fervice in fuch cafes from its a&ion as an an-
tifpafmodic, but which alfo, by producing relaxation
of the Ikin, facilitates and promotes the eruption.
And even allowing that, as fome imagine, the num¬
ber of puftules ftiould be increafed by heat applied in
this manner; yet much lefs is to be dreaded from
thence than from the continuance of the fits.
Baron Dimfdale next confiders the confequences
that arife from this very cool and repelling method,
and how far the patient’s future ftate of health may be
affetted by a practice fo oppofite to what was former¬
ly employed.
It has been the general opinion, that in moft or all
eruptive complaints, efpecially the fmall-pox, the ra¬
tional method of cure was to forward, by every gentle
means, the efforts of nature in producing an eruption ;
and on the contrary, that there was danger in check¬
ing it, either by cold air, cold drink, or any confider-
able evacuations. For this purpofe the ufe of warm
CINE. 203
diluents, and the lying in bed, efpecially if the fever
and fymptoms run high, or at leall confining to the
houfe, have been generally approved and recommend¬
ed. Experience, however, has now fufficiently con¬
firmed the advantage of a different kind of treatment.
While the old methods prevailed of conducing ino¬
culation, the patients, particularly children, after paf-
fing through the difeafe in a very favourable manner,
were frequently liable to abfeeffes in the axilla and
other parts, tedious ophthalmies, and troublefome ul¬
cerations in the place of infertion; which though they
could not be forefeen nor prevented, yet often gave
more pain and vexation to the patients, and trouble to
the operator, than the difeafe itfelf had done. But
on inquiry into the ftate of thofe who have been treat¬
ed in the cool way, or according to the new method,
Baron Dimfdale affirms, that in more than 1500 there
has been only one who has had lo much as a boil in
the axilla ; and this was a child who had in the fame
arm an iffue, which was at that time dried up. He has
feen only two very fmall fuperficial boils in others near
the place of infertion ; and thofe feemed to be ocea-
fioned rather by an irritation from the difeharge than
by any other caufe, and were all foon healed with very
little trouble.
In a few inftances alfo, there has been a flough in
the incifed part, which has eaufed a fore of ihort du¬
ration ; but not one inftance of an ulcer of any con¬
tinuance. Such little breakings out too, and fcabs,
as frequently fucceed the mild natural fmall-pox, fome-
times, though rarely, happen to thofe inoculated in the
new way ; and, as they are of little confequence, are
generally cured by the fame method, the ufe of a few
gentle purges.
In regard to ophthalmies from this kind of practice,
Baron Dimfdale has never known an inftance of one
truly deferring that name. The coats of the eye have
been a little inflamed in a veiy few, but they foon be¬
came clear, without any means ufed for that purpofe.
He knows but two cafes where he thought the in¬
flammation great enough to require bleeding; and not
one where a blifter was neceffary. Thofe complaints,
therefore, which were formerly fo frequent and trouble¬
fome, feem to be much reduced by the new method,
the great utility of which is now univerfally acknow¬
ledged.
When the benefits of inoculation have now been de-
monftrated to be fo great, it is truly furprifmg that
the pra&ice has not yet become general. Even its
wonderful fuccefs, however, particularly when con-
trafted with the natural fmall-pox, has not been fuffi-
cient to remove every prejudice againft it; and in
many parts of Britain, the lower clafs are deterred
from it by fcruples even of a religious nature, by which,
means the ftate annually fuftains a very confiderable
lofs. It is, however, but juft to obferve, that in many
parts both the medical practitioners and the clergy
have done all in their power to remove every difficulty.
At Edinburgh, the colleges of phyficians and furo-eons
annually make an offer of their affiftance and advice
gratis to all the poor who fubmit to this operation du¬
ring certain months ; and a moft refpeCtable clergy¬
man has been at the expence of publiffiing a plain and
fenfible difeourfe, not only calculated to remove every
religious doubt or fcruple which can be entertained on
Cc2 this
204 M E D I
Exanthe- tins head, but alfo dearly demonftrating to parents,
. m^ta that they have themfelves to blame for the death of
their children if they negled to employ the means with
which Providence has furnilhed them for preferving
the lives of their offspring.
226 Genus XXIX. VARICELLA.
Chicken-pox.
Varicella, Vug. 42.
Variola lymphatica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Anglis, The Chicked pox, Edin. Med. EfTays, vol. ii.
art. 2. near the end. Heberden, Med. Tranfac.
art. 17.
This is in general a very flight difeafe ; and is at¬
tended with fo little danger, that it would not merit
any notice, if it were not apt to be confounded with
the fmall-pox, and thus give occafion to an opinion
that a perfon might have the fmall-pox twice in his
life; or they are apt to deceive into a falfe fecurity
thofe who have never had the fmall-pox, and make
them believe that they are fafe when in reality they
are not. This eruption breaks out in many, accord¬
ing to Dr Heberden, without any illnefs or previous
iign ; in others it is preceded by a little degree of
chillnefs, laflitude, cough, broken fleep, wandering
pains, lofs of appetite, and feverifh flate for three
days.
In fome patients the chicken-pox make their firft
appearance on the back ; but this perhaps is not con-
ftant. Moft of them are of tire common fize of the
fnidll-pox, but fome are lefs. Dr Heberden never faw
them confluent, nor very numerous. The greateft
number was about 12 in the face, and 200 over the
reft of the body.
On the firft day of the eruption they are reddifh.
On the fecond day there is at the top of moft of them
.a very fmall bladder, about the fize of a millet-feed.
This is fometimes full of a watery and colourlefs, fome-
times of a yellowifh liquor, contained between the cu¬
ticle and flcin. On the fecond, or, at the fartheft, on
the third day from the beginning @f the eruption, as
many of thefe pocks as are not broken feem ar¬
rived at their full maturity ; and thofe which are
fulleft of that yellow liquor very much refemble what
the genuine fmall-pox are on the fifth or fixth day,
Specially where there happens to be a larger fpace
than ordinary occupied by the extravafated ferum. It
happens to moft of them, either on the firft day that
this little bladder arifes, or on the day after, that its
tender cuticle is burft by the accidental rubbing of the
clothes, or by the patient’s hands to allay the itching
which attends this eruption. A thin fcab is then
formed at the top of the pock, and the fwelling of the
other part abates, without its ever being turned into
pus, as it is in the fmall-pox. Some few efcape being
burft; and the little drop of liquor contained in the
veficle at the top of them, grows yellow and thick,
and dries into a fcab. On the fifth day of the erup¬
tion they are almoft all dried-and covered with a flight
cruft. The inflammation of thefe pocks is very fmall,
and the contents of them do not feem to be owing to
fuppuration, as in the fmall-pox, but rather to what is
extravafated under the cuticle by the ferous veflels of
the Ikin, as in a common blifter. No wonder, there¬
fore, that this liquor appears fo foon as on the fecond
CINE. Practice.
day; and that, upon the cuticle being broken, it is Varieella.
prefently fucceeded by a flight fcab: hence too, as the
true fkin is fo little affe&ed, no mark or fear is likely
to be left, unlefs in one or two pocks, where, either
by being accidentally much fretted, or by fome extra¬
ordinary ftiarpnefs of the contents, a little ulcer is
formed in the fltin.
The patients fcarce fuffer any thing throughout the
whole progrefs of this illnefs, except fome- languidnefs
of ftrength and fpirits and appetite ; all which is pro¬
bably owing to the confining of themfelves to their
chamber.
Two children were taken ill of the chicken-pox,
whofe mother chofe to be with them, though Ihe had
never had this illnefs. Upon the eighth or ninth day
after the pocks were at their height in the children,
the mother fell ill of this diftemper then beginning to
fhow itfelf. In this inftance the infection lay in the
body much about the fame time that it is known to
do in the fmall-pox.
Remedies are not likely to be much wanted in a dif¬
eafe attended with hardly any inconvenience, and
which in fo fliort a time is certainly cured of itfelf.
The principal marks by which the chicken-pox may
be diftinguilhed from the fmall-pox are,
1. The appearance, on the fecond or third day from
the eruption, of that veficle full of ferum upon the top
of the pock.
2. The cruft, which covers the pocks on the fifth
day; at which time thofe of the fmall-pox are not at
the height of their fuppuration.
Foreign medical writers hardly ever mention- the
name of this diftemper : and the writers of our own
country fcarce mention any thing more of it than its
name. Morton fpeaks of it as if he fuppofed it to be
a very mild genuine fmall-pox. But thefe two diftem-
pers are furely totally different from one another, not
only on account of their different appearances above-
mentioned, but becaufe thofe who have had the fmall-
pox are capable of being infefted with the chicken-
pox ; but thofe who have once had the chicken-pox
are not capable of having it again, though to fuch as
have never had this diftemper, it feems as infeftious as
the fmall-pox. Dr Heberden wetted a thread in the
moft conco&ed pus-like liquor of the chicken-pox
which he could find ; and after making a flight inci-
fion, it was confined upon the arm of one who had for¬
merly had it; the little wound healed up immediately,
and ftiowed no figns of any infe&ion.
From the great fimilitude between the two diftem-
pers, it is probable, that, inftead of the fmall-pox, fome
perfons have been inoculated from the chicken-pox;
and that the diftemper which has fucceeded, has been
miftaken for the fmall-pox by hafty or unexperienced
obfervers.
There is fometimes feen an eruption, concerning
which Dr Heberden is in doubt whether it be one of
the many unnoticed cutaneous difeafes, or only a more
malignant fort of chicken-pox.
This diforder is preceded for three or four days by
all the fymptoms which forerun the chicken-pox; but
in a much higher degree. On the fourth or fifth day
the eruption appears, with very little abatement of the
fever: the pains likewife of the limbs and back ftill
continue, to which are joined pains of the gums. The
227
228
Pra<5ttce. M E D I
Exanthe- pocks are redder than the chicken-pox, and fpread wider;
mata an(j iiardly rife fo high, at lead not in proportion to
^ * their fize. Inftead of one little head or velicle of a
ferous matter, thefe have from four to ten or twelve.
They go off juft like the chicken-pox, and are diftin-
guilhable from the fmall-pox by the fame marks; be-
fides which, the continuance of the pains and fever af¬
ter the eruption, and the degree of both thefe, though
there be not above 20 pocks, are circumftanees never
happening in the fmall-pox.
Genus XXX. RUBEOLA.
Measles.
Rubeola, Sauv. gen. 94. Lin. 4. Sag. 293.
Febris morbillofa, Fog. 36. Hofftn. II. 62.
Morbilli, Junck. 76.
Sp. I. The Regular Measles.
Rubeola vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1.
Moibilli regulares, Sydenb. Se&. iv. cap. 5.
Var. 1. The Anomalous Measles.
Rubeola anomala, Sauv. fp. 2.
Morbilli anomali, Sydenb. fetft. v. cap. 3.
Var. 2. The Measles attended with ^uinjy.
Var. 3. The Measles with Putrid Diathefis of the
Blood.
Sp. II. The Variolodes.
In Scotland commonly called the Nirles.
Rubeola variolodes, Sauv. fp. 3.
Defcription. This difeafe begins with a cold ftage,
which is foon followed by a hot, with the ordinary
fymptoms of thirft, anorexia, anxiety, ficknefs, and vo¬
miting ; and thefe are more or lefs confiderable in dif¬
ferent cafes. Sometimes from the beginning the fe¬
ver is ftiarp and violent: often, for the firft two days,
it is obfcure and inconfiderable ; but always becomes
violent before the eruption, which commonly happens
on the fourth day. This eruptive fever, from the be¬
ginning of it, is always attended with hoarfenefs, a
frequent hoarfe dry cough, and often with fome diffi¬
culty of breathing. At the fame time, the eye-lids
are fomewhat fwelled ; the eyes are a little inflamed,
and pour out tears; and with this there is a coryza,
and frequent fneezing. For the moft part, a conftant
drowfinefs attends the beginning of this difeafe. The
eruption, as we have faid, commonly appears upon the
fourth day, firft on the face, and fucceffively on the
lower parts of the body. It appears firft in fmall red
points; but, foon after, a number of thefe appear in
clufters, which do not arife in vifihle pimples, but, by
the touch, are found to be a little prominent. This
is the cafe on the face ; but, in other parts of the
body, the prominency, or roughnefs, is hardly to be
perceived. On the face, the eruption retains its red-
nefs, or has it increafed for two days; but on the
third, the vivid rednefs is changed to a brownilh red ;
and in a day or two more the eruption entirely difap-
pears, while a mealy defquamation takes place. Du¬
ring the whole time of the eruption, the face is fome¬
what turgid, but feldom cpnfiderably fwelled. Some¬
times, after the eruption has appeared, the fever ceafes
CINE. 20f
entirely : but this is feldom the cafe 5 and more com- Rubeda. ^
monly the fever continues or is increafed after the
eruption, and does not ceafe till after the defquama¬
tion. Even then the fever does not always ceafe, but
continues'with various duration and effedt. Though
the fever happen to ceafe upon the eruption’s taking
place, it is common fot the cough to continue till af¬
ter the defquamation, and fometimes much longer. In
all cafes, while the fever continues, the cough alfo
continues, generally with an increafe of the difficulty
of breathing ; and both of thefe fymptoms fometimes
arife to a degree which denotes a pneumonic affedtion.
This may happen at any period of the difeafe; but
very often it does not come on till after the defqua¬
mation of the eruption.
After the fame period, alfo, a diarrhoea frequently
comes on, and continues for fome time.
It is common for mealies, even when they have net
been of a violent kind, to be followed by inflammatory
affe&ions, particularly ophthalmia and phthilis. If
blood be drawn from a vein in the mealies, with cir-
cumftances neceflary to favour the feparation of the
gluten, this always appears feparated, and lying on the
furface of the craflamentum, as in inflammatory dif-
eafes. For the moft part, the mealies, even when vio¬
lent, are without any putrid tendency; but in fome
cafes, fuch a tendency appears both in the courfe of
the difeafe, and efpecially after the ordinary courfe of
it is finilhed.
Caufes. The mealies are occafioned by a peculiar
kind of contagion, the nature of which is not under-
ftood ; and which, like that of the fmall-pox, affects a
perfon only once in his life.
Prognojis. From the defcription of this diftemper
already given, it appears that the mealies are attended
with a catarrhal affection, and with an inflammatory dia¬
thefis to a confiderable degree; and therefore the dan¬
ger of them is to be apprehended chiefly from the co¬
ming on of a pneumonic inflammation.
Cure. In mealies, as well as in fmall-pox, the dif¬
eafe from its nature muft neceflarily run a determined
courfe ; and therefore the foie aim of a pradfitioner is
to condudft this courfe in the eafieft manner, by prevent¬
ing and obviating urgent fymptoms.
From the conlideration mentioned in the prognolis,
it will be obvious, that the remedies efpecially neceffary
are thofe which may obviate and diminilh the inflam¬
matory diathefis ; and therefore, in a particular man¬
ner, blood-letting. This remedy may be employed at
any time in the courfe of the difeafe, or after the or¬
dinary courfe of it is finilhed. It is. to be employed
more or lefs, according to the urgency of the fymp¬
toms of fever, cough, and dyfpnoea ; and generally
may be employed very freely. But as the fymptoms
of pneumonic inflammation feldom come on during the
eruptive fever, and as this is fometimes violent imme¬
diately before the eruption, though a fufficiently mild
difeafe be to follow; bleeding is feldom very neceflary
during the eruptive fever, and may often be referved
for the times of greater danger which are perhaps to
follow.
In all cafes of mealies, where there are no marks of
putrefeency, and where there is no reafon, from the
known nature of the epidemic, to apprehend putre¬
feency, bleeding is the remedy moft to be depended
upon;
no6
MEDICINE.
Pradicf.
Exanthe-” upon : but affiftance may alfo be drawn from cooling
. r"ata purgatives; and particularly from bliftering on the
Y" fides or between the fhoulders. The dry cough may
be alleviated by the large ufe of demulcent pe&orals,
mucilaginous, oily, or fweet. It may, however, be
obferved, with refpeft to thefe demulcents, that they
are not fo powerful in involving and correfting the
acrimony of the mafs of blood as has been imagined ;
and that their chief operation is by befmearing the
fauces, and thereby defending them from the irritation
of acrids, either ariling from the lungs or diitilling
from the head. For moderating and quieting the
cough in this difeafe, opiates certainly prove the moll
effedlual means, whenever they can be fafely employ¬
ed. In the meafles, in which an inflammatory Hate
prevails in a confiderable degree, opiates have indeed
by fome been fuppofed to be inadmiflible: but expe-
r* nee abundantly demonllrates, that the objedlion
made to their ufe is merely hypothetical; and even in
•cafes where, from a high degree of pyrexia and of
dyfpnoea, there is reafon to fear the prefence, or at
leall the danger, of pneumonic inflammation, opiates
are highly ufeful; after bleeding, to obviate or abate
the inflammatory Hate, has been duly employed : in
fuch cafes, while the cough and watchfulnefs are the
■urgent fymptoms, opiates may be fafely exhibited, and
with great advantage. In all the exanthemata, there
is an acrimony diffufed over the fyftem, which gives a
confiderable irritation ; and, for obviating the effe&s
of this, opiates are ufeful, and always proper, when no
particular contra-indication prevails.
When the defquamation of the mealies is finilhed,
though then there fliouldbeno diforder remaining, phy-
ficians have thought it necefi'ary to purge the patient
feveral times, with a view to draw off what have been
called the dregs of this difeafe \ that is, a portion of the
morbific matter which is fuppofed to remain long in
the body. Dr Cullen does not reje£l this fuppofition;
but at the fame time cannot believe that the remains
of the morbific matter, diffufed over the whole mafs
of blood, can be wholly drawn off by purging; and
therefore thinks, that, to avoid the confequence of the
meafles, it is not the drawing off the morbific matter
which we need to lludy, fo much as to obviate and
remove the mflammatory ftate of the fyftem which had
been induced by the difeafe. With this laft view in¬
deed, purging may ftill be a proper remedy; but bleed¬
ing, in proportion to the fymptoms of inflammatory
difpofition, is ftill more fo.
From our late experience of the ufe of cold air in
the eruptive fever of the fmall-pox, fome phyficians
have been of opinion that the practice may be tranf-
ferred to the mealies ; but this point has not yet been
determined by fufficiently extenfive experience. We
are certain, that external heat may be very hurtful in
the meafles, as in moll other inflammatory difeafes ;
and therefore, that the body ought to be kept in a
moderate temperature during the whole courfe of the
difeafe: but how far, at any period of the difeafe, cold
sir may be applied with fafety, is ftill uncertain. Ana¬
logy, though fo often the refource of phyfieians, is
frequently fallacious; and further, though the analogy
with the fmall-pox might lead to the application of
cold air during the eruptive fever of the mealies, the
analogy with catarrh feems to be againft the practice.
When the eruption is upon the Ikki, there are many Rubeola,
inftances of cold air making it difappear, and thereby v~~
producing much diforder in the fyftem; and there are
alfo frequent inltances of this diforder’s being remo¬
ved by reftoring the heat of the body, and thereby
again bringing out the eruption.
Upwards of 20 years ago, inoculation for the meafles
was propofed, and praftifed in feveral inftances with
fuccefs, by Dr Home of Edinburgh. His method of
communicating the infection w'as, by applying to an
incifion in each arm cotton moiftened with the blood
of a patient labouring under the meafles; but with
others who have made fimilar trials, the attempt has
not yet fucceeded. And attempts have been made to
inoculate this difeafe by means of the fluid difcharged
under the form of tears, the fquamx falling from the
furface, and the like ; but there is reafon to belfeve,
that where it was imagined the infcdtion had thus been
communicated, the contagion was only carried about
the perfon inoculating, and communicated in the ordi¬
nary way.
From inoculation of the meafles, it is imagined that
feveral advantages may be obtained; and among others,
it is thought the forenefs of the eyes may bt mitigated,
the cough abated; and the fever rendered lei’s fevere.
But the practice was never much in falhion, and now
is fcarce ever heard of.
Genus XXXI. MILIARIA. 229
The Miliary Fever.
Miliaria, Lin. 7.
Miliaris,_5uan. gen. 95. Sag. gen. 295.
Febris miliaris, Vog. 3 7.
Febris purpurata rubra et alba miliaris, Hoffm. II.
68.
Febris purpurea feu miliaris, funk. 7 c.
Germanis der Friefel. God. JVelfch, Hill. Med. de
novo puerperarum morbo, qui der Friefel dicitur,
Lipf. 1655.
Ham'l:ony de febr. miliar. 1710. Fantonus, de febr.
mil. 1747. /lllioni de miliar. 1758. Fordyce, de
febr. mil. 1748. Fifcher, de febr. mil. 1767. De
Haen, de divif.febr. 1760, etin Ration, med.pafllm.
Matt. Collin ad Baldinger de miliar. 1764.
Miliaris benigna, Sauv. fp. 1.
Miliaris maligna, Sauv. fp. 2.
Miliaris recidivans, Sauv. fp. 3.
Miliaris Germanica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Miliaris Boia; Sauv. fp. a. .
Miliaris Britannica, Sauv. fp. i.
Miliaris nova febris, Sydenh. Sched. monit. Sauv.
fp. d.
Miliaris fudatoria, Sauv. fp. e.
Miliaris nautica, Sauv. fp.^.
Miliaris purpurata, Sauv. fp. h.
Miliaris ladlea, Sauv. fp. c.
Miliaris puerperarum, Sauv. fp. k.
Miliaris icorbutica, Sauv. fp. /.
Miliaris critica, Sauv. fp. l>.
Hiflon and Defcription. This difeafe is faid to have
been unknown to the ancients, and that it appeared
for the firll time in Saxony about the middle of the
lall century. It is faid to have fince fpread from
thence into all the other countries of Europe ; and,
fince the period mentioned, to have appeared in
many
|Pradlice. M E D 1
| Exanthe- many countries in which it had never appeared be-
| mata fore.
...... prom t;me 0f ;ts having been firft taken notice
of, it has been deferibed and treated of by many dif¬
ferent writers ; and by all of them, till very lately, has
been confidered as a peculiar idiopathic difeafe. It is
faid to have been conftantly attended with peculiar
fymptoms. It comes on with a cold flage, which is
often confiderable. The hot ftage, which follows, is
attended with great anxiety, and frequent fighing.
The heat of the body becomes great,, and foon produ¬
ces profufe fweating, preceded, however, with a fenfe
of pricking, as of pin-points in the (kin ; and the
fweat is of a peculiar rank and difagreeable odour.
The eruption appears fooner or later in different per-
fons, but at no determined period of the difeafe. It
feldom or never appears upon the face ; but appears
firit upon the neck and bread, and from thence often
fpreads over the whole body.
The eruption named miliary is faid to be of two
kinds; the one named the red, the other the white mi¬
liary. The former, which in Englifh is driftly named
a ru/h, is commonly allowed to be a fymptomatic af¬
fection ; and as the latter is the only one that has
any pretenfions to be confidered as an idiopathic dif¬
eafe, it is this only that we (hall more particularly de-
j feribe and treat of under this genus.
What is then called the white miliary eruption, ap¬
pears at lirll like the red, in very fmall red pimples,
for the mod part diilinft, but fometimes cindered to¬
gether. Their little prominence is better didinguiih-
ed by the finger than by the eye. Soon after the ap¬
pearance of this eruption, and, at lead, on the fecond
day, a fmall vedcle appears upon the top of the pim¬
ples. At (ird the veficle is whey-coloured; but
foon becomes white, and dands out like a little glo¬
bule on the top of the pimple. In two or three days,
thefe globules break, or are rubbed off; and are fuc-
ceeded by fmall cruds, which,.foon after fall off in fmall
feales. While one fet of pimples take this courfe, an¬
other fet arife to run the fame; fo that the difeafe often
continues upon the (kin for many days together. Some¬
times when one crop of this eruption has difappeared,
another, after fome interval, is produced. And it has
been further obferved, that in fome perfons there is
inch a difpofition to this difeafe, that they have been
rffe&ed with it feveral times in the courfe of their
lives.
This difeafe is faid to affeft both fexes, and perfons-
of all ages and conditutions; but it has been obferved
at all times to affeCl efpecially, and molt frequently,
lying-in women.
It is often accompanied with violent fymptoms, and
has frequently proved fatal. The fymptoms, however,
attending it are very various; and they are, upon oc-
cafions, every one attending febrile difeafes; but no
fymptom, or concourfe of fymptoms, are deadily the
fame in different perfons, fo as to give, any fpecific cha¬
racter to the difeafe. When the difeafe is violent, the.
mod common fymptoms are phrenetic, comatofe, and
convuldve affedtions, which are alfo fymptoms of ail
fevers treated by a very warm regimen.
While there is fuch a variety of fymptoms appear*
ing in this difeafe, it is not to be expedbed that any
one particular method of cure can be propofed ;, and,,
a.
CINE.
accordingly, we find in different writers different me- Mil
thods and remedies preferibed; frequent difputes about —
the mod proper ; and thofe received and pra&ifed by
fome, oppofed and deferted by others.
It appears, however, to Dr Cullen, very improbable,
that this was really a new difeafe, when it was fird
confidered as fuch. There are very clear traces of it
in authors who wrote long before that period; and
though there were not, we know that ancient deferip-
tions were often inaccurate and imperfedl, particularly
withrefpeft to cutaneous affeidions; and we know alfo
that thofe affection^ which commonly appeared as fym-
tomatic only, were often negle&ed, or confounded to¬
gether under a general appellation.
The antecedent fymptoms of anxiety, fighing, and
pricking of the (kin, which have been fpoken of as pe¬
culiar to this difeafe, are, however, common to many
others; and perhaps to all thofe in which fvveatings
are forced out by a watm regimen. Of the fymptoms
faid to be concomitant of this eruption, there are none
which can be affirmed to be condant and peculiar but
that of fweating. This, indeed, always precedes and ac
companies the eruption ; and, while the miliary erup¬
tion attends many different difeafes, it never, however,
appears in any of thefe but after fweating ; and in
perfons labouring under the fame difeafes it does not
appear, if in fuch perfons fweating be avoided. It is
therefore probable, that the eruption is the effeft of
fweating: and that it is the effedl of a matter not be¬
fore prevailing in the mafs of blood, but generated-
under particular circumftances in the (kin itfelf. That
it depends upon particular eircumftances of the (kin,,
is alfo probable from its being obferved that the erup¬
tion feldom or never appears upon the face, although
it affecls the whole of the body befides ; and' that it
comes upon thofe places efpecially which are more
clofely covered ; and that it can be brought out upon
particular places by external applications.
It is to be obferved, that this eruptive difeafe dif¬
fers from the other exanthemata in many circumftan¬
ces, efpecially the following; that it is not contagious,-
and therefore never epidemic; that the eruption ap¬
pears at no determined period of the difeafe; that the
eruption has no determined duration ; that fncceffive
eruptions frequently appear in the courfe of the fame
fever, and that fuch eruptions frequently recur in the
courfe of the fame perfon’s life. All this renders it
very probable, that, in the nv’iary fever, the morbific
matter is not a fublifting contagion communicated to
the blood, and thence, in confequence of fever and
affimilation, thrown out upon the furfaceof the body,
but a matter occafionally produced in the (kin-itfelf
by fweating.
This conclufion is further rendered probable from
hence, that, while the miliary eruption has no fymp-
toms-on concourfe of fymptoms peculiar to itfelf, >t,;
upon occafions, accompanies alinoft every febrile dif¬
eafe, whether inflammatory, or-putrid, if thefe happen
to be attended with fvveating; and from thence it may
be prefumed, that, the miliary eruption is a fympto¬
matic affe&ion only, produced in the manner we have
faid.
But as this fymptomatie affe&ion does not always
accompany every inftance of fweating, it may be pro¬
per to inquire, what are the circumftaaces which efpe¬
cially
208 M E D I
■Exanthe- dally determine this eruption to appear ? And to this
, n‘^u , Dr Cullen gives no full and proper anfwer. He can¬
not fay that there is any one circumltance which in all
cafes gives occafion to this eruption ; nor can he fay
what different caufes, in different cafes, may give pc-
cafion to it. There is only one obfervation that can
be made to the purpofe of this inquiry; and it is, that
thefe perfons fweating, under febrile difeafes, are efpe-
cially liable to the miliary eruption, who have been
previoully weakened by large evacuations, particular*
ly of blood. This will explain why it happens to ly¬
ing-in women more frequently than to any other per¬
fons ; and to confirm this explanation, he has obfer-
ved, that the eruption has happened to other women,
though not in child-bed, but who had been much fub-
jefted to a frequent and copious menftruation, and to
an almoft conftant /W- albus. He has alfo obferved it
to have happened to men in fevers, after wounds from
which they had fuffered a great lofs of blood.
Further, that this eruption is produced by a certain
flate of debility, is, he thinks, probable, from its fo of¬
ten attending fevers of the putrid kind, which are al¬
ways attended with great debility. It is true, that it
alfo fometimes attends inflammatory difeafes, when it
cannot be accounted for in the fame manner ; but he
believes it may be obferved, that it efpecially attends
thofe inflammatory difeafes in which the fweats have
been long protrafted, or frequently repeated, and
which have thereby produced a debility, and perhaps
a debilitating .putrid diathefis.
That, however, the miliary eruption is not neceflarily
or even generally connedled with a certain itate of de¬
bility, is abundantly evident from its being entirely
wanting in by much the greater number of inflances
of typhoid fever, and in a variety of other difeafes
where every pofiible degree of debility occurs : And
that it is not conne&ed w'ith any certain Hate of debi¬
lity, ftill farther appears, both from the condition of
thofe affedled with it in different inftances, which in
point of flrength is very various ; and likewife from
the continuance of frefh eruptions with the fame indi¬
vidual, although during that time in very different
ilates with refpeft to debility. It appears, therefore,
much more probable, that it depends on fome peculiar
flate of the furface, induced by the concurring in¬
fluence of certain predifpofing and occafional caufes.
It appears fo clearly that this eruption is always a
fymptomatic and faftitious affedfion, that Dr Cullen
is perfuaded it may be, in moft cafes, prevented mere¬
ly by avoiding fweats. Spontaneous fweatings, in the
beginning of difeafes, are very rarely critical ; and
all fweatings not evidently, critical, fhould be pre¬
vented, or at leaf! moderated; and the promoting
them, by increafing external heat, is commonly very
pernicious. Even critical fweats fhould hardly be en¬
couraged by fuch means. If, therefore, fpontaneous
fweats arife, they are to be checked by the coolnefs
of the chamber; by the lightnefs and loofenefs of the
bed-cloaths ; by the perfons laying out their arms and
hands; and by their taking cold drink: and in this
way Dr Cullen thinks he has frequently prevented
miliary eruptions, which were otherwife likely to have
appeared, particularly in puerperal women.
But it may happen, when thefe precautions have
been negledted, or from other circumftanees, that a mi-
N° 206.
CINE.
Pra£ice,
liary eruption does aftually appear ; and the queflion Miliaria
will then be put, how the, cafe is to be treated ? This
is a queflion of confequence ; as there is reafon to be¬
lieve that the matter here generated is often of a vi¬
rulent kind; it is often the offspring of putrefcency ;
and, when treated by increafing the external heat of
the body, it feems to acquire a virulence which produ¬
ces thofe Symptoms mentioned above, and proves cer¬
tainly fatal.
It has been an unhappy opinion with mofl phyfi*
cians, that eruptive difeafes were ready to be, hurt by
cold ; and that it was therefore neceflary to cover up
the body very clofely, and thereby increafe the exter¬
nal heat. We now know that this is a miflaken opi¬
nion ; that increafing the external heat of the body is
very generally mifchievous; and that feveral eruption*
not only admit, but require the application of cold air.
Dr Cullen is perfuaded, therefore, that the practice
which formerly prevailed in the cafe of miliary erup¬
tions, of covering up the body clofely, and both by
external means and internal remedies encouraging the
fweatings which accompany“this eruption, was highly
pernicious, and commonly fatal. He is therefore of
opinion, that even when a miliary eruption has appear¬
ed, in all cafes in which the fweating is not manifdlly
critical, we fhould employ all the means of flopping
the fweating that are mentioned above ; and he has
fometimes had occafion to obferve, that even the ad-
miffion of cool air was fafe and ufeful.
This is, in general, the treatment of miliary erup¬
tions: but at the fame time, the remedies fuited to the
primary difeafe are to be employed; and therefore,
when the eruption happens to accompany inflamma¬
tory affedlions, and the fulnefs and hardnefs of the
pulfe or other fymptoms fhow an inflammatory flate
prefent, the cafe is to be treated by blood-letting,
purging, and other antiphlogiflic remedies.
Upon the other hand, when the miliary eruption
attends difeafes, in which debility and putrefcency
prevail, it will be proper to avoid all evacuations, and
to employ tonic and antifeptic remedies, particularly
the Peruvian bark, cold drink, and cold air.
The mofl diflrefling circumflance attending this af- .
fedlion, is the almoft unfupportable ficknefs at fto-
mach which frequently occurs, and which is often ob¬
ferved to precede frefh eruptions taking place during the
courfe of the difeafe. With the view of counteradt*
ing and alleviating this fymptom, recourfe is had to
wine and other cordial medicines. But with many
patients nothing is found to have fo much influence,
as the ufe of camphor, particularly when introduced
gradually in fiftall dofes, under the form of the miflu-
ra camfhorata of the London pharmacopoeia, or of
the emuljio camphorata of that of Edinburgh.
We fhall conclude this fubjedl with obferving, that
the venerable odlogenarian pradlitioner, de Fifcher,
when treating of this fubjedl, in laying down the in¬
dications of cure, has given this as one of them :
“ Excretionis periphericae non primariam habere ra-
tionem.”
Genus XXXII. SCARLATINA.
Scarlet Fever.
230
Scarlatina, Sauv. gen. 98.
Junck. 75.
Vog. 39. Sag. 294,
Sp.I. .
Pra<5Uce. MED
Exanthe- Sp. I. The Mild Scarlet Fever.
mata
v—' Scarlatina febris, Sauv. fp. I. Sydenham, fl&: vi.
cap. 2.
Sp. II. The Scarlet Fever, with Ulcerated Sore
Throat.
Scarlatina arginofa. Withering on the Scarlet Fe¬
ver.
The mild fcarlet fever is defcribed by Sydenham,
who tells us that he can fcarce account it a difeafe;
and indeed nothing more feems to be neceffary in the
treatment of it than an antiphlogiftic regimen, avoid¬
ing the application of cold air and cold drink. The
difeafe however fometimes rages epidemically, and is
attended with very alarming fymptoms, bearing no
fmall refemblance to the cynanehe maligna, in which
cafe it is called fcarlatina anglnofii.—The bed defcrip-
tion of this diftemper has been publilhed by Dr With¬
ering in the year 1778. This difeafe made its ap¬
pearance, we are told, at Birmingham and the neigh¬
bouring villages, about the middle of May 1778. It
continued in all its force and frequency to the end
of O&ober; varying, however, in fome of its fymp¬
toms, as the air grew colder. In the beginning of
November it was rarely met with ;. but towards the
middle of that month, when the air became warmer,
it increafed again, and in fome meafure refumed thofe
appearances it pofiefTed in the fummer-months, but
which it had loft during the cold winds in Odlober.
It affected children more than adults ; but feldom
occurred in the former under two years of age, or in
the latter if they had paffed their fiftieth year.
Defcr'ption. With various general fymptoms of
fever, the patient at firft complains of a deje&ion of
faints, a flight farenefs or rather ftiffnefs in the neck,
with a fenfe of ftraitnefs in the mufcles of the neck
and fhoulders, as if they were bound with cords.
The fecond dayof the fever this fsrenefs in the throat
increafes, and the patients find a difficulty in fwallow-
ing; but the difficulty feenrs lefs occafioned by the
pain excited in the attempt, or by the ftraitnefs of
the paffage, than by an inability to throw the ne-
eeffary mufcles in a&ion. The fkin feels hot and dry,
but not hard; and the patients experience frequent,
•fmall, pungent pains, as if touched with the point of
a needle. The breath is hot and burning to the lips,
and thirft makes them wifh to drink; but the tendency
to ficknefs, and the exertions neceffary in deglutition,
are fo unpleafant, that they feldom care to drink
much at a time. They have much uneafinefs alfo
from want of reft during the night. In the morning
cf the third day, the face, neck, and breaft, appear
redder than ufual: in a few hours this rednefs be¬
comes univerfal; and increafes to fuch a degree of in-
tenfity, that the face, body, and limbs, refemble a
boiled lobfter in colour, and are evidently fwollen.
Upon rreffure the rednefs vanifhes, but foon returns
ngain. The fkin is fmooth to the touch, nor is there
the leaft appearance of pimples or puftules. '1 he
eyes and noftrils partake more or lefs of the general
rednefs ; and in proportion to the intenfity of this
rolour in the eyes, the tendency to delirium pre¬
vails.
Vcn.. XI. Part I.
I C I N E. 209
Things continue irt nearly tins ftate for two or Scarhomi.
three days longer, when the intenfe fcarlet gradually 1‘" v'" "
abates, a brown colour succeeds, and the Ikin be¬
coming rough, peels off in fmall feales. The tume¬
faction fubfides at the fame time, and the patients
gradually recover their ftreugth and appetite.
During the whole courfe of the difeafe, the pulfe
is quick, fmall, and uncommonly feeble ; the urine
fmall in quantity; the fub-maxillary glands fomewhat
enlarged and painful to the touch. "I he velum pendu-
. him palati, the uvula, the tonfils, and gullet, as far
as the eye can reach, partake of the general rednefs
and tumefaCtion ; but although collections of thick
mucus, greatly refembling the fpceks or floughs in
tin; putrid fore throat, fometimes occur, yet thofe are
eafily wafhed off, and real ulcerations of thofe parts
were never obferved.
Thefe are the moft ufual appearances of this difor-
der; but it too frequently affumes a much more fatal
form. Ih fome children the delirium commences in a
few hours after the firft attack ; the fkin is intenfely
hot; the fcarlet colour appears on the firft or fecond
day, and they die very early on the third. Others
again, who furvive this rapid termination, inftead of
recovering, as is ufual, about the time the fkin begins
to get its natural colour* fall into a kind of lingering,
and die at laft in the courfe of fix or eight weeks.
In adults, circular livid fpots were frequently ob¬
ferved about the breaft, knees, and elbows; alfo large
blotches of red, and others of white intermixed, and
often changing places.
] n the month of OClober, when the air becomes
colder, the fcarlet colour of the fkin was both lefs
frequent and lefs permanent. Many patients had no
appearance of it at all; whilft others, efpecially adults,
had a few minute red pimples, crowned with white
pellucid heads The infide of the throat was con-
fiderably tumefied ; its colour a dull red, fometimes
tending to a livid. The pulfe beat in general >30
or 140 ftrokes in a minute; was fmall, but hard,
and fometimes fufficiently fo to juftify the opening of
a vein ; and the blood thus taken away, in every in-
flance when cool, appeared fizy, and the whole craffa-
mentum firm.
Happy would it be, Dr Withering obferves, if the
baneful influence of this difordcr terminated with the
febrile fymptoms. But in ten or fifteen days from
the ceflation of the fever, and when a complete re¬
covery might be expe&ed, another train of fymptoms
occur, which at laft frequently terminate fatally.
The patients, after a few days amendment, feel a
fomething that prevents their farther approach to
health ; an unaccountable languor and debility pre¬
vails, a ftiffnefs in the limbs, an accelerated pulfe,
difturbed fleep, difrelifh to food, and a fcarcity of
urine. Thefe fymptoms, we are told, are foon fuc-
ceeded by fwellings of a real dropfical nature, form¬
ing fometimes an anafarca,' and on other occafions an
afeites ; and not unfrequently fcarlatina has proved fa¬
tal, from fupervening hydrothorax in confequence of the
tffufion of water into the cheft. It is unneceffary to
remark, that when this happens, a fatal termination
is more fudden than from any other modification of
d'ropfv.
Dd
Dr
watery.
Throat. In fummer, ton-
fils, &c. little tume¬
fied ; no Hough . . In
autiii m, more fwelled.
Integuments feparat-
ing . . Sloughs white.
Breath. Very hot, but not
fetid.
accelfion.
Blood. Buffy. . Firm.
Termination. The 3d, 5th,
•8th, or nth day.
Nature. Inflammatory.
210 M E D I C I N E.
Exsnthe- Dr Withtring, after examining the accounts given Scarlatina Anginofa.
, n'°ta ', of this difeafe by different authors, proceeds to the Eyes. Shining, equable,
i diagnofis. It may be diflinguifhed, he obferves, from intenfe rednefs, rarely
the petechial fever, by the eruption in the latter ap¬
pearing feldom before the fourth day, by the regula¬
rity and diftin&nefs of the fpots, and by its princi¬
pally occupying the neck, the back, and the loins.
On the other hand, in the fcarlet fever, the eruption
generally appears about the third day; confifts either
of broad blotches, or elfe one continued rednefs,
which fpreads over the face and the whole body.
In the fever called purpura, the puftules are pro¬
minent, keep their colour under preffure, and never Voice. In fummer, natural,
appear early in the difeafe; whereas in the fcarlet Bowels. Regular at the
fever, the eruption appears more early, is not promi¬
nent, but perfe&ly fmooth to the touch, and becomes
quite white under preffure.
Although the purple fever and fcdrlalina may be
connefted by fome general caufe, yet our author takes
occafion to obferve, that they cannot be mere modifi¬
cations of the fame eruption : for examples occur,
he fays, of the fame perfon being firft feized with one
of thefe diforders, and afterwards with the other ;
but he never met with an inftance of the fame perfon
having the fcarlet fever twice; and he believes it to
be as great an improbability as a repetition of the
fmall-pox.
This diforder is particularly diftinguiihed from the
meajles, we are told, by the want of that cough,
watery eye, and running at the nofe, which are known
to be the predominant fymptoms in the early ftate
of the meafles, but are never known to exift in the
fcarlatina.
From the eryfipelas this difeafe is diftinguifhable,
by the limited feat of the former, together with its
not being contagious.
The ulcerated fore throat, however, is more diffi¬
cult to diftinguifh from this difeafe than any other;
and yet the diftinftion is a matter of the greateft im¬
portance, as the method of treatment, according to
JDr Withering, ought to be extremely different.—
But although, in a number of circumftances, thefe two
difeafes bear a very great refemb.lance, yet, with a
little attention, the one may in general, he thinks,
be diftinguifhed from the other. From Dr Fother-
gill’s account of the fore throat attended with ul¬
cers, our author has made out the following charac-
teriftical circumftances of the two difeafes, contrafted
to one another.
Pracflice.
Angiaa Gangrenofa. Scarlatina,
Eyes- Inflamed and wa-  v—
tery, or funk and dead.
Throat. Tonl!ls, &c. coni
fideraly fwelled and
ulcerated . . . Sloughs
dark brown.
Breath. Offenfive to the
patients and affiftants.
Voice. Flat and rattling.
Bowels. . Purging at the
acceifion.
Blood. . Florid . . Tender.
Termination. No ftated-
period.
Nature. Putrid.
Scarlatina Anginofa.
Seafon. . Summer . . Au¬
tumn.
Air. . Hot . . Dry.
Places. High . . Dry. . .
Gravelly.
Suljefls. Vigorous. Both
fexes alike. . Rebuff in
moft danger. . . .
Skin. Full fcarlet . . . .
fmooth . . If pimply,
the pimples white at
the top ., Always dry
8*d hot.
Angina Gangrenofa.
Seafon. . Spring . . Win¬
ter.
Air. . Warm . . Moift.
Places. Clofe. . Low . .
Damp. . Marlhy.
SuljeEts. Delicate .. Wo¬
men and female chil¬
dren. Rebuff adults
not in danger.
It is not pretended, Dr Withering remarks, that all
the above contraffed fymptoms will be met with in
every cafe, it is enough, he obferves, that fome of
them appear; aqd that if conjoined with the con-
fideration of the prevailing conftitution, they enable
us to diredl that mode of treatment which will moft
contribute to the relief of the fick.
But notwithftanding the attention which Dr Wi¬
thering has bellowed upon this fubjeit, we. are Hill
inclined to think, that the difeafe which he has fo ac«-
curately deferibed under the title offcurlatina anginofa,
is in reality the fame affedfion with the malignant ul¬
cerous fore throat of Huxham and Fothergill. Du¬
ring different epidemics, this difeafe, like fmall-pox
and meafles in different feafons, is confiderably varied
in its appearance. But ftill there occurs fuch a fimi-
larity as clearly marks the famenefs of the affedtion.
And indeed this, as in the cafe of the fmall pox, is
abundantly demonftrated, by intedfion from one coni.
tagion giving protedtion againft fucceeding ones, al¬
though the appearances be much varied. This has
particularly appeared at Edinburgh, where the difeafe
has of late prevailed as an epidemic on three different
years, viz. 1774-5, 17&2-3, and 1789-90 During^
the firft of thefe, in the greater part of patients, the
fore throats were of a very gangrenous and malignant
nature : during the fecond, the difeafe more com¬
monly appeared under the form of what might be
calledfmplefcarlatina: and during the third epidemic,
the contagion was, if we may be allowed the exprdlion,.
of an intermediate nature. But it is farther to be re¬
marked, that during every one of thofe epidemics,,
when feveral children of a family were at the fame time
fubje&ed to the infe&ion, in one the difeafe would have
been attended with almoft all the fymptoms mentioned
in the column of fcarlatina anginofa, with refpect to
fkin, eyes, throat, breath, bowels, termination of the
affe&ions, &c. In another, would have occurred all
the fymptoms with refpedt to thofe particulars which
he has mentioned under the column of angina gan-
Skin. Red tinge . . pim- grenofa. While at the fame time, in numberlefs in,
ply. . The pimp'les red- ftances, even in the fame patient, the difeafe at its
der than the interftices commencement has Ihown evident marks of an icflamr
. . bedewed with fy/eat matory, and at its termination of a putrid tendency,
towards morning. And there cannot be a doubt, that; both the fcarlatina.
2 kanginola3.
Fra£Hce. M E D I
. Exanthe- anglnoia, and angina gangrenofa, as defcribtd by Fo-
. niata thergill and Huxham' have occurred in every feafon
’ and fituation, and have affedted perfons of every age
and conftitution not before fubjedted to either dif-
eafe.
Caufes. Dr Withering affirms, that the immediate
caufe of this difeafe is a poifon of a peculiar kind,
communicable by contagion.
2. That this poifo'n lirft takes pofleffion of the
mucous membrane lining the fauces and the nofe 5
and either by its adtion upon the fecretory glands,
or upon the mucus itfelf, affimilates that mucus to its
own nature.
3. That it is from this beginning, and from this
Only, that it fpreads to the ftomach, &c. and at length
adls upon the fyftem at large.
4. That its firft adtion upon the nerves is of a fe-
dative or debilitating nature.
5. That in confequence of certain laws of the ner¬
vous fyftem, when the debilitating effedls operate upon
the fenforium commune, a readtion takes place ; and
that this readfion is, cateris parti us, proportioned to
the debilitating power.
6. That, in confequence of this readtion of the
nervous fyftem, the vibratory motion of the capillary-
blood veftels dependent thereon is greatly increafed ;
an unufually large quantity of blood is accumulated
in thofe veffels ; the heart and large blood-veftek are
deprived of their cuftomary proportion ; and hence,
though ft insulated to more frequent contradlion, the
pulfe muft neceflarily be feeble.
7. That as violent exertions are followed by debility,
upon the ceftation of the fever, the capillary veffels,
■which had adted with fuch unufual violence, are left
in a ftate of extreme debility, and are long in reco
vering their tone ; hence it is that fo many patients
afterwards become dropheal.
Dr Withering next proceeds to the confideration of
the different remedies, which either are at prefent in
common ufe or have been recommended as proper in
this difeafe.
Cure. Blood letting has been recommended by
authors; but fuch was the ftate of the pulfe in this
diforder, at le :ft during the fummer-months, that
it was not in any inftance thought advifable to take
away blood. In fome cafes, indeed, where the fiery
rednefs of the eyes feemed to demand the ufe of
leeches, they were had recourfe to, but never with
any advantage. In the harveft months, when the
pulfe was more firm, and when fuffocation feemed to
be threatened from the fwelling in the fauces, blood¬
letting was fometimes advifed; but ftill with lefs ad¬
vantage than one would have expected in almoft any
©ther fituation.
Vomiting.] This, our author obferves, feemstobethe
remedy of nature ; and he is furprifed how it fhould
have been omitted by feveral authors who have gone
before him. Vomiting, he fays, moft amply fulfils
the indications atifing both from a confideration of the
caufe and of the effeds ; and a liberal ufe of the re¬
medy he holds forth as fhe true foundation for fuc-
cefsful practice in fearlet fever and 'fore throat His
Common form of emetic is a combination of tartar
emetic and ipecacuanha, given in pretty fmart dofes j
CINE. jii
and thefe are to be repeated at leaft once in 48 Scarlatina,
hours, and in the worft cafes fo often as twice in 24 Y~-'
hours.
Purging.] The adion of purgatives is confidered
by Dr Withering as altogether repugnant to the cu¬
rative indications in this difeafe : for the poifons, as for¬
merly remarked, being received into the fyftem by the
fauces, the operation of a purge, initead of dif-
charging it, can only promote its diffufion along the
alimentary canal; and in fad, we are told, that when
even a fpontaneous purging fupervenes in this difeafe,
the patients fink fo amazingly faft, that it is not with¬
in the reach of art to fupport them. W'hen, how¬
ever, a confiderable quantity of acrid tnatter paffing
from the fauces into the ftomach, makes its way to the
redum, a confiderable degree of loofenefs often takes
place. And although evacuations from the fyftem in
general by means of cathartics may be hurtful, yet
patients often obtain great relief from a free difeharge
of this matter; and by difeharging it, purgatives have
the effed even of preventing an evacuation from the
fyftem, which would otherwife take place.
Sudorifics. Cordials. Alexipharmics.] None of thefe
remedies were found beneficial With refped t • cor¬
dials, Dr Withering obferves, that altho’ they feem to
be indicated by the great lot's of ftrength and feeble
pulfe, yet the certain confequence of their ufe always
was, an increafe of reftleflheis, of the delirium, and
of the heat.
Diuretics.] Thefe were found very beneficial. The
vegetable fixed alkali is recommended as the moft
proper article of this kind : a dram or two may be
eafily fwallowed every 4 hours, by giving a imall
quantity in every thing t-e patient d,inks Diure¬
tics, however, have been found principally ferviceable
by praditioners in general in thole calcs where the
urine is obferved to be Icanty, and where droplical
fymptoms have taken place.
Peruvian bark ] No medicine, we are told, ever
had a fairer trial in any difeal'e than the Peruvian bark
had in this epidemic; for the feeble pulfe, great
proiiration of ftrength, with here and ihere a livid
fpot, were thought to be fuch undeniable evidences of
a putrid tendency, that the bark was poured down
not with a fparing hand. But this was only at firft j
for thefe livid fpots and the Houghs in the throat be¬
ing found to be the efteds of iuftammation inftead of
putrefadion, and the bark initead ol dimmilhing,
rather incre.tfing the.e fymptoms, it was at laft entire¬
ly laid afide by Dr Withering in his pradice. "ut
although Peruvian bark may not have been fuccefsful
with a particular epidemic at a particular pi ce ; yet
from the concurring teftimony of many praditioners,
it is very commonly found to be produdive of good
effeds : And there is perhaps no remedy in which
greater dependence is in general put, particularly in
the advanced periods of the dil'eale, where the lector
is confiderable.
Upon the fame principles that the bark was pre¬
ferred, fixable ait was at firft likewile advifed, but
with no evident effeds either one w y or another.
Dulcified acids were alfo had recourfe to, but with no
advantage.
Opiates.] Thefe, although recommended by fome
D d z author*
G
I N E.
212 MED!
Exanthe- authors for the removal of inquietude and watchfulnefs,
aiata , yet in this epidemic, inftead of effedling tliefe pur-
y pofes, always increafed the diitrefs of the patient-
Blifters.] In the fummer appearance of the difeafe,
blifters were univerfally detrimental; they never failed
to haflen the delirium ; and if the cafe was of the
worft kind, they too often coniirmed its fatal tendency.
But although this may have been the cafe during the
epidemic which Dr Withering defcribes, it has by no
means been generally obferved. On the contrary, by
the early application of blifters to the external fauces,
both the glandular fvvellings and likewife the difcharge
from the mouth and fauces have been much diminiih-
ed ; and practitioners have believed, not without pro¬
bable reafon, that the after affeftions of the throat
were lefs coniiderable than would otherwife have been
the cafe. Dr Withering allows, that in the autumnal
feafon, when the inflammation was lefs generally dif-
fufed through the bbdy, they were lefs detrimental;
but he thinks that they did not here produce any be¬
neficial effeCls.
Injected gargles of contrayerva decodtion, fweet'en-
ed with oxymel of fquills, &c. were found very bene¬
ficial in bringing always large quantities of vifcid ropy
fluff from the fauces.
The immerfion of the feet and legs in warm water,
although it did no harm, yet did not either procure
lleep or abate the delirium, as it frequently does in
other kinds of fever.
As in fummer it was found difficult to keep the
patients fufficiently cool, they were ordered to lie
upon a matrefs inftead of a feather-bed; a free cir¬
culation of air was kept up ; and where the patient’s
ftrength would admit of it, they were ordered fre¬
quently out of doors. Animal food and fermented
liquors were denied them, and nothing allowed but
tea, coffee, chocolate, milk and water, gruel, barley-
water, and fuch articles.
With refpeCt to the dropfical diforder which fo
frequently fucceeds to this complaint, it was never
obferved, Dr Withering remarks, when the preceding
fymptoms had been properly treated.
When called upon to patients in the dropfical
date, he began his practice by a dofe of calomel
at night, and a purgative in the morning. When
a febrile pulfe attended the othej- fymptoms, emetics
were ufeful, as well as the faline draughts and other
neutral falls. When great debility, comatofe or pe¬
ripneumonia fymptoms occurred, blifters were found
' very fervioeable : but when dropfical fymptoms were
the principal caufe of complaint, fmall dofes of rhu¬
barb and calomel were advifed ; recourfe was aifo had
to diluted folutions of fixed alkalies, fquills, Seltzer
waters, and other diuretics.
When the unne flows freely, fteel and other tonics
are recommended; together with gentle exereife, high-
feafoned food, wine, and the wearing of flannel in con-
taft with the flein.
Dr Withering concludes his effay with an enumera¬
tion of feveral caffs, treated according to the prin¬
ciples above laid down. The fuccefsful termination
©f thefe cafes demonftrates the propriety of the prac¬
tice which he has recommended ; at leaft: for the epi¬
demic under the form in which it then appeared.
Erdctics.
Urticaria.
Genus XXXIII. URTICARIA, —v—-
Nettle-rash. 231 '
Febris urticata, Fog. 40.
Uredo, Lin. 8.
Purpura urticata, Juncl. 75.
Scarlatina urticata, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eryfipelatis fpecies altera, Sydenham, ferfft. v;v.
cap. 6.
Febris fcarlatina, et febris urticata, Meyferey, Mai.
des armees, 291 et feq.
Defcription This difeafe has its Englifti name
from the refemblance of its eruption to that made by
the flinging of nettles. Thefe little elevations upon
the Ikin in the nettle-rafh often appear inflantaneoully*
efpecially if the ikin be rubbed or fcratched, and fel-
dom flay many hours in the fame place, and fome-
times not many minutes. No part of the body is ex¬
empt from them ; and where many of them rife toge¬
ther, and continue an hour or two, the parts are often
confiderably fvvelled ; which particularly happens in
the face, arms, and hands. Thefe eruptions will con¬
tinue to infelt the flein, -fometimes in one place and
fometimes in another, for one or two hours at a
time, two or three times every day, or perhaps for
the greateft part of the 24 hours.—In fome perfons
they laft only a few days, in others many months j
nay, fometimes the difeafe has lalled for years will*
very fliort intervals.
But though the eruption of the urticaria refembles,
as already obferved, that produced by the flinging of
nettles, it is fometimes accompanied with long, wheals,
as if the part had been ftruck with a whip. What¬
ever be the fhape of thefe eminences, they always ap¬
pear folid, without having any cavity or head con¬
taining either water or any other liquor : and this
affords an eafy mark whereby this difeafe may be di-
ftinguifhed from the itch. For it often happens, that
the infufferable itching with which this eruption is at¬
tended, provokes the patient to fcratch the parts ft>
violently, that a fmall part of the cuticle on the top of
thefe little tumors is rubbed off; a little fcab fucceeds;
and, when the fweiling is gone down, there is left an
appearance hardly to be dillinguiftied from the itch,
but by the circumftance juft now mentioned. The
nettle-rafh alio further differs from the itch, in not
being infe&ious.
Caufes, See. Dr Heberden is inclined to aferibe
this diftemper to fome mechanical caufe outwardly ap^
plied to the fkin. He obferves, that moft people fuf-
fer in a fujnilar manner from the real Hinging of nettles.
Cowhage, or, as it is corruptly called, cow-itch, a
fort of phafeolus, or French bean, the pod of which
is covered over with a kind of down or hair, and the
effeft of which upon the flein is much the fame as that
of nettles; and almoft any hairs cut equally fhort, and
fprinkled upon the fkin, whenever they happen to ftick
in it, will make the part itch or fmart in fuch a man¬
ner as to give great uneafinefs; it is alfo a confiderable
time before the fkin can be cleared of the finer qnes,
when once they are ftrewed upon it.
Reaumur, in the fourth memoir of his Hiftory of
Infects, deferibes a fpecies of caterpillars to which be¬
long
Practice. MEDICINE. 215
Exanthe- long a fort of hairs almo!l invilible to the naked hidoiy of the diforder with a cafe communicated Urticaria,
rtata :Cye> which are eafily detached, and frequently float to him by pr Monfey, phyiician of Chelfea-college, —-v—
in the air round their neft, though it have not been at and in which the difeafe appeared with uncommon
all difturbed. The touch of thefe hairs has a fimilar violence.
effeft with the cow-itch ; that is, they occafion into- W. A, aged near 30, of a thin fpare habit, was
lerahle itchings, with little bumps and rednefs, ariiing- feized with a diforder attended with fymptoms of a
fometimes to a flight inflammation. Thefe he found very uncommon kind. Whenever he went into the
would continue four or five days, if the animal or the air, if the fun (hined bright, he was feized with a
tieft had been much handled; and though they tickling of his fle(h on thofe parts expofedto the fun:
had not been touched at all, yet, by only walking this tickling, by his continuing in the air, increafed to
near their nefts, the fame effe&s"would be brought on, a violent itching, attended with great heat and pain :
but for a (horter time. Thefe hairs affett the Ikin in the Ikin would then be almoft as red as vermilion, and
this manner by fticking in it, as he could perceive thicken like leather; and this remained till he went out
with a glafs of a great magnifying power ; for with of the open air, and then abated in about 15 or 20 mi-
one of a fmall power they were not viiible. The un- nutes. This happened only when the fun was above
cafy fen fations caufed by thefe fmall wounds, not only, the horizon; at other times he was what he called
as he fays, laft feveral days, but move from one part y«iA? we//.—But it was not owing to the heat of the
of the body to another ; fo that they will ceafe upon fun ; for the fun in winter affedled him full as much,
one wrift, and immediately begin on the other ; from if not more, and the heat of the fire had no fuch ef-
the wrift they will go to" the fingers or the face, or feft. Thus he was confined to thehoufe for 10 years,
even to the parts of the body which are covered. He He tried feveral hofpitals, and had advices from many
fuppofes, that the motions of the body, when much of phyficians, without the leatt abatement of his com-
this fine down lies near or upon the Ikin, may drive plaints. At laft it was agreed by a confultation of
it from one part to another, or change what was lying phyficians, that he fliould try dipping in falt-water i
there inoffenfively to a fituation fit to make it pene- which he did at Yarmouth for 13 weeks, without any
ti-ate into the flein. Neither cold water, nor oil, nor viiible amendment. One hot day, having pulled off
fpirit of wine, with which the parts affe&ed were his clothes and gone into the fea in the middle of the
bathed, had any effeA in removing the itching. He day, the heat diffufed itfelf fo violently all over his
thinks the moft efficacious remedy which he tried for body, that, by the time he had put on his clothes,,
this complaint was, to rub the parts ftrongly with his eye-fight began to fail, and he was compelled to
parfley, which inftantly leffened the fenfations, and . he down upon the ground to fave himfelf from falling,
after two or three hours, entirely freed the patient from The moment he lay down, the faintnefs went off;
them. It is alfo well known, that many fpecies of upon this he got up again; but had no fooner arifen,
caterpillars, by only walking over the hands, will than he found himfelt in the former condition : he
produce fomething like this effeft on the parts therefore lay down again, and immediately recovered,
which they touch, and undoubtedly from the fame He continued alternately getting up and lying down,
caufe. - till the diforder began to be exhaufted, which >vas in.
IDr Htberden afks, Is it impoffible that the nettle- about half an hour ; and he was frequently obliged to
rafli (hould arife from the fame caufes, or from others have recomfe to the fame expedient,
fimilar, which we mifs by looking too deeply for Having -at laft accidentally met with Dr Monfey,
them in the blood and humours? Such (fays he) may this phylician queftioned him concerning the caufe of
have been its origin in feme inftances, where it has the diforder ; but nothing could be gueffed at, ex-
lafted only a few days; but where this affeftion has cepting that the patient owned he had one winter
continued for fume years, in perfons who change their lived entirely upon bullock’s liver and porter, from
linen every day, and who bathe frequently all the inability to purchafe better victuals. A comrade
time, it can hardly be aferibed to fuch an external lived with him at that time, on the fame provifions ;,
caufe. He has obferved it frequently to arife from mid he alfo was affefled in a fimilar manner, though
cantharides; but though it has continued many-weeks in a lefs degree, and had recovered. This patient
after the removal of the blifter, yet it might Ire fu- was then firft put upon a courfe of Dover’s fweating^
fpedled that this ^rofe from the fine fpiculae of the powder without any effect, and afterwards tried a
cantharides fticking all this time about the ikin ; it courfe of nitrous ones with the fame bad fuccefs. At .
being cuftomary to ftrew much of the dry powder of laft Dr Monfey determined to try the effect of mer-
the cantharides over the blifter-plaiter, whence it may cury, which happily proved effectual in removing this
readily be carried to other parts of the body. But it obitinate and uncommon dktemper. The patient be-
is certain that firnilar effects will fometimes follow the gan with taking five grains of calomel for three nights
internal ufe of wild valerian root, or the eating of fiffi running, and a cathartic next morning. In this courfe
not fufficiently dreffed ; mufcles, fhrimps, and even he went on for near a fortnight, at the end of which
honey, and the kernels of fruits, will alfo fometimes he found himfelf very fenfibly relieved. This encou*
produce fymptoms of a fimilar kind. But whatever raged him to go on rather too boldly, by which
be its caufe. Dr Heberden never favv any reafon to means a flight falivation enfued ; however, that went
'fuppofe that the nettle-rafh had in any way vitiated off foonj and in about fix weeks he was quite well.—r
the humours to fuch. a degree as to require the ufe of Some time after, he was threatened with a return of
internal remedies; and if the itching could be cer- his diforder ; but this was effectually relieved by a-
'tainly and expeditioufly allayed, there would be no dofe of calomel, which he had afterwards occafion,
cccafion for any farther cure. He concludes this to repeat for the fame reafon, and with the fame
- fuccefsj:
214 M E D X
-Examhe- fuccefs; but at laft the diforder feemed to be radi-
. mata cally cured, by his having no further fymptoms of a
relapfe.
Genus XXXIV. PEMPHIGUS.
Pemphigus, Sauv. gen. 93. Sag. 291.
Morta, L'm. 1.
Febris bullofa, Vog. 41.
Pemphigus major, Sauv.fy. 1.
Exanthemata ferofa, C. Pifon. Obf. T ^O.
Febris pemphygodes, Germ. D. I. A. viii.
Obf 56.
Pemphigus caftrenfis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Febres fyneches, cum veficulis per pedtus et collum
fparfis, Morton. App. ad Exerc II.
Pemphigus Helveticus, Sauv. fp. 3. Langkans in
Adh Helvet. vol. ii. p. 260. et in Befchreibuug
des Siementhals, Zurich 1753.
This is a very rare difeafe, infomuch that Dr Cul¬
len declares he never faw it. He declines taking the
defcriptions of Foreign phyficians ; we fhall therefore
content ourfelves with giving an inftance of this very
uncommon diftemper, as it was obferved in the infir¬
mary at Aberdeen, and was treated by the late Dr
David Stuart, then phyfician to that hofpital, who
■foon after publifhed an account of it in the Edinburgh
Medical Commentaries. A private foldier of the - 3d
■regiment, aged eighteen years- formerly a pedlar, and
•naturally of a healthy conftitution, was received into
the hofpital at Aberdeen on the 2 th of April. A-
■bout twenty days before that, he had been feized with
-the mealies when in the country; and, in marching to
-town, on the fecond day of their eruption, he was ex-
pofed to cold; upon which they fuddenly difappeared.
Having arrived at Aberdeen, he was quartered in a
«3amp, ill-aired, under ground apartment. He then
complained of ficknefs at ftomach, great oppreffion
about the praecordia, head-ach, lafiltude, and weari-
trefs, on the leall exertion ; with ftiffnefs and rigidity
of his knees and other joints. The furgeon of the re-
-giment vifited him : he was purged but with little
■benefit. About ten days before, he obferved on the
in fide of his thighs a number of very fmall, diilindt,
-ted fpots, a little elevated above the furface of the
Jkin, and much refembling the firll appearance of
"fmall-pox. This eruption gradually fpread itfelf over
his whole body, and the puftules continued every day
*0 increafe in fize.
Upon being received into the hofpital, he complain¬
ed of head-ach, fickntfs at ftomach, opprefiion about
■the praecordia, thirft, fore throat, with difficulty of
•fwallowmg; his tongue was foul, his ikin felt hot and
feverilh ; pulfe from 11c to 120, rather depreffed ;
belly coftive ; eyes dull and languid, but without deli¬
rium. The whole furface of his Ikin was interfperfed
with veficles, or phlydlanae, of the fixe of an ordinary
walnut ; many of them were larger, efpecially on the
arms and breaft. In the interftices, between the vefi¬
cles, the appearance of the fkin was natural, nor was
there any rednefs round their bafe ; the diftance from
-one to another was from half an inch to a hand-
breadth or more In fome places two or three were
joined together, like the puftules in the confluent fmall-
pox. A few veficles had burl! of themfelves, and form-
C X N E. Pra&ice.
ed a whitilh fcab or cruft. Thefe were moftly on the Pemphigus
neck and face; others fhowed a tolerably laudable pus.  »—
However, by far the greateft number were perfectly
entire, turgid, and of a bluilh colour. Upon opening
them, it was evident that the cuticle elevated above the
cutis, and diftended with a thin, yellowifti, femipellu-
cid ferum. formed this appearance. Nor w'as the fur¬
face of the cutis ulcerated or livid; but of a red florid
colour, as when the cuticle is feparated by a bliiter,
or fuperficial burning. No other perfon laboured un¬
der a fimilar difeafe, either in the part of the country
from which he came, or when he refided in Aberdeen.
This cafe was treated in the following manner. The
largeft of the veficles were fnipped, and drefied with
unguent, e lap. cahtminari. In the evening he was
vomited with a folution of tartar emetic, given in fmall
quantities and at intervals. This alfo procured two
loofe ftools. And he was ordered for drink, water-
gruel acidulated with lemon-juice.
“ April 16. He ftill complained of ficknefs, fome
oppreffion about his breaft, and fore throat ; he had
flept little during the night; his tongue was foul and
blackifh; his fkin, however, was not fo hot as the pre¬
ceding day; his urine was high-coloured, but had the
appearance of feparation; his pulfe 90, and foft; molt
of the fores on the trunk of the body looked clean-
Others, particularly where the veficles were confluent,
feemed beginning to ulcerate, and to have a bluiih iub-
livid appearance. They were drefled afrelh with ce¬
rate, and he was ordered the following medicines :
R. Decoft Cort. Peruvian, vi. Vimrubr. Lulitan.
jiii. M. Hujus mixturas capiat 51?. tertia qua-
que bora.
<£ His acidulated drink was continued; and on ac¬
count of the very offenfive fmell 011 approaching near
him, fome vinegar was placed in a baton before the
bed, and fprinkled on the floor; and the ro~.m vva*
kept properly aired.
“ April 17. His fores looked tolerably clean, un-
lefs on his arms and thighs; where they were livid, a
little ulcerated, and difeharged a bloody ichor.
“ His headach, ficknefs, &c. were mottly gone;
his tongue was rather cleaner; pulfe 68, and loit. As
-the decoddion of the bark fat ealily on his ftomach, the
following prefeription was ordered :
R. Pulv. fubtiliff. Cort. Peruv 3(5. Vfni rubri Lu-
fitan. Aquae fontan. aa jfs. M. ft Hauft. tertia
quaque hora repetend.
The acidulated drink was continued, and frefli dref-
fings applied to the fores.
“ April 18. The little ulcers in his arms and thighs
ftill difeharged a bloody ichor, and looked ill; his
other complaints were better; pulfe 2. The bark had
not haufeated him, and it was continued as well as his
former drink.
“ April 19. His fores looked much cleaner and
better; the fever was gone, his pulle natural, and he had
no complaint but weaknefs and a troublclome itching
of the fkin: The Peruvian bark, &c. were continued.
“ April 20 Some of the ulcers ftiil poured forth a
bloody ichor; moft of them, however, looked well,
and had begup to heal—fever gone—medicines conti¬
nued-
“From the 21 ft of ■'pril,he went on gaining ftrength,
and his fores appeared to heal fall; he was defired to
take.
!Pra (Slice. M E D I
Exan he- take only four dofes every day; and by the 27th his
“ata fores, &c. were totally dried up—he had no complaint,
v .i- - v—r-- was difmiffed cured.^
Since the publication-of this cafe of pemphigus by
Dr Stuart, obfervations on this difeafe havi been pub-
lilhed by Dr Stephen Dickfdn of Dublin in the Franf-
actions of the Royal Iriih Academy. In thefe ob¬
fervations, an account is given of fix different cafes
which Dr Dickfon has had an opportunity of feeing.
Judging from thefe, Dr/Dickfon thinks that-Dr Cul-
len-s definition of this difeafe requires corredfion ; and
that it ought to be defined, “ a fever accompanied
with the fuccefiive eruption, from different parts of the
body, internal as well as external, of veficles about the
fize of an almond, which become turgid with a faintly
yellowifh ferum, and in three or four days fubfide.”
From the cafes which have fallen under Dr Dick-
fon's obfervation, he concludes, that the difeafe varies
confiderably as to its mildnefs or malignity. In, three of
thecafes which he has feen,the fymptoms were extreme¬
ly mild, but in the other three ftrong fymptoms of
putrefcency were manifefted, and the life of the pa¬
tient was in great danger. With refpedl to the me¬
thod of cure, he is of opinion, that the general fymp¬
toms. of weaknefs, and tendency to putrefa&ion, obvi-
oufly point out the proper treatment. Nouriffiment
muff be fupplied, and the Peruvian bark and wine
carefully admini{lered ; and when veficles appear on
internal parts, irritation muff be guarded againft by
opiates, demulcents, and gentle laxatives.
Some additional obfefvations on the fubjeft of pem¬
phigus have lately been publifhed in the London Me¬
dical Journal by Mr Thomas Chriftie. From a cafe
which Mr Chriftie defcribes, Ke is difpdfed to agree
with Dr Dickfon in thinking that fometimes at leaft
pemphigus is not contagious. He remarks, however,
that the pemphigus defcribed by fome foreign writers
was extremely infectious; which he thinks this may lead
to a divifion of the diRafe'into the two fpecies, the
pemphigus fimplex and complicatus; both of which,
bufcfpecially the laft, feem to vary much with refpeCt
to mildnefs and malignity.
Genus XXXV. APHTHA.
The Thrush.
333 Aphtha, Sauv. gen. too- Lin. 9. Sag. 298..
JSoerb. 978. Hoffm. II. 478. Junci. 137.
Febris aphthofa, Vog. 44.
The only idiopathic fpecies is the thruffl to which
jnfants are fubjeft ; (Aphtha laftucimen, Sauv. fp. 1.)
The aphthas are whitifh or alh-coloured puftules, in¬
vading the uvula, fauces, palate, tonfils, infide of the
cheeks, gums, tongue, and lips. They for the moft
part begin at the uvula, fending forth a glutinous mu.
eus, and the puftules covering all or the greateft;
number of the parts above-mentioned with a thick
whitilh cruft adhering moft tenacioufly This cruft
does not induce an efchar on the parts on which it
lies by eating into them, but comes off in whole pieces
after, the puftules have arrived at maturity. This will
often happen in a fhort time, fo that the throat and
internal parts of the mouth are frequently obferved to
be clean which a few years before were wholly cover.-
ed with white crufts. Neither is this difeafe confined
CINE.
to the throat and fauces, but is faid to affeft the cefo-
phagus, ftomach, and all parts of the alimentary canal.
Of this indeed there is no other proof, than that, after
a great difficulty of iwallowing, there is fometimes an
immenfe quantity of aphthae evacuated by ftool and.
vomiting, inch as the mouth could not be thought cap¬
able of containing.
Caufes, &c. The aphthofe fever feems to be pro¬
duced by cold and moifture, as it is found only in
the northern countries, and cfpecially in marffiy places j
and in them the aphthae, often appear without any fever
at all.
Prognosis. There is no fymptom by which the
coming out of aphthae can be foretold, tho’ they are
common in many fevers ; but they themfelves are in
general a bad fymptom, and always fignify a very te¬
dious diforder : the danger denoted by them is in pro¬
portion to the difficulty of deglutition ; and a diar¬
rhoea accompanying them is likewife bad This indeed
generally carries off old people when they become af¬
fected with aphthae. The dark-coloured aphthae alfo
are much more dangerous than fuch as are of a brown-
or alh colour; but it is a good fign when the ap¬
petite returns, and the dark-coloured ones are fuc-
ceeded by others of a whiter colour. Neither are thofe
which are unaccompanied with fever fo dangerous as
the other kind.
Cure. As the aphthae are feldom a primary difeafe,
we muff generally endeavour to remove the diforder
upon which they depend, after which they will fall
off; but in the mean time we are not to negledl appli¬
cations to the aphthae themfelves, fuch as detergent and
foftening gargles made of the decoclion of figs, with
the addition of honey of.rofes, a little vinegar, and
fome tinfture. of myrrh.
Order IV. HEMORRHAGIC.
HiEMORKHAGlES.
234
Haemorrhagiae,.Clafs II. Ord. I. Hojfm. II.
194. Junck. 5.
Sanguifluxus,. Sauv. Clafs IX Ord. I Sag
Clafs V. Order I.
Genus XXXVI. EPISTAXIS. *1$
Beesding at the Nose.
Haemarrhagia, Suht. gen. 239, Lin. 173. Sag.
gen. 174..
Hoemorrhagia narium, Hojfm. IL 196. Junck. 6.
Haemorrhagia plethorica, Sauv. fp. 2. Hoffm. II.
19 s'.
The other Ipecies enumerated by authors are all
fymptomatic.
Defcription. The milder fpecies of this haemorrhagy
comes on more frequently in fummer than in winter,
and for the moft part without giving any warning, or
being attended yvith any inconvenience ; but the
lefs benign kind is. preceded by feveral remarkable
fymptoms. Thefe are, congeftions of the blood fome.-
times in one part and fometimes in another, and,
which are, often, very troublefome in the fides of the-
head; there is a rednefs of the cheeks; an inflation
of the face, and of the veffels of the neck and temples 4
a tinnitus aitLv'n ; a heavy pain of the eyes,,with a pra-
minencfe-
si6 M E D I
Ha;morr- mlnence, dryneTs, and fparks; tkere is a vertiginous
. aiFeftion of the head, with an itching of the noftriis,
and a fenfe of weight, efpecially about the root of the
nofe. In fome the ikep is difturbed with dreams about
blood, fire, See. Frequently the belly is cpftive, there
is a diminution of the quantity of urine, a fupprefiion
of fweat, coldnefs of the lower extremities, and ten-
lion of the hypochondria, efpecially the right one.
Cavfes, &c. This haemorrhagy may oceut at any
time of life ; but molt commonly happens to young
perfons, owing to the peculiar Hate of the fyftem
at that time. Sometimes, however, it happens af¬
ter the a*/*" and during the Hate of manhood, at
which time it is to be imputed to a plethoric ftate of
the fyftem ; to a determination of the blood, by habit,
to the.vcffels of the nofe ; or to the particular weak-
nefs of thefe veflels.
In all thefe cafes the difeafe may be confidered as an
arterial hsemorrhagy, and depending upon an arterial
plethora ; but it fometimes occurs, in the decline of
life, and may then be confidered as the fign^b'f a ve¬
nous plethora in the veflels of the head. It often hap¬
pens at any period of life in certain febrile difeafes,
which are altogether or partly of an inflammatory
nature, and which (how a particular determination of
the blood to the veflels of the head. As by this eva¬
cuation, other difeafes are often removed, it may on
thefe occafions be deemed truly critical. It happens to
perfons of every conftitution and temperament; but
moft frequently to the plethoric and fanguine, and
more commonly to men than women.
Progno/is. In young people, the bleeding at the
nofe may be confidered as a flight difeafe, and fcarce
worth notice. Eut, even in young perfons, when it re-
•curs very frequently and in great quantity, it is alarm¬
ing ; and is to be confidered as a mark of an arterial
plethora, which in the decline of life may give the
blood a detennination to parts from which the haemor-
rhagy would be more dangerous And this will require
more particular attention as the marks of plethora and
-congeftion preceding the haemorrhagy are more' conii-
tlerable, and as the flowing of the blood is attended
with a more confiderable degree of febrile diforder.
Thefe confequences are more efpecially to be dreaded,
when the epiftaxis happens to perfons after their
bx/4», returning frequently and violently. Even in the
decline of life, however, it may be confidered as in
itfelf very falutary; but at the fame time it is a mark
of a dangerous ftate of the fyftem, i. e. of a ftrong
tendency to a venous plethora in the head, and it has
accordingly been often followed by apoplexy, palfy,
&c. .When it happens in febrile difeafes, and is in
pretty large quantity, it may be generally confidered
as critical and falutary; but it is very apt to be too
profufe, and thus becomes dangerous. It fometimes
occurs during the eruptive fever of fome exanthemata,
and is in fuch cafes fometimes falutary; but if thefe
exanthemata be accompanied with any putrid difpofi-
tion, this hsmorrhagy, as well as artificial blood-let¬
tings, may have a very bad tendency.
Cure. The treatment in cafes of epiftaxis may he
referred to two heads, i/?, The treatment during the
time of the difeharge; and, idly, The treatment after
the difeharge is ftopt, with the view of preventing the
return of it. During the former of thefe periods, it
U° 2c6.
CINE. Practice.
is neceflary in the firit place to confiuer whether the Epiftaxis.
difeharge fliould be left to its natural courfe, or ftop- v
ped by artificial means. In determining this queftion,
regard muft be paid to the quantity of the difeharge ;
the appearance of the blood; the conftitution with
which epiftaxis occurs ; the former habit of the pa¬
tient ; and the confequences which refuk from the
difeharge. When, from due confideration of thefi
cireumftances, there is reafon to fear that further eva¬
cuation would be attended with bad confequences,
though this difeafe has been generally thought very
flight, it fliould feldom be left to the conduit of na¬
ture ; and in all cafes it fliould be moderated by keep¬
ing the patient in cool air, by giving cold drink, by
keeping the body and head ereit, by avoiding any
blowing of the nofe, fpeaking, or other irritation ; and
if the blood has flowed for fome time without fliowing
any tendency to ftop, vve are to attempt the fuppref-
fion of the htemorrhagy, by. prefling the noftril from
which the blood flows, wafhing the face with cold wa¬
ter, or applying this to fome other parts of the body.
Thefe meafures Dr Cullen judges to be proper even on
the firft attacks, and in young perfons where the dif¬
eafe is the leaft hazardous : but they will ftill be more
requifite if the difeafe frequently recurs without any
external violence ; if the returns happen to perfons
difpofed to a plethoric habit; and more particular¬
ly if the figns of plethora appear in the fymptoms
preceding the difeharge.
When the bleeding is fo profufe that the pulfe be¬
comes weak and the face pale, every means miift be
ufed to put a ftop to it, and that whether the patient
be young or old. Befldes thofe methods abovemen-
tioned, we mufl ufe aftringents both internal and ex¬
ternal ; but the latter are the moft powerful, and the
choice of thefe may be left to the furgeon. The in¬
ternal aftringents are either vegetable or fofiil ; but
the vegetable aftringents are feldom powerful in the
cure of any haemorrhagies except thofe of the alimen¬
tary canal. The fofiil aftringents are more aftive, but
differ confiderably in ftrength from one another-—
The chalybeates appear to have little ftrength': the
preparations of lead are more powerful; but cannot be
employed, on account of their pernicious qualities, un-
lefs in cafes of the utmoft danger. The tinSura fa-
turnina, or antiphthifica, is a medicine of very little
efficacy, either from the fmall quantity of lead it con¬
tains, or from the particular ftate in which it is. The
fafeft and at the fame time the moil powerful aftrin-
gent feems to he alum.
For fupprefiing this and other hxmorrhages, many
fuperftitious remedies and charms have been u ed, and
faid to have been employed with fuccefs. This has
probably been owing to the miftake of the by-ftan-
ders, who have fuppofed that the fpontancous ceflation
of the hxmorrhagy was owing to their remedy. At
the fame time Dr Cullen is of opinion, that fuch re¬
medies have fometimes been ufeful, by impreffing the
mind with horror or dread. Opiates have fometimes
proved fuccefsful in removing hxmorrhagies ; and
when the fulnefs and inflammatory diathefis of the fy¬
ftem have been previoufly taken off by bleeding, they
may, in Dr Cullen’s opinion, be ufed with fafety and
advantage. Ligatures have been applied upon the
limbs, for retarding the return of the venous blood
,, from
Pradlice. M E D I
Hemor- from tlie extremities; but their ufc feems to be am-
. rhagiag i biguous. In the cafe of profufe hemorrhagies, no
v ' care is to be taken to prevent the patient from faint¬
ing, as this is often the moft certain means of flop¬
ping them.
236 Genus XXXVII. HAEMOPTYSIS.
Spitting of Blood,
Hsemoptyfis, Sauv. gen. 240. Lin. 179. Fog. 84.
Sag. gen. 175. Junck. 8.
Hsemoptoc, Boerh. 1198.
Sanguinis fluxus ex pulmonibus, Hojfm. II. 202.
Sp. I. Haemoptysis from Plethora.
Sp. II. Haemoptysis, from External Violence.
Hsemoptyfis accidentalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Hsemoptyfis habitualis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Hsemoptyfis traumatica, Sauv. fp. 12.
Sp. III. Hemoptysis with Pthi/is.
Haemoptyfis phthifica, Sauv. fp. 9.
Hsemoptyfis ex tuberculo pulmonum, Sauv. fp. 10.
Sp. IV. The Calculous Hjemopttsis.
Hsemoptyfis calculofa, Sauv. fp. 14.
Sp. V. The Vicarious Hjemofttsis.
Hoemoptyfis catamenialis, Sauv. fp. 4.
Hsemoptyfis periodica, Sauv. fp. 5.
Defcription. This hemorrhagy commonly begins with
n fenfe of weight and anxiety in the ctn-ft, fome unea-
finefs in breathing, pain of the breaft or other parts of
the thorax, and fome fenfe of hc*it under the fternum;
and very often it is preceded by a faltifh talle in the
mouth. Immediately before the appearance of blood,
a degree of irritation is felt at the top of the larynx.
The perfon attempts to relieve this by hawking, which
brings up a little florid and fomewhat frothy blood.
The irritation returns; and in the fame manner blood
of a fimilar kind is brought up, with fome noife in the
wind-pipe, as of air palling through a fluid. Some¬
times. however, at the very firft, the blood comes up
with coughing, or at leaft fomewhat of coughing, and
accompanies the hawking above mentioned.
The blood is fometimes at firll in very fmall quan¬
tity, and foon difappears; but in other cafes, efpecially
when it frequently recurs, it is in greater quantity,
and often continues to appear at times for feveral days
together. It is fometimes profufe, but rarely in fuch
quantity as either by its excefs or by afudden fuffoca-
•tion to prove immediately mortal.
It is not always eafy to difcover whether the blood
evacuated by the mouth proceeds from the internal
Surface of the mouth itfelf, from the fauces or adjoin¬
ing cavities of the nofe, from the ftomach, or from
the lungs. It is, however, very neceffary to dillin-
guifli the different cafes ; and for this Dr Cullen offers
the following confiderations.
1. When the blood proceeds from fome part of the
internal furface of the mouth, it comes out without
any hawking or coughing; and generally, upon in •
fpeftion, the caufe is evident.
2. When blood proceeds from the fauces, or ad-
Vol.XI. Part 1.
CINE. 217
joining cavities of the nofe, it may be brought out by Haimop-
hawking, and fometimes by coughing. In this cafe , ^ 1~~ ^
there may be a doubt concerning its real fource, and
the patient may be allowed to pleafe himfelf with the
thoughts that the blood does not come from the lungs.
But the phyfician muff remember that the lungs are
much more frequently the fourde of an hemorrhagy
than the fauces. The latter feldom happens but to
perfons who have before been liable to an hemorrhagy
from the nofe, or to fome evident caufe of erofion;
and in molt cafes, by looking into the fauces, the di-
itillation of the blood from thence will be perceived.
3. When blood proceeds from the lungs, the man¬
ner in which it is brought up will commonly fhow from
whence it comes; but, independent of that, it may
alfo be known from the caufes of hEemoptyfis from
the lungs, to be afterwards mentioned, having pre¬
ceded.
4. When vomiting accompanies the throwing out
of blood from the mouth, we may generally know the
fource from v hence it proceeds, by confidering that
blood does not proceed fo frequently from the ftomach
as from the lungs; that blood proceeding from the
ftomach commonly appears in greater quantity than
from the lungs. The pulmonary blood alfo is ufually
of a florid colour, mixed with a little frothy
mucus only ; but the blood from the ftomach is of a
darker colour, more grumous, and mixed with the
other contents of the ftbmach. The coughing or
vomiting, as the one or the other happens firft to
arife, may fometimes point out the fource of the blood;
and this hath alfo its peculiar antecedent figns and
caufes.
Caufes, &c. An hsemoptyfis may he produced at
any time of life by external violence; and, in adult
perfons, while the arterial plethora prevails in the
fyftem, i.e. from the age of 16 to 35, an hsemoptyfis
may at any time be produced merely by a plethoric
ftaTte of the lungs. More frequently, however, it arifes
from a faulty proportion between the capacity of the
lungs and that of the reft of the body. Thus it is
often an hereditary difeafe, which implies a peculiar
and faulty conformation.
This difeafe efpecially happens to perfons who dif¬
cover the fmaller capacity of their lungs by the-nar-
rownefsof their cheil, and by the prominence of their
fhoulders ; which laft is a mark of their having been
long liable to a difficulty of refpiration. In fuch cafes,
too, the difeafe very frequently happens to perfons of
a fanguine temperament, in whom particularly the
arterial pkthora prevails. It happens alfo to perfons
of a fiender delicate make, of which a long neck is a
mark ; to perfons of much fenfibility and irritability,
and therefore of quick parts; to perfons who have
formerly 'been liable to hemorrhagies from the nofe ;
to thofe who have fuffered a fuppreffion of any ufual
hemorrhagy, the moft frequent inftance of which is in
females, who have fuffered a fuppreffion of their men-
ftrual flux ; and, laftly, to perfons who have fuffered
the amputation of any confiderable limb.
All this conftitutes the predifponent caufe of has-
moptyfis; and the difeafe may happen merely from
the predifponent caufe arifing to a confiderable height.
But in thofe who are already predifpofed, it is often
brought on by the concurrence of various occafional
£ e and
M E D I
arid exciting caufes. One of thefe, and perhaps a fre¬
quent one, is externaf heat; which, even when in no
.great degree, brings on the difeafe in fpring, and the
■beginning of fummer, while the heat rarifies the blood
more than it relaxes the folids, which had before been
■contracted by the cold of winter. Another exciting
caufe is a fudden diminution of the weight of the at-
mofphere, efpecially when concurring with any effort
in bodily exercife. The effort too, alone, may often
be the exciting caufe in thofe who are already pre-
difpofed ; and more particularly any violent exercife
of refpiration. In the predifpofed, alfo, the difeafe may
be occafioned by any degree of external violence.
Prognojis. Hasmoptyfis may fometimes be no more
dangerous than a hemorrhagy from the nofe; as when
it happens to females, in confequence of a fuppreffion
of their menfes ; when, without any marks of predif-
pofition, it arifes from external violence ; or, from
whatever caufe arifing, when it leaves no cough, dyfp-
nosa, or other affection of the lungs, behind it. But,
even in thefe cafes, a danger may arife from too large
a wound being made in the veffels of the lungs, from
any quantity of red blood being left to flagnate in the
cavity of the bronchias, and particularly from any de¬
termination of the blood being made into the veffelsof
the lungs, which by renewing the hemorrhagy may
have thefe confequences.
Cure. In the treatment of this difeafe, with a view
of Hopping the difcharge, it is firft neceffary to have
recourfe-to thofe meafures which tend to diminifh the
impetus by which the blood is expelled. This is to
be effected by a removal of plethora when itexifts; by
diminilhing the general impetus of circulation ; by di-
minifhing local increafed a&ion when it takes place in
the veffels of the lungs; and by producing a determi¬
nation of blood to other parts of the fyftem remote
from the lungs. But befides praftices diminifhing
impetus, it is often alfo neceffary to employ fuch as
augment the reliftance to the paffage of blood through
the ruptured veffels of the lungs., With thefe views
a variety of practices may be employed, particularly
blood-letting, refrigerants, fedatives, aftringents, and
the like.
On this fub'edt Dr Cullen differs from thofe who
prefcribe chalybeates and the Peruvian bark in the
cure of hasmoptyfis. Both of thefe, he obferves, con¬
tribute to increafe the phlogiftic diathefis then prevail¬
ing in the fyftem, and the haemoptylxs from predifpo-
tion is always accompanied with fuch a diathelis. In-
ftead of thefe, therefore, he recommends blood-letting
in greater or fmaller quantity, and more or lefs fre¬
quently repeated as the fymptoms fhall diredl. At the
fame time cooling purgatives are to be employed, and
every part of the antiphlogiftic regimen is to be ftriftly
enjoined. In the London Medical Obfervations, the
ufe of nitre is greatly recommended by Dr Dickfon,
to whom its eificacy was made known by Dr Lether-
tand, phyfician to St Thomas’s hofpital. The moft
commodious method ©f exhibiting it he found was in
an ele&uary. Four ounces of conferve of rofes were
made into an ele&uary with half an ounce of nitre;
of which the bulk of a large nutmeg was direfted to
be given, four, fix, or eight times a day, according to
the urgency of the cafe. The good effedis of this, he
tells us, have often aftoailhed him; and when given
CINE. Practice.
early in the difeafe, he fays he can depend as much Hajmop.
upon it for the cure of an haemoptyfis, as on the bark
for the cure of an intermittent. He agrees with Dr w
Cullen, however, that in thofe cafes where there is
any hardnefs in the pulfe, and which almoft always
happens, there is a neceffity for venefedtion. A cool
regimen, and quiet of body and mind, are certainly
ufeful; but Dr Cullen obferves, that fome kinds of
geftation, fuch as failing, and travelling in an eafy car¬
riage on fmooth roads, have often proved a remedy.
When the cough is very troublefome, it is abfolutely
neceffary to exhibit frequently a fmall dofe of an opiate.
Dr Dickfon alfo informs us, that the nitre joined with
fpermaceti, or pulv. e tragacanth. comp, has produced
equally good effedts with the eledluary above mention¬
ed ; in the compofition of which he at firft confidered
the conferve only as a vehicle for the nitre, though he
means not to infinuate that the former is totally defti-
tute of efficacy.
When this hemorrhagy has refitted other modes of
cure, and there is reafon to apprehend, even from the
mere quantity of blood evacuated, that the patient may
fink under the difcharge, blitters, particularly when
applied to the breaft, are often had recourfe to with
great advantage ; and the vitriolic acid, properly di¬
luted, both as an aftringent and refrigerant, is often
employed with very good effedfs.
PHTHISIS.
Pulmonary Consumption. 23?
Phthifis, Sauv. gen. 276. Lin. 208. Fog. 319.
Sag^ 101. Junck. 33.
Phthifis pulmonis, 1196.
Affedlio phthifica, five tabes pulmonalis, Hojfm. II.
284. •
Sp. I. The Incipient Phthisis, without expedloration 228
of Pus.
Phthifis incipiens, Morton. Phyfiolog. L. II. cap. 3.
Phthifis licca, Sauoi. fp. 1.
Sp. II. The P/rswim, with an expedtora-
tion of Pus.
Phthifis confirmata auBorum..
Phthifis humida, Sauv. fp. 2.
Sometimes, notwithftanding all the care we can
take, the hsemoptyfis will degenerate into a phthifis
pulmonalis, or confumption of the lungs; and fome¬
times an haemoptyfis will be the confequence of this
dangerous diforder. It has been indeed iuppofed, that
an ulceration of the lungs or phthifis was the natural
and almoft neceffary confequence of an haemoptyfis :
but, according to Dr Cullen, this is in general a mi-
ftake ; for there are many inftances of an hasmoptyfis
from external violence without being -followed by any
ulceration. The fame thing has often been obferved
where the hsemoptyfis arofe from an internal caufe;
and this not only in young perfons, when the difeafe
returned for feveral times, but when it has often re¬
curred during the courfe of a long life ; and it may
eafily be conceived, that a rupture of the veffelsof the
lungs, as well as of the veffels of the nofe, may be
fometimes healed. The caufes. of phthifis, therefore.
Dr Cullen reduces to five heads. 1. An haemoptyfis.
2. A fuppuration of. the lungs in confequence of a
j pneit-
Pnaflice. M E D t
Hemor pneumonia. 3. A catarfh. 4. An ailhma; and, 5.
, rh^ia: Tubercles.
^ 1. When a phthifis arifes from an haemoptyfis, it is
probable that it is occafioned by particular circum-
Itances; and what theie circumftances are, may not al*
ways be eafily known. It is poffible, that merely the
degree of rupture, of frequently repeated rupture, pre¬
venting the wound from healing, may occafion an ul-
der; or it is poffible, that red blood effufed, and not
brought up entirely by coughing, rilay, by ftagfiating
in the bronchia?, become acrid, and erode the parts.
But thefe hypothefes are rtot fupported by any certain
evidence; and from many obfervations we are led to
think, that feveral other circumftances muft concur in
producing the difeafe from hsemoptyfis.
2. The fecond caufe of an ulceration of the lungs
mentioned above is a fuppuration formed in confe-
quence of pneumonia. When a pneumonia, with fymp-
toms'neither very violent nor very flight, has conti¬
nued for many days, it is to be feared it will end in a
fuppuration : but this is not to be determined by the
number of days; for, not only after the fourth, but
even after the tenth day, there have been examples of
a pneumonia ending by a refolution ; and if the dif¬
eafe has fuffered fome intermiffion, and again recurred,
fhere may be inftances of a refolution happening at a
much later period from the beginning of the difeafe
than that juft now mentioned. But, if a moderate
difeafe, in fpite of proper remedies employed, be pro*
traded to the 14th day without any confiderable re-
miffion, a fuppuration is pretty certainly to be exped-
ed ; and it will be rtiore certain ftill, if rio figns of re¬
folution have appeared, or if an expedoration which
had appeared fhall have again ceafed, and the difficulty
of breathing has continued or incwafed, while the other
fymptoms have been rather abated.
That in a pneumonia, the effuflon is made which
may lay the foundation of a fuppuration, may be com
eluded from the difficulty of breathing becoming
greater when the patient is in a horizontal pofture, or
when the patient can lie more eafily on the affeded
fide. That, in fuch cafes, a fuppuration is adually
begun, may be inferred from the patient’s being fre¬
quently affeded with flight cold fliiverings, and with a
fenfe of cold felt fometimes in one fometimes in an¬
other part of the body. We form the fame conclu-
fion alfo from the ftate of the pulfe, which' is com¬
monly lefs frequent and fofter, but fometimes quicker
than before. 1 hat a fuppuration is already formed,
may be inferred from there being a confiderable re-
miffion of the pain which had before fubfifted ; while
with this the cough and efpecially the dyfpnosa corr-
tinue, and are rather increafed. At the fame time
the frequency of the pulfe is rather increafed, the fe-
verifli ftate fuffers confiderable exacerbations every even¬
ing, and by degrees a hedic fever in all its circum¬
ftances comes to be formed*
In this ftate of fymptoms, we conclude very confi¬
dently, that an abfeefs, or, as it is called, a vomica., is
formed in fome part of the pleura, and moft frequently
in that portion of it invefting the lungs. Here purulent
matter frequently remains for fome time, as if enclofed
in a cyft ; but commonly not long before it comes to
be either abforbed and transferred to fome other part
of the body, or breaks through into the cavity of the
CINE. 2i
lungs, or into that of the thorax. In the latter cafe it Phthifi*.
produces the difeafe called empyema; but it is when ——y——
the matter is poured into the cavity of the bronchije
that it properly conftitutes the phthifis pulmonalis. In
the cafe of empyema, the chief circumftances of a
phthifis are indeed alfo prefent: but we (hall here con-
fider only that cafe in which the abfeefs of the lungs
gives Occafion to a purulent expedoration.
An abfeefs of the lungs, in confequence of pneumo¬
nia, is not always followed by a phthifis: for fome¬
times a hedic fever is not formed ; the matter pouied
into the bronchiag is a proper and benign pus, which
frequently is coughed up very readily, and fpit out ;
and though this purulent expedoration (hould continue
for fome time, if it be without hedic fever, the ulcer
foon heals, and every morbid fymptom difappears.
This has fo frequently happened, that we may con¬
clude, that neither the accels of the air, nor the con-
ftant motion of the lungs, will prevent an ulcer of
thefe parts from healing if the matter of it be well-
conditioned. An abfeefs of the lungs, therefore, does
not neceflarily produce the phthifis pulmonalis; and if
it be followed by fuch a difeafe, it muft be in confe¬
quence of particular circumftances which corrupt the
purulent matter produced, render it unfuitable to the
healing of the ulcer, and at the fame time make it af¬
ford an acrimony, which, abforbed, produces a hedic
fever and its confequences.
The corruption of the matter of fuch abfeeffes may
be owing to feveral caufes; as, 1. That the matter
effufed during the inflammation had not been a pure
ferum fit to be converted into a laudable pus, but had
been joined with other matters which prevented that,
and gave a confiderable acrimony to the whole. Or,
2. That the matter effufed and converted into pus,
merely by long ftaghation in a vomica, or by its con-
nedion with an empyema, had been fo corrupted as
to become unfit for the purpofe of pus in the healing
of the ulcer. Thefe feem to be poffible caufes of the
corruption of matter in abfeeffes, fo as to make it the
occafion of a phthifis in perfons otherwife found; but
it is probable that a pneumonic abfeefs efpecially pro¬
duces phthifis when it happens to perfons previoufly
difpofed to that difeafe, and therefore only as concur¬
ring with fome other caufes of it.
3. The third caufe fuppofed to produce a phthifis
is a catarrh; which, in many cafes, feems in length of
time to have the expedoration of mucus proper to it
gradually changed to an expedoration of pus; and at
the fame time, by the addition of a hedic fever, the
difeafe, which was at firft a pure catarrh, is changed
into a phthifis. But this fuppofition is, in the opinion
at lead of fome phyficians, liable to feveral difficulties.
The catarrh is properly an affedion of the mucous
glands of the trachea and bronchiae analogous to the
coryza and lefs violent kinds of cynanche tonfillaris,
which very feldom end in fuppuration. And although
a catarrh (hould be difpofed to do fo, the ulcer produ¬
ced might readily heal up, as it does in the cafe of a
cynanche tonfillaris; and therefore (hould not produce
a phthifis.
Further, the catarrh, as purely the effed of cold, is
generally a mild difeafe as well as of (hort duration;
and, according to Dr Cullen, there are at moft but
very few of the numerous cafes of it, which can befaid
E e 2 to
220 M E D I
Herr,or- to have ended in a phthifis. Iu all thefe cafes in which
i hagig tj1jg feem8 to have happened, he thinks it probable that
”*"~v the perfons affeftcd were peculiarly predifpofed to
phthifis ; and the beginning of phthifis fo often refem-
bles a catarrh, that it may have been miftaken for fuch
a difeafe. It often happens alfo, to increafe the fal¬
lacy, that the application of cold, which is the moft.
frequent caufe of catarrh, is alfo frequently the exci¬
ting caufe of the cough, which proves to be the be¬
ginning of a phthifis.
Many pbyficians have fuppofed that an acrimony of
the fluids eroding feme of the veffels of the lungs is a
frequent caufe of ulceration and phthifis; but this ap¬
pears to Dr Cullen to be a mere fuppofition. He ac¬
knowledges, that in many cafes an acrimony fubfifting
in fome part of the fluids is the caufe of the difeafe ;
but obferves that it is at the fame time probable, that
this acrimony operates by producing tubercles, rather
than by any diredt erofion.
But notwithftanding thefe obje&ions, experience af¬
fords numerous examples of cafes in which a difeafe
long fubfifting under the form of catarrh has at laft
degenerated into phthifis, and proved fatal from fu-
pervening heftic fever. It muft, however, at the fame
time be allowed, that catarrh, degenerating into a
chronic ftate after fubfifting for many years, has of it-
felf often proved fatal without inducing phthifis.
4. If phthifis does not frequently follow catarrh, it
is ftill more rarely a confequence of afthma. Innume¬
rable examples are unqueftionably afforded of that dif¬
eafe fubfifting for many years without any fymptom
whatever of phthilis as a confequence of it. But at
the fame time, there are unqueftionable examples of
phthifis deriving its origin from afthma; which, how¬
ever, probably happens only in cafes where a peculiar
Hate of the lungs at the fame time takes place : But
without the concurrence of afthma, this ftate would
not of itfelf have been fufficient for inducing the af-
feftion.
5. Of all the caufes formerly mentioned, phthifis
moft frequently arifes from tubercles. Dr Simmons
informs us, that he has had opportunities of infpe&ing
the bodies of many people who died in this way, and
never found them totally abfent. He has likewife feen
them in fubjefts of different ages, who had been troubled
with no fymptoms of an affe&ion of the breaft during
their lifetime. In thefe, however, they were fmall,
and few in number. This proves that they may exift
without inconvenience till they begin to difturb the
fun&ions of the lungs by their fize and number; or
till fome degree of inflammation be excited, either by
accidental caufes. or by certain changes that take
place within theirVubftance ; for as yet we know but
little of their true nature. Thefe little tumors vary in
their confiftence; in fome they are compofed of a
pulpy fubftance, and in others approach more to the
nature of feirrhous. They are moft commonly formed
in confequence of a certain conftitutional predifpofi-
tion ; but whatever is capable of occafionirg a morbid
irritability of the lungs feems alfo to be capable of ge¬
nerating them. Thus the fpafmodic afthma frequent¬
ly ends in tubercles and eonfumption; and it is not
unufual for millers, ftone-cutters, and others, to die
confumptive, from their being fo conftantly expofed
to duft, which in thefe cafes probably a&s by produ-
C I N E. Pra&ice.
cing fimilar concretions s and Dr Kirkland obferves, Phthifis.
that feythe-grinders are fubjeft to a difeafe of the —v—^
lungs, from particles of fand mixing with iron-duft,
which among themfelves they call the grinders rot*.
Tubercles, however, in by much the greater number
of inftances, have their fource from a fcrophulous dif-
pofition; and fome eminent phyficians have fuppofed
that the generality of pulmonary confumptions are of
this kind. This notion, however, they have perhaps,
carried too far: they have probably been mifled by
thefe tuberculous concretions which, without good rea-
fon, have been fuppofed to be difeafed glands, and of
courfe analogous to the glandular affections we meet
with in the fcrophula. Tubercles may likewife fome-
times be owing to the fudden repulfion of cutaneous
eruptions, or of the matter of exanthemata, dec. or to
other caufes.
The perfons who are moft liable to confumption are
thofe of a fair complexion, fine and foft fkin, florid
cheeks, and a flender make; with high cheek-bones,
hollow temples, long neck, fhoulders. ftanding out like
wings, narrow chelt, and a remarkable prominence of
the proceffes of the os facrum. To thefe marks we
may add, that of found teeth, which, as the difeafe ad¬
vances, ufually become of a milky white colour, and
more or lefs traniparent. Of thofe who are carried off
by this difeafe, Dr Simmons afferts, the greater num¬
ber will be found never to have had a carious tooth.
This circumftance, however, does not feem to us to
hold fo generally as Dr Simmons is difpofed to ima¬
gine : and inftances not unfrequently occur of pa¬
tients dying of phthifis, although they have had many
teeth fubjefted to caries ; and fome of thefe beginning;
even at an early period of life.
Perfons of the aboye defeription often remain for
a long time without feeling any other inconvenience
than fome oppreffion at the breaft in moift weather,
or in hot apartments. Their breathing is eafily hur¬
ried, fometimes by the flighteft motion; and they be¬
come languid, paler, and thinner. All this time,
however, they feel no heat or painful fenfation in the
breaft. As the evil increafes, the patient begins to
be attacked with a flight, frequent, and dry cough,
which is moft troublefome in the night-time. But
this, by proper care, is often relieved; and the patient
remains in this ftate for a confiderable time, and even,
for many years, if he be fenfible of his danger, and
careful to guard againft it by a fuitable manner of li- *
ving. More commonly, however, we find the cough,
increafing, and fometimes accompanied with more or
lefs catarrh. This is ufually aferibed to cold; and
but too generally neglected, till the difeafe become
alarming by its obftinacy and its affe&s. This may
be confidered as the beginning, or firft period, of the
difeafe. During this ftage, the cough is fometimes
dry from the firft; and fometimes, when it begins in
the form of a catarrh, is attended with more or lefs
expectoration of mucus.
When the cough begins in the form of a catarrh,
and appears to be occafioned by an increafed fecretion
of a thin faltifh mucus irritating the membrane of the
trachea, all judicious practitioners agree in recom¬
mending an attention to regimen, the free ufe of dilu¬
ting liquors, bland emulfions, fmall dofes of nitre, the
taking away a few ounces of blood if there be much
Pra&ice.
MEDICINE*
Hemor- inflammation, the inhaling the fleams of warm water
rhagiaE , by means of the machine contrived for that purpofe,
"‘~v' and the occafional ufe of fuch a dofe of elixir parego-
ricum as will be fufficient to allay the irritation of the
bronchise, and to promote a gentle moifture on the
fkin. Thefe methods will generally be found to be
efficacious, efpecially if the patient’s chamber be of a
moderate temperature, and he carefully avoid expofure
to a cold, damp, or raw air, till the complaint be re¬
moved. In cafes in which the cough has been obfti-
nate, and the inflammatory fymptoms confiderable.
Dr Simmons has often experienced the great advan¬
tages of the warm bath, the heat of which did not
exceed pz - When this is had recourfe to, the patient
fhould remain in it only a very few minutes, and go
foon afterwards to bed; but not with a view to force
a fweat by an increafed weight of bed-clothes, as is too
often injudicioufly praftifed.
Patients of a confumptive habit, who have had an
attack of this kind at the beginning of winter, are
particularly liable to a return of the complaint during
the continuance of the cold feafon, on the flighteft oc-
cafion and with greater violence. A relapfe is there¬
fore to be carefully guarded againft ; and nothing will
be found to do this more effeftually than the ufe of
locks and a flannel under-waiftcoat. The ufe of flan¬
nel has been condemned by feveral medical writers as
increafing the infenfible perfpiration ; but in the pre-
fent cafe, to fay nothing of fome others in which it
may be ufeful, it will in general be found to have the
beft effe&s. It will prevent a too great determina¬
tion to the lungs, and fhould not be left off till the
approach of fummer. In fome few inftances in which
flannel was found to have a difagreeable effedt, a piece
of dimity, worn over the breaft next the fkin, prevent¬
ed the return of colds and coughs in perfons of a deli¬
cate habit, who had before been liable to them on the
flighted occafions. Shirts made of cotton cloth are
much more efleftual than linen in preferving an equable
temperature of the furface, and guarding againft the
a&ion of external cold; while at the fame time they are
much more pleafant to mod people than even the fined
flannel. In thefe cafes, circumdances that are feem-
ingly of the mod trifling nature become of import¬
ance.
Sometimes the cough is occafioned by an immediate
inflammation of fome part of the lungs, from fome
of the ufual caufes of inflammation ; and when this
happens, no time is to be lod in removing it. To do
this will perhaps require more than one bleeding, to¬
gether with a drift attention to a cooling plan of diet,
diluting drinks, the inhalation of warm deams, and if
convenient the ufe of the warm bath ; but above all,
the fpeedy application of a large blider as near as may
be to the fuppofed feat of the inflammation. The
cough,, in this cafe, will often remain after the original
complaint is abated. A prudent ufe of opiates at
bed-time, either by themfelves or combined with
gummy and mucilaginous medicines, will then generally
be ufeful as a fedative and antifpafmodic.
In this, as well as ini the catarrhal cough jud now
mentioned, many praftitioners are too eager to admi-
fiider the Peruvian bark, with the view, as they term
k, of bracing up the patient: but this, never fails to
increafe the cough, and of courfe to do great and very
often irreparable mifehief.
And "here it will not be foreign to our fubjeft to
obferve, that a fymptomatic cough, which has its rife
not from catarrh, or from an immediate inflammation
of the lungs, but from their fympathy with the fto-
mach, has fometimes laid the foundation of phthifis,
from its having been midaken, and of courfe impro¬
perly treated. It feems to be owing to a redundancy
or vitiated date of the bile, or to fome affeftion of
the domach, which it is perhaps not eafy to define. It
is fometimes a concomitant of sther bilious fymptoms;
and when this happens to be the cafe, it cannot eafily
be midaken ; but we fometimes find it occurring
fingly, and in general attacking perfons of a fedentary
life. Dr Stoll of Vienna, who has noticed this cough,
has very properly given it the name of tuffis ftomachua.
This complaint is fo far from being relieved by bleed¬
ing, that it condantly grows worfe after it, efpecially
if the evacuation be in any confiderable quantity. The
oily remedies feldom fail to exafperate this cough,
which at fird is dry, frequent, and often extremely
violent, but which feldom fails to give way to one or
two gentle pukes, and the occafional ufe of mild ca¬
thartics. The cough, as in other cafes, often conti¬
nues from habit after the caufe that gave rife to it has
been removed, and may then be checked by opiates.
When the difeafe has been neglefted, or our at¬
tempts to remove it in the beginning have failed, both-
of which circumdances but too frequently happen,,
the patient begins- to complain of a forenefs, and of
flight lancinating pains (hooting through the bread,
fometimes in the direftion of the mediadinum, and
fometimes confined chiefly to one fide. The forenefs
is pretty condant, and much increafed by the cough.
The pain in the fide often prevents the patient from
lying on the fide affefted ; and this inability of lying,
except on one fide, frequently occurs even when no
fuch pain is felt. In this dage of the difeafe, flulh-
ing heats are felt in the palms of the hands and foies
of the feet r the breathing is (hort and. laborious ; and
it is not long before the patient begins to expeftorate
a thin and frothy phlegm, at fird in fmall quantities,
coughed up with difficulty, and fome pain of the bread,
and now and. then dreaked with blood i this may be
confidered as'the nijlimmatory period ol the difeafe, to
which fucceeds the fuppurative Jiage. In the latter, the
expeftoration becomes more copious and purulent, the
breath, proportionably offenfive, and.the exacerbations
of the heftic fever more conuderabk : an increafed
quicknefs of the pulfe comes on about the middle of
the day; but the modconfiderable paroxyfm of the fe¬
ver is at night, and at fird continues till towards morn¬
ing, commonly till three or four o’clock, when it ter¬
minates in a fweat, which ufually begins upon the
bread. As the difeafe advances, thefe fweats become
more profufe, and fometimes come on almod as foon
as the pulfe begins to quicken, but without affording
any relief to the patient. During the exacerbations,,
we obferve a circumfcribed rednefs of the cheeks,
while the red of the face is pale, and appears as if it
were not clean waihed. The codivenefs that com¬
monly accompanies the beginning of the difeafe is
ufually fucceeded by a diarrhoea ; the fpitting leffens,
PHthi
222 MEDICINE, Praflice.
Hemor- and all the ptirulent matter feeds to be carried down- where the evil was fuppofed to be beyond the power Phthifis,
. rhag|3e wards. The wafting of the, fat and the lofs of nou-
rj{}imen{; occafion, the nails to curve inwards, the hair
to falf off, and the eyes to fink in their fockets. In
the mean time, the legs commonly fwell; till at length
death clofes a fcene which is melancholy to all but
the patient himfelf, who in general continues fenfible
to the laft moment, and even then indulges a vain
hope of prolonging a miferable exiftence. In fome
of phyfic; and in fome, where nature Was left to '
herfelf; fo that a phyfician who has obferved the va¬
rious and powerful refources nature has within her¬
felf, will be very cautious how he afferts that a dif-
cafe is incurable.
The moft formidable effects of ulcerated lungs are
the abforption and confequent hedtic. It-feems evi¬
dent, that, in many cafes, death is brought on by this.
cafes, and that not unfrequently, a delirium comes on rather than by the lungs themfelves being rendered
towards the clofe of the difeafe.
The hedtic fever that attends this and fome other
chronic difeafes, is evidently the effeft of acrimony,
and moft commonly of pus abforbed and carried
into the circulation. The nature of this acrimony,
and the different irritability of different patients, ate
unfit for the purpofes *jf refpiration. So that if we
can obviate the effedfs of the abforption, diminifh the
preternatural determination to the lungs, and fulfil the
other general indications juft now mentioned, we may
very often enable nature to recover herfelf. It may*
be alleged indeed, that the pliyfician’s art has hitherto
probably the fources of the variety we obferve in fe- proved very unfuccefsful in thefe cafes; but may not
vers of this denomination ; a variety which is doubt-
lefs much greater than we are aware of. Thus We
find that the matter of the fmall-pox excites a fever
of this kind ; but this fecondary fever, as it is called,
differs from the hedfic attendant on confumptions $
nor does the latter correfpond with that which fome-
times accompanies the fuppuration of a cancerous ul¬
cer. In the pulmonary confumption, or at leaft in
the third ftage of it, the fever induced often appears
to be of the putrid kind, and has been denominated
febris hetl'wa putrida by the judicious Morton, who con-
fiders it as being combined with a peripneumonic or
inflammatory fever, which recurs as often as frelh tu¬
bercles begin to inflame. For although we have named
one period of the difeafe the injlammatory, and another
the fubpuratme period, yet we are not to fuppofe that
the latter is exempt from inflammation. While mat¬
ter is poured into the branchiae, or abforbed and car¬
ried into the fyftem from one part of the lungs, other
parts are in a crude ftate of inflammation, or advan¬
cing towards fuppuration ; fo that, on examining the
lungs of perfons who die confurtiptive, we find fame
tubercles that are fmall and juft formed, fome that
are large and fall of matter, and others that are in a
ftate of ulceration. This eafily accounts for the oc-
cafional combination of inflammatory fymptoms with
thofe of the putrid heftic. When the matter ab¬
forbed is a laudable pus, as in the cafe of a pfoas ab-
fcefs, we find the form of the heftic fever differing
from either of thofe we have mentioned.
Cure. In thefe different periods of the difeafe, the
curative indications are fufficiently obvious. To pre¬
this be owing to the remedies that are employed be¬
ing very often fuch as are inimical to the cure ?
The Peruvian bark is, perhaps, the moft common¬
ly employed of any, and often confided in as an ul¬
timate refource in thefe cafes. But befides this, the
elixir of vitriol, the balfams, and frequent bleedings,
have each had their partizans. The ufe of blifters
and iffues, opiates, a milk and vegetable diet, exer-
cife, and change of air, are pretty generally recom¬
mended by all. Concerning the bark, Default long
ago obfefved, that it had been produftive of great
mifchief in confumptive cafes ; and Dr Fothergill, in
a paper lately publiftied by him on this fubjedf, very
judicioufly remarks, that the bark is fo far from
curing the hedlic fever arifing from diftempered lungs*
that, according to the beft of his obfervations, it not
only takes up that time which might probably have
been better employed in the ufe of other medicines*
but for the moft part aggravates the difeafe beyond
remedy. Indeed it has been the opinion of feveral
attentive obfervers, that, whenever pus or any kind
of matter excites an hedfie fever, by being abforbed
and carried into the circulation, the Peruvian bark'
will never fail to exafperate the complaint, especially
if it be accompanied with any degree of inflammatory
diathefis, unlefs the matter has a free outlet from the
fyftem } as in the cafe of abfceffes, for inftance, in
which we often find the bark produdtive of excellent
effedts. It is likewife well known to be ufed as a to¬
nic, to obviate the effedts of fluor albus, or any other
immoderate evacuation in delicate perfons, which, by
enfeebling the fyftem. Very often lays the foundation
vent the formation of frefh tubercles ; to obviate the of phthifis: but the moment we have reafon to fufpedt
inflammation of thofe already formed ; to promote
their refolution; to allay morbid irritability, the cough,
and other troublefome fymptoms ; and, above all, to
check the tendency to the hedfic ftate, are the views
that every rational phyfician propofesto himfelf in the
that the lungs are ulcerated, efpecially if this ul¬
ceration be attended with an inflammatory difpolitiony
or if the feparation of vitiated pus be the confequence
of a peculiar increafed morbid adtion of the veffels at
the part, it ought to be laid afide; and in the.genuine
treatment of the genuine confumption. We know of tuberculous confumption, perhaps it is at all times in>
no medicines that can exert their fpecific effedts upon admifiible.
the lungs by diffolving tuberculous concretions ; nor Dr Fothergill, however, obferves, that there are
is i: probable, from what we know of the animal two caufes of conlumptions, which often produce fymp-
<5c;<nomy, that any fuch will ever be difcovered. Yet toms fo fimilar to thofe of the genuine phthifis, as fome-
medicines that operate in a general manner upon the
fyftem, may, by promoting abforption, and diminiflr-
not the determination to the lungs, tend to difperfe
tnbercles, or to prevent their formation. .There are
times to have led him to make ufe of the bark in ap¬
parent tendencies to a genuine pulmonary confump¬
tion with advantage.
One of thefe caufes is, the fuckling of children
i®g wanting inftances of wonderful recoveries in cafes longer than is confiftent with the mother’s ability.
This
Practice. M E D I
Hemor This cafe frequently occurs among the middling and
rhagi® lower claffes of females.of conftitutions naturally deli-
U—~ €ate antj tenJe,-, Jn fuch a !^ate of vveaknefs, fome
flight cold brings on a cough, which incrcafes gradual¬
ly, till at length it produces the true pulmonary con-
fumption. Here the bark given early, in moderate
dofes, and merely aa a tonic remedy, is often of ex¬
cellent ufe.
Another eaufe is, any weakening difcharge, either
from abfcefifes, the greater operations of furgery, a
copious and conftanfe fluor alius, or fimilar enfeebling
evacuations. That the bark is, for the moll part, of
ufe in thefe cafes, when the lungs are not inflamed, is
indubitable; and if they be fo affe&ed, but not beyond
a certain degree, it is alfo efficacious in preventing the
progrefs of the confumptiom
In phthilical complaints fucceeding fuch fituations,
a prudent trial of the bark feems neceffary. Small
dofes of the deco&ion, either alone, or joined with the
faline mixture or fuch other additions as the phyfician
thinks proper, may be given. But if the breath be¬
comes more tight and opprelfed, the cough dry, the
pulfe more quick and hard, and efpecially if flight
tranfitory pains or flitches about the thorax are more
frequently complained of, a perfeverance in the ufe
of the bark will increafe the difeafe. If fuch alfo
fliould be the appearances in the progrefs of the dif¬
eafe, or, from whatever caufe, if the bark be accom¬
panied with fuch effedls, the ufe of it ought to be
with-held.
If, on the other hand, no pain, tightnefs, or op-
preffion, is perceived, and there appears a manifeft a-
baiement of the fymptoms, it will be advifable to
proceed. The adminiilration of this medicine, how¬
ever, requires a judicious obferver; and it ought nei¬
ther to be given in the early inflammatory ftage of this
difeafe, nor be continued in any fubfequ .it period, if
it produce the effedls above-mentioned.
By its tonic virtues it will often enable nature to
conquer many, difficulties. In confirmation of this re¬
mark, Dr Fothergill farther obferves, that he has feen
it of ufe in promoting expeftoration, when this be¬
came deficient from want of ftrength towards the end
of peripneumonic fevers ; but that it flops this dif-
oharge, changes flight wandering pains into fuch as
are fixed, and increafes them with all their confequen-
ces, in a variety of cafes.
The elixir of vitriol, or the pure vitriolic acid pro¬
perly diluted, though in many inftances a highly ufe-
ful remedy, is often exhibited in. confumptive cafes
with no lefs impropriety than the bark. This me¬
dicine, from its aftringency, is obvioufly improper
in the inflammatory ftate of the difeafe. But in
the latter ftage, when a general tendency to putre-
fa&ion takes place, it is ferviceable in refilling the ef-
fedt; it reftrains the colliquative fweats; and if the
lungs be not injured paft reparation, it is allowed to
he a very ufeful auxiliary.
Various are the. opinions concerning the efficacy, of
Briftol-water in this difeafe. The experienced author,
laft mentioned informs:us, that he has feen many per-
fons recover from pulmonary difeafes after drinking
thefe waters, whole cure feemed to be doubtful from
. any other procefs ; and he thinks this circumftance,
added to the general reputation of Briftol-waters in
CINE. 22£
phthifical cafes, affords fufficient inducement to recom- Phtliifis
mend the trial of them in the early ftages of fuch com- ^ *
plaints. It is, however, before the approach of a con¬
firmed phthifis that patients ouglit to repair to Briftol;
otherv/ife a journey thither will not only be without
benefit, but may even prove detrimental.
Some have imagined, that the journey, a better air,
change of fituation and of objedls, have contributed
to the patient’s recovery ; and thefe may doubtlefs be.
of advantage. It feems, however, that the water drank,
frefli at the pump, adtually contains principles condu¬
cive to the recovery of patients affected with phthifical
complaints. It feems to poffefs a flight calcareous ftyp-
ticity, and perhaps the air it contains may alfo have an
antifeptic quality. On the whole, ir appears to be an
efficacious medicine, and is often found of remarkable
benefit to confumptive patients.
Change of air, particularly from good to bad, is of
great confequence in all chronic difeafes. of the lungs.
In confumptive cafes, the air of all large cities is found
to be particularly injurious.
A fea-voyage has been much recommended in the
cure of this difeafe. The benefit of exercife has alfo
been ftrongly urged . by many writers ; . but, however
falutary when properly ufed, it certainly ought to be
regulated with diferetion. Dr Dickfon declares
himfelf of opinion, that riding on horfeback in con-
fumptive cafes is moft commonly hurtful, without
fuch regulations as in general have been little regard¬
ed. For inftance, he has known a perfon who, by a
ride of an hour or two in the morning, was very
much recruited, and who, at another-.time, in the af¬
ternoon and evening, without undergoing more bodi¬
ly motion, has returned faint and languid, and ap¬
parently worfe. This obfervation on the fame perfon
has been fo frequently made, as to point out clearly
the times when this exercife ftiall not do hurt in con¬
fumptive cafes.. In this difeafe, the pulfe, .however
calm in the morning, becomes more frequent in the
afternoon and night, attended with heat and other fe-
verifh fymptoms. Exercife therefore, at this time,
can only add to the mifehief of the fever. For. this
reafon he prudently recommends to all hedlic perfons,.
efpecially thofe who (hall travel to diflant places on ac¬
count of a better air, or. the benefit expected from
any particular- water, that their travelling fliould be
flow, confined to, a very few hours, and only in the .
morning.
Exercife on horfe-back feems to be chiefly benefi¬
cial in thofe cafes where confumption is a fecondary
difeafe. For example, in the nervous, atrophy ; in
the hypochondriacal confumption; or when it is the ef-
fe£l of long-continued intermittents, or of congeftions
in any of the abdominal vifeera ; or; in a word, when¬
ever the confumption is not attended with an inflamed
or ulcerated ftate of the lungs.; long journeys on horfe¬
back will be beneficial.. Such a pra£life may likewife
be highly ufeful in obviating an attack of phthifis, or
in carrying off a dry hufley cough in a perfon of a con¬
fumptive habit, when there is reafon to fuppofe that
no. tubercles are as yet formed. On the other
hand, in the confirmed phtliifis, when the lungs are
inflamed or - ulcerated, much or violent exercife will
be improper ; and there have been, inftances where
the death of the patient was. evidently accelerated by
s $4 M E D I
Herr,or it. Tlic rxercife tViffrefore Hiould be gentle, propor-
, r^at-r'a tioned to the ftrength of the patient, and employed
L'r v only in the morning. In fine weather, an eafy open
carriage is perhaps the mod eligible, not only on ac¬
count of its being open to the air, but becaufe it af¬
fords that kind of agitation which is mod wanted in
thefe cafes. For if we confider the different modes of
exercife, we (hall find that walking, though the bed
exercife in health, as it employs the mod mufcles, is
the word for the fickly, who diould have the benefit
of exercife without fatigue. Riding on horfeback
agitates the vifcera more than walking, and is there¬
fore preferable to it in many chronic difeafes ; but
when a preternatural determination to the lungs has
taken place, it will be liable to increafe the evil, and
may likewife be hurtful by the fatigue that attends it.
For thefe, reafons it will be prudent to begin with a
carriage; and if the patient gain drength, and the dif-
eafe abates, recourfe may afterwards be had to horfe-
exercife.
The gentle motion of a coach has been often found
of great utility in pulmonary complaints. Its efficacy
feems to depend chiefly on its increafing the determi¬
nation to the furfact of the body. The naufea which
this motion excites in fome perfons is an effetd of this
increafed determination. It has therefore been found
beneficial in hsemoptyfis $ and Dr Simmons mentions
the cafe of a lady, who, after trying various remedies
to no purpofe, was cured of this complaint by travel¬
ling feveral hundred miles through different parts of
England in her own coach. At fird, whenever die
tarried three or four days in any place, the diforder be¬
gan to return again; but at length by perfevering in her
journeys, it gradually went off. Default, who p radii fed
at Bourdeanx about 40 years ago, tells us, he fent fe¬
veral confumptive patients to Bareges, and with good
fuccefs; but that in thefe cafes his reliance was not fo
much upon the Bareges waters, as upon the motion of
the carriage and the change of air in a journey of more
than 100 leagues.
It is now pretty generally acknowledged, that the
good effe&s of fea-voyages in confumptive cafes de¬
pend more Upon the condant and uniform motion of
the drip, than upon any particular impregnation of the
fea-air ; although this from its coolnefs and purity may
likewife be of great ufe, efpecially in the hot months,
when fea-voyages are generally undertaken by con-
fumptive patients. The ancients were no drangers to
this remedy ; and amongd the Romans it was no unu-
fual thing for confumptive perfons to fail to Egypt.
Pliny obferves, that this was done not for the fake of
the climate, but merely on account of the length of
the voyage.
Many of our Englifh phyficians have recommended
3 voyage to Lifbon In thefe cafes. When this is done,
the proper feafon of the year fhould be carefully at¬
tended to. Dr Simmons knew a gentleman who went
thither with fymptoms ’of incipient phthifis, and who
experienced fome relief during the eourfe of the voyage;
but happening to arrive at Lifbon at the beginning of
the rainy feafon, the difeafe was foon greatly increa-
tfed, and terminated fatally.
Another fpecies of motion has of late been extolled
as highly ufeful in confumptive cafes. Dr James
Carmichael Smyth of London, has lately publifhed an
N 206.
CINE, Pradlice.
account of the effefts of Twinging, employed as a re- t’h.hifls.
medy in the pulmonary confumption and heftic fever. ——v—J
In this treatife Dr Smyth contends, that fea-air, in
place of being of advantage, is condantly prejudicial
to heftic and confumptive patients, and even to thofe
who have a tendency to fuch complaints. He thinks,
therefore, that the benefit derived from fea-voyage*
muff certainly be referred to fome other caufe. In
flating his fentiments on this fubjeft, he attempts to
eftablifh a diftindtion between exercife and motion.
By exercife, he underftands mufcular adtion, or
the exertion of the loco-motive powers of the body
either alone or combined. This he reprefents as in¬
creafing the force and frequency of the heart’s con,
tradtion, the velocity and momentum of the blood,
the quicknefs of breathing, the heat, the irritability,
and the tranfpiration of the whole body. By motion,
in contradillidlibn to exercife, he means fuch motion
as is not neceffarily accompanied with any agitation
or fuccuffion of the body, and which is totally inde¬
pendent of any mufcular exertion. The effedls of
this, both on the heart, the lungs, and indeed on the
fyftem in general, he confiders as of thefedative kind ;
thus it fufpends the adlion of coughing, and leffens
the frequency of the pulfe. He is, therefore, led to
refer the good effedls of fea-voyages entirely to this
caufe. And on thefe grounds he was led to conclude,
that the motion given by fwinging might be of equal
if not greater fervice. This conclufion, we are told,
in the treatife above alluded to, experience in many
cafes has fully confirmed. And he recommends it as
a mode of cure which may be employed with advan¬
tage in every ftage of phthifis. While, however, the
reafoning of Dr Smyth on this fubjedt feems to be
liable to many objections, we are forry to add, that
his obfervations in pradtice have by no means been
confirmed by thofe of others, who have had rtcourfe
to this mode of cure.
The heft adapted diet in confumptive cafes is milk,
particularly that of affes. It may however be remark¬
ed, that there are conllitutions in which this falutary
nutriment feems to difagree. A propenfity to generate
bile, or too ftrong a difpofition to acefcency from a
weaknefs of the digeftive organs, both merit attention.
Whey, either from cows Or goats milk, appears to be
more fuitable in the former cafe; and for corredling
acidity, lime-water may be added to the milk. The
method tff adding rum or brandy to affes or cows milk,
firould be ufed with great caution : for when added
beyond a certain quantity, as is often the cafe, they
not only coagulate the milk, but heat the body; by
which means the former difagrees with the patient, and
the fpirit augments the difeafe.
In confumptive cafes, Dr Simmons obferves, that
the patient’s talle fhould be confulted ; and fays that a
moderate ufe of animal-food, where the faked and high-
feafoned kinds are avoided, is not to be denied. Shell-
filh, particularly oyfters, arc ufeful, as well as fnails
fwalloWed whole, or boiled in milk.
Repeated bleedings, in fmall quantities, are confi-
dered in confumptive cafes as highly advantageous :
and in particular circumftances they undoubtedly are
fo; for inftance, when the conllitution apparently
abounds with blood ; when the fluid drawn off is ex¬
tremely fizy ; when there is.much pain in the breaft ;
6 and
Practice. M E D I
Hasmo,- and whet) vencfech’on Is followed by an abatement of
rhiglx every fymptom. In thefe cafes, bleeding is certainly
*v proper, and ought to b'e repeated fo long as it feema
to be attended with advantage. In very delicate con-
ftitutions, howev-r, even where the pulfe is quick, with
feme degree of fulnefs, and the blood laft drawn
confiderably fizy, it may not prove equally fervice-
able.
It deferves to be remarked, that the inflammatory
appearance of the blood is not alone a fufficient reafon
for bleeding ; but, in determining the propriety of this
evacuation, all other circumftances fhould be confider-
ed ; fuch as the patient’s age, itrength, habit, and the
Hate of the difeafe
A remark which has been judicioufly made by Dr
Fothergill, ought not to be omitted in the account of
this difeafe. It is, that young delicate females, from
the age of t 5 or 16, and upwards, are often fubjeft
to confumptions. When the difeafe has advanced con¬
fiderably, the menfes, if they have made their appear¬
ance, mofl 'generally ceafe. This alarms their female
fiiends, and they call upon the phyfician to ufe his
utmoft endeavours for reftoring the difeharge ; belie¬
ving the ceffation of it to be the immediate caufe of
the phthifical complaint. Induced by their folicita-
tions, medicines have fometimes been adminiftered,
which, without obtaining this end, have tended to ag¬
gravate the difteitiper. This deficiency is often of no
real difadvantage in thofe cafes ; and in many the eva¬
cuation would prove injurious, by diminifhing the
Itrength, which is already too much impaired. Even
fmall bleedings at the regular periods have often done
more harm than good. A fudden furprelfion may re¬
quire bleeding ; but when the evacuation fails through
want of ftrength, and from poverty of blood, the re¬
newal of it increafes the difeafe.
Befides thefe remedies, Dr Simmons ftrongly recom¬
mends a frequent repetition of vomits. Many phyfi-
cians have fuppofed, that where there is any increafed
determination to the lungs, vomits do mifehief: but
Dr Simmons is perfuaded, that infiead of augmenting
they diminifli this determination ; and that much good
may be expe&ed from a prudent ufe of this remedy,
than which none has a more general or powerful effedl
on the fyftem. If any remedy be capable of difperfing
a tubercle, he believes it to be vomits. The affe&ions
of the liver, that fometimes accompany pulmonary com¬
plaints, give way to repeated emetics fooner than to
any other remedy. In feveral cafes where the cough
and the matter expectorated, the fluftiing heats, lofs
of appetite, and other fymptoms, threatened the moft
fatal event; the complaints were greatly relieved, and
in others wholly removed, by the frequent ufe of eme¬
tics. Other fuitable remedies were indeed employed
at the fame time ; but the relief the patients generally
-experienced after the emetic, was a fufficient proof
of its falutary operation. By this, however, he does
not mean that vomits will be ufeful in every pe-
riod of the difeafe, or in every patient. In general, it
-will'be found that the earlier in the difeafe emetics are
had recourfe to, the more likely they will be to do
good and the lefs likely to do harm. The cafes in
which emetics may be reckoned improper, are com¬
monly thofe in which the difeafe is rapid in its pro-
Vo l. XI. Part I.
C I N E. 22
grefs; or in that ftage of it when there is great debi- Phthifi?.
lity, with profufe colliquative fweats. v ~
In thefe cafes, when an emetic has been adminifter¬
ed twice a-week, and the cough is mitigated, the ex-
pe&oration facilitated, and the other fymptoms relie¬
ved, both the patient and the phyfician will be encou-
laged to proceed, and to repeat the vomit every fecond
day, or even every day, for feveral days together, as
Dr Simmons has fometimes done when the good effedts
of it were obvious.
The choice of emetics to be employed in thefe cafes
is by no means a matter of indifference. Carduus tea,
camomile tea, warm water, and others that aft by
their bulk, and by exciting naufea, relax the tone of
the ftomach when they are frequently repeated, and of
courfe will be improper. More aftive emetics are
therefore to be preferred ; and here fome of the prepa¬
rations of antimony might naturally be thought of.
But the operation of thefe is not confined to the fto¬
mach. They produce evacuations by ftool, and a dif-
pofition to Iweat; and are therefore improper in ihe
pulmonary heftic. The mildnefs and excellence of
ipecacuanha as an emetic, are well known ; but in
thefe cafes, Dr Simmons has often employed the blue
vitriol, concerning the effefts of which we meet with
fome groundlefs affertions in feveral medical books. Its
operation is confined to the ftomach ; it afts al-
moft inftantaneoufly, and its aftringency feems to
obviate the relaxation that is commonly fuppofed
to attend the frequent ufe of emetics. Iii two cafes
he experienced its good effefts, after vomits of ipe¬
cacuanha had been given ineffeftually. It ftiould
be adminiftered in the morning, and in the following
manner:
Let the patient firft fwallow about half a pint of
water, and immediately afterwards the vitriol diffolved
in a cupful of water. The dofe of it mult be adap¬
ted to the age and other circumftances of the patient,
and may be varied from two grains to ten, fifteen, or
twenty. As fome perfons are much more eafily puked
than others, it will be prudent to begin with a fmall
dofe : not that any dangerous effefts will be produced
by a large one, for the whole of the medicine is in-
ftantly rejefted; but if the naufea be violent, and of
long continuance, the patient may perhaps be difeou-
raged from repeating it. In general, the moment the
emetic has reached the ftomach it is thrown up again.
The patient muff then fwallow another half pint of
water, which is likevvife fpeedily rejefted; and this
is commonly fufficient to remove the naufea.
Dr Marryat, in his Nenu Praaice of Phyjic, pre-
feribes with great freedom what he calls the dry vomit,
from its being direfted to be taken without drinking.
This medicine confifts of blue vitriol and the emetic
tartar ; but its good effefts have not yet been afeer-
tained by other praftitioners.
Another remedy which Dr Simmons ftrongly re¬
commends in confumptive cafes, both from his own
obfervation and on the authority alfo of many other
eminent praftitioners, is gum myrrh. This given by
itfelf to the extent of a fcruple or half a dram for a
dofe, two or three times a-day, or, if there be much
inflammatory tendency, combined with a proportion
of nitre or of cream of tartar, has often been fervice-
F f able
22(> M E D I
Hismor able in cafes which were apparently inftances of inci-
^ rhagia p;ent phthifis even of the tubeixulous kind. But
when the difeafe is far advanced, or even decidedly
.marked, as far as our experience goes it has rarely if
ever been productive of any benefit.
Belides the ufe of internal remedies in pulmonary
afFeCtions, phyficians have often preferibed the fleams
of refinous and balfamic fubftances to be conveyed in¬
to the lungs. The vapour of dulcified fpirit of vi¬
triol, dropt into warm water, has likewife been ufed
in thefe cafes, and is advertifed as a noftrum under
the name of ather. The inhaling of fixed air has
alfo been fpoken of as an ufeful praCtice. Dr Sim¬
mons has feen all of thefe methods tried at diffe¬
rent times ; but without being able to perceive any
real advantages from them in the fuppurative ftage of
the difeafe, where they might be expeCted to be of
the greateft ufe ; and in the beginning he has often
found the two firft to be too ftimulating. He there¬
fore preferred the Ample vapour of warm water, and
has experienced its excellent effeCts in feveral inftan.-
ces; but when the complaint has made any confider-
able progrefs, its utility is lefs obvious ; and when the
patients have been, much weakened, he has feen it
bring on profufe fweats, efpecially when pfed in bed,
and therefore generally recommended it to be ufed in
the day-time. Formerly he made ufe of a fumigating
machine, deferibed in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
1748, in which the air, infpired by the patient, is
made to pafs through hot water by means of a tube
that communicates with the external air, and with the
bottom of the veifel: but we have now a more elegant
and (on account of the valve and mouth-piece) a more
afeful inftrument of this kind, the inhaler, invented,
by the ingenious Dr Mudge.
Another remedy recommended by fome as a fpecifie
in confumptions. is the earth-bath. Van Swieten, in.
his Commentaries on Boerhaave, tells us, from the in¬
formation of a perfon of credit, that in fome parts of
Spain they have a method of curing the phthifis pul-
monalis by the ufe of this remedy ; and he quotes the
celebrated Solano, de Luque in confirmation of this
praCtice. Solano fpeaks of the banos de tierra, or
earth-baths, as a very old and common remedy in
Granada and fome parts of Andalufia, in cafes of hec¬
tic fever and confumptions ; and relates feveral in¬
ftances of their good efieCts in his own praCtice. The
method he adopted on thefe occafions was as follows:
He chofe a. fpot of ground on which no plants had
been fown, and there he made a hole large and deep
enough to admit the patient up. to the chin. The in-
terftices of the pit were then carefully filled up with-
the freih mould, fo that the earth might every where
come in,contaCt with the patient’s body. In this fitu-
ation the patient, was fuffered to remain till he began
to (hiver or felt himfelf uneafy; and during the whole
procefs, Solano occafionally adminiftered food or fome
cordial medicine. The patient was then taken out,
and, after being wrapped in a linen cloth, was placed
upon a matrafs, and two hours afterwards his whole
body was rubbed with an ointment, compofed of the
leaves of the folanum nigrum and hog’s lard. He ob-
ferves, that a new pit muft be made every time the
operation is repeated; and advifes the ufe of thefe baths
only from the end of May to the end of OCtober. Dr
CINE. FraftLce.
Fouquet, an ingenious French phyfician, has tried Phthifis.
this remedy in two cafes. In one, a confirmed phthi- 
fisj-he was unfuccefsful; but the remedy had not a fair
trial. The patient, a man 30 years of age, had been
for feveral months afflicted with cough, heCtic fever,
and profufe colliquative fweats. He was firft put inta
the earth in the month of June ; but foon complained
of an uneafy opprefiion at his ftomach, and was remo¬
ved at the end of feven minutes. The fecond time he
was able to remain in it half an hour, and when takeu
out was treated in the way preferibed by Solano. In
this manner the baths were repeated five times, and
the patient was evidently relieved ; but having concei¬
ved a diflike to the procefs, he refufed to fubmit to any
further trials, and died fome months afterwards. In
the fecond cafe he was more fortunate : the patient, a
girl 1 x years of age, had been for three months trou¬
bled with a cough brought on by the meafles, which,
was at length attended with a purulent expectoration,
heCtic fever, and night-fweats. She began the ufe of
the earth-bath in Auguft, and repeated it eight times
in the fpace of 20 days. At the end of that time the
fever and difpofition to fweat had entirely ceafed, and
by the ufe of the common remedies the patient was
perfectly reftored. A phyfician at Warfaw has like¬
wife preferibed the earth-bath with good fuccefs in,
cafes of heCtic fever. The Spaniards confine it entirely
to fuch cafes ; but in fome other parts of the world we
find a fimilar method employed as a remedy for other
difeafes, and particularly for the fea-feurvy. DrPricft-
ley obferves, that the Indians, he has been told, have
cultom of burying their patients labouring under pu¬
trid difeafes up to the chin in frefh mould, which is.
alfo known to take off the feetor from flefh-meat.
beginning to putrefy. The rancidity of a ham, for
example, may be corrected by burying it for a few.
hours in the earth. The efficacy of this remedy in
the fea-feurvy has, it is faid, frequently been experi¬
enced by the crews of our Eaft India (hips.
Solano, who is fond of philofophizing in his wri¬
tings, is of opinion, that the earth applied in this way
abforbs the morbid taint from the fyftem but does it
not feem more probable, that the effluvia of the earth,,
by being abforbed. and carried into the circulation, cor-
reCts the murbid ftate of the fluids, and thus are equally
ufeful in the fea-feurvy and in the pulmonary heCtic ?,
That the earth when moiftened does emit a grateful
odour is a faCt generally known,; and Baglivi long ago-
gave his teftimony in favour of the grateful effeCts o£
the effluvia of freffl earth. He aferibes thefe good ef¬
fects to the nitre it contains.
The earth-bath, both in. confumptive cafes and
likewife in a variety of other affections, has of late
been extenfively employed' in. Britain by a celebrated
empiric. But, as far as we can learn, in mofl cafes it
produced to the patient a very diftreffing fenfation o£
cold ; in fome, it feemed to be productive of bad ef¬
feCts, probably in confequence of this cold; and we
have not heard of any confnmptive cafes in which,
good effeCts were decidedly obtained from it.
With regard to the drains,, fuch. as blifters, iffues,
and fetons, that, are fo frequently recommended in pul¬
monary complaints, there is lefs danger of abufe. from
thrtn than from the praCtice of venefeCtion. The dif-
charge they excite is not calculated to weaken the pa-
n tieni
Pra&ice. MED
Bwmor- tient much 5 and the relief they have fo often been
rhag-ig found to afford, is a fufficient reafon for giving them
a trial, Blifters, as is well known, a£f in a twofold
manner; by obviating fpafm, and producing revul-
fion : Iffues and fetons aft chiefly in the latter of thefe
two ways ; and in this refpeft their effefts, though
lefs fudden and lefs powerful at firft, are more durable
from the continuance of the difcharge they occafion.
It is perhaps hardly neceffary to remark, that, if much
fervice is to be expefted from either of thefe remedies,
they fhould be applied early in the difeafe. The in¬
genious Dr Mudge, who experienced the good effefts
of a large fcapulary iflue on his own perfon, very pro¬
perly obferves, that the difcharge in thefe cafes ought
to be confiderable enough to be felt. But it is feldom
poflible for us to prevail on the delicate perfons, who
are moll: frequently the viftims of this difeafe, to fub-
mit to the application of a cauftic between the flioul-
ders. The difcharge produced by a feton is by no
means inconfiderable ; and as in thefe cafes there is
generally fome inflammatory ftitch, fome part of the*
breaft that is more painful or more affefted by a deep
infpiration than the reft, a feton in the fide, as near as
can be to the feat of the inflammation, will be an ufe-
ful auxiliary. Dr Simmons has feen it evidently of
great ufe in feveral cafes.
S4o Genus XXXVIII. HiEMORRHOIS.
Hemorrhoids, or Piles.
Haemorrhois, Sauv. gen. 21J. Lin. 192. Sag.
gen. 182.
Hasmorrhoidalis fluxus, Hoffm. 219.
Haemorrhoides, Junch. 11. and x 2.
Leucorrhois, Vog. 112.
Sp. I. External Piles.
^ Var. A. Bloody Piles.
Haemorrhois moderata, Sauv. fp. I.
Haemorrhoides ordinatae, 'Junck. 11.
Haemorrhoides nimiae, Junck. 11.
Haemorrhois immodica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Haemorrhoides excedentes, Alberti, de haemor¬
rhoid. p. 179
Haemerrhois polypofa. Sauv. fp. 3.
Var, B. Mucous Piles.
Hoemorrhoides decoloratae, albae, et mucidae, Junck.
13. Alberti, p. 148.
SP. IT. The Piles from a Procidentia Ani.
Haemorrhois ah exania, Sauv. fp. 4.
243 Sp. III. The Running Piles.
Sp. IV. The Blind Piles.
Haemorrhoides cce«ae, Junck. 12. Alberti, p. 274.
Defcription. The difcharge of blood from fmall
-tumors on the verge of the anus conftitutes what
is called the hemorrhoids or piles. They are diftin-
guifhed into the external .and internal, according to
the fituation of the tumors, either without or within
the anus. Sometimes, however, thefe tumors appear
without difeharging any blood ; and in this cafe they
are called the bemorrhoides caca or blind piles. Some¬
times the difeafe appears without the verge of the
i e i n e.
anus in diftinft feparate tumors ; but frequently only Hg-
one tumid ring appears, feeming as it were the anus k'
puftied without the body. Sometimes thefe tumors '
appear without any previous difordtr of the body;
but more frequently, before the blood begins to flow,
and fometimes even before the tumors are formed,
various affeftions are perceived in different parts of
the body 5 as headach, vertigo, ftupor, difficulty of
breathing, ficknefs, colic pains, pain of the back and
loins, and frequently a confiderable degree of pyrexia ;
while along with thefe fymptoms there is a fenfe of
fullnefs, heat, itching, and pain, in and about the
anus. Sometimes the difeafe is preceded by a ferous
difcharge from the anus; and fometimes this ferous
difcharge, accompanied with fwelling, feems to come
in place of the difcharge of blood, and to relieve the
above-mentioned diforders of the fyftem. This ferous
difcharge hath therefore been named the hemorrhois
alba.
In this difeafe the quantity of blood difeharged is
1 different upon different occafions. Sometimes it flows
only when the perfon goes to ftool, and commonly
follows the difcharge of feces. In other cafes it
flows without any difcharge of feces; and then
generally in cenfequence of the diforders above-men¬
tioned, when it is alfo commonly .in larger quantity.
This is often very confiderabfe ; and, by the repeti¬
tion, fo great, that we could hardly fuppofe the body
to bear it but with the hazard of life. Indeed,
though rarely, it has been fo great as to prove fud-
•denly fatal. Thefe confiderable difeharges occur
efpecially to perfons who have been frequently li¬
able to the difeafe. They often induce great de¬
bility, and frequently a leucophlegmafia or dropfy
which proves fatal. Sometimes the tumors and dis¬
charges of blood in this difeafe recur exaftly at
ftated periods. In the decline of life k frequently
happens that the haemorrhoidal flux, formerly fre¬
quent, ceafes to flow; and in that cafe it generally
happens that the perfons are affefted with apoplexy
or palfy. Sometimes hosmorrhoidal tumors are affec¬
ted with inflammation, which ends in fuppuration, and
gives occafion to the formation of fiftulous ulcers in
•thofe parts.
The haemorrhoidal tumors have often been confi-
dered as varices or dilatations of the veins; and in fome
cafes varicous dilatations have appeared upon diffec-
tion. Thefe, however, do not appear in the greater
part of cafes ; and Dr Cullen is of opinion that they
are ufually formed by an effufion of blood into the
cellular texture of the inteftine near to its extremity.
When recently formed, they contain fluid blood ; but
-after they remain for fome time they are ufually
-of a firmer confiftence, in confequence of the blood
being coagulated.
Caufes, &c. It would feem probable, that the
hsemorrhoidal tumors are produced by fome inter¬
ruption of the free return of the blood from the rec¬
tum, by which a rupture of the extremities of the
veins is occafioned. But confidering that the iix-mor-
rhagy occuring here is often preceded by pain, in¬
flammation, and a febrile ftate, and with many other
fymptdms which fhow a conneftion of the topical af-
feftion with the ftate of the whole fyftem, it is pro¬
bable that the interruption of the blood in the veins
F- f 2 produces
228 MED!
Tijec'or produces a confiderable refiftance to the motion
, rha--'" of the blood through the arteries, and confequently
that the difcharge of blood is commonly from the
latter. Some have thought, that a difference of the
hcemorrhois, and of its effecfei upon the fyftem, might
nrife from the difference of the haemorrhoidal velfels
Irom whence the blood iffued. But Dr Cullen is of
opinion, that we can fcarce ever diltinguifh the vefiels
from which the blood flows, and that the frequent
xnofculations of both arteries and veins belonging to
the lower extremity of the reft urn, will render the ef¬
fects of the hsemorrhagy much the fame, from whatever
fource it proceeds.
With regard to the haemorrhoids, however, he is
of opinion, that they are, for the moil part, merely
a topical affection. They take place before the pe¬
riod of life at which a venous plethora happens. They
happen to females, in whom a venous plethora deter¬
mined to the haemorrhoidal veffels cannot be fuppofed
to occur; and they happen to both fexes, and to per-
fons of all ages, from caufes which do not affect the
fyflem, and are manifeftly fuited to produce a topical
affedtion only.
Thefe caufes are, in the firft place, the frequent
voiding of hard aad bulky fteces, which, by their
long flagnation in the reftum, and efpecially when
voided, muft neceffarily prefs upon the veins of that
part, and interrupt the courfe of the blood in them.
For this reafon the difeafe fo frequently happens to
t,hofe who are habitually coftive. From the fame
caufes, the difeafe happens frequently to thofe who are
fubjeff to a prolapfus ani. In voiding the faeces, it
almofl always happens that the internal coat of the
reftum is more or lefs protruded ; and, during this
protrufion, it fometimes happens that the fphin&er ani
is contradfed in confequence of this, a ftrong con-
ilridtion is. made, which preventing the fallen-out gut
from being replaced, and at the fame time preventing
the return of blood from it,. Occafions a coniiderable
fwelling, and the formation of a tumid ring round
the anus..
Upon the fphinfter’s being a little relaxed, as it is
immediately after its ftrong contradiion, the portion
of the gut which had fallen out is commonly taken,
into the body again ; but by the frequent repetition
of the accident, the fize and fulnefs of the ring formed
by the prolapfed inteftine is much increafed. It is
therefore more (lowly and difficultly replaced ;■ and in
this, confifts the chief uneafinefs of baemorrhoidal per-
fons. As the internal edge of this ring is necefiarily
divided by clefts, the whole often puts on the appear¬
ance of a number of diftindl dwellings ; and it alfo fre¬
quently happens, that dome portions of it are more
confiderably fwelled, become more protuberant, and
form thofe fmall tumors more ftricdy called hemor¬
rhoids or piles.
From confidermg that the preffure of the feces,
and other caufes interrupting the return of venous
blood from the lower extremity of the redlum, may
operate a good deal higher up than that extremity,
■we may underftand how tumors may be formed with¬
in the anus ; and probably it alfo happens, that fome
of the tumors formed without the anus may con¬
tinue when taken within the body, and even be
iacreafed by the caufes juft mentioned. Thus may the
CINE. Practice.
produftioh of internal piles he explained, which, on Hasmoi^
. account of their fituation and bulk, are not protruded rhois*
on the perfon’s going to (tool, and are therefore more
painful.
The production of piles is particularly illuftrated
by this, that pregnant women are frequently affected
with the difeafe.—This is to be accounted for, partly
from the preffure of the uterus upon the rectum, and
partly from the coftive habit to which pregnant wo¬
men are liable. Dr Cullen has known many inftances
of piles happening for the firft time during the (late of
pregnancy ; and there are few women who have born
children, that are afterwards entirely free from piles.
—Purgatives alfo, efpecially thofe of the more acrid
kind, and particularly aloetics, are apt to produce
the piles when frequently ufed; and as they fti-
mulate particularly the larger inteftines, they may be
juftly reckoned among the exciting caufes of this dif-
eafe.
Prognojts. Though the haemorrhoids are commonly,
as we have faid, to be efteemed a topical difeafe, they
may, by frequent repetition, become habitual and con¬
nected with the ftate of the whole fyftem j and this
will more readily happen in perfons who have been
once affefted with the difeafe, if they be frequently
expofed to a renewal of the caufes which occafioaed it.
It happens alfo to perfons much expofed to a con-
geftion in the haemorrhoidal veffels, in confequence of
their being often in an ereCt pofition of the body, and
in an exercife which pulhes the blood into the depend¬
ing veffels, while at the fame time the effects of thefe
circumttances are much favoured by the abundance
and laxity of the cellular texture about the anus. It
is to be particularly obferved, that when an haemor¬
rhoidal affeCtion has either been originally or has be¬
come a difeafe of the fyftem, it then acquires a parti¬
cular connection with the ftomach ; fo, that certain af-
feCtions of the ftomach excite the haemorrhoidal dif¬
eafe, and certain dates of this difeafe excite the difor-
ders of the ftomach.
It has been an almoft univerfally received opinion,,
that the haemorrhoidal flux is a falutary evacuation,
which prevents many difeafes that would otherwife
have happened; and that it even contributes to give
long life :. and as this opinion haa been ftrenuoufly
adopted by Dr Stahl, it has had a very confiderable
influence on the praCtice of phyfie in Germany. But
Dr Cullen maintains that we can never expeCt to reap
much benefit from this flux, which at firft is purely
topical; and, granting that it (hould become habitual,
it is never, he thinks, proper to be encouraged'. It is
a difagreeable difeafe; ready to go to excefs, and there¬
by to prove hurtful, and fometimes even fatal. At.
heft it is liable to accidents, and thus to unhappy
confequences. He is therefore of opinion, that even
the firft approaches of the difeafe are to be guarded
againft; and that, though it (hould have proceeded
for fome time, it ought always to be moderated, and
the neceffity of it fuperfeded
Cure. The general intentions of cure in cafes of
hcemorrhois are much varied, according to the circum-
ftances of the affeftion at the time. When hoemor-
rhois exifts in the date of tumor, the principal ob-
jefts are to counteraft inflammation, and to promote
a difeharge of blood from the part. When it is in the
dale
Pra&ice. M E D
Hsmor- ftate of evacuation, tlie chief intentions of cure are, to
. - 'V'” diminifh the impetus of blood at the part affe&ed, and
’ to increafe the refiftance to the paffage of blood through
the ruptured, vefiels. And finally, when the difeafe
txifts in the flate of fuppreffion, the aims of the prac¬
titioner mult chiefly be, to obviate the particular af¬
fections which are induced in confequence of the fup¬
preffion ; to reftorfe the difcharge, as a means of miti¬
gating thefe and preventing others ; or, when the
difcharge cannot with propriety or advantage be re-
ttored, to compenfate the want of it by vicarious .eva¬
cuations.
With thefe various intentions in different cafes, a
variety of different remedies may be employed with
advantage.
When any evident caufe for this difeafe is perceived,
we ought immediately to attempt a removal of that
caufe. One of the mofl frequent remote caufes is an
habitual coftivenefs ; which muft be obviated by a pro¬
per diet, fuch as the perfon’s own experience will beft
diredf ; or if the management of diet be not effeftual,
the belly muft be kept open by medicines, which may
prove gently laxative, without irritating the reifftum.
In moft cafes it will be of advantage to acquire a ha¬
bit with regard to the time of difqharge, and to ob-
ferve it exactly. Another caufe of the hremorrhois to
be efpecially attended to is the prolapfus ani, which
is apt to happen on a perfon’s having a ftool. If this
(hall occur to any confiderable degree, and be not at
the fame time eafily and immediately replaced, it moft
certainly produces piles, or increafes them when other-
wife -produced. Perfens therefore who are liable to
this prolapfus, fhould,>after having been at ftool, take
great pains to have the inteftine immediately replaced,
t>y lying down in an horizontal pofture, and preffing
gently upon the anus, till the rediuftion fhall be com¬
pletely obtained. When this prolapfus is occafioned
only by the voiding of hard and bulky fteces, it is to
be removed by obviating the coftivenefs which occa-
fions it. But in fome perfons it is owing to a laxity
of the re<ftum ; and in thofe it is often moft conlider-
able on occafion of a loofe ftool. In thefe cafes, it is
to be treated by aftringents, and proper artifices are
to be employed to keep the gut in its place.
When the difeafe has frequently recurred from
negleft, and is thus in fome meafure eftabliftied, the
methods above-mentioned are no lefs proper; but in
this cafe fome other meafures muft alfo be ufed.
It is efpecially proper to guard againft a plethoric
ftate of the body ; and therefore to avoid a fedentary
life, full diet, and intemperance in the life of ftrong
liquor, which in all cafes of haemorrhagy is of the
moft pernicious confequence.
Exercife of all kinds is of great fervice in obviating
and removing a plethoric ftate of the body ; but upon
©ccafion of the hsemorrhoidal flux, when this is imme¬
diately to come on, both walking and riding, as in-
creafing the determination of the blood into the
hsemorrhoidal veflels, are to be avoided. At other
times, when no fuch determination is already formed,
thefe modes of exercife may be very properly em¬
ployed.
Another method of removing plethora is by cold'
✓bathing ; but this muft be employed with caution.
When the hoemorrhoidal flux is approaching, it may
I G I N E.
be dangerous to divert it} but during the intervals of
the difeafe, cold bathing may be employed with fafe-
ty and advantage ; and in thofe who are liable to a
prolapfus ani, the frequent wafhing of the anus with
cold-water may be ufeful.
Beiides general antiphlogiftic regimen, in fome cafes
where the inflammation runs high, recourfe may be
had with great advantage both to general blood-let¬
ting and to leeches applied at the anus. Relief is alft^
often obtained from the external application of emol¬
lients, either alone or combined with different articles-^
of the fedative kind, as acetated cerufe or opium, by
which it is well known that pain in general, particu¬
larly when depending on increafei fenfibility, or aug¬
mented adtion of the veffels, is powerfully allayed.
When the flux’has adtiially come on, we are to mo¬
derate .it as much as poffible, by cauilng the patient
lie on a horizontal pofture ou a hard bed ; by avoiding
exercife in an eredt pofture, ufing a cool diet, and
avoiding external heat. But with refpedt to the fur*
ther cure of this difeafe, we muft obferve, that there,
are only two cafes, in which it is common for haemor-
rhoidal perfons to call for medical alfiftance- The one
i , when the affedfion is accompanied with much pain }
and the other, when the piles are accompanied with
exceffive bleeding. In the firft cafe, we muft confider
whether the piles be external or internal The pain,
of the external piles happens efpecially when a confi¬
derable protrufion of the redtum has taken place ; and<
while it remains unreduced, it is ftrangled by the con-
ftridtion of the fphindler ; and at the fame time no-
bleeding happens to take off the fwelling of the pro¬
truded portion of the inteftine ; and fometimes an in¬
flammation fupervenes, which greatly aggravates the-
pain. In this cafe, emollient fomentations and poul¬
tices are fometimes of fervice, but the application off
leeches is generally to be preferred.
In cafe of exceffive bleeding, we are on all occa*
fions to endeavour to moderate the flux, even where:
the difeafe has occurred as a critical difcharge ; for if
the primary difeafe fhall be entirely and radically cu¬
red, the preventing any return of the hasmorrhois feema-
perfectly fafe and proper. It is only when the difeafe
arifes from a plethoric habit, and from a ftagnation off
blood in the hypochondriac region, or when, though
originally topical, it has by frequent repetition be¬
come habitual, and has thereby acquired a connection,
with the fyftem, that any doubt can arife about curing;
it entirely. In any of thefe cafes, however^. Dr Cul¬
len is of opinion that it will be proper to . moderate
the bleeding, left, by its continuance or repetition, the
plethoric ftate of the body, and the particular deter¬
mination of the blood into the hiemorrkoidal veffels, be
increafed, and the return, of the difeafe be too much,
favoured. Dr Stahl is off opinion,, that the hsemor¬
rhoidal flux is never to be accounted excelfive except¬
ing when it oecafions great debility or leucophlegma-
tia : but Dr Cullen thinks, that the fmalleft approach,
towards prodlieing either of thefe effe&s fhould be-
confidered as an excefs which ought to be prevent¬
ed from going farther ; and even !in the cafes of con~
geftion and plethora, if the plethoric habit and ten¬
dency can be obviated and removed, the hsemorrhoi¬
dal flux may then with fafety be entirely fuppreffed4
In all cafes therefore, of exceflise bleeding, or any ap¬
proach
229
Hasmor-
rhois.
3;V5 M E D I
Hirmor- proaeh to it, aflnngents both internal and external
, fh4gi.s [jg fafely and properly applied ; not indeed to in*
* duce an immediate and total fupprefiion ; but to mo¬
derate the haernorrhagy, and by degrees to fupprefs it
altogether ; while at the fame time meafures are to be
taken for the removing the neceflity of its recurrence.
£45 Genus XXXIX. MENORRHAGIA.
Immoderate Flow of the Menses.
Menorrhagia, Sauv. 244. Lin. 202. Vog. 96.
Metrorrhagia, Sag. gen. 179.
Uteri hsemorrhagia, Hoffm. II. 224.
Hsemorrhagia uterina, Junck.. 14.
JLeucorrhoea, Sauv gen. 267. Lin. 201. Vog. 119.
Sag. gen. 202.
Cachexia uterina, five fluor albus, Hojfnu III. 348.
Fluor albus, Junck 133.
Abortus, Sauv. gen. 245. Lin. 204. Sag. gen. 180.
Junck. 92.
Abortio, Vog. 97.
Fluor uterini fanguinis, Boerh. 1303.
Convulfio uteri, five abortus, Hojfm. III. 176.
246 Sp. I. The Immoderate Flow of the Menses, pro¬
perly fo called.
Menorrhagia rubra, Cul,
Menorrhagia immodica, Sauv. £p. 3.
Menorrhagia ftillatitia, Sauv. fp 2.
Defcription. The quantity of the menftrual flux is
different in different women, and likewife in the fame
woman at different times. An unufual quantity there¬
fore is not always to be confidered as morbid : but
when a large flow of the menfes has been preceded
by headach, giddinefs, or dyfpncea; has been ufher-
«d in by a cold ftage, and is attended with much
pain of the back and loins, with a frequent pulfe,
heat and thirft; it may then be confidered as preter-
naturally morbid. On the other hand, when the face
becomes pale, the pulfe weak, an unufual debility is
felt in exercife, and the breathing is hurried by little
labour ; when the back becomes pained from any con¬
tinuance in an eredt poilure, when the extremities be¬
come frequently cold, and when at night the feet
appear affedted with eedematous fwelling: from all
thefe fymptoms we may conclude, that the flow of
the menfes has been immoderate, and has already in¬
duced a dangerous flate of debility. The debility,
induced in this cafe, often appears alfo by affedtions
of the ftomach, an anorexia, and other fymptoms of
dyfpepfia; by a palpitation of the heart, and frequent
faintings; by a weaknefs of mind, liable to ftrong
emotions from flight caufes, efpecially thofe prefented
by furprife. A large flow of the menfes attended with
barrennefs in married women, may generally be con¬
fidered as preternatural and morbid. Generally, alfo,
that flow of the menfes may be confidered as immo¬
derate, which is preceded and followed by a leu-
corrhcea.
Caufes, &c. The proximate caufe of the menor¬
rhagia is either the effort of the uterine veffels preter-
naturally increafed, or a preternatural laxity of the
extremities of the uterine arteries.—The remote caufes
may be, 1. Thofe which increafe the plethoric Hate of
•the uterine veffels j as a full and nourifhing diet, much
£ T N E, Pra&ice
ftrong liquor, and frequent intoxications. *. Thofe Menor-
which determine the blood more copioufly and for- rhagia
cibly into the uterine veffels; as violent {trainings
the whole body ; violent fhocks from falls; ftrokes or
contufions on the lower belly ; violent exercife, parti¬
cularly in dancing ; and violent palfions of the mind.
3. Thofe which particularly irritate the veffels of the
uterus r as excefs in venery; the exercife of venery
in the time of menftruation ; a coftive habit, giving
occafion to violent {training at (tool; and cold applied
to the feet, 4. Thofe which have forcibly overftrained
the extremities of the uterine veffels; as frequent a-
bortions, frequent child-bearing without nurfing, and
difficult or tedious labours. Or, laftly, thofe which
induce a general laxity; as living much in warm cham¬
bers, and drinking much of warm enervating liquors,
fuch as tea, coffee, &c.
Cure. The treatment and cure of the menorrhagia,
muft be different according to the different caufes of
the difeafe. The pra&ices employed, however, are
chiefly ufed with one or two intentions ; either with
the view of reftraining the difeharge when prefent, or
of preventing the return of an exceffive difeharge at
the fucceeding period. The firft is chiefly to be ac-
complifhed by employing fuch pra&ices as diminifh
the force occafioning the difeharge of blood, or as
augment the refiftance to its paffage through the
veffels by which it is to be difeharged. The laft is ia
feme degree to be obtained by avoiding caufes which
either increafe the general impetus of the blood, or
the impetus at the uterus in particular; but princi¬
pally by giving additional vigour to the uterine vef¬
fels.
In all cafes, the firft attention ought to be given to
avoiding the remote caufes, whenever that can be
done; and by fuch attention the difeafe may be often
entirely cured. When the remote caufes cannot be
avoided, or when the avoiding them has been ne-
gle&ed, and a copious menftruation has come on, it
fhould be moderated as much as poffible, by abitain-
ing from all exercife at the coming on or during the
continuance of the menftruation; by avoiding even an
eredt pofture as much as poffible ; by fhunning exter¬
nal heat, and of courfe warm chambers and foft beds j
by ufing a light and cool diet; by taking cold drink,
at leaft as for as former habits will allow ; by avoid¬
ing venery; by obviating coftivenefs, or removing it
by laxatives which give little ftimulus. The fex are
commonly negligent, either in avoiding the remote
caufes, or in moderating the firft beginnings of this
difeafe. It is by fuch negledl that it fo frequently
becomes violent and of difficult cure; and the frequent
repetition of a copious menftruation may be confidered
as a caufe of great laxity in the extreme veffels of the
uterus.
When the coming on of the menftruation has been
preceded by feme diforder in other parts of the body,
and is accompanied with pains of the back, fomewhat
like parturient pains, with febrile fymptoms, and when
at the fame time the flow feems to be copious, a bleed¬
ing at the arm may be proper, but is not often necef-
fary ; and it will in moft cafes be fufficient t® employ,
with great attention and diligence, thofe means already
mentioned for moderating the difeharge.
When the immoderate flow of the menfes fhall feem
t«
Practice. M E D I
H*mor- to be owing to a laxity of the vefTds of the uterus, as
t rhagia conclu(Jed from the general debility and laxity
' '<r~- 0f perfon’s habit; from the remote caufes that
have occafioned the difeafe; frogi the abfence of the
fymptoms which denote increafed adtion in the veffels
of the uterus; from the frequent recurrence of the
difeafe ; and particularly from this, that the female in
the intervals of menftruation is liable to a leucorrhcea;
in fuch a cafe, the difeafe is to be treated, not only by
employing all the means -above mentioned for mode¬
rating the hemorrhagy, but alfo by avoiding all irri¬
tation, every irritation having a greater efteft in pro¬
portion ai’the veffels are more lax and yielding. If,
in fueh a cafe of laxity, it (hall appear that fame de¬
gree of irritation concurs, opiates may be employed to
moderate the difeharge; but in ufmgthefe much cau¬
tion is requifite. If, notwithftanding thefe meafilres
having been taken, the difeharge fhall prove very large,
aftringentsboth external and internal may be employed.
In fuch cafes. Dr Cullen aflis, May fmall dofes of eme¬
tics be of fervice?
When the menorrhagia depends on the laxity of
the uterine veffels, it will be proper, in the intervals
of menftruation, to employ tonic remedies; as cold
bathing and chalybeates. The exercifes of geftation
alfo may be very ufeful, both for ftrengthening the
whole fyftem, and for taking off the determination of
the blood to the internal parts.
Thefe remedies may be employed in all cafes of
menorrhagia, from whatever caufe it may have pro¬
ceeded, if it ihall have already induced a conftderable
degree of debility in the body.
247 Sp. II. Abortioh.
Menorrhagia abortus, Cul.
Menorrhagia gravidarum, Saw. fp. 6.
Abortus effluxio, Sauv. £p. t.
a. Abortus fubtrimeftris.
b. Abortus fubfemeftris.
c. Abortus o&imeftris.
Abortus ab uteri laxitate^ Smv. fp* 2v
248 S-p. III. Immoderate Flux of the Lochia.
Menorrhagia lochialis, Sauv. fp.8. Cul.
For the defeription, treatment, and cure, of thefe
two laft difeafes, fee the article Midwifery.
249 Sp. IV. Immoderate Flow of the Men.se s from fome
Local Diforder.
Menorrhagia vitiorum, Cul.
Menorrhagia ex hyfteroptofi, Saw. fp. 5.
Menorrhagia ulcerofa* Sauv. fp. 9.
Sp. V. The Leucorrhcea*, Fluor Albus* or Whites.
250 r
Menorrhagia alba, Cul.
Leucorrhosa, Sauv. G 267.
Menorrhagia decolor, Sauv. fp 7..
' Leucorrhcea Americana, Sauv. fp. 5..
Leucorrhcea Indica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Leucorrhcea Nabothi, Sauv. fp. 9.
Leucorrhoe gravidarum, Sauv. fp. 8.
Defeription. The Jluor alius, female weaknefs, or
whites, as it is. commonly called, is a difeafe of the
womb and its contiguous parts; from which a pale
CINE. s
coloured, greenilh, or yellow fluid, is difeharged, at- l-euco
tended with lofs of ftrength, pain in the loins, bad di- rliae
geftion, and a wan fickly afpeft.
Caufes, &c. The quantity, colour, and conftftence
of the difeharge, chiefly depend upon the time of its
duration, the patient’s habit of body, and the nature
of the caufe by which it was produced. Taking cold,
ftrong liquor, immoderate heat and moifture, or vio¬
lent exercife, are all obferved to produce a bad effect,
as to its quantity and quality.
Weakly women of lax folids, who have had many
children, and long laboured under ill health, are of
all the molt fubjeft to this difagreeable difeafe;
from which they unfortunately fuffer more fevere pe¬
nance than others, as the niceft fenfations are often
connected with fuch a delicacy of bodily frame as lub-
jedfts them to it.
In Holland it is very frequent, and in a manner pe¬
culiar to the place, from the dampnefs of its filia¬
tion ; the furrounding air being fo overcharged with
moifture as to relax the body,, flop perfpiratioh, and.
throw it upon the bowels or womb; producing in the
firft a diarrhoea or flux, in the laft. the Jluor alius or
female weaknefs.
The difeharge often proceeds from, the veffels fub-
fervient to menftruation ; becaufe, in delicate habits,
where thofe veffels are weak, and confequently remain
too long uncontra&ed, the Jluor albus fometimes im¬
mediately foljpws the menfes, and goes off by degrees
as they gradually clofe. It alfo comes from the mu¬
cus glands of the womb, as is particularly evident in
very young^ females of eight and ten years old ; in>
whom, though very rarely, it has been obferved, and-
where it muft then neceffarily have efcaped from thofe'
parts, as the uterine veffels are not fufficiently en¬
larged for its paffage at fo early a period.
Sometimes, as in women with child, it proceeds,
from the paffage to the womb, and not from the womb'
itfelf; which, during pregnancy, is clofely fealed up,
fo that nothing can pafs from thence till the time of
labour. The application of thofe inftruments called
pejfaries, from the pain and irritation they occafion,,
are alfo apt to bring on this difeharge. Hence we
may conclude, that this difeafe may happen although'
the blood be in a pure ftate. Here the fault feems to.
be placed in the veffels at the part, by which the
ffuids are vitiated and changed from their natural qua¬
lities.
The jluor alius has been fuppofed to fupplyv the;
want of the menfes; becaufe where the lirfti. prevails,
the laft is generally either irregular or totally.wanting;-,
but it might more properly be faid,s that the prefence
of the Jluor alius, which is a preternatural evacuation^
occafions the abfence of that which-is* natural'; a,, is
evident from the return .of the. menfes after the jluor
alius has been cured.. Indeed, when this difeharge.
appears about the age. of 13 or 14, and. returns once.
a. month,, with, fymptoms. like thofe of the menfes,*
then it may be deemed ftrictly natural,, and therefore:
ought not to he ftopped;
Prognojis. r£\\e Jluor alius may be diftinguiffied in¬
to two kinds- The firft arifes from a Iknple. weak¬
nefs, or the relaxation of the folids.; which may eitherr
be general, where the whole, bodily fyftem is enervated;'
and uniirungj.or partial* where the womb only is thus,
affected*.
MEDI
affeftetl, In conference eF Fiartl labour, frequent mif-
carriages, a fuppreflion or Immoderate quantity of the
njerifeB, or a fprain of the back or loins.
In the firfl cafe, the difcharge being generally mild,
may be fafely taken away. In the fecond, it may
proceed from a vitiated or impure blood, where the
body, frotn thence, is loaded with grofs humours,
which nature for her own fecurity and relief thus en»
deavours to carry off. In fuch cafes, the difcharge is
often of a reddifh colour, like that from old ulcer¬
ous fores ; being fometimes fo Iharp as to excoriate
the contiguous parts, and occafion a fmarting andheat
of urine.
A deep-feated, darting pain, with a forcing d: wn,
attending fuch a difcharge, is a very dangerous and
alarming fign, and indicates an ulceration or cancerous
Hate of the womb. This malignant ftate of the dif-
eafe, if of long continuance, is extremely difficult of
cure ) and difpofes the patient to barrennefs, a bearing
dowm, dropfy, or confumption.
Cure, See. The caufes of thofe two kinds of this
difeafe being different, fo they will require a very dif¬
ferent method of cure. For this purpofe, in the firft
cafe, nothing will be more proper than nourilhing
limple food; fuch as veal broths, jellies, freffi eggs,
and milk diet. The acid fruits will alfo be proper;
and the patient may take a reftorative, ftrengthening
infufion, which will give firmnefs to the body, and af-
iift the weakened hbres of the womb in returning to
their natural ftate.
The fame method may be ufed with foccefs, where
the fiuor alius follows the menfes, as already obferved.
The Tunbridge or Spa waters may be drank at the
fame time ; and if necefiary, an infulion of green tea,
ov pure fmith’s forge water, may be ufed with a womb-
fyringe as an injeftion twice a-day. Should the dif¬
eafe prove uncommonly obftinate, the patient may go
into the cold bath every fecond day ; and alfo drink
lime-water with milk, which will expedite the cure,
and prevent a relapfe. Volatile liniment, and after-
wards a ftrengthening plafter, may be applied to the
fmall of the back.
By way of caution, the female fhould abftain from the
immoderate ufe of tea ; and be removed into a dry clear
air ; or if ftie be obliged to remain in one lefs proper,
Ihe may apply the flefh-brufh, and wear a flannel ffiift
next her ikin, impregnated with the fumes of burning
frankincenfe er any of the grateful aromatic gums.
Cold fpring-water pumped on the loins, or a blifter-
ing plafter applied to the bottom of the fpine or back,
are both very powerful in their effedfs, and have fome¬
times fucceeded after other remedies had been tried in
vain.
In the fecond fort of the difeafe, where the difcharge
is fliarp and of long Handing, it would be extremely
dangerous to fupprefs it fuddenly, either by aftringents
internally taken, or applied as injedlions, until the
fyftem be re ft ore d to a more found and vigorous con¬
dition.
A purging potion may be taken twice a-week, and
in the intervals an alterative pill night and morning.
After this courfe has been continued a fortnight or
three weeks, {he may begin with the ftrengthening
•bitter infufion, or fome other tonic, in the quantity
FJ° 206.
CINE, Pradlkc.
of a tea-cupful twice a-day, or to a greater extent if Leucor
the ftomach will allow 'hrca
The fame fort of food and regimen will here be '~""'r v
proper as in the firft kind of the difeafe. The patient
ftiould abftain from malt liquors, and drink rice-water,
in each pint of which half an ounce of gum-arabic has
been difiblved ; or if (he be weak, and of a cold bloat¬
ed habit of body, a little French Brandy may be added
occaficnally.
When (he begins to take the bitter infufion, it will
be proper to ufe the Tunbridge or Pyrmont water
for common drink; but if thofe cannot conveniently
be had, the artificial aerated water, impregnated with
iron and fixed air, will make an excellent fubftitute.
If it fliould render her coftive, and occafion head-ach,
fhe may delift, and drink imperial water or a little
fenna-tea fweetened with manna, till thole complaints
be removed.
In ftiort, as this is a malady of the moft difagree
able kind, which by long continuance or neglett be¬
comes difficult of cure and often produces an ulcera¬
tion of the womb, bearing down, barrennfs, a dropfy, or
confumption; it were to be wiftied that women, on
fuch occafions, would be more attentive to their own
fafety, by ufing all poffihle means, in due time, to pre¬
vent thofe diforders.
Dr Leake fays he has attended more patients la¬
bouring under the jluor albus in the autumn than at
any other feafon of the year, efpecially when the
weather was uncommonly moift and cold: moft of
them were cured by change of diet, an increafed per-
fpiration, and the proper ufe of Peruvian bark with
aromatics. He obferved, that feveral about this time
who efcaped the diforder, were vifited with bad colds,
a defluxion on the throat, or a diarrhoea, which were
removed by 'a fimilar treatment.
As women are fometimes conne&ed with thofo who
do not confcientioufly regard their fafety, it is a cir-
cumftance of the utmoft confequence to dijlinguifh a
frejh venereal infection from the jluor albus or whites :
for if the firft be miftaken for the laft, and be either
neglefted or improperly treated, the worft confequences
may arife.
The, following figns will beft inform the patient
whether there be occafion for her doubts or not.
A frefti infection, called gonorrhcea, is malignant
and inflammatory ■; the fluor albus moft commonly a-
rifes from relaxation and bodily weaknefs: and there¬
fore the remedies proper in the firft diforder would
render the laft more violent, by locking up and con¬
fining the infectious matter.
In the gonorrhoea, the difcharge chiefly proceeds
from the parts contiguous to the urinary paflage, and
continues whilft the menfes flow; but in the jluor albus
it is fupplied from the cavity of the womb and its
paflage, and then the menfes are feldom regular.
In the gonorrhoea, an itching, inflammation, and
heat of urine, are the fore-runners of the difcharge 4
the orifice of the urinary paflage is prominent and
painful, and the patient is affefted with a frequent ir¬
ritation to make water. In the jluor albus, pains in
the loins, and lofs of ftrength, attend the difcharge ;
and if any inflammation or heat of urine follow, they
happen in a lefs degree, and only after a long con-
y tiuuanoe
Pra<5tice. M EDI
Hsemor- tinuance of the difch»rge, which, becoming fharp and
rhagix acr;monious, excoriates the furrounding parts.
*"■—'v In the gonorrhoea, the difcharge fuddenly appears
without any evident caufe ; but in the Jluor albus> it
comes on more flowly, and is often produced by irre¬
gularities of the menfes, frequent abortion, fprains, or
long-continued illnefs.
In the gonorrhoea, the difcharge is greenifli or yel¬
low, lefs in quantity, and nut attended <with the fame
fymptoms of weaknefi. In the Jluor albus, it is alfo of¬
ten of the fame colour, efpecially in bad habits of
body, and after long continuance; but is ufually more
offenfive, and redundant in quantity.
All the other kinds of hemorrhagy enumerated by
medical writers, are by Dr Cullen reckoned to be
fymptomatic ; as,
Stomacace, Sauv. gen. Z41. Lin.i^- Ir°g- %S-Sag.
gen. 176.
Species: Scorbutica, Purulenta, &c!
Hvematemesis, Sauv. g<in. 242. Lin. 184. Vog. 89.
gen. 177.
Species : Plethorica, Catamfenialis, Scorbutica, See.
Hematuria, Saav. gerv. 233. Lin. 198. Vog. 92.
Sag. gen. 178.
Species: Purulenta, Calculofa, Haemorrhoidalis, &c.
Order V. PROFLUVIA.
Genus XL. CATARRHUS.
25* The Catarrh.
Catarrhus, Saw), gen. 186. Vog. 98. Sag.gtn. 145.
Coryza, Lin. i']JrJrog. 100. Sag. gen. 196.
Rheuma, Sauv. gen. 142.
Tuffis, Sauv. gen. 142. Lin. 155. Vog. 205. Sag.
gen. 245. 255. Junck. $0.
Tuffis catarrhalis et rheumatica, Hoffm. III. 109.
Sp. I. Catarrh from Cold.
552
Catarrhus a frigore, Cut.
Catarrhus benignus, Sauv. fp. t.
Catarrhus pe&oreus, Sauv. fp. 6.
Coryza catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Coryza phlegmatorrhagia, Sauv. fp. 2. Salmuth.
Obf. cent. 1. 37. jfunck. 28. Morgagn. de fed.
xiv. 21.
Coryza febricofa, Sauv. fp. 6.
Tuffis catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 1. N. Rofen Diffi apud
Haller, Difput. Pra£t. tom. II.
Rheuma cafarrhale* Sauv. fp 1.
Amphimerina catarrhalis, Sauv, fp. 2.
Amphimerina tufficulofa, Sauv, fp. 13.?
Cephalalgia catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 10.
2^ Sp. II. Catarrh from Contagion.
Catarrhus a contagio, Cul.
Catarrhus epidemicus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Rheuma epidemicum, Sauv. fp. 2.
Synocha catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 5.
There are feveral fymptomatic fpecies : as, Catarrhus
Rubeolofus ; Tuffis Variolofa, Vermipofa, Calcu-
Vol. XL Part I.
C I N E.
lofa, Phthifica, Hyfterica, a dentitione, Gravida-
rum, Metallicolarum, &c. v
Defcription. The catarrh is an increafed excretion
of mucus from the mucous membrane of the nofe,
fauces, and bronchise, attended with pyrexia.
Practical writers and nofologifts have diftinguiffied
the difeafe by different appellations, according as it
happens to affe£t different parts of the mucous mem¬
brane, one part more or lefs than the other : but Dr
Cullen is of opinion that the difeafe in thofe different
parts is always of the fame nature, and proceeds from
the fame caufe in the one as in the other. Very com¬
monly indeed thofe different parts are affe&ed at the
fame time ; and therefore there is little room for the
diftindtion mentioned. The difeafe has been frequent¬
ly treated of under the title of tujfis or cough ; and a
cough, indeed, always attends the chief form of ca¬
tarrh, that is, the increafed excretion from the bron-
chine ; but as it is fo often alftra fymptom of many
other affedtions, which are very different from one an¬
other, it is improperly ufed as a generic title.
The difeafe generally begins with fome difficulty of
breathing through the nofe, and with a fenfe of fome
fulnefs (topping up that paffage. This again is often
attended with fome dull pain and a fenfe of weight in
the forehead, as well as a ftiffnefs in the motion of the
eyes. Thefe feelings, fometimes at their very firft:
beginning, and always foon after, are attended with
the diftillation of a thin fluid from the nofe, and
fometimes from the eyes; and thefe fluids are often
found to be fomewhat acrid, both by their tafte and
by their fretting the parts over which they pafs.
Thefe fymptoms conftitute the coryza and gravedo of
authors, and are commonly attended with a fenfe of
laffitude over the whole body. Sometimes cold fhi-
verings are felt; at lead the body is more fenfible than
ufual to the coldnefs of the air; and with all this the
pulfe is more frequent than ordinary, efpecially in the
evenings,
Thefe fymptoms have feldom continued long before
they are accompanied with fome hoarfenefs, and a
fenfe of roughnefs and fqrenefs in the trachea, with
fome difficulty of breathing, expreffed by a fenfe of
ftraitnefs in the cheft, and with a cough which feems
to arife from fome irritation felt at the glottis. This
cough is generally at firft dry and painful, occafioning
pains about the cheft, and more efpecially in the
bread; fometimes, together with thefe fymptoms,
pains refembling thofe of the rheumatifm are felt in
feveral parts of the body, particularly about the neck
and head. With all thefe fymptoms, the appetite is
impaired, fome third arifes, and a feveriffi laffitude is
felt all over the body. Thefe fymptoms mark the
height and violence of the difeafe ; but commonly
it does not continue long. By degrees the cough
comes to be attended with a more copious excretion of
mucus; which is at firft thin, but gradually becoming
thicker, is brought up with lefs frequent and lefs la¬
borious coughing. The hoarfenefs and forenefs of
the trafchea are alfo relieved or removed ; and the fe¬
brile fymptoms abating, the expe&oration becomes
again lefs, and the cough lefs frequent, till at length
they ceafe altogether.
Such is generally the courfe of this difeafe, neither
G g tedious
234 M E D I
Profluvia tedious nor dangerous ; but it is fometimes in both
-v— refpefts otherwife. The body afFeited with catarrh
feems to be more than ufually liable to be af¬
fected by cold air; and upon expofure of the body
to freih cold, the difeafe, whch feemed to be yield¬
ing, is often brought back with greater violence than
before, and is rendered not only more tedious than
otherwife it would be, but alfo more dangerous by
the fupervening of other difeafes. Some degree of
the cynanche tonfillaris often accompanies the catarrh;
and when this is aggravated by a frefh application of
cold, the cynanche alfo becomes more violent and dan¬
gerous from the cough, which is prefent at the fame
time. When a catarrh has been occafioned by a vio¬
lent caufe, when it has been aggravated by improper
management, and efpecially when it has been render¬
ed more violent by frefh and repeated applications of
cold, it often paffes into a pneumonic inflammation,
attended with the utmoft danger.
Unlefs, however, fuch accidents as thofe happen, a
catarrh, in found perfons not far advanced in life, is
always a flight and fafe difeafe : but, in perfons of a
phthiiical difpofition, a catarrh may readily produce a
hemoptyfis, or perhaps form tubercles in the lungs;
and Hill more readily in perfons who have tubercles
already formed in the lungs, an accidental catarrh may
occafion the inflammation of thefe tubercles, and in
confequencc produce a phthifis pulmonalis.
In elderly perfons, a catarrh fometimes proves a
dangerous difeafe. Many perfons, as they advance in
life, and efpecially after they have arrived at old age,
have the natural mucus of the lungs poured out in
greater quantity, and requiring a frequent expectora¬
tion. If, therefore, a catarrh happen to fuch per¬
fons, and increafe the afflux of fluids to the lungs,,
■with fome degree of inflammation, it may produce
the peripneumonia notha, or more properly chronic
catarrh, a difeafe continuing often for many years, or
at leafl: regularly every winter; which in fuch cafes is
very often fatal.
Caufes, &c. The proximate caufe of catarrh feems
to be an increafed afflux of fluids to the mucous mem¬
brane of the nofe, fauces, and bronchias, along with
fome degree of inflammation affecting the fame. The.
latter circumftarrce is confirmed by this, that, in the
cafe of catarrh, the blood drawn from a vein com¬
monly exhibits the fame inflammatory cruft which ap¬
pears in the cafe of phlegmalioe. The remote caufe
of catarrh is moft commonly cold applied to the body.
This application of cold producing catarrh is gene-
rally evident and obferved ; and Dr Cullen is.of opi¬
nion that it would always be fo, were men acquainted
with and attentive to the circumftanees which deter¬
mine cold to a£t upon the body.
The application of cold which occafions a catarrh,
^probably operates by flopping the perfpiration ufually
made by the flcin, and which is therefore determined
to the mucous membrane of the parts above-mention¬
ed. As a part of the weight which the body daily
iofes by infenfible evacuation, is owing to-an exhala¬
tion from the lungs, there is probably a connexion
between this exhalation and the cutaneous perfpira¬
tion, fo that the one may be increafed according as the
other is diminiftied panel therefore we may underfland.
CINE. Practice.
how the diminution of cutaneous perfpiration, by the Catarrh«s»
application of cold, may increafe the afflux of fluids —'r~J
to the lungs, and thereby produce a catarrh-
Dr Cullen obferves that there are fome obfervations
of Dr James Keil which may render this matter
doubtful; but fays there is a fallacy in thofe obferva¬
tions. The evident effe&s of cold in producing
coryza, leave the matter, in general, without doubt j
and there are feveral other obfervations which (how a
connexion between the lungs and the furface of the
body.
Whether from the fuppreffion of perfpiration, a
catarrh be produced merely by an increafed afflux of
fluids, or whether in addition to this the matter of per¬
fpiration be at the fame time determined to the mu¬
cous glands, and there excites a particular irritation,
may be uncertain ; but Dr Cullen thinks the latter
fuppofition is moft probable.
Although in the cafe of a common catarrh, which
is in many inftances fporadic, it may be doubtful
whether any morbific matter be applied to the mu¬
cous glands; we are, however, certain that the fymp-
toms of a catarrh do frequently depend upon fuch a
matter being applied to thefe glands, as appears from
the cafe of meafles, chincough, and efpecially from
the frequent occurrence of contagious and epidemical
catarrh.
The phenomena of contagious catarrhs have been
much the fame with thofe of the others; and the
difeafe has always been particularly remarkable for this,
that it has been the moft widely and generally fpread-
ing epidemic known. It has feldom appeared in any
one country of Europe, without appearing fucceflively
in almoft every different part of it; and, in fome in¬
ftances, it has been alfo transferred to America, and
has been fpread there in like manner, fo far as we have
had opportunities of being informed.
The catarrh from contagion appears with nearly
the fame fymytoms as thofe above-mentioned. It feems
often to come on in confequence of the application of
cold. And indeed catarrh from cold and contagion
are in every refpedd fo fimilar, that when this epide¬
mic rages, it is impofiible to determine with a perfon
having fymptoms of catarrh after expofure to cold,
whether the-difeafe proceeds from the one caufe or
the other. In moft inftances, however, catarrh from
contagion comes on with more cold fnivering than the
catarrh arifing from cold alone ; and the former does
alfo not only fooner (how febrile fyroptoms, but to
a more confiderable degree. Accordingly, it more
fpeedily runs its courfe, which is commonly finiflied
in a few days. It fometimes' ends by a fpontaneous
fweat; and this,, in fomc perfons, produces a miliary
eruption. It is, however, the febrile ftate of this
difeafe efpecially that is linifhed in a few days; for
the cough and other catarrhal fymptoms do frequent¬
ly continue longer, and often when they appear to be
going off they are renewed by any frefh application of
cold.
Progrw/ts. Confidering the number of perfons who
are affefted with catarrh, of either the one fpecies or
the other, and efcape from it quickly without any
hurt, it may be allowed to be a difeafe commonly free
from danger; but it is not always to be treated .as fucb,
for
Pra&ice. MED I
Proflu via for in feme perfons it is accompanied with pneumonic
—v ' inflammation. In the phthifically difpofed, it often
accelerates the coming on of phthifis ; and in elderly
perfons it often proves fatal in the manner we have
explained above, viz. by degenerating into its chro¬
nic ftate. But though chronic catarrh be often the
termination of that fpecies which arifes from cold, we
have not, in any cafe, obferved it to arife as a confe-
quence of a catarrh from contagion. This fpecies of
catarrh, however, is not unfrequently followed by
phthifis; or rather where a phthifical tendency before
exifted, the affeftion has been begun and its progrefs
accelerated from this caufe.
Cure. The cure of catarrh is nearly the fame,
whether it proceeds from cold or contagion ; only in
the latter cafe remedies are commonly more neceffary
than in the former. In the cafes of a moderate dif-
eafe, it is commonly fufficient to avoid cold, or to ab-
ftain from animal-food for fome days. In fome cafes,
where the febrile fymptoms are conflderable, it is pro¬
per for that length of time to lie a-bed, and, by taking
frequently fome mild and diluent drink, a little warm¬
ed, to promote a very gentle fweat; and after this to
take care to return very gradually only to the ufe of
the free air. When the difeafe is more violent, not
only the antiphlogiftic regimen, exa&ly obferved, but
various remedies alfo, become neceffary. To take
off the phlogiftic diathefis which always attends this
difeafe, blood-letting, more or lefs, according as the
fymptoms Ihall require, is the proper remedy. After
blood-letting, for reltoring the determination of the
fluids to the furface of the body, and at the fame
time for expediting the fecretion of mucus in the lungs,
which may take off the inflammation of its membrane,
vomiting is the moft effeftual means. For the laft-
mentioned pnrpofe, it has been fuppofed that fquills,
gum-ammoniac, the volatile alkali, and fome other
medicines, might be ufeful; but their efficacy has
never been found confiderable : and if fquills have ever
been very ufeful, it feems to have been rather by their
emetic than by their expeftorant powers. When the
inflammatory affe&ions of the lungs feem to be confi¬
derable, it is proper, befides blood-letting, to apply
blifters te the back or Tides.
As a cough is often the moft troublefome circum-
ftance of this difeafe, fo demulcents may be employed
to alleviate it. But after the inflammatory fymptoms
are much abated, if the cough ftill remains, opiates af¬
ford the moft effectual means of relieving it ; and, in
the circumftances juft now mentioned, they may he
very fafely employed. Very coniiderable advantage
is often derived from employing opiates in fuch a
manner as to act more immediately on the head of
the wind-pipe. For this purpofe, opium may often
be advanta^eoufly conjoined with demulcents, melt¬
ing flowly in the mouth. And perhaps no form is
more convenient, or anfwers the purpofe better, than
the trachifci glycyrrhiza cum opio of the Edinburgh Phar¬
macopoeia, where purified opium is combined with
extract of liquorice, gum Arabic, and other demul¬
cents, to the extent of about a grain in a dram of the
compofition. After the inflammatory and febrile
ftates of this difeafe are very much gone, the moft ef-
fedlual means of difeuffing all remains of the catarrhal
CINE. 23i
affeftion is by fome exercifc of geftation diligently Catarrhus.
employed.
Befides the remedies above-mentioned, Dr Mudge,
in a treatife on this difeafe, recommends the fleam of
warm water as a moft efficacious and fafe remedy for
a catarrh, and which indeed he feems to confider as
little lefs than infallible. The method of breathing in
thefe fteams is deferibed under the word Inhaler ;
but he gives a caution to people in health, who may
accidentally fee his machine, not to make the experi¬
ment of breathing through cold water with it, or they
will be almoft certain of catching a fevere cold. His
directions for thofe troubled with the catarrh are as
follow:
“ In the evening, a little before bed-time, the pa¬
tient, if of adult age, is to take three drachms, or as
many tea-fpoonfuls, of elixir paregoricum, in a glafs
of water: if the fubjeCt be younger, for inftance under
five years old, one tea-fpoonful; or within that and
ten years, two. About three quarters of an hour af¬
ter, the patient fliould go to bed, and, being covered
warm, the inhaler three parts filled with water nearly
boiling (which, from the coidnefs of the metal, and
the time it ordinarily takes before it is to be ufed by
the patient, will be of a proper degree of warmth),
and being wrapped up in a napkin, but fo that the
valve in the cover is not obftnnfted by it, is to be
placed at the arm-pit, and the bed-clothes being drawn
up and over it clofe to the throat, the tube is to be
applied to the mouth, and the patient Ihould infpire
and expire through it for about twenty minutes or
half an hour.
“ It is very evident, as the whole aft of refpiration
is performed through the machine, that in infpiration
the lungs will be filled with air which will be hot, and
loaded with vapour, by palling through the body of
water; and in exfpiration, all that was contained in
the lungs will, by, mixing with the fteam on the fur-
face of the water, be forced thro’ the valve in the co¬
ver, and fettle on the furface of the body under the
bed-cloaths.
“ The great ufe of this particular conftruftion of
the inhaler is this. Firft, as there is no neceffity, at
the end of every infpiration, to remove the tube from
the mouth, in order to exfpire from the lungs the va¬
pour which had been received into them, this machine
may therefore be ufed with as much eafe by children
as older people. And, fecondly, as a feverilh habit
frequently accompanies the diforder, the valve in that
refpeft alfo is of the utmoft importance : for a fweat,
or at leaft a free perfpiration, not only relieves the
patient from the reftlefs anxiety of a hot, dry, and
fometimes parched Ikin, but is alfo, of all evacuations,
the moft eligible for removing the fever ; and it will
be generally found, that, after the inhaler fo con-
ftrufted has been ufed a few minutes, the warm
vapour under the cloaths will, by fettling upon the
trunk, produce a fweat, which will gradually extend
kfelf to the legs and feet.
“ In a catarrhous fever, or any feverifli habit at¬
tending this cough, it would be proper to take a
draught of warm thin whey a few minutes before the
inhaler be ufed ; and after the procefs is over, the fweat
which it has produced may be continued by occafional
G g 2 final!
6 M E D I
ofluvia fmall draughts of weak warm whey or barley-water,
"’v ' The fweating is by no means fo neceffary to the cure
of the catarrhous cough, as that the fuccefs of the in¬
haler againft that complaint at all depends upon it; yet
I cannot help once more remarking, that when this
diforder happens to be accompanied with a feveriih
habit, the advantages of this particular conflru&ion
will be very important.
“ After this refpiratory procefs is over, the patient
ufually pafles the night without the leaft interruption
from the cough, and feels no farther moleftation from
it than once or twice in the morning to throw off the
trifling leakage which, unperceived, had dripped into
the bronchias and veficles during the night; the thinner
parts of which being evaporated, what remains is foon
got rid of with a very gentle effort.
“ I cannot, however, take leave of this part of my
fubjeft, without pointedly obferving, that if the pa¬
tient means not to be difappointed by my affurances or
bis own expectations, it is eflentially neceflary that the
following remarks, with regard to the time and man¬
ner of uling this procefs, fhould be ftri&ly attend¬
ed to.
“ Firft, That as tender valetudinary people are but
too well acquainted w-ith the firfl: notices of the difor¬
der, the remedy muft, or ought to be, ufed the fame
evening ; which will, in an ordinary feizure, be attend¬
ed with an immediate cure : but if the forenefs of the
refpiratory organs, or the petulance of the cough,
fhow the cold which has been contra&ed to have been
very fevere, the inhaler, without the opiate, fhould
be again repeated for the fame time the next morning.
“ Secondly, if the ufe of the inhaler,' &c. be de¬
layed till the fecond night, it will be always right
to repeat it again the next morning without the
opiate, but with it if the feizure has been violent.
“ And, laftly, if the cough be of feme days ftr.nd-
ing, it will be always neceflary to employ both parts
of the procefs at night and the i'ucceeding morning,
as the firft fimple inflammatory mifehief is now moil
probably aggravated by an additional one of a chronic
tendency.
“ But if, through the want of a timely application-,
or a total negleft of this or any other remedy, the
cough Ihould continue to harafs the patient, it is, par¬
ticularly in delicate and tender eonilitutions, of the ut-
molt confequence to attempt the removal of it as foon
as pofiible, before any floating acrimony in the confti-
tution (from the perpetual irritation) receives an ha¬
bitual determination to an organ fo efiential to life as
the lungs..
“ If the patient expe&orate with cafe and freedom
a thick and well-digefted inoffenfive phlegm, there is
generally but little doubt of his fpitting off the difor¬
der, with common care, in a few days ; and till that be
aecomplifhed, a proper dofe of elixir paregoricum for
a few fucceflive nights will be found very ufeful in fup-
pieffing the fatiguing irritation and ineffeftual cough,
occafioned by a matter which, dripping in the early
ftate of the difeafe into the bronchise during the night,
is commonly at that time too thin to be difeharged by
thofe convulfive efforts.
“ If, however, notwithftanding a free and copious
expeftoration, the cough fliould ftill continue, and the
difeharge, inftead of removing the complaint, Ihould
CINE. Pra<5tice.
itfelf, by becoming a difeafe, be a greater expence Caurrhus.
than the cdnftitution can well fupport, it is polfible  v—-
that a tender patient may fpit off his life through a
weak, relaxed pair of lungs, without the leaft appear¬
ance of purulence, or any fufpicion of fuppuration.
In thofe circumftances, befides, as was mentioned be¬
fore, inereafing the general perfpiration by the falu-
tary fridion of a flannel waiftcoat, change of fitua-
tion, and more efpecially long journeys on horfeback,
conduded as much as polfible through a thin, fliarp',
dry air, will feldom fail of removing the complaint.
“ But, on the contrary, if the cough Ihould, at
the fame time that it is petulant and fatiguing to the
breaft, continue dry, bulky, and without expedora-
tion; provided there be reafon to hope that no tu¬
bercles are forming, or yet adually formed, there is
not perhaps a more efficacious remedy for it than half
a drachm of gum ammoniacum, with 18 or 20 drops
of liquid laudanum, made into pills, and taken at bed¬
time, and occafionally repeated. This excellent re¬
medy Sir John Pringle did me the honour to commu¬
nicate to me ; and 1 have accordingly found it, in a
great many inftances, amazingly fuccefsful, and gene¬
rally very expeditioufly fo ; for it feldom fails to pro¬
duce an expedoration, and to abate the diftreffing fa¬
tigue of the cough. In thofe circumftances 1 have
likewife found the common remedy of jfs or 3ij of
half, fulph. anifat. taken twice a-day, in a little pow¬
dered fugar or any other vehicle, a very efficacious
one. 1 have alfo, many times, known a falutary re-
vulfion made from the lungs by the fimple application
of a large plafter, about five or fix inches diameter, of
Burgundy pitch between the fhoulders ; for the perfpi-
rable matter, which is locked up under it, becomes fo
lharp and acrid, that in a few days it feldotns fails to
produce a very confiderable itching, fome little ten¬
dency to inflammation, and very frequently a great
number of boils. This application ffiould be conti¬
nued (the plafter being occafionally changed), for
three weeks or a month, or longer, if the complaint
be not fo foon removed.
“ And here I cannot help obferving, that, though
feemingly a trifling, it is however by no means a ufelefs
caution to the tender patient, not to expofe his Ihoul-
ders in bed, and during the night, to the cold ; but
when he lies down to take care they be kept warm,
by drawing the bed-cloaths up dole to his back and
neck.
“ If, however, notwithftanding thefe and other
means, the cough, continuing dry or unattended with
a proper expedoration, Ihould perfevere in haraffing
the patient; if, at laft, it fliould produce, together
with a forenefs, ffiooting pains through the breaft and
between the ffioulders, attended alio with Ihortnefs of
the breath ; and if, added to this, flufhes of the cheeks
after meals, fealding in the hands and feet, and other
fymptoms of a he&ic, Ihould accompany the diforder;
there is certainly no time to be loft, as there is the
greateft reafim to apprehend that fome acrimony in
the habit is determined to the tender fubftance of
the lungs, and that confequently tubercular fuppura-
tions will follow. In this critical and dangerous fi-
tuation, I think I can venture to fay from long expe¬
rience, that, accompanied with change of air and oc-
cafional bleedings, the patient will find his greateft fe-
curity
Practice.
MEDICINE.
237
I'rofluvia clHr;ty in a drain from a large fcapulary iflue, affiited parate balls. When thefe are voided, whether by the Dyfenteria.
by a diet of affes milk and vegetables.1
*54
efforts of nature or as folicited by art, they procure '
a remiffion of all the fymptoms, and more efpeciaily of
the frequent ftools, griping, and tenefmus.
Accompanied with thefe circumilances, the difeafe
^ „ or- rr ^ proceeds for a longer or a fhorter time. When the
Dyfenteria, auv.^gt^.^ I0^" pyrexia attending it is of a violent inflammatory kind,
and more efpecially when it is of a very putrid nature.
Genus XLI. DYSENTERIA.
The Dysentery.
Hoffm. III. 15 t. Junck.^G.
Sag. 183.
Defcription. The dyfentery is a difeafe in which the difeafe often terminates fatally in a very few days,
the patient has frequent ftools, accompanied with with all the marks of a fupervening gangrene. When
much griping, and followed by a tenefmus. The the febrile ftate is more moderate, or difappears alto-
ftools, though frequent, are generally in fmall quan- gether, the difeafe is often protracted for weeks, and
tity ; and the matter voided is chiefly mucus, fome- even for months; but, even then, after a various du-
times mixed with blood. At the fame time, the na- ration, it often terminates fatally, and generally in
tural fseces feldom appear; and when they do, it is confequence of a return and confiderable aggravation
generally in a compaCl and hardened form, often un- of the inflammatory and putrid ftates. In fome cafes,
der the form of fmall hard fubftances known by the the difeftfe ceafes fpontaneoufly ; the frequency of
name of fcybahe. This difeafe occurs efpecially in ftools, the griping, and tenefmus, gradually diminifh-
fummer and autumn, at the fame time with autumnal ing, while natural ftools return. In other cafes, the
intermittent and remittent fevers ; and with thefe it difeafe, with moderate fymptoms, continues long, and
is often complicated. It comes on fometimes with ends in a diarrhoea, fometimes accompanied with lien-
cold fhiverings, and other fymptoms of pyrexia ; but teric fymptoms.
more commonly the fymptoms of the topical affedion Caufes, See. The remote caufes of this difeafe
appear firft. The belly is coftive, with an unufual fla- have been varioufly judged of. It generally arifes in
tulence in the bowels. Sometimes, though more rare- fummer or autumn, after confiderable heats have pre-
ly, fome degree of diarrhoea is the firft appearance.— vailed for fome time, and efpecially after very warm
‘In moft cafes, the difeafe begins with griping, and a and at the fame time very dry ftates of the weather ;
frequent inclination to go to ftool. In indulging this, and the difeafe is much more frequent in warm than
little is voided, but fome tenefmus attends it. By de- in cooler climates. It happens, therefore, in the fame
grees the ftools become more frequent, the griping circumftances and feafons which confiderably affect
more fevere, and the tenefmus more confiderable.— the ftate of the bile in the human body : but the cho-
With thefe fymptoms there is a lofs of appetite, and lera is often without any dyfenteric fymptoms, and co-
frequently ficknefs, naufea, and vomiting, alfo affeft- pious difeharges of bile have been found to relieve the
mg the patient. At the fame time there is always fymptoms of dyfentery ; fo that it is difficult to de-
more or lefs of pyrexia prefent. It is fometimes of ter/mne what connetlion the difeafe’has with the ftate
the remittent kind, and obferves a tertian period.— of the bile.
Sometimes the pyrexia is manifeftly inflammatory, and It has been obferved, that the effluvia from very
very often of a putrid kind, f’hefe febrile ftates con- putrid animal-fubftances readily affe& the alimentary
tinue to accompany the difeafe during its whole courfe, canal, and, upon occafion, they certainly produce a
efpecially when it terminates foon in a fatal manner, diarrhoea ; but whether they ever produce a genuine
In other cafes, the febrile ftate almoft entirely difap- dyfentery, is not certain.
pears, while the proper dyfenteric fymptoms remain The dyfentery does often manifeftly arife from the
for a long time after. In the courfe of the difeafe, application of cold, but the difeafe is always contagi-
whether for a ftiorter or a longer time, the matter ous ; and, by the propagation of fuch contagion, in-
voided by ftool is very various. Sometimes it is mere- dependent of cold, or other, exciting caufcs, it be-
ly a mucous matter, wuthout any blood, exhibiting comes- epidemic in camps and other places. It is,
that difeafe which is named by fome the morbus muco- therefore, to be doubted if the application of cold
fus, and by others the dyfenteria alba. For the moft ever produces the difeafe, unlefs where the fpecific con-
part, however, the mucus difeharged is more or lefs tagion has been previoufiy received into the body ;
mixed with blood. This fometimes appears only in and, upon the whole, it is probable that a fpecific con-
ftreaks among the mucus ; but at other times is more tagion is to be confidered as being always the remote
copious, giving a timSt to. the whole ; and upon fome caufe of this difeafe.
occafions a pure and unmixed blood is voided in con- Whether this contagion, like many others, be of a
fiderable quantity. In other refpedfs, the matter void- permanent nature, and only ftiows its effedte in certain
ed is varioufly changed in colour and confiftence, and circumftances which render it aAive, or if it be occa-
is commonly of a ftrong and unufually fetid odour. It fionally produced, we cannot determine. Neither, if
is probable, that fometimes a genuine pus is voided, the latter fuppofition be received, can we fay by what
and frequently a putrid fanies, proceeding from gan- means it may be generated. As little do we know
grenous parts. There are very often mixed with the any thing of its nature, confidered in itfelf ; or at
liquid matter fome films of a membranous appear- moft, only this, that, in common with many other con-
ance, and frequently fome fmall maffes of a feemingly tagions, it is very often fomewhat of a putrid nature,
febaceous matter. While the ftools voiding thefe va- and capable of inducing a putrefeent tendency in the
rious matters are, in many inftances, exceedingly fre- human body. This, however, does not at all explain
quent, it is feldom that natural faeces appear in them ; the peculiar effedf of inducing thofe fymptoms which
and when they do appear, it is, as we have faid, in the properly and effentially conftitute dyfentery. Of
form of fcybala, that is, in fomewhat hardened, fe- theie fymptoms the proximate caufe is Itill obfeure.—
Tha
238 M E D I
Proflavia The common opinion has been, that the difeafe de-
  pends upon an acrid matter thrown upon or fomehow
generated in the inteftines, exciting their periftaltic
motion, and thereby producing the frequent ilools
which occur in this difeafe. But this fuppoiition can¬
not be adopted ; for, in all the inftances known, of
acrid fubftances applied to the intellines, and produ¬
cing frequent ftools, they at the fame time produce
copious Itools, as might be expefted from acrid fub-
flances applied to any length of the intellines. This,
however, is not the cafe in dyfentery, in which the
ftools, however frequent, are generally in very fmall
quantity, and fuch as may be fuppofed to proceed
from the lower parts of the redtum only. With re-
fpe& to the fuperior portions of the inteftines, and
particularly thofe of the colon, it is probable they are
under a preternatural and conftderable degree of con-
ftridtion : for, as we have faid above, the natural fae¬
ces are feldom voided ; and when they are, it is in a
form which gives reafon to fuppofe they have been
long retained in the cells of the colon, and confe-
quently that the colon had been affefted with a preter¬
natural conftriftion. This is confirmed by almoft all
the diffe&ions which have been made of the bodies of
dyfenteric patients; in which, when gangrene had not
entirely deftroyed the texture and form of the parts,
large portions of the great guts have been found af-
fedted with a very conftderable conftridtion.
The proximate caufe of dyfentery, or at leaft the
■ chief part of the proximate caufe, feemsto conftft in a
preternatural conftridtion of the colon, occafioning, at
the fame time, thofe fpafmodic efforts which are felt
in fevere gripings, and which efforts, propagated down¬
wards to the redtum, occafion there the frequent mu¬
cous ftools and tenefmus. But whether this expla-
• nation ftiall be admitted or not, it will ftill remain cer¬
tain, that hardened feces, retained' in the colon, are
the caufe of the griping, freq«ent ftools, and tenef¬
mus : for the evacuation of thefe feces, whether by
nature or by art, gives relief from the fymptoms men¬
tioned ; and it w ill be more fully and ufefully confirm¬
ed by this, that the rttoft immediate and fuccefsful cure
of dyfentery is obtained by an early and conftant at¬
tention to the preventing the conftridlion, and the fre¬
quent ftagnation of feces in the colon.
Cure. In the early' periods of this difeafe, the objedls
chiefly to be aimed at are the following: The dif-
charge of acrid matter depoftted in the alimentary
canal; the counteradling the influence of this matter
when it cannot be evacuated ; the obviating the effedfs
refulting from fuch acrid matter as can neither be eva¬
cuated nor deftroyed ; and, finally, the prevention of
any further feparation and depoiition of fuch matter
in the alimentary canal. In the more advanced pe¬
riods of the difeafe, the principal objedls are, the gi¬
ving a proper defence to the inteftines againft irrita¬
ting caufes; the diminution of morbid fenlibility of
the inteftinal canal; and the reftoration of due vigour
to the fyftem in general, but to the inteftines in par¬
ticular.
The moft eminent of our late pradfitioners, and
of greateft experience in this difeafe, feem to be
of opinion, that it is to be cured moft effedfual-
Jy by purging, afiiduoufly employed. The means
' may be various ; but the moft gentle laxatives are
CINE. Pra&ice.
ufually fnfficient; and, as the medicine muft be fre- DyfenterU.
quently repeated, thefe are the moft fafe, more ef- —-v—'
pecially as an inflammatory ftate fo frequently ac¬
companies the difeafe. Whatever laxatives produce
an evacuation of natural feces, and a confequent re-
mifiion of the fymptoms, will be fuffiejent to effedluate
the cure. But if the gentle laxatives (hall not pro¬
duce the evacuation now mentioned, fomewhat more
powerful muft be employed ; and Dr Cullen has
found nothing more proper or convenient than tartar
emetic, given in fmall dofes, and at fuch intervals as
may determine its operation to be chiefly by ftool.
To the antimonialed tartar, however, employed as a
purgative, the great ficknefs which it is apt to occa¬
fion, and the tendency which it has, notwithftanding
every precaution, to operate as an emetic, are certain¬
ly objedtions. Another antimonial, at one time con-
fidered as an almoft infallible remedy for this dif¬
eafe, the vitrum antimonii ceratum, is no lefs excep¬
tionable, from the uncertainty and violence of its ope¬
ration ; and perhaps the fafeft and beft purgatives are
the different neutral falts, particularly thofe contain¬
ing folfile alkali, fuch as the foda vitriolata tartari-
fata or phofphorata. Rhubarb, fo frequently em¬
ployed, is, he thinks, in feveral refpedts, amongft the
moft unfit purgatives ; and indeed from its aftringent
quality, it is exceptionable at the commencement of the
affedtion, unlgfs it be conjoined with fomething to rea¬
der its operation more brifk, fuch as mild muriated
mercury, or calomel as it is commonly called.
Vomiting has been held a principal remedy in this
difeafe ; and may be ufefully employed in the be¬
ginning, with a view to both the ftate of the
ftomach and of the fever : but it is not neceffary
to repeat it often ; and, unlefs the emetics employed
operate alfo by ftool, they are of little fervice.
Ipecacuanha is by no means a fpecific ; and it proves
only ufeful when fo managed as to operate chiefly
by ftool.
For relieving the conftridtion of the colon, and eva¬
cuating the retained feces, glyfters may fometimes
be ufeful; but they are feldom fo effedtual as laxatives
given by the mouth ; and acrid glyfters, if they be
not effedtual in evacuating the colon, may prove hurt¬
ful by ilimulating the redtum too much.
The frequent and fevere griping attending this
difeafe, leads almoft neceffarily to the ufe of opiates;
and they are very effedtual for the purpofe of relieving
from the gripes : but, by oecafioning an interruption
of the adtion of the fmall inteftines, they favour the
conftridtion of the colon, and thereby aggravate .the
difeafe; and if, at the fame time, the.ufe of them
fuperfede in any meafure the employing purgatives,
it is doing much mifehief; and the negledt of purging
feems to be the only thing which renders the ufe of
opiates very neceffary.
When the gripes are both frequent and fevere,
they may fometimes be relieved by the employ¬
ment of the femicupium, or by fomentation of the ab-
.domen continued for fome time. In the fame cafe,
the pains may be relieved, and the conftridlion of the
colon may be taken off, by blifters applied to the
lower belly.
At the beginning of this difeafe, when the fever
is any way confiderable, blood-letting, in patients of
tolerable
Practice. M E D I
Profluvia tolerable vigour, may be proper and neceffary ; and,
 ^ when the pulfe is full and hard, with other fymptoms
of an inflammatory difpolition, blood-letting ought
to be repeated. But, as the fever attending dyfentery
is often of the typhoid kind, or .does, in the courfe of
the difeafe, become foon of that nature, blood-letting
mud be cautioufly employed.
From our account of the nature of this difeafe, it
will be fufficiently obvious, that the ufe of ailringents
in the beginning of it mull be very pernicious. But
although aftringents may be hurtful at early periods
of this affeftion, yet it cannot be denied, that where
frequent loofe (tools remain after the febrile fymp¬
toms have fubfided, they are often of great fervice
for diminifhing morbid fenfibility, and reftoring due
vigour to the inteitinal canal. Accordingly, on this
ground a variety of articles have been highly celebra¬
ted in this affedtion ; among others we may mention
the quaffia, radix indica lopeziana, vt;rbafcum, ex-
tradtum catechu, and gum kino, all of which have
certainly in particular cafes been employed with great
advantage. And perhaps alfo, on the fame principles,
we are to account for the benefit which has been fome-
times derived from the mix vomica, a remedy highly
extolled in cafes of dyfentery by fome of the Swedifh
phyficians ; but this article, it muft be allowed, often
proves very powerful as an evacuant. Its effedls, how¬
ever, whatever its mode of operation may be, are too
precarious to -dlow its ever being introduced into
common pradlice ; and in this country, it has, we be¬
lieve, been but very rarely employed. Whether
an acrid matter be the original caufe of the dyfen¬
tery, may be uncertain ; but, from the indigeftion,
and the fiagnation of fluids, which attend the dif¬
eafe, we may fuppofe that feme acrid matters are con-
ftantly prefent in the ftomach and inteilines; and
therefore that demulcents may be always ufefully em¬
ployed. At the fame time, from the confideration
that mild oily matters thrown into the inteftines in
eonfiderable quantity always prove laxative, Dr Cullen
is of opinion, that the oleaginous demulcents are the
molt ufeful. Where, however, thefe are not accep¬
table to the patient’s talle, thofe of the mucilaginous
and farinaceous kind, as the decodfum hordei, potio
cretacea. See. are often employed with advantage.
As this difeafe is fo often of an inflammatory or
of a putrid nature, it is evident that the diet em¬
ployed in it (hould be vegetable and acefcent. Milk,
in its entire fta'te, is of doubtful quality in many
. cafes ; but even fome portion of the cream is often al¬
lowable, and whey is always proper.—In the firfl
ftages of the difeafe, the fweet and fubacid fruits are
allowable,, and even proper. It is in the more advan¬
ced ftages only that any morbid acidity feems to pre¬
vail in the ftomach, and to require fome referve in the
ufe of acefcents. At the beginning of the difeafe, ab-
forbents feCm to be fuperfluous ; and, by their aftrin-
gent and feptic powers, they may be hurtful; but- in
after periods they are often of advantage.
When this difeafe is complicated with an intermit¬
tent, and is protra&ed from that circumftance' chiefly,
it is to be treated as an intermittent, by adminifter-
ing the Peruvian bark, which in the earlier periods
ttf.ihe difeafe, is hardly to be admitted.
CINE.
Class II. NEUROSES,
Order I. COMATA.
2T9
Apnplexia >
Comata, Sauv. Clafs VI. Ord. II. Sa*. Clafs IX,
Ordi V.
Soporofi, Lin. Clafs VI. Ord. II.
Adynamia:, Vog. Clafs VI.
Nervorum refolutiones, Hojfm. III. 194.
Affeftus foporofi, Hojfm. III. 209.
Motuum vitalium delectus, Junck. 114.
Genus XLII. APOPLEXIA.
The Apoplexy
Apoplexia, Sauv. gen. 182. Lin. 101. Vog. 229.
Boerh. 1007. Junck. 117. Sag. gen. 288. IVep-
fer. Hift. apopletticorum.
Cams, Sauv. gen. 181. Lin. 100. Vog. 231.
Boerh. 1043. &aS- gen- 2^7-
Cataphora, Sauv. gen. 180. Lin. 99. Vog. 232.
Boerh. 1048. Sag. gen. 286.
Coma, Vog. 232. Boerh. 1048.
Hsemorrhagia cerebri, Hojfm. II. 240.
_ To this genus alfo Dr Cullen reckons the following
difeafes to belong.
■ Catalepfis, Sauv. gen. 176. Lin. 129. Vog. 230.
Sag. gen. 281. Boerh. 1036. Junck. 44.
AffeCtus cerebri fpafmodico-ecftaticus, III.
44-
Ecftafis, Sauv. gen. 177. Vog. 333. Sag. gen.
283.
The following he reckons fymptomatie.
Typhomania, Sauv. gen. 178. Lin. 97. Vog. 23.
Sag. gen. 284.-
Lethargus, Sauv. gen. 179. Lin. 98. Vog. 22.
5^. gen. 285.
This difeafe appears under modifications fo vari¬
ous, as to require fome obfervations with refpeft to
each.
Sp. I. The Sanguineom Hpoplexy.
Defcription. In this difeafe the patients fall fud-
denly down, and are deprived of all fenfe and voluntary
motion, but without convulfions. A giddinefs of the
head, noife in the ears, corrufcations before the
eyes, and redhefs of the face, ufually precede. The
diftinguiftiing fymptom of the difeafe is a deep deep,
attended with violent fnorting ; if any thing be put
into the mouth, , it is returned through the nofe j nor
can any thing be fwallowed without (hutting the
noftrils; and even when this is done, the perfon is in
the utmoft danger of fuffocation. Sometimes apo-
pleftic patients will open their eyes after having taken
a large dofe of an emetic ; but if they (how no fim of
fenfe, there is not the leait hope of their recovery.
Sometimes the apoplexy terminates in an hemiplegia | -
in which cafe it comes on with a diftortioA of the
mouth towards the found fide, a drawing^bf the
tongue the fame way, and Hammering of the fpeech.
Diffedtions fometimes (how a rupture of fome vefiels
of the meninges, or even veffels of the brain itfelf;
though fometimes, if we may believe Dr Willis, no •
2 de-fed'.
240 M E D I
Cora at a defeft is to be obferved either in the cerebrum or
" cerebellum.
Caufes, &c. The general caufe of a fanguineous
apoplexy is a plethoric habit of body, with a deter¬
mination to the head. The difeafe therefore may be
brought on by whatever violently urges on the circula¬
tion of the blood; fuch as forfeits, intoxication, violent
paffions of the mind, immoderate exefcife, &c. It
takes place,however,for the moft part, when the venous
plethora has fubfiiled for a confiderable time in the
fyftem. For that reafon it commonly does not attack
people till pad the age of 60 ; and that whether the
patients are corpulent and have a Ihort neck, or
whether they are of a lean habit of body. Till peo¬
ple be pad the age of childhood, apoplexy never
happens.
Prognqfis. This difeafe very often kills at its firft
attack and few furvive a repetition of the fit; fo
that thofe who make mention of people who have fur-
vlved feveral attacks of the apoplexy, have probably
midaken the epilepfy for this difeale. In no difeafe
is the prognofis more fatal; fince thofe who feem to
be recovering from a fit, are frequently and fuddenly
carried off by its return, without either warning of its
approach or poflibility of preventing it. The good
figns are when the difeafe apparently wears off, and
the patient evidently begins to recover; the bad
ones are when all the fymptoms continue and in-
Creafe.
Cure. The great object to be aimed at, is to re (lore
the connexion between the fentient and corporeal parts
of the fydem ; and when interruption to this connec¬
tion proceeds from compreffion in the brain by blood,
this is to be attempted, in the fird place, by large
find repeated bleedings; after which, the fame reme¬
dies are to be ufed as in the ferous apoplexy, after-
mentioned. The body is to be kept in a fomewhat
eredt podure, and the head fupported in that fitua-
tion.
gjy Sp. II. The Serous sIvopleXt,
Apoplexia pituitofa, Sauv fp. 7. Apoplexia ferofa,
Prey/inger, fp. 4. Morg. de caufis, &c. IV. L.X.
Catus a hydrocephalo, Sau*v. fp. 16.'
Cataphora hydrocephalica, Sauv. fp. 6.
Cataphora fomnolenta, Sauv. fp. 1.
Lethargus literatorum, Sauv. 7. Van S'widen in
Aphor. loxo. 2 y and 3 «.
Defcription. In this fpecies the pulfe is weak, the
face pale, and there is a diminution of the natural heat.
On diffeftion, the ventricles of the brain are found
to contain a larger quantity of fluid than they
ought; the other fymptoms are the fame as in the
former.
Caufes, See. This may arife from any thing which
induces a debilitated dlate of the body, fuch as de-
prefiing pafiions of the mind, much fludy, watching,
&c. It may alfo be brought on by a too plentiful
ufe of diluting, acidulated drinks. It doth not, how¬
ever, follow, that the extravafated ferum above men¬
tioned in the ventricles of the brain is always the caufe
of the difeafe, fince the animal-humours are very fre¬
quently obferved to ooze out in plenty through the
coats of the containing veffels after death, though no
extravafation took place during life.
N° 20(5. X
CINE.
Pra6Uce.
Prognofis. This fpecies is equally fatal with the Ap>plei*.
other; and what hath been faid of the prognofis of —
the fanguineous, may alfo be faid of that of the ferous^
apoplexy.
Cure. In this fpecies venefe&ion can fcarcely be
admitted: acrid purgatives, emetics, and ftimulating
clyfters, are recommended to carry off the fuperabun-
dant ferum; but in bodies already debilitated, they
may perhaps be liable to the fame exceptions with
venefeftion itfelf. Volatile falts, cephalic elixirs, and.
cordials, are alfo preferibed; and in cafe of a hemiplegia
fupervening, the cure is to be attempted by aperient
ptifans, cathartics, and fudorifics ;’ gentle exercife, as
riding in a carriage ; with blifteisand fuch llimulating
medicines as are in general had recourfe to in affedtions
originally of the paralytic kind.
Sp. III. Hydrocephalic Apoplexy, or Dropfy of the
Brain.
Hydrocephalus interior, Sauv. fp. 1.
Hydrocephalus internus, JVhytt's Works, pag. 725:.
London Med. Obf. vol. iv. art. 3, 6, and 25.
Gaudelius de hydrocephalo, apud Sandifort The-
faur. vol. ii.
Hydrocephalus acutus, S>uin, Dijf. de hydrocephalo,
H79*
Aithcnia a hydrocephalo, Sauv. fp. 3.
Hifory and deferiptisn. This difeafe has been accu¬
rately treated within thefe few years by feveral emi¬
nent phyficians, particularly the late Dr Whytt, Dr
Fothergill, and Dr Watfon ; who concur in opinion,
with refpedt to the feat of the complaint, the moft of
its fymptoms, and its general fatality. Out of twenty
patients that had fallen under Dr Whytt’s obferva*
tion, he candidly owns that he had been fo unfortunate
as to cure only one who laboured under the charadle-
riftic fymptoms of the hydrocephalus; and he fufpe&s
that thofe who imagine they have been more fuccefs*
ful, had miftaken another dillemper for this. It is by
all fuppofed to confift in a dropfy of the ventricles of
the brain ; and this opinion is fully eftablilhed by dif-
fedfions. It is obferved to happen more commonly to
healthy, adtive, lively children, than to thofe of a dif¬
ferent difpofition.
Dr Whytt fuppofes that the commencement of this
difeafe is obfeuve ; that it is generally fome months
in forming; and that, after fome obvious urgent fymp¬
toms rendering afliftance neceffary, it continues fome
weeks before its fatal termination. This, in general,
differs from what has hitherto been obferved by Dr
Fothergill; the latter informing us, that he has feen
children, who, from all appearance, were healthy and
aftive, feized with this diftemper, and carried off in
about 14 days. He has feldom been able to trace the
commencement of it above three weeks.
Though the hydrocephalus be moft incident to chil¬
dren, it has been fometimes obferved in adults; as ap¬
pears from a cafe related by Dr Huck, and from fome
others.
When the difeafe appears under its moft common
form, the fymptoms at different periods are fo various
as to lead Dr Whytt to divide the difeafe into three
ftages, which are chiefly marked by changes occurring
in the condition of the pulfe. At the beginning it is
quicker
^Pra&lce.' M E D I
Comata quicker tkan natural; afterwards it becomes uncom-
Vfj-.v luonly flow; and towards the conelufion of the dif-
eafe it becomes again quicker than natural, but at
the fame time very irregular.
Thofe who are feized with this diftemper ufually
complain firft of a pain in feme part below the head ;
moil commonly about the nape of the neck and
fnoulders; often in the legs; and fometimes, but more
rarely, in the arms. The pain is not uniformly acute,
nor always fixed to one place; and fometimes does
not affedt the limbs. In the latter cafe, the head and
itomach have been found to be moft difordered ; fo
that when the pain occupied the limbs, the ficknefs or
head-ach was lefs confiderable ; and when the head
became the feat of the complaint, the pain in the limbs
was feldom or never mentioned. Some had very vio¬
lent ficknuies and violent head-achs alternately. Ffom
being perfedfly well and fportive, fome were in a few
hours feized with thofe pains in the limbs, or with
ficknefs, or head4ach, in a flight degree, commonly af¬
ter dinner ; but fome were obfefved to droop a few
days before they complained of any local indifpofition.
In this manner they continued three, four, or five
days, more or lefs, as the children were healthy and
vigorous. They then commonly complain of an acute
deep-feated pain in the head, extending acrofs the
forehead from temple to temple; of which, and a fick¬
nefs, they alternately complain in ihort and affedling
Exclamations ; dofing a little in the intervals, breath-
hig irregularly, and fighing much while awake. Some¬
times their fighs, for the fpace of a few minutes, are
incefiant.
As the difeafe advances, the pulfe becomes flower
and irregular, the ftrokes being made both with une¬
qual force and in Unequal times, till within a day or
two of the fatal termination of the diforder, when it
becomes exceeding quick; the breathing being at the
fame time deep, irregular, and laborious. After the
firft accefs, which is often attended with feverilh heats,
especially towards evening, the heat of the body is for
the moft part temperate, till at laft it keeps pace with
the increafing quicknefs of the pulfe. The head and
prsecordia are always hot from the firft attack. The
bleeps are fliort and difturbed, fomettmes interrupted by
Y/atchfulnefs; befides which there are ftartings.
In the firft ftage of the difeafe there feems to be a
peculiar fimfibility of the eyes, as appears from the in¬
tolerance of light. But in the progrefs of the dif¬
eafe a very oppofite. ftate occurs : The pupil is re¬
markably dilated, and cannot be made to contradt by
the aftion even of ftrong light; fuch, for example, as
by bringing a candle very near to it. In many cafes
there is reafon to believe that total blindnefs occurs :
Often alfo the pupil of one eye is more dilated than
that of another, and the power of moving the eyes is
alfo morbidly affedled. Thofe children, who were ne¬
ver obferved to fquint before, often-become affedkd
with a very .great degree of ftrabifmus. The patients
are unwilling to be difturbed for any purpofe, and can
bear no pofture but that of lying horizontally. One
Or both'hands are moft commonly about'their heads.
The urine and ftools come away infenfibly. At length
the eyelids become paralytic, great heat accompanied
'with fweat overfpreads the whole body, refpiration is
rendered totally fufpirious, the pulfe increafes in Its
'-VeL. XI. Bart I.
CINE.
2il
trembling undulations beyond the poff.b’liiy of count- Apoplcxi*.
ing, till the vital motions entirely ctafe; and fome- w—Nr-™1
times eonvulfions conclude the feene. -
Many of the fymptoms above enumerated are fo
common to worm-cafes, teething, and other irritating
caufes, that it is difficult to fix upon any which par¬
ticularly charadterife this difeafe. The moft peculiar
feem to be the pains in the limbs, with ficknefs and in-
ceffant head-ach; which, though frequent in other dif-
eafes of children, are neither fo uniformly qor fu con-
ftantly attendant as in this. Another circumitance
obferved to be familiar, if not peculiar to this diftem¬
per, is, that the patients are not only coftive, but it is
likewife with the greateft difficulty that ftools can be
procured. Thefe are generally of a very dark green-
ifh colour with an oilinefs or a glafiy bile, rather than
the flime which accompanies worms ; and they are,
for the moft part, extremely offenfive. No pofitive
conclufion can be drawn from the appearance of the
urine ; it being various, in different fubjedts, both in
its colour and contents, according to the qaantity of
liquor they drink, and the time between the difeharges
of the urine. From their unwillingnefs to be moved,
they often retain their water 12 or 15 hours, and
fometimes longer. In complaints arifing from worms,
and in dentition, convulfions are more frequent than
in this diforder. Children fubjedt to fits are fome¬
times feized with them a few days before they die.
Sometimes thefe continue 24 hours inceffantly, and
till they expire.
Caufes. The caufes of internal hydrocephalus are'
very much unknown. Some fuppofe it to proceed
from a rupture of fome of the lymphatic veffels of the
brain. But this fuppofition is fo far from being con¬
firmed by any anatomical obfervation, that even the
exiffence of fuch veffels in the brain is not clearly
demonftrated. That lymphatics, however, do exift in
the brain, cannot be doubted; and one of the moft
probable caufes giving rife to an accumulation of wa¬
ter in the brain is a diminiflied adtion of thefe. Here,
however, as well as in other places, accumulation may
alfo be the confequence of augmented effufion; and in
this way, an inflammatory difpofition, as fome have
fuppofed, may give rife to the affe&ion. But from
whatever caufe an accumulation of water in the ven¬
tricles of the brain may be produced, there can be no
doubt that from this the principal fymptoms of the
difeafe arife, and that a cure is to be aecomplilhed only
by the removal of it. It is, however, probable, that
the fymptoms are •fomewhat varied by the pofition of
the water, and that the affedlion ofvifion in parti ular
is often the confequence of fome morbid ftate about
the thalami nervorum opticorum ; at leaft, in many cafes,
large collections of water in the ventricles have oc¬
curred, without either ftrabifmus, intolerance of light,
or dilatation of the pupil. And in cafes where theie
fymptoms have taken place to a remarkable degree,
while upon diffedtion after death but a very fmall col¬
lection of water was found in the ventricles, it hasbeen
obferved that a peculiar tumid appearance was dif-
covered about the op'tie nerves, which upon examination
was found to arife from watey in the cellular texture.
This may have given eampreffion producing a ftate of
infenfibiiity ; but it may have been preceded, or it
may even have originated from, fome inflammatory af-
H h fedtion
M E D I
fe&ion of thefe parts) producing the intolerance of
light.
Prorvofis and Cure. Till very lately this diforder
was reckoned totally incurable; but of late it has been
alleged, that mercury, if applied in time, will remove
every fymptom. This remedy was firlt thought of by
Dr Dobfon of Liverpool, and afterwards employed
apparently with fuccefs by Dr Percival and others.
The method of exhibiting this medicine in order to
eifedl a cure, as well as the inutility of other medi¬
cines, will fully appear from the following cafes.
Case I. By Dr Percival.
“ September 4. 1777 Mailer H. a child at the
bread, aged feven months, has laboured about a fort¬
night under a flow irregular fever. His eyes have
been now and then a little didorted ; he has been af-
fedled with fome degree of dupor; his gums have been
inflamed and tender; and his mouth uncommonly dry.
No tooth has yet made its appearance. An emetic
has been adminidered,; a blifler applied to his back ;
and his belly has been kept foluble by repeated fmall
dofes of magnelia. During the adtion of the blifler,
he was thought to be much better, but he foon re-
iapfed into his former date.
“ About three o’clock this morning he was con-
vulfed:. at nine I law him ; and from his countenance
inflantly fufpedled a dropfy of the brain. The fymp-
toms confirmed my apprehenfions. His Ikin was hot;
yet his pulfe beat only 78 ilrokes in a minute, which
were irregular. The pupils of his eyes were confider-
ably, but unequally, dilated ; nor did they contract
much when a lighted candle was fnddenly held before
them. He often fquinted, efpecially with the right
oye, and feemed to take no notice of any objedls around
him. He refufed the bread, and feldom fwallowed till
ihe lips and tongue had been ftimulated with a fea¬
ther. During feveral days pad, he had been frequent¬
ly obferved to rub the end of his nofe when, his hand
was at liberty ; and, notwithflanding his dupor, he
had been uncommonly watchful. 1 examined his head,
and found a manifed tumor of the bregma, which had
never before been noticed. Convinced by all thefe
circumdances that the child laboured under the hydro¬
cephalus internus, and that he was now in the fecond
dage of that diforder, I direfled ten grains of the un-
gaentum mercuriale mltivs to be rubbed into his thighs
every three hours, till the mouth fhould be affefted,
and a tea-lpoonful of the following mixture to be given
whenever the convulfive fymptoms recurred.
R. Salts ammon. vol. ;;i. Sued Lemon. Jvi. Mojch. opt.
mudlagtne gum. Araik, folut. gr. vi. Sacch. alb. q. f.
ad gmtiam. M.
u Small bliflers were applied on each fide of the
head, jud below the bregma; and a folded rag, fre¬
quently moidened with brandy, was laid upon the tu¬
mor to promote abforption. An emetic had been
given early in the morning, by which a large quantity
of bile was difeharged; and a veficatory had alfo been '
applied to his leg.
“ September ;. nine o’clock. The child has had
frequent convuifions in the night; his right eye is
much diftorted ; and it has been remarked, that he
feldom moves the right hand. The pulfe beat 120
ftiokes ia a minute. Two ferupks of the mercurial
CINE. Pradice.
ointment have been ufed, and he has taken five grains Apoplexia,
of muik. A large difeharge of ferum has been pro- » *
duced by the bliders. Five o’clock, P. M. the tumor
of the head is fenfibly diminilhed; the child’s mouth
is now moifl, and often filled with faliva; and his
tongue appears to be fwolen. His pulfe beat 146
drokes in a minute. I direfled another blifler to be
applied to the head.
“ September 6. His convuifions have been much
{lighter ; his eyes are frequently didorted ; and the
pupils of each are more contra&ed. The flupor i»
confiderably abated; the child feems to take fome no¬
tice, didinguifhes tafle, and fwallows freely. The mufle
has been continued; and half a dram more of the mer¬
curial ointment has been confumed. A clyfter wa#
injefled lad night, but ineffeflually 1 I therefore pre*
feribed a grain of jalap, mixed with an eqUai quantity
of fugar, to be given every three hours, till a motion
to flool fucceeded.
“ September 7. The child has pafied the night
more comfortably, but not free from convuifions. His
head has fweated profufely, ansi the bliders have run-
much. The tumor of the bregma is confiderably re¬
duced. The jalap operated gently lad night, and the
mercurial un'Jon has been twice repeated. There is-
an evident mitigation of all the fymptoms
“ September 8. About eleven o’clock lad nighty,
the child was attacked with fevere convuifions, which-
recurred frequently till fix o’clock this morning. He-
has Had a ihort fleep, and is now compofed. Hia
pulfe beats 140 flrokes in a minute; his heat is mode-'
rate; and his Ikin foft and perfpirable. The mercu¬
rial ointment has been again ufed; but, though his.
gums and tongue are fore and very moid, his breath,
is not ofleafive. I dire&ed a grain of calomel to be
immediately given, to procure a dool; and a Wider-
to be applied to the occiput.
“ September 10. He has pafled two nights almoft
entirely free from convuifions Ten grains of the mer¬
curial ointment have been again rubbed into his thighs.
The dofe of calomel occafioned three very offenfive
flools ; and dire&ions are given to repeat it, as he is
again codive The Wider applied to the occiput, like
the others, has produced a very copious difeharge.
The tumor of the head is now fcarcely perceptible.
Pulfe 120.
“ September 12. At 12 o’clock lad night, the
convuifions recurred with greater violence than ever,;
and dill continue. Two teeth have almofi protruded
through the upper, and the fame number through the
lower gum. Pulfe 160, tremulous, and irregular. I
directed that the child fliould be immediately put into
a warm bath, and that the following remedies fliould
fee adminidered.
R. Infuf. rad. valer. fortiffimi jfii.
Afafaetid. eleShe 3fi. M. f. EnemaJlatim injlciendum.
R. Lindt, valer. volat. 311. Dentur gut tee jii. Subinde
e cochleart parvula infuft rad. valer. fylv. fab forma
these par all.
“ The convuHions continued, but with lefs violence;
and the child expired about one o’clock in the after¬
noon.”
On this cafe the Do ft or makes the following obfer-
vations.
“ The deplorable cafe which I have related ap¬
pears..
M E D
Comata pears to have originated from the irregular aft ion pro-
duced in the fyttem by dentition, and from the want
of a due fecretion of faliva in the mouth, by which the
fluid difcharges were probably increafed in the ven¬
tricles of the brain. That thefe difcharges were di
minifhed, and that the extravafated water was abforb-
ed, by the powerful aftion of the mercury, may be
prefumed from the mitigation of all the fymptoms
which fucceeded the falivation. And I am inclined to
believe, that the convullions under which the child
expired were more owing to the irritation of his gums
by the protrufion of four teeth, than to any remain¬
ing water in the brain ; for the tumor of the head
had entirely difappeared, and after, death there was a
manifeil deprefiion of the bregma. During the fpace
of a week, 110 grains of the Unguentum mercu-. iale
mitius, which contains about 22 grains of mercury,
Was confumed in the ufual way of friftion. Perhaps
half of this quantity might be abforbed, and carried
into the courfe of circulation; to which may be added,
part of the two grains of the calomel, adminiftered in¬
ternally. The fymptoms of the falivation were not
violent; and the effefts of the mercury did not appear
Formidable or alarming, even to the parents of the
child, who were apprifed of the nature of the diforder,
and fully approved of the trial of this new method of
treating it.”
Case II. By Dr Dobson.
“ Ov the 13th of February 1771J, I was called to
the only fon of Mr C. a gentleman of this place.; the
child was between three and four years of age; had
been indifpofed about eight days; and had frequent¬
ly complained of pain in his head arid wearinefs, and
pains in his limbs: bad been fick by fits, and fome-
times vomited; was feverifli, and could not bear the
light.
“ I was iriuch alarmed on hearing this account, as
the hydrocephalus interims, had already proved fatal to
three children of this family, who had all been under
my care. And that this had been the difeafe was evi¬
dent, both from the fymptoms and the appearances on
difleftion. But my alarm was much farther increafed
on examining the little patient. The pulfe I found
very frequent and irregular The head hot, the cheeks
flulhed, the pupils dilated, and a great degree of ftra
bifmus There remained no doubt with refpeft to the
nature of the difeafe.
“ An emetic, fome calomel powders, and a purga¬
tive, had been adminiftered, without affording any re¬
lief. I direfted the pediluvium, and emetic tartar, to
be given in fuch dofes as to excite naufea.
“ February 14th. The_ fymptoms the fame, with
frequent ftartings, difturbed fleep, and tolling from
fide to fide on the pillow. A blifter was applied be¬
tween the (boulders, the pediluvium repeated, and the
emetic tartar continued.
“ 15th. Comatofe, reftlefs, and (hrieking by fits.
The pulfe flower than in health, and the eyes infenfible
even to the impreflions of ftrong light.
“ As 1 had no hope of doing any thing effeftual
for the recovery of my patient, I paid my vifits, pre¬
scribed, and gave direftions with a foreboding and
jieav.y heart. Anxioufly, however, confidering the cafe
I C I N E. 2
in different points of view, and fully convinced that it Apoplej
was vain to purfue the ufual line of praftice, it oc- ■"'V*
curred to me,.that mercurials, fo far urged as to enter
the courfe of circulation, and affeft the falivary glands,
might poflibly reach the fyftem of abforberits in the
ventricles of the brain, and thus remove the extravafa¬
ted fluid
“ The-fliort continuance of the difeafe, and the ap¬
parent ftrength of my patient, were favourable to the
trial of this method. No time, however, was to be loft.
The parents were confulted,. and readily gave their
fanftion to the propofal; for they were convinced, that,
unlefs feme powerful fteps were taken, this their only
fon muft be numbered with thofe of their childron
who had already fallen a facrifice to the difeafe.
“ The mercurial courfe, therefore, was commenced,
and urged on with caution and expedition. In 48
hours the breath began to be offenfive ; the gums were
reddifti and fwelled; and the fymptoms of the difeafe,
fo far as could be diftinguiftied, were fomewhat abated.
In 48 hours more the ptyalifm came on, and the difeafe
was evidently declining. Between the 15th and 22d
he took 20 grains of calomel, and one drachm of the
ftrongeft mercurial ointment was likewife rubbed in
well upon the legs and thighs. The dofe of calomel
was one grain, mixed with a little fugar, and repeated
at fuch intervals as the circumftances of the cafe point¬
ed out.
“ After the 22<1 no more mercurials were admini¬
ftered 5 a moderate ptyalifm continued for five or fix
days, then gradually ceafed, and the difeafe was en¬
tirely removed. The bark was then given, as the beft
tonic remedy after the mercurial courfe, and as the heft
prefervative againft a relapfe. The ftrabifmus, I obfer-
ved, was the laft fymptom which difappeared.
From the 1 Jth, no other medicines were ufed ex¬
cept mercurials- t he three fifters of the above pa¬
tient, who all died of this difeafe, were treated with
blifters; and to one of them they were applied in fuc-
-ceflion to the head, behind the ears, and between the
(boulders.”
Case III. By Dr Pexcival.
<£ One of my own children, a girl, aged three years
and three months, has lately been a fcvere fufferer un¬
der this alarming malady. As foon as the charafteriftic
fymptoms of the difeafe clearly manifelted themfelves,
I laid afide all other remedies, convinced, hy repeated
obfervation, of their infufficiency ; and traded folely,
though with much folicitude, to the internal and ex¬
ternal ufe of mercury. In 48 hours, figns of amend¬
ment appeared, and her recovery was perfefted in
fix days. During this fpace of time, thirteen grains
©f calomel were adminiftered, and (even fcruples of
unguentum mercuriale fortius carefully rubbed into her
legs.”
Case IV. By Mr John Maciue Surgeon in Hun¬
tington.
John Algood, aged 27, of a thin habit of body,
accuftomed for four or five years pall to work in a
tan-yard in a very (looping pofture, was attacked in
the beginning of May with aq irregular intermitting
fever, accompanied with much pain in his joints,
H h 2 Theft
MED!
Thefe complaints continued till about the middle oi
June, when he was feized with a violent and conftant
pain in the back-part of his head, attended with great
giddinefs, noife in his head and ears,.dimnefs of fight,
&c. and his fever became more continued. He lay in
this Hate upwards of a month, without receiving any
benefit from feme medicines which he took during this
period.
Mr Mackie was.called to him in the middle of July,
and found him labouring under the following fymp-
toms : A fixed pain on the right fide and back part of
his head, which was frequently fo acute as. to make
hin? quite outrageous, crying out, tearing his hair,
beating himfelf on the head, Sec. He had fuch a gid¬
dinefs, that, unlefs ftrongly held, he could not fupport
liimfelf a moment in an upright pofturc. He could not
bear the. light; and, when he did venture to open bis
eyes, could not- fee objefts diftindtly. His pupils were
uncommonly dilated ; and his right eye feemed drawn
outward, and rather contra&ed in its volume. He com¬
plained of a Mange palpitating noife in his head and
ears ; and {aid, he felt at times as if there was a weight
of water falling from one fide of his head to the. other.
He was, in gcneial, fenfible; but,, on alking him two
or three queitiens together, he became confufed, and,
like a perfon with an opprefled brain, anfwered with
hefitation, quite wide of the queftion, and often oppo-
fite to what he meant. Along with thefe, he had .a
hot ikin, fmall quick pulfe, thirft, a foul tongue, urine
In fmall quantity and high-coloured ; he was emacia¬
ted, lick, cc-ftive,.and fweatedmuch ; had often a kind
of llupor, but very.little fleep. Once in the 24 hours
he had generally a remiffion (of three or four hours
continuance) of the febrile fyraptoms, but of none of
the other complaints.
July 16th. Ordered three or four leeches to be ap¬
plied to each temple immediately; an emetic to be ta¬
ken in the evening, and a, cooling purge to-morrow
morning.
1,7 th. In the evening found the leeches had takep
away a good deal of blood, and the vomit and purge
operated well. No, change, in the complaints, except
that the ficknefs is a little abated. He fcreamecl greatly
on attempting to raife his head from the piUow.
Ordered his head to be ihaved, and a iharp blifter
to be applied all over the occiput, large enough to ca¬
ver the nape, of the neck ;.alfo one.on the infide of the
leg. Internally,-—R, Nitri puri, dr. fs. Camphor<t.t
gr. iv. M. f, pulvts s quart a quaque hora fumendus durante
febrili calore. R. Pulv. cort. Peruvian dr. i. Pulv.
rad. valerian, fylv. dr; fs. M. f. pulv is, ef.hibendus quatn-
primum remijfio appareat, & repetend.us ft ultra boras ires
per^at. Thin milk-giuel and barley-water for drink..
July icth. The bliiters have difeharged much, and
he has taken the medicines pun&ually ; but the fever
and other complaints remain as before. Pulfe very ir¬
regular ; pain in the head and reftlefi'nefs extreme.
I left off the camphor ;~and in its Head added to each
nitrous powder, tartar emetic, gr. 5-. Dreffed the
bilkers with the unguent..ad vcjicatoria..
21ft. Two dofes of the. bark and valerian were gi¬
ven during the. two lail remimons of the fever, which
were full four hours each; but to day there appears
%o kind.of amendment. All the fymptoms continue
C I N E. ’ Pradb'cev
much the fame. Shrieked Out much, and talked inco- Apoplexsu
herently. Has had no ftool fince he took his phyfic.
Ordered a laxative glyfter to be thrown up directly,
and the medicines to-be continued as on the 19th.
23d. The glyiler procured two motions. Has
fweated profufdy through the laft 48 hours. Blifters
have run freely. The two laft diurnal remiffions not
quite fo diftinA. No abatement of the other com*
plaints. The pain, giddinefs, ftupor, contortion of
the eyes, &e. remain in as great a degree as ever.
Mr Mackie now left off all other medicines, and
ordered ten grains of calomel, made into a bolus with,
conferee of rofes,,to be taken at b^d-time : at the fame
time, a dram of the ftrong mercurial ointment was di-
redted to be rubbed into the ankles; and both to be
repeated every night..
25th. Found no alteration. Fever and other fymp¬
toms the fame. Blifters heal, having been drefled-thefe
two days with bafdicpn. The calomel, and mercurial
fridtion, ordered to be continued as on the 23d.
26th. Mr Mackie found, him complaining much
of being griped. Had two purging ftools in the laft
24 hours. His gurus were a little tender, and his-
breath beginning to be tainted. In other refpedls as
ufual. Left off the calomel, and ordered a double
quantity of the mercurial .ointment to be rubbed into
his thighs every night.
28th. He had had a calmer night than any for thefe
two months paft. For the firft time, he faid the pain
of his head was abated he looked more competed ; .
his Hein felt cooler; his pulfe more full,, and not fo
quick. He complained of his mouth being fore, and :
his tongue fwelled ; and. had difeharged a good deal
of faliva in the night. Only one. dram of the oint¬
ment to be rubbed in, for the-two next nights.
30th, He fpit about three quarts during the laft
48 hours, and complains of much heat in his mouth ;;
but all his other complaints better. Pain in his head
almoft gone,. excepting now and then a fhoot. Gid*
diiiefs much abated. He faid he often felt a trickling
kind of motion, as of water running along the infide
of his temples; but this fenfation was without pain.
He could, fit up in bed, and feed himfelf; was fen¬
fible, and in fpirits. Pulfe regular, and not above
70 in a minute. Me has had a remiffion of up¬
wards, of fix-hours to-day.; ordered the ointment to be.
left .off.
Aug. 1 ft. Continues to fpit freely. Had yefterday
a fmart return of the fever ; which, however, only held
him about 12 hours. To-day there is a perfeft ra-
miffion, and he is in every refpeCp much mended.—
Has had fome. hours good fleep. Complains very
little of pain. Got out of bed for the firll time ; fat
up three hours ; .and could even bear the- light with¬
out being difturbed by it. Complained of being
hungry. Allowed.plenty of milk-porridge and fmad
broth.
3d. The. fpitting.keeps up to about a quart in the
24 hours. Found him out of bed to-day, and almoft
without complaints. He faid his head was well ; and
that he only wanted ftrength, and to get rid of his
fever and fore mouth. The remiflions were now almoft
as long as the paroxyfms, being about ) 2 hours each.
Has. taken no medicine internally fince he left off the
calomel,
Pra&ice. M E D I
Comata calomel, and was coftive. Ordered .a dnfe of rhubarb ;
and after its operation a dram of the bark every four
hours during the remiffions.
6th. The fpitting begins to decline. He has had
no fever for the laft 24 hours. He fleeps well ; and
has an appetite, if the forenefs of his mouth would let
him eat. Headach and giddinefs gone ; but his pu¬
pils Hill continue much dilated. Ordered him another
rhubarb-purge, and the bark to be continued every fix.
hours.
9th. Has bad no fever, or other complaints. Spit¬
ting inconfiderable ; mouth better ; afpeft more na¬
tural; is able to walk about,, and mends daily. Allow¬
ed him a more generous and fubllantial diet, and con¬
tinued the bark twice a-day for another week.
From this time, he continued to get llrength apace-;
had good nights, good appetite, a perftdt freedom
from headach and fever ; and, on the 2.3d, went to
work, being in every refpedt quite well, and has con¬
tinued fo ever fince.
This patient did not feem to receive the fmalleft be^
nefit from the bliflers, or any thing elfe, till he took
the mercury, which a&ed like a fpecific ; and the fe¬
ver feemed to be altogether fymptomatic, as it eafily
yielded after the other complaints were removed.
Although it mull be allowed, that the afieftion
here deferibed was in many re’pedts an anomalous one,
yet many of the circumftances render it in fome degree
probable that it depended on water in the head;
and there are ftrong reafons for inferring that the mer¬
cury pulhed fo far as to excite falivation, was the
means by which the cure was accomplilhed.
It is not wonderful that the publication of thefe
cafes fiiould have led to the frequent employment of
mercury in hydrocephalic affe&ions. We are, however,
ferry to add, that extenfive employment of this re¬
medy in fuch.cafes has by no means confirmed the fa;»
vouiable opinion which feme were difpofed to enter¬
tain of it. It has been found, that in many cafes where
mercury with hydrocephalic patients had been employe
ed both internally and externally to a very great ex?-
tent, no falivation was produced. Some, therefore;
have even gone-fo far as to conclude, that. falivation
cannot be induced in this difeafe.: and.there is little
reafon to doubt, that, in the advanced periods of the
difeafe, there occurs both an infenlibility and dimi-
nilhed aftion of the.abforbents, by which alone mer¬
cury can be introduced into the fyftem; and likewife
of the falivary organs, on which it mull aft before
any obvious falivation can be induced. But, be-
fides that mercury, is often given in this difeafe even
to a great extent without producing any obvious ef-
fefl, we mull alfo mention with regret, that in not a
few cafes of hydrocephalus, where mercury copioufiy ex¬
hibited at an early period produced falivation, the difeafe
nevertbelefs has had a fatal termination; and it mull be
confeffed, that an effectual remedy in this complaint
ftill remains to be difeovered.
At the fame time, befides the cafes already men¬
tioned, mercury has alfo fucceeded in feveral others
which had every appearance of hydrocephalus ; and
as we are yet unacquainted with any remedy, not even
excepting blifters, of which fome are dilpoied to think
veiy favourably, on which more dependence is to be
CINE. 245
put, the careful and regular employment of it fliould Ayoplexia.-
not be negledted in any inftance of this affe&ion, unlefs ^ ^
fomecircumftanceoccurftrongly contraindicating its ufe.
Sp. IV. Apoplexy from Atrabilis. 259
Apoplexia atrabiliaris, Sauv. fp. 12. Prey finger.
fp. 6.
This takes place in the laft ftage of the dyfufion
bile through the fyftem, i. e. of the black jaundice,
aird in fome cafes the brain hath been found quite
tinged brown. It cannot be thought to admit of any
cure-.
Sp. V. Ap®plexy from External Violence. 2C&
Apoplexia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 2.
Carus traumatieus; fp. 5.
The treatment of this difeafe, as it arifes from
fame external injury, properly falls under-the article
Surgery.
Sp. VI. Apoplexy from Poifons. 26$
Apoplexia temulenta, Sauv fp. 3.
Carus a narcoticis, Suav fp 14.
Lethargus a narcoticis, Sauv fp. 3.
Carus a plumbagine, Sauv. fp. 10.
Apoplexia mephitica, Sauv. fp'. 14. -
Afphyxia a mephitide, Sauv. fp. 9.
Afphyxia a multo, Sauv. fp. 3.
Catalepfis a fumo, Sauv. fp. 3.
Afphyxia a fumis, Sauv. fp. 2.
Afphyxia a carbone, Sauv. fp. 16.
Afphyxia foricariorum, Sauv. fp. ir.
Afphyxia fideratorum, Sauv. fp. 10.
Carus ab infolatione, Sauv. fp. 12.
Carus a frigore, .Sauv. fp. 15.
JLetHargus a frigore, Sauv. fp. 6.
Afphyxia congelatorum, Sauv. fp. 5.
The poifons which’bring on an-apoplexy when ta¬
ken internally may-be either of the ftimulant or feda1-
tive kind, as fpirituous liquors,. opium, and the more
virulent kinds of vegetable-poifons. The vapours of
mercury, or of lead, in great quantity, will fome-
times produce a fimilar effect; though commonly they
produce rather a paralyfis, and operate flowly. The
vapours of charcoal, or fixed air, in a y form, breathed
in great quantity, alfo produce an apoplexy,' or a ftate
very fimilar to it ; and even cold itfelfproduces a fatal
deep, though without the apopleiftic fnorting.—To
enumerate all the different fymptoms which affe£l the
unhappy perfons who have fwallowed opium, or any
of the ftronger vegetable poifons, is impoflible, as they
are foarce to be found the fame in any two patients.
The ftate induced by- them feems to differ fomewhut
from that of a true apoplexy ; as it is commonly at¬
tended with convulfions, but has the particular di-
ftinguilhing fign of apoplexy, namely, a very difficult
breathing or fnorting, more orlefs violent according ts
the quantity of poifonous matter fwallowed.
Of the poifonous effe&s of fixed air;. Dr Percival
gives the following account. “ All thefe noxious va¬
pours, whether ariiing from burning charcoal, the fer¬
menting grape, the Grotti di Cani, or the cavern of
Pyrmont, operate nearly in the fame manner. When
accumulated and confined, their effe&s are often in-
ftantaneous ;.
246 M E D I
Comata -Aantaneofis : they immediately ddlroy the action of
the brain and nertes, and in a moment arreft the vital
motions. When more diffufed, their effedts are flower,
but ftill evidently mark out a direct afiedtion of the
nervous fyftem.
“ Thofe who are expofed to the vapours of the 'fer¬
menting grape, are as inftantly deftroyed as they
would be by the ftrongeft eleftrical fliock. A ftatc of
ififenfibility is the immediate effeft upon thofe aninfals
which are thrufl into the Grotti di Cani, ©r the ca- •
vern of Pyrmont: the animal is deprived of motion,
lies as if dead ; and if not quickly returned into the
frefli air, is irrecoverable. . And if we attend to the
hiitories of thofe who Imve fnffered from the vapours
of burning charcoal, we fliall in like manner find, that
the I rain and moving powers are the parts primarily
affedied.
“ A cook who had been accuftomed to make ufe of
lighted charcoal more than his bufinefs required, and
to Hand with hi head over thefc fires, complained for
a year of very acute pain-in the head; and after this,
was feized with a paralytic affe&ion of the lower
limbs, and a flow fever
“ A perfen was left reading in bed with a pan of
charcoal in a corner of the room. On being vifited
early the next morning, be was found with his eyes
flint, his book open and laid dti one fide, his candle
extinguilhed, and^ to appearance like one in a deep
fleep. Stimulants and cupping-glafies gave no relief;
but he was foon recovered by the free accefs of frefli
air.
“ Four prifonert, in Order to make their efcape, at¬
tempted to deftroy the iron work of their uundows, by
the means of burning charcoal. As foon as they com¬
menced their operations, the fumes of the charcoal
being confined by the clofenefs of the prifon, one of
them was ft ruck dead; another was found pale, fpeech-
lefs, and without motion; afterwards he fpoke inco¬
herently, was feized with a fever, and died. The other
two were with great difficulty recovered.
“ Two boys went to warm themfelves in a ftove
heated with charcoal. In the morning they were
found deftitute of fenfe and motion, with countenan¬
ces as compofed as in a placid fleep. There were fome
remain of pulfe; but they died in a ftiort time.
“ A fifherman depofited a large quantity of char¬
coal in a deep cellar. Some time afterwards, his fon,
a healthy ftrong man, went down into the cellar with
a pan of burning charcoal and a light in his hand He
had fcarcely defeended to the bottom, when his candle
went out. He returned, lighted hi- candle, and again
defeended. Soon after, he called aloud for affiftance.
His mother, brother, and a fervant, hafted to give him
relief; but none of them returned. Two others of the
village fttared the fame fate. It was then determined
to throw large quantities of water into the cellar;
and after two or three days', they had accefs to the
dead bodies.
“ Coelius Aurelianus fays, that thofe whq are in¬
jured by the fumes of charcoal become cataleptic.
And Hoffman enumerates a train of fymptoms which
in no, refpe£l correfporrd with his idea of fuffocation.
Thofe who fuffer from the fumes of burning charcoal,
fays he, have fevere pains in the head, great debility,
faintnefs, ftupor, and lethargy.
4
C I N E, Pra&ice.
“ It appears from the above hiftones and obferVa Apopleria.
tions, that thefe vapours exert their noxious effe£b on —-y-****
the brain and nerves. Sometimes they occafion hid¬
den death ; at Other times, the.various fymptoms of a
debilitated nervous fyftem, according as the poifon ife
more or lefs concentrated. The olfadlory nerves arc
fir ft and principally affe&ed, and the brain and ner¬
vous fyftem by fympathy or confect of parts. It is
well known, that there is a ftrong and ready confent
between the olfaftory nerves and many other parts of
the nervous fyftem. The effluvia of flowers and per¬
fumes, in delicate of irritable habits, produce a train
of fymptoms, which, though tranfient, are analogous
to thofe which are produced by the vapours of char¬
coal ; viz. vertigo, ficknefs, faintnefs, and f*metimes
a total infenfibility. The female malefa&or, whom
Dr Mead inoculated by putting into the noftrils dofi
fils of cotton impregnated with variolous matter, was,
immediately on the intfodu&ion, affiitfed with a moil
excruciating headach,.and had a conftant fever till af¬
ter the eruption.
“ The vapours of burning charcoal, and other poi-<
fonous effluvia, frequently produce their prejudicial,
and even fatal effe&s, without being either offenfive
to the fmell or oppreffive to the lungs. It is a mat¬
ter of importance, therefore, that the common opinion
ftiould be more agreeable to truth ; for where fuffoca-
tion is fuppofed to be the effeft, theie will be little
ap;jrehenfion of danger, fo long as the breaft keeps
free from pain or oppreffion.
“ It may be well to remember, that the poifon it-
felfis diftindx from that grofs matter which is offenfive
to the fmell; and that this is frequently in its moil
adlive ftate when unciiftinguiihed by the fenfe. Were
the following cautions generally attended to, they
might in fome inltances be the happy means of prefer-
ving life. Never to be confined with burning charcoal
in a fmall room, or where there is not a free draught
of air by a chimney or fome other way Never to
venture into anyplace in which air has been long pent
up, or which from other circumftances ought to he
fufpedted; unlefs fuch fufpedted place be either pre-
vioufly well ventilated, or put to the reft of the light¬
ed candle. For it is a fingular and well-known fadl,
that the life of flame is in fome circumftances fooner
affedled and more expeditioufly extinguiftied by noxi¬
ous vapours than animal-life. A proof of which l
remember to have received from a very intelligent cler¬
gyman, wh© was prefent at a mufical entertainment in
the theatre at Oxford. The theatre was crowded; and
during the entertainment, the candles were obferved to
burn dim, and fome of them went out. The audience
complained only of faintnefs and langour ; but had
the animal effluvia been ftill further accumulated ®r
longer confined, they would have been extinguilhed as
well as the candles.
“ The moil obvious, effe&ual, and expeditious means
of relief to thofe who have unhappily fuffered from
this caufe, are fuch as will diflodge and wafh away the
poifon, reftore the energy of the brain and nerves, and
renew the vital motions. Let the patient therefore be
immediately carried into the open air, and let ihe air
be fanned backwards and forwards to affift its a&ion :
let cqld water be thrown on the face ; let the face,
mouth, and a ©Arils, be1 repeatedly waffled; and as foon
as
:lPra<Elice? M E D I
| Gomata as pra&tcable, get the patient to drink fome cold \va-
f—-rv ter. But if the cafe be too far gone to be thus relie¬
ved, let a healthy perfon breathe into the mouth of
ths patient; and gently force air into the mouth,
throat, and noftrils. Friftions, cupping, bleeding,
and blifters, are likewife indicated. And if, after the
imlant danger is removed, a fever be excited, the me-
. thod of cure muft be adapted to the nature and prevail¬
ing fymptoms of the fever.”
With regard to the poifon of.opium, Dr Mead recom¬
mends the following method of cure. Befides evacua¬
tions by vomiting, bleeding, and bliftering, acid me¬
dicines and lixivia! falts are proper. Thefe contract
the relaxed fibres, and by their diuretic force make a
depletion of the veffels. Dr Mead fays he hath given
repeated dofes of a mixture of fait of wormwood and
juice of lemons, with extraordinary fuccefs. But no¬
thing perhaps is of greater confequence, than to ufe
proper means for the prevention of bleep, by roufing
and fiirring the patient, and by forcing him to walk
about; for if he be once permitted to fall into a found
bleep, it will be found altogether impoffible to awake
him.
Of a kind foipewhat akin to the poifon of opium
feems to be that of laurel-water, a fimple water diftil-
led from the leaves of the lauro-cerafus or common
laurel. The bad effects of this w-ere firft obferved in
Ireland, where it had been cuftomary to mix it with
brandy for the fake of the flavour ; and thus two
women were fuddenly killed by it. This gave occa-
iion to fome experiments upon dogs, in order to
afcertain the malignant qualities of the water in
queftion; and the event was as follows : All the dogs
fell immediately into totterings and convulfions of the
limbs, which were foon followed by a total paralyfis,
fo that no motion could be excited even by pricking
or cutting them. No inflammation was found upon,
difle&ion, in any of the internal membranes. The
moft remarkable thing was a great fulnefs and diften-
fion of the veins, in which the blood was fo fluid,
that even the lymph in its veflels was generally found
tinged with red. The fame eflfe&s were produced by
the water inje&ed into the inteftines by way of clyfter.
To make the experiment more fully, Dr Nicholls
prepared fome of this water fo ftrcug, that about a
drachm of heavy effential oil remained at the bottom
of three pints of it, which by frequent fhaking was
again quite incorporated with it. So virulent was
this water, that two ounces of it killed a middksflzed
dog in lefs than half a minute, even while it was
paffing down his throat. The poifon appeared tq^
refide entirely in the above-mentioned eflential oil,
which comes over by diftillation, not only from the
leaves of laurel, but from fome other vegetables; for
ten drops of a ted oil diftilled from bitter almonds,
when mixed with half on ounce of water, and given
to a dog, killed him in lefs than half an hour.
Volatile alkalies are found to be an antidote to this
poifon ; of which Dr Mead gives the following in-
flance. About an ounce of ftrong laurel-water was
given to a fmall dog. He fell immediately into the
moll violent convulflons, which were foon followed by
a total lofs of his limbs. When he feemed to be
expiring, a vial of good fpirit of fal ammoniac was
held to his nofe, and a fmall quantity of the fame
CINE, 247
forced down his throat: he ihflantly felt its virtue ; Apoptc:.:!.
and by continuing the ufe of it for fome time, he by "Y——-,
degrees recovered the motion of his legs; and in two
hours walked about with tolerable ftrength, and was
aftenvards quite well.
With regard to the pernicious effefts of cold, there
is no other way of counteracting them but by the ap¬
plication of external heat. We are apt to imagine,
that the fwallowing confideiable quantities of ardent
fpirits may be a means of making us refill the cold,
and preventing the bad effedls of it from arifing to
fuch an height as to deftroy life; but tbefe do not
appear to be in the leaft poifefled of any fuch virtue
in thofe countries liable to great excefles of cold.
The Peruvian bark, by fixengthening the folids, as
well as increafmg the motion of the fluids, is found ^0
anfwer better than any other thing as a prefervative :
but when the pernicious eficdls have already begun to
difeover themfelves, nothing but increafing by fome
means or other the heat of the body can pofiibly be
depended upon : and even this mull be attempted
with great care ; for as, in fuch cafes, there is gene¬
rally a tendency to mortification in fome of the ex¬
tremities, the fudden application of heat will cer tainly,
increafe this tendency to fuch a degree as to deftroy
the parts. But for the external treatment of fuch
mortifications, fee the article Surgery.
Sp. VII. Apoplexy from Pajfions of the Mind.
Carus a pathemate, Sa-uv. fp. 11.
Afphyxia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7.
Ecftafis catoche, Sauv fp. 1.
Ecftafis refoluta, Smv fp. 2.
Apoplexies from violent paffions may be either
fanguineous or ferous, though move commonly of the
former than the latter fpeciee. The treatment is the
fame in either cafe. Or they may partake of the na¬
ture of catalepfy ; in which cafe the method of treat¬
ment is the fame with that of the genuine catalepfy.
Sp, VIII. The Cataleptic Apoplexy.
Catalepfrs, Sauv. gen. 176. Lin. 129. Vog. 230.
Sag gen. 281. Boerh. 1036. Junck. 44.
Dr Cullen fays he has never feen the catalepfy ex¬
cept when counterfeited ; and is of opinion that many
of thofe cafes related by other authors have alio been
counterfeited. It is faid to come on fuddenly, being
only preceded by fome langour of body and mind
and to return by paroxyfms. The patients are faid,
to be for feme minutes, fometimes (though rarely) for
fome hours, deprived of their fenfes, and all power of
voluntary motions; but conilantly retaining the po-
fition in which they were firil feized, whether lying or
fitting ; and if the limbs be put into any other po-
fture during the fit, they will keep the pofture in
which they are placed. When they recover from the
paroxyfm, they remember nothing of what paffed
during the time of it, but are like perfons awaked
out of fleep. -Concerning the cure of this diforder we
find nothing that can be depended upon among me¬
dical writers.
Sp. IX. Apoplexy from Siiffocation*
Afphyxia fufpenforum, Sauv. fp. 4,
Afphyxia immerforuip, Sauv. fp. 1.
264,
Thin
248 M E D 1
.Comau T H i s is the kind of apoplexy which takes place in
11 v thofe who are hanged or drowned. For the treatment
of thofe perfons, fee the articles Drowning and
Hanging.
Befides the fpecies above-mentioned, the apoplexy
is a fymptom in many other diftempers, fuch as fevers
both continued and intermitting,exanthemata,hyfteria,
epilepfy, gout, worms, ifehuria, and feurvy.
1265 Genus. XLHI. PARALYSIS.
The Palsy.
Paralyfis, Boerh. 1057.
Hemiplegia, Sauv. gen. 170. Lin. 103. P'og. i'-Z®.
Paraplexia, Sauv gen. 171.
Paraplegia, Lin. 102. Vog. 227.
Paralyfis, Sawv. gen. 169. Lin. 1O4. Vog. 226.
Junck. 115.
Atonia, Am. 120.
266 Sp. I. The Partial Palsy.
Paralyfis, Sauv. gen. 169. Lin. 104. ‘ Vog. 226.
Junck. 115.
Payalyfis plethorica, Sauv. fp. 1.
Paralyfis ferofa, Sauv. if. 12.
Paralyfis nervea, Sauv. fp. 11.
TIutitas a gloffolyfi, Sauv. fp. I.
Aphonia paralytica, fp. fi.
.^7 'Sp. II. Hemiplegia, ot Palsy ojoncjids'of
the Body.
.Hemiplegia, Sattv. gen. 170. Lin. 108. V-pg. 228.
Sag. gen. 276.
Hemiplegia ex apoplexia, Sauv. fp. 7.
Hemiplegia fpafmodica, Sauv. if. 2.
Hemiplegia ferofa, Sauv. fp. to.
^68 Sp.HI. Paraplegia, or/bfzjr cfone A^f ef the
Body taken tranfsverfely.
Paraplexia, Sauv. gen. 171. Sag. gen. 277.
Paraplegia, Lin. \OZ. Vog.AZV].
Paraplexia fanguinea, Sauv. fp. 2.
Paraplexia a fpina bifida, Sauv. fp. 3.
Paraplexia rheumatica, Sauv. fp. t.
Defcription. The palfy under all the different forms
here mentioned as particular fpecies, fliows itfelf by a
fudden lofsof tone and vital power in a certain part of
the body. In the flighter degrees of the difeafe, it only
nffefts a particular mufcle, as the fphinfter of the anus
or bladder, thus occafioning an involuntary difeharge
of excrements or-of urine; of the mufcles of the tongue,
which occafions ftammering, or lofs of fpeech; of
the mufcles of-the larynx, by which the patent be¬
comes unable to fwallow folids, and fometimes even
liquids alfo.— In the higher-degrees of the difeafe, the
paralytic affedtion is diffufed over a whole limb, as the
foot, leg, hand, or arm ; and fometimes it affedts a
whole fide of the body, in which cafe it is called
hemiplegia ; and fometimes, which is the moft violent
cafe, it affedts all the parts below the wafte. or even
below the head, though this laft be exceedingly rare.
In thefe violent cafes, the fpeech is either very much
impeded, or totally loft. Convulfions often take
place in the found fide, with the cynic fpafm or in¬
voluntary laughter, and other diftortions of tjie face.
- 207.
CINE. Prafiice
Sometimes the whole paralytic part of the body be- ParaiyfU.
comes livid, or even mortifies before the patient’s
death ; and fometimes the paralytic parts gradually
decay and fiirivel up, fo as to become much lefs than
before. Whether the difeafe be more or lefs extend¬
ed, many different Varieties may be obferved in its
form. Sometimes there occurs a total lofs of fenfe
while motion is entire ; in others a total lofs of motion
with very flight or even no affedlion of fenfe; and
in fame cafes, while a total lofs of motion takes place
in one fide, a total lofs of fenfe has been obferved on
the other. This depends entirely on the particular
nerves or branches of nerves in which the affedtion is
fituated ; lofs of fenle depending on an affeftion of the
fubcutaneous nerves ; and lofs of motion on an affec¬
tion of thefe leading to the mufcles.
Cau/es, See. Palfies moft commonly fupervene upon
the different fpecies of coma, efpecially the apoplexy.
They are alfo occafioned by any debilitating power
applied to the body, efpecially by exceffes in venery.
Sometimes they are a kind of crifis to other diftempers,
as the colic of Poidlou, and the apoplexy. The hemi¬
plegia efpecially often follows the laft mentioned
difeafe. Aged people, and thofe who are by any other
means debilitated, are fubjedt to palfy ; which will
fometimes alfo affedt even infants, from the repulfion
of exanthemata of various kinds. Palfies are alfo
the infallible confequences of injuries of the large
nerves.
Prognofu. Except in the flighter c&fes of palfy, we
have little room to hope for a cure ; however, death
does not immediately follow even the moft fevere pa¬
ralytic r.ffedlions. In an hemiplegia it is not uncom¬
mon to fee the patients live feveral years ; and even in
the paraplegia, if death do not enfue within two or
three weeks, it may not take place for a confiderable
time. It is a promifing fign when the patient feels a
flight degree of painful itchinefs in the affedted parts $
and if a feve- fliould arife, it bids fair to cure the pal-
,fy. When the fenfe of feeling remains, there is much
more room to hope for a cure than where it is gone, as
well as the power of motion. But when we obferve
the flefli to wafte, and the - Ikin to appear withered
and dry, we may look upon the difeafe to be incu¬
rable. Convulfions fupervening on a palfy are a fatal
fign.
Cure. Many remedies have been recommended in
palfies : but it muft be confeffed, that, except in the
flighter cafes, medicines feldom prove effedlual ;■ and
before any feheme of cure can be laid down, every cir-
cumftance relative to the patient’s habit of body and
previous ftate of health flioald be carefully weighed.
If an hemiplegia or paraplegia fliould come on after an
apoplexy, attended with thofe circumftances which
phyfieians have fuppofed to denote a vifeid ftate of the
blood, a courfe of the attenuant gums, with fixed al¬
kaline falts, and chalybeate waters, may do fervice ;
to which it will be proper to add fridions with the vo¬
latile liniment all down the fpine : but in habits where
the blood is rather inclined to the watery ftate, it will
be neceffary to give emetics from time to time ; to ap¬
ply blifters, and cut iffues.
The natural hot baths are often found ufeful in pa¬
ralytic cafes; and where the patients cannot avail
themfclves of thefe, ap artificial bath may be tried by
' diffolving
Pra&ice.
M E D I
difFolving fait of Heel In water, and impregnating the
water with fixed air. Frictions of the parts, and
fcourging them with nettles, have alfo been recom¬
mended, and may do fervice, as well as volatile and
Simulating medicines taken inwardly. And it is pro¬
bably by operating in this manner, that the ufe of
camphor, or a mercurial courfe continued for fome
length of time to fuch a degree as gently to affeft the
mouth, have been found produ&ive of a cure in obfti-
nate cafes of this affedlion. Of late years, an infu-
fion of the arnica montana or German leopard’s bane,
has been highly extolled in the cure of this difeafe by
fome foreign writers : but the trials made with it in
Britain, particularly at Edinburgh, have been by no
means equally fuccefsful with thofe related by Dr
Collins, who has ftrongly recommended this medicine
to the attention of the public.
jgp Sp. IV. The Palsy from Poifont.
Paralyfis metallariorum, Sauv. fp. 22.
Hemiplegia faturnina, Sauv. fp. 14.
This kind of palfy arifes moft frequently from lead
taken into the body, and is a confequence of the co-
lica pi&onum, under which it is more particularly
treated.
270 TREMOR, or Trembling.
Tremor, Sauv. gen. 129. Lin. 139. Vog. 184.
Sag. 236.
This by Dr Cullen is reckoned to be always fymp-
tomatic either of palfy, afthenia, or convulfions j and
therefore need not be treated of by itfelf.
z7r Order II. ADYNAMIA.
A DYNAMISE, Vog. Clafs VI.
Defeftivi, Lin. Clafs VI. Order I.
Leipopfychiae, Sauv. Clafs VI. Order IV. Sag.
Clafs IX. Order IV.
*72 Genus XLIV. SYNCOPE.
Fainting.
Syncope, Sauv. gen. 174. Sag. 94. Vog. 274.
Sag. 280. Junck. 119.
Leipothymia, Sauv. gen. 173. Lin. 93. Vog. 273.
Sag. 279.
Afphyxia, Sauv. gen. 175. Lin. 95. Vog 27 c.
Sag. 281.
Virium lapfus et animi deliquia. Hoffm. III. 267.
Sp. I. The Cardiac Sykcopr.
Syncope plethorica, Sauv. fp. 5. Scnac. Tr. de Cceur,
P- 540-
Syncope a cardiogmo, Sauv. fp. 7. Senac. de
Cceur, 414. Morgagn. de Sed. XXV. 2. 3. 10.
Syncope a polypo, Sauv. fp. 8. Senac. p. 471.
Syncope ab hydrochardia, Sauv. fp. 12. Senac. 533.
Scbreiber Almag. L. III. § 196.
Syncope Lan%oni, Sauv. fp. 18. Lanzon. Op. II.
P- 462-
Afphyxia Valfalviana, Sauv. fp. 13.
274 Sp. II. Occq/ional Srt/cope*
Leipothymia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 1. Senac. p.544.
Vol. XI. Part I.
CINE. 249
Syncope pathetics, Sauv. fp. 41. Syncope.
Afphyxia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7. „ .w
Syncope ab antipathia, Sauv. fp. 9. Senac. p. 544.
Syncope a veneno, Sauv. Ip. io. Senac. p» 546.
Syncope ab apoftematis, Sauv. fp. 11. Senac*
P- 554-
Syncope a fphacelo, Sauv. fp. 14. Senac. p. 553.
Syncope ab inantione, Sauv. fp. 1. Senac. p. 536.
Syncope a phlebotomia, Sauv. fp. 4.
Syncope a dolore, Sauv. fp. 2. Senac. p. 583.
Afphyxia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Afphyxia neophytorum, Sauv. fp. 17.
Defcription. A fyncope begins with a remarkable
anxiety about the heart; after which follows a fudden
extinAion, as it were, not only of the animal powers
and actions, but alfo of the vital powers, fo that the
patients are deprived of pulfe, fenfe, and motion, all
at once. In thofe cafes which phyficians have diftin-
guifhed by the name of leipothymia, the patient does
not entirely lofe his fenfes, but turns cold and pale;
and the pulfe continues to beat, though weakly ; the
heart alfo feems to tremble rather than beat ; and the
refpiration is juft perceptible. But in the true fyn¬
cope or full afphyxia, not the fmalleft fign of life can
be perceived; the face hath a death-like palenefs, the
extremities are cold, the eyes Ihut, or at leaft troubled;
the mouth fometimes fhut, and fometimes gaping wide
open; the limbs flaccid, and the ftrength quite gone;
as foon as they begin to recover, they fetch deep and
heavy fighs.
Caufes, &c. Fainting is occafioned moft common¬
ly by profufe evacuations, efpecially of blood ; but it
may happen alfo from violent pafiions of the mind, from
furfeits, exceflive pain, &c. People of delicate con-
ftitutions are very fubjeft to it from flight caufes ; and
fometimes it will arife from affeftidns of the heart and
large vefiels not eafy to be underftood. Fainting is al¬
fo a fymptom of many diforders, efpecially of that fa¬
tal one called a polypus of the heart, of the plague, and
many putrid difeafes.
Prognofs. When fainting happens in the begin¬
ning of any acute diftemper, it is by no means a good
omen ; but when it takes place in the increafe or at the
height of the difeafe, the danger is fomewhat lefs;
but in general, when fainting comes on without any
evident caufe, it is to be dreaded. In violent hasmor-
rhagies it is favourable ; as the bleeding veftels thus
have time to contrail and recover themfelves, and
thus the patient may efcape.
Cure. When perfons of a full habit faint through
excefs of paffion, they ought to be blooded without
delay, and (hould drink vinegar or lemon-juice diluted
with water ; and, after the bowels are emptied by a
clyfter, take a paregoric draught, and go to bed.
The paffion of anger, in a peculiar manner, affeils
the biliary fecretion, caufes an oppreffion at the fto-
mach, with naufea and retching to vomit, and a bitter
tafte in the mouth, with giddinefs: thefe fymptoms
feem to indicate an emetic ; which, however, in thefe
cafes mull be carefully avoided, as it might endanger
the patient, by bringing on an inflammation of the
ftomach.
The general effefts of a fudden fright have been
mentioned on a former occafion. When thefe are fo
violent as to require medical aid, our firft endeavours
I i muft
250 M E D I
Adynamia: muft be to take off tbe f|)afmod!c conftriftion, and re-
w_v~~“ ftore freedom to the circulation ; "by bleeding, if the
habit be at all inclined to fulnefs; and by giving a
mixture, with equal parts of the vinum antimoniale
and tinftura opii camphorata, in fome agreeable ve^
hide, which will bring on fleep and encourage per-
fpiration.. It was formerly mentioned, that convulfions,
or even, an epilepfy, may be brought on by frights;
which Ihould make people cautious of playing foolilh
tricks in this way.
When a furfeit, or any fpecies of faburra, occafions
a leipothymiaj an emetic is the immediate remedy, as
foon. as the patient, by the help of acrid ftimulants,
fhall be fo far roufed as to be able to fvvaHow one: in
thefe cafes, tickling the fauces with a feather dipt in
fpirit of hartihorn, will be proper, not only to roufe
the patient, but alfo to bring on vomiting.
A fyncope is moft commonly brought on by profufe
difcharges or evacuations, either of the blood or of the
fecreted humours.
In order to revive the patients, they ought to be
laid along in a horizontal pofture, in an airy place ;
the legs, thighs, and arms, are to be rubbed with hot
flannels; very ftrong vinegar, or fait of hartfhorn, or
volatile alkaline fpirit, are to be held to the noftrils,
and rubbed into them; or, being properly diluted,
poured down the throat ; cold water is to be fprink-
led on the face and neck ; and when by thefe means
the patient {hall be fufficiently revived, wine boiled
up with fome grateful aromatic, is-to be given in the
proper quantity.
In the fainting confequent upon profufe uterine hse*.
morrhagies, it will be a fafer pra&ice to abftain from
all heating and ftimulant things; as life, in thefe
cafes, is preferved by the coagulation of the 'blood in
the extremities of the open veflels; which might be
prevented by the pouring in hot wine or volatile al¬
kaline fpirits;
When a fyncope is the confequence of the too vio¬
lent operation of either an emetic or cathartic, the
tin&ura thebaica, mixed with fpiced wine, is the moft
efficacious remedy ; but the opiate muft be given gra¬
dually, and in very fmall dofes.
A fyncope, or even afphyxia, wherein the patient
fliall lie for feveral hours, is frequent in hyfteric confti-
tutions; and during the fit requires fetid aqtifpafmo-
dics, together with acrid ftimulants: to prevent re¬
turns, nothing anfwers better than the Peruvian bark
joined with chalybeates.
275 Genus XLV. DYSPEPSIA.
Depraved Digestion.
Dyfpepfia, Vog. 277.
Apepfia, Vog. 276.
Diaphora, Vog. 278.
Anorexia, Sauv. gen. 162. Lin. 116. Sag. gen.286.
Cardialgia, Sauv. gen. 202. Lin. 48. Vog. 157.
Sag. gen. 160.
Gaftrodynia, Sauv. gen. 203. Sag. gen. 161.
Soda, Lin. 47. Vog. 161.
Naufea, Sauv. gen. 250. Lin. 182. Vog. 159. Sag.
gen. 185.
Vemitus, Sauv. gen. 251. Lin. 183. Vog. 214.
Sag. gen. rS6.
C I N E,. Practice,
Flatulentia, Sauv. gen. 272. Lin. 16$. Vog, 127. Dyfpepfia,
Sag. gen. 207. rBi
The idiopathic fpecies are.
Anorexia pituitofa-: Sauv. fp. 2.
Anorexia a faburra, Sauv. fp. 9.
Anorexia exhaullorum, Sauv fp. 8..
Anorexia paralytica, Suau fp. 1.
Naufea ex cacochylia, Sauv. fp. 11.
Vpmitus pituitofus, Sauv. fp. 26.
VOmitus ruminatio, Sauv. fp. 6.
Vomitus a ffiburra, fp. 2.
Vomitus-a crapula, Sauv. fp. x.
Vomitus lafiteus, Sauv. fp. 3.
Flatulentia infantilis, Sauv. fp. 5.
Flatulentia acida, Sauv. fp. 1.
Flatulejitia nidrofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Cardialgia bradypepta,,S«M'u. fp_. 9.
Cardialgia a faburra, Sauv. fp. 2.
Cardialgia lattantium, Sauv. fp. 1 x „.
Cardialgia flatulenta, Saau. fp. 3.
Cardialgia paralytica', Sauv. fp. 7.
Gaftrodynia faburralis, Sauv. fp. 1.
Gaftrodynia flatulenta, Sat/ir. fp. 2.
Gaftrodynia periodynia, Suau. fp. y,-
Gaftrodynia aftr.ingens, Sauv. fp. 9. .
Gaftrodynia atterens, Sauv. fp. xo.
Gaftrodynia a frigore, Sauv. fp. 18;.
Befides thefe there are a great number of fympto--
matic fpecies.
Defsription. It is by no means eafy to define ex*
aclly the diftemper called dyfpepfia, when confidered
as an original difeafe, as there are very few mala¬
dies which fome way or other do not ffiow themfelves
by an afffi&ion of the ftomach ; and much more diffi¬
cult ftill muft it be to enumerate all its fymptoms. The
moft-remarkable,.however, and the moil common, are
the following;: Want of appetite ; diftenfion of the
ftomach when no food has been taken for fome time
before ; flight dejedlion of fpirits: a gradual decay of
the mufcular ftrength ; .languor, and averfion from mo¬
tion ; the-food which is taken without appetite is not
well digefted ; the ftomach and inteftines are much, di-
ftended with flatus, whence the patients are tormented
with fpafms, gripes, and ficknefs: frequently a lim¬
pid water, having an acid or putrid tafte, is brought
up ; fometimcs the food itfelf is thrown up by mouth¬
fuls ; and fometimes, though rarely, the fame is fvval-
lowed again, after the manner of ruminating ani¬
mals. While matters are in this fituation, the heart
fometimes palpitates, and the breath is quick, and
drawn with difficulty ; the head achs and is giddy
and fometimes both thefe fymptoms are continual, and
very violent, infomuch that the patient is not only
tormented with pain, but flaggers as if he was drunk.
From the too great acefcency or putrefaftion. of
the aliment, a cardialgia or heartburn comes on ;
and in this fituation a fpontaneous diarrhoea fome¬
times carries off the difeafe ; but in other cafes there
is an obftinate coftivenefs, attended with colic-pains.
Frequently the pulfe is quick, fometimes flow, but
always weak : the circulation is fo languid, that the
blood can fcarce reach the extreme veffeis, or at lead
ftagnaies
Pra&ice. M E D
A<1> nami;« ftagnStes m them, (o that the face becomes livid,
‘•“"'V—“J fwelled, and has an unufual appearance : and at the
fame time that the circulation and nervous power are
in this languid date, the perfpiratiori becomes lefs co¬
pious ; the Ikin becomes dry and corrugated ; the na¬
tural heat, efpecially of the extremities, is much di-
minilhed ; the tongiie is white ; and an univerfal laxity
takes place, infomuch that the uvula and velum pen¬
dulum palati are fometimes enlarged to fuch a degree
as to become extremely troublefome The patient is
either deprived of reft, or wakes fuddenly out of his
deep,"and is difturbed. by frightful dreams ; at the fame
time that the mind feems to be affedted as well as
the body, and he becomes peevifh, fretful, and in¬
capable of paying attention to any thing as ufual.
At laft hedtic fymptoms come on, and the whole frame
becomes fo irritable, that the flighteft caufe excites an
univerfal tremor, and fometimes violent vomiting and
diarrhoea. Sometimes the falivary glands are fo re¬
laxed, that a falivation comes on as if excited by mer¬
cury ; the ferum is poured oufinto the cavity of the
abdomen and cellular fubftance of the whole bo¬
dy, and the patient becomes affe&ed with anafarca or
afcites.
Caufes, &c. The caufes of dyfpepfia may be any
thing which debilitates the fyftem in general, but in a
particular manner affefts the ftomach. Such are o-
pium taken in immoderate quantities, which hurts
by its fedative and relaxing powers ; fpirituous liquors
drunk to exeefs; tobacco, tea, coffee, or any warm
relaxing liquor, taken in too great quantity; acid, un¬
ripe fruits; vomits or purges too frequently taken ; an
indolent fedentary life, &c. &c. All thefe aft chief¬
ly upon people of a weak and delicate habit; for the
robuft and hardy feldom labour under a dyfpepfia, or
at moft a very flight one.
Prognofis. When a dyfpepfia firft occurs, it is fre¬
quently removed without great difficulty ; when it is
fymptomatic, we muft endeavour to cure the primary
difeafe ; and without this we cannot expeft a com¬
plete removal of the affeftion: but when it fre¬
quently returns with fymptoms of great debility,
heftic fever, or dropfy, we have great reafon to dread
the event.
Cure. A radical cure of dyfpepfia is only to be ex-
pefted by removing from the ftomach and fyftem that
debility on which the difeafe depends.-On this ground,
the objefts chiefly to be aimed at in the cure are,
ift. The avoiding whatever will tend to diminifh the
vigour of the ftomach ; 2d, The employing fuch re¬
medies as have influence in encreafing that vigour;
and, in the third place, The obviating urgent fymp¬
toms, particularly thofe which tend to increafe and
fupport the affeftion. Of the avoiding caufes,/which
tend to diminifh the vigour of the ftomach, after what
has already been faid of the caufes inducing the dif¬
eafe, it is unneceflary to make any farther obferva-
tions ; and indeed every dyfpeptic patient will be
taught by experience what is to be done with this in¬
tention. The medicines chiefly employed with the
view of increaling vigour are thofe of the tonic kind :
but, previous to their ufe, it will be neceffary to
evacuate the contents of the alimentary canal by
vomits or ^purgatives. If there be a tendency to pu-
tjefceucy,‘antifeptics muft then be exhibited; but
[CINE. 251
more frequently there is a prevailing acidity, which Dyfpepfta.
creates an intolerable heart-burn. To palliate this * ' 1
fymptom, magnefia alba may be given; which is much
preferable to the common teftaceous-powders, as being
purgative while diflblved in an acid, when the others
are rather aftringent. In the third volume of the Me¬
dical Obfervations, we have an account of two cafes of
dyfpepfia attended with a very uncommon degree of
cardialgia, in which magnefia was fo fuccefsful, that
we can fcarce doubt of its efficacy in flighter degrees
of the diforder. They were communicated by Dr
Watfon.
“ A woman, aged 34, the mother of feveral chil¬
dren, was taken, in the fourth month of her pregnan¬
cy, with violent vomitings; which growing daily worfe,
notwithftanding the endeavours of her apothecary to
reftrain them, brought on at the end of a month fuck
fevere pains in the itomach, and fpafms in her abdo¬
men, as to occafion abortion. The vomitings were not
leflened by this event, but grew worle, and frequently
brought on general convuliions to fuch a degree, that
fhe was many times fuppofed to be at the point of
death.
“ Scarce any medicine ftaid with her ; fhe brought
up almoft inftantly whatever was given her as nourifh-
ment, either in a folid or liquid form. She was ex¬
ceedingly pale, and very much emaciated ; her fle/k
was cold to the touch.; and,, though her urine was
little in quantity, it was perfeftly limpid. She had a>
continual thirft,. and was,, in a confrderable degree, co-
ftive. Her pulfe was low and quick, and fhe was fre¬
quently tormented with the hiccough. The pain in.
her ftomach was fevere and conftant; and whatever fhe
brought up was fharp to fuch a degree as to make her
mouth and throat very fore- Thefe parts upon exa¬
mination appeared high-coloured, and. in many places,
excoriated ; and the pain fhe felt in her ftomach upon
fwallowing any liquor that had the leaft degree of
acrimony, or was more than luke-warm, made it pro¬
bable the ftomach itfelf, in its internal furface, was af-
fefted in the fame manner.
“ In this wretched ftate I was confulted ; and mufk
confefs that I was much at a lofs how to- relieve a pa¬
tient fo debilitated, and whofe ftomach was in fo dif-
eafed a ftate, that it feemed incapable of retaining any'
appropriated remedies long enough to correft the acri¬
mony ofthe juices, and reftore the fecretions to a more
mild and natural ftate. Anti-emetics of various kinds
had been tried without effeft, particularly faturated fo-
lutions of alkaline fait in juice of lemons. Stomachic
medicines of the warm and aromatic kind fhe could
not bear, on account of their poignancy ; and,
though nothing could fo fpeedily correft the almoft
cauftic acid of the gaftric juice as folutions of alka¬
line falts, neither the fauces nor gullet could bear
their acrimony.
“ My expeftations of relieving this patient, fmall as
they were, depended upon my being able to neutra¬
lize, and thereby lefien, the ftimulus of the acid of the
ftomach. To accomplifh this was not very eafy, as no
medicine in fmall dofes could in any coniiderable de¬
gree correft fo intenfe an acid; and, in the prefent fi-
tuation', it was difficult to get any medicine to ftay
long enough to exert its effefts. To difeharge how¬
ever what acrid matter might be already accumulated
MEDICINE. Pradice.
Adynamia Jn the ftomach, I direfted that the patient fhould drink
l" '“"v ' plentifully of fmall, warm, unfalted mutton-broth, and
vomit with it fo long that it Ihould be difcharged with
no other take than that of broth. This was complied
with, and a large quantity drank. The pain in her
ftomach ceafed upon this for more than two hours, and
was after that time apparently coming on with the
fame violence as before. Upon which I ordered a
drachm of magnefia to be given in two ounces of veal-
broth. This kept down, and eafed her ; I therefore
directed the fame dpfe to be repeated as often as the
pain returned, without any regard to the quantity that
the whole might amount to, fuppofing that the pain
continued fevere. This was done; and in three days
fhe took three ounces of magnefia, of which very
few dofes were vomited up, and fhe was purged confi-
derably.
“ This medicine was continued in a fomewhat lefs
quantity for three days longer, in which fhe took two
ounces more of magnefia ; by this time the vomitings
ceafed, the convuifions left her, fhe had no pains in
the ftomach, and her mouth and fauces loft their in-
tenfely red colour and forenefs; nor did even her eruc¬
tations longer indicate any acidity.
“ Befides veal-broth fhe was allowed boiled rice,
and now and then fame rice gruel with a fmall quantity
of brandy; and after a few days more fhe could re¬
tain boiled chicken, and other light, folid, animal-
food.
“ When her ftomach was in this ftate, fhe took li¬
berally of clecoB. cort. Peruvian, with a fmall portion
of French brandy; by which and her nourifhment fhe
recovered her ftrength furprifingly. To this medi¬
cine, as fhe was during the latter part of her illnefs
eonfiderably anafarcous, were added fome prepara¬
tions of fteel; and in about a month fhe peffedtly're¬
covered.
“ When this patient’s ftomach was relieved, the
thirft, the general and partial fpafms, and other com¬
plaints, which were merely fymptomatic,. foon ceafed ;
and what remained of her cure was by no means dif¬
ficult.
“ Since the above-recited cafe; I was confulted in
another almoft in every refpedt fimilar, except that
the former began in pregnancy. The vomitings at¬
tended with acidity had continued more than a month;
the patient’s ftomach rejedfed every kind of food and
medicine; fhe was debilitated to a great degree,, and
univerfally anafarcous.
“ Upon being fent for,. I directed for her magne¬
fia, much in the fame manner as, for the former pa¬
tient ; and in a very few days her vomitings ceafed,
her ftomach became ftronger, and in lefs than a fort¬
night the anafarca difappeared. But it was a confi-
derable time,, as this perfon was more advanced in
years than the former, before fhe recovered her
ftrength, notwithftanding my beft endeavours for that
purpofe. She at length, however, perfe&ly reco¬
vered.”
But although acidity may often be fuccefsfully ob¬
viated in this manner,, yet the beft way of counter-
adting this fymptorti, as well as of obviating coftive-
nefs,. flatulence, and a variety of others, is by refto-
r-ing the tone of the ftomach in particular^ and indeed
of the fyftem in general. With this intention, re- D/fpepfu..
courfe is had to a variety of tonics both from the mi- » 11 "*
neraland vegetable kingdom ; particularly chalybeates
in different forms, gentian, Colombo, and the like;
but of all the tonics which can be employed in this
affedlion, none are attended with greater benefit than
exercife and cold bathing; and the proper and pru¬
dent employment of thefe is no lefs effedtual in re¬
moving the difeafe, than in preventing the return of
it after it is once removed.
Genus XLVI. HYPOCHONDRIASIS. 276
Hypochondriac Affection.
Hypochondriafis, Sauv. gen. 220. Lin. 76. Vog.
218. Sag. 332.
Morbus hypochondriacus, Boerh. 1098.
Malum hypochoridriacum, Hoffm. III. 65. Juncl 36.
Although fome of the nofological writers, parti¬
cularly Sauvages, have confidered this genus as con-
lifting of different fpecies, Dr Cullen is. of opinion,
that there is only one idiopathic fpecies, the hypo-*
chondriajis melanchohca. He confiders not only the
hypochondriafis hyfterica, phthifica, and afthmatica*
but alfo the biliofa, fanguinea, and pituitofa, as being
only fymptomatic ; but he views the true melan¬
cholic hypochondriafis as being a proper idiopathic
difeafe, perfectly diftinit from hyfteria, with which,
it has often been confounded.
Defcription. The fymptoms of hypochondriafis are,
ftretching, preffing, griping, and tormenting pains,
under the ribs, and chiefly in the left fide ; which
fometimes are exafperated, and become pungent, burn¬
ing, or lancinating. Frequently there is an inflation,
of the left hypochondriacum, which fametimes be¬
comes ftationary, and by Hippocrates was taken fora
fymptom of an enlarged fpleen. When thefe fymp¬
toms take place in the right hypochondtium, they are
commonly attended with colic-pains, uncertain flying,
heats, efpecially in the head, with a tranfient rednefs-
of the face, and very frequently an oedematous fwell-
ing of the feet fucceeds. To thefe are fuperadded al-
moft all the affe&ions of the ftomach occurring in
dyfpepfia, befides a variety of other fymptoms, fuch
as palpitations,, fleeplefs nights,, and the like. But
befides thefe,, there occurs alfo a particular depreffion
of fpirit and apprehenfion of danger, which may be
confidered as one of the great chara&erifing fymp¬
toms of the difeafe.
Caufes, &c. The general caufes of the hyppehon—
driac affe&ion are faid to be a plethora, and preterna¬
tural thicknefs of the^blood; fupprefiions of cuftomary
evacuations; high and full diet, together with a-
fparing quantity of drink ; an hereditary difpofition;
indolence ; atony of tlie inteftinesviolent pafiions of:
the mind, &c.
Prognofts. The hypochondriac affe&ion, when left
to itfelf,. is more troublefome than dangerous ; brut, i£
improperly treated, it may bring on various difeafes of
a more fatal tendency, fuch as the melancholy, bloody-
urine and. nephritis, jaundice,., vertigo,, palfy, apo¬
plexy, &c.
Cure. This is to be attempted by fuch medicines-
as counteradi occafioual caufes, and obviate urgent
fymptom;.
Praaicc. M K D I
Adynamia fymptoms, which may be all comprehended under
——v— bleeding, gentle evacuants, chalybeates, the Peru¬
vian bark, and exercife, efpecially riding on horfe-
back, which in this difeafe is greatly preferable to
any other. When the circumllances of the pa¬
tient can afford it, a voyage to Spain, Portugal, ®r
fome of the warmer countries in Europe, will be of
great fervice.
, _ Genus XLVII. CHLOROSIS.
Green sickness.
Chlorofxs, Sauv. gen. 309. L'm. 222. Fog. 305.
Sag. gen 135. Bocrh. 1285. Hoffm. iii. 311.
Junck. 86.
Of this genus alfo Dr Cullen thinks there is but
one idiopathic fpecies: viz. whatLome diflinguifh by
the title of chlorofis virginea, others of chlorofis ama-
toria.
Defcription. This difeafe ufually attacks girls a
little after the time of puberty, and firft fliows itfelf
by fymptoms of dyfpepfia. But a diflinguifhing
iymptom is, that the appetite is entirely vitiated, and
the patient will eat lime, chalk, afhes, fait, &c. very
greedily ; while at the fame time there is not only a
total inappetence to proper food, but it will even ex¬
cite naufea and vomiting. In the beginning of the
difeafe, the urine is pale, and afterwards turbid ; the
face becomes pale, and then affumes a greenifh colour;
fometimes it becomes livid or yellow : the eyes are
funk, and have a livid circle round them ; the lips
lofe their fine red colour ; the pulfe is quick, weak,
and low, though the heat is little fhort of a fever,
but the veins are fcarcely filled; the feet are frequent¬
ly cold, fwell at night, and the whole body feems
covered with a foft fwelling; the breathing is diffi¬
cult : nor is the mind free from gffeftion as well as
the body ; it becomes irritated by the flighted caufes;
and fometimes the patients love folitude, become fad
and thoughtful. There is a retention of the menfes
throughout the whole courfe of the diforder; and at lad
all the bad fymptoms increafing, a leucophlegmafia,
anafarca, atrophy, and death, fucceed.
Caufes. The caufe of chlorofis is thought to be an
atony of the mufcular fibres, of the alimentary canal,
efpeoially of the domach, joined with a fimilar atony
of the perfpiratory veffels over the whole furface of
the body, and the whole depending on an atony of
thofe fmall arteries which pour out the mendrual
blood. This atony may be occafioned by the fame
caufes which bring on dyfpepfia and hypochondriafis,
but very frequently arifes from love and other paSions
©f the mind.
Prognofts. The chlorofis in all cafes is tedious,
though it does not generally prove fatal; but we can
never promife a certain cure unlefs the menfes make
their appearance.
Cure. The remedies here in general are the fame
as in the dyfpepfia and hypochondriafis ; only in the
chlorofis ftronger purgatives may be made ufe of r.
thofe which ftimulate the re&um are ufeful by dimu-
lating alfo the veffels of the uterus; and for this reafon
indulgence in venery has fometimes been faid to pro¬
duce a. cure, particularly with love-fick maids. The
cold bath is alio extremely proper.
CINE.
Or her III. SPAS ML
Spasmi, Sauv. Oafs IV. Fog. Oafs V.
Oafs VIII.
Motorii, Lin. Oafs VII.
Morbi fpafmodici et convulfivi, Hoffm. III. 9.
Spafmi et convulfiones, Junck. 43, 54.
Epilepfia, Boerh. 1071, 1088.
*53
Tetanus.
278
Sag.
Genus. XLVIII. The TETANUS. 279
Tetanus, Sauv. gen. 122. Lin. 127. Fog. 180.
Sag. gen. 228.
Oitochus, Sauv. gen. 123. Lin. 128. Fog. 183.
Sag. gen. 229.
Opifthotonos, Fog. 181.
Epifthotonos, Fog. 182'.
On this diftemper Dr Lionel Chalmers has pub-
lifhed a differtation in the lirfl volume of the Medical
Obfervations, which being fuperior to any thing that
has appeared in other medical writers on the fubjedt,
we fliall here lay before the reader.
“ Of all the difeafes to which man is- fubjedt, none
deferves more to be confidered than the opiflhotonos
and tetanus, either with regard to the variety of
painful fymptoms which almofl without intenniffion
diftradf the fick, or the danger of the difeafes them-
felves, from which few recover, in comparifon of the
number they attack. In both, the vital actions are
very imperfectly performed, moft of thofe which are
called natural being as it were fufpended at once ;
and fa far is the patient from being able to execute
any voluntary motion, that the whole machine un¬
dergoes the moft excruciating diftortions, from the
violent and unnatural contradtions of the mufcles-
Happy it i& for the inhabitants of the more temperate
climates, that fuch difeafes appear 1 arely among them ’r
but in thofe countries which lie in the more fouthera
and warmer latitudes, they are endemic, efpecially to-
negro Haves. In South Carolina, they fhow them-
felves at all feafens, but not fo often in winter,,
more frequently in fpring and autumn ; and; are moft-
common in the fummer, when people work a'broad
and are alternately expofed. to the fcorching heat of
the fun and heavy fhowers, which often happen fud-
denly, and greatly alter the temperature of the air.
Others are feized with the opifthotonos after deeping
without doors, that they may enjoy the deceitful re-
frefhment of the cool night-air, when the weather is
warmone youth chofe to cut off his hair and
/have his head on a warm day in March, and went to
bed without a cap ; but the weather changed, and
became cold in the night, and he was found, rigid with
that difeafe next morning.
“ Thefe difeafes fo rarely appear as originals iu
Europe,.that a good hiftory of them cannot He expefted
from the phylicians who pra&ife in that part of the
world ; nos has any. thing like a, full defcription been
given of them by any ancient or modern author
which I have feen. Hippocrates indeed takes notice
of them in many places, and feems to regard them
only as confequences of other difeafes, or of wounds
or ulcers of the nervous or tendinous parts, of which,
fymptomttic kind, of opifthotonos he gives three re¬
markable cafes in./iA V. $ VII. de Morb. vulg. and.
6 repeats
254
MED!
Spafmi repeats them in another place; but the few fymp-
" ^ J torr)s he rec()unt9 do not (how themfelves with us.
Galen, Coelius Aurelianus, Aretasus, &c. feem only
to have copied Hippocrates, with the addition of
fome fuppofititious fyniptoms^ which really do not
appear ; and the little that Bontius fays of it is very
faulty.
“ Among the numerous clafs of fpafmodic difeafes,
there are three which diftinguifli themfelves in a very
particular manner, on which the names of emprqjlho-
tonos, opi/lbotonos, and tetanus, have been juftly enough
heftowed, as being ^xprellive of the pofture into which
they throw and confine the patient. When therefore
thofe mufcles which bend the head, neck, and body
forwards, fuffer fuch involuntary, violent, and conti¬
nued contradlions, as to fix the chin to the breaft, in-
curvate the fpine and,body, and retain the fick in this
painful and prone pofture, the difeafe is called emprof-
ihutonos. When the pofterior mufcles are fimilarly af-
fefted, fo that the head is drawn towards the fpine,
and the fpine itfelf is recurvated, it has then the name
t>f opifthotonos; although in faft, in this, all thdfe
mufcles which add in deglutition, bend the head for¬
wards, or turn it to either fide, are equally contra&ed
with thofe which raife the head and fpine. The teta¬
nus differs from, or rather is compounded of, both the
others ; for in this the patient is found rigid and in¬
flexible, beitlg as it were braced between the oppofite
contradlions of the anterior and pofterior mufcles; yet
even here the head is much .retraced
“ I never faw the emprojlbotonos; and (hall only
fpeak of the opifthotonos and tetanus, the firft being by
far the, moft common, and in the laft ftage 'of which
the tetanus frequently fupervenes. And let it be ob-
ferved, that the following defcription by no means re-
fpedds fuch fymptomatic contradtions as often happen
immediately before death, both in acute and chronic
difeafes; neither will it agree with that fpurious oftif-
thotonos ox tetanus which appear fometimes in the firft
and fecond ftages of quotidian intermittents in this
country, however they may emulate the true difeafes
,in fome of their fymptoms.
“ Stad. 1. THopifthotonos, Contrary to what Bon-
.tius aflerts, often comes on gradually and by flight
approaches, ;the patient complaining rather of an unea-
fy ftiffnefs in the back-patt of the neck and about the
ftioulders, than of any acute pain, with fome degree
of a general laflitude. Thefe increafe, and become
fo troUblefome when he attempts to turn his head, or
to bend it forward, as to oblige him to walk very
eredf; for he can by no means look downward, nor to
either fide, without turning his whole body. He can¬
not open his jaws without pain; and has fome difficul¬
ty in fwallowing, which difcourages him from attempt¬
ing to eat. At times he feels a fudden and painful trac¬
tion under the cartilago, enftformis, which ftrikes thro’
to the back, and inftantly increafes the rigidity about
the neck and (boulders, draws the head backward a
little, and (huts the jaws clofer. The pain under the
Jlemum returns more frequently and with greater vio¬
lence ; a,nd the other contraAions become fo ftrong,
that the head from this time continues much retradted,
and he now refufes nouriffiment, as fwallowing is at¬
tended with great pain, and occafions a return of the
fpafm; which extends along the fpine quite to the
CINE, Pra&i'ce,
lower extremities, fo that they will no longer fop. Tetanus.
port him, and he is under the neceffity of going to  
bed.
“ In this manner paffes over the firft ftage of ^he
ov'jlhotonos, which fometimes takes up three or four
days ; the patient, as well as thofe about him, mif-
taking the firft appearances of it for that rheumatic
complaint, which is commonly called a crick in the
neck ; but it fometimes forms itfelf much quicker, and
invades the unfortunate perfon with the Whole train of
its mifchievous fymptoms in a few hours: in which
cafe, the danger may truly be eftimated from the vio¬
lence oTthe firft attack; for fuch generally die in 24,
36, or 48 hours, and very rarely furvive the third
day. But when it is lefs acute, few are loft after the
ninth of eleventh ; which number of days it would
hot be poffible for them to complete, unlefs the vio¬
lence of the dtfeafe was in a good meafure fubdued ;
although I ha4 one who recovered, after having been
fubjedt to -its tyrannical attacks daily for fix weeks.
•In this ftage the pulfe is flow, and very hard, and the
belly is bound ; blood taken away feems not to be
altered from the natural ftate, fo that no indication can
be deduced therefrom, and it only varies with regard
to -laxity or companion, according to the age of the
.perfoft and feafon of the year.
“ Stad. II. The fpafm under the fternum (which
is the pathognomic fymptom of this difeafe) becomes
more violent, returning every 10 or 15 minutes; and
never fails to be inftantly fucceeded by a ftronger re¬
traction of the head, with great rigidity and pain all
round the neck, and along the fpine to the lower ex¬
tremities which are fuddenly put to the ftretch. The
countenance is very pale and contracted; the jaws are
that moment fnapped together, and cannot afterwards
be opened fo wide as to receive the end of one’s litfk
finger; an attempt to do which, by way of experi¬
ment, furely hurries on the fpafm. The maftoid, co-
racohyoid and fternohyoid mufcles, as well as all the
others concerned in deglutition, and the deltoid and
peCtorals, are moft violently contracted, f® that the
(boulders are ftrongly raifed forward, and the arms are
ftretched out or drawn acrofs the body; but the wrifts
and fingers feem not to be affeCted.
“ Such is the condition of the patient in the time
of the fpafm, which ceafes in a few feconds: after
which the (boulders and arms recline, and the inforior
extremities relax; yet not fo entirely, but that fuch a
degree of rigidity for the moft part remains as will not
permit them to bend when this is attempted by ano¬
ther perfon ; for as to the fick himfelf, he cannot at
all move them. The mufcles on the fides and fore¬
part of the neck continue ftill contra&ed, although not-
fo ftrongly; but their aftion is overcome by the num¬
ber and iirength of the pofterior ones; fo that the re-
traftion of the head conftantly remains. He breathes
quick for fome minutes, as if he had been exceffively
exercifed ; and the pulfe is fmall, fluttering, and irre¬
gular, but both become more calm and flow. The
face is fometimes pale in the intervals, but oftener
fluffied; and the whole countenance expreffes ftrong
appearances of the moft melancholy diftrefs, as well
becaufe of the dread he has of a return of the fpafm,
which he is fore will foon happen, as from the pain
he foffers by the prefent contractions, and the more
general
Pra&ice'i MED
Spafmr general and fevere ones wnTch h-e has fo lately fu-
^ llained. The tongue is fiifF and torpid ; but fo far
as it can be feen, is not foul. The belly is always
bound, and cannot eafily be loofened. In drinking, the
liquid paffes with great difficulty to the ftomach,. even
in the fmalleft quantity; and if the fpafm fhould feize
him at that time, which an attempt to fwallow for the
moft part occafions, the liquor returns through the
nofe with fome force. The patients defire to lie ftill as
much as poffible; and avoid drinking, fpeaking, or be¬
ing moved, either of Which are apt to occafion a re¬
turn of the fpafm.
“ Stad. III. In this lafl ftage, the patient is re¬
duced to the moft calamitous and diftrefsful circum-
ftances : for he is on a continual rack, according to
the moft literal meaning of that word ; the fpafm re¬
turning oftener than once in a minute, is much more
violent, and holds him longer, fo that he has fcarcely
any remiffion. The anterior mufcles of the whole bo¬
dy now fuffer equal contra&ions with the pofterior;
but the laft overcome the force of the others, fo that
the fpine is ftrongly recurvated, and forms a hollow
arch with the bed, and he refts on the back part of the
head and the heels. The belly is flat, and is drawn
inward; and the mufcles are fo rigidly contra<fted, that
they will not give way to preffure, and do not feem in
the leaft to yield to the defcent of the diaphragm in
'infpiration ; the feveral mufcles about the nCck, fides,
and abdomen, being plainly diftinguifhable from each
other. Although the lower extremities are always ri¬
gid in this ftate, yet are they fo fuddenly and violenb-
ly diftended in the time of the fpafms, that were it
not for the ftanders-by, he would be projected feet
foremoft off the bed; while others again are as it
were puftied upward with fuel; a fpring, that the head
is ftruck with great force againft whatever happens to
be in the way, the thighs and legs being in this cafe
no lefs rigid than the other parts. The tongue is
fpafmodically darted out, and is often miferably torn*
as the teeth are that moment fnapped together ; fothat
it is neceffary- to prevent this by keeping t-he handle of
a fpoon, wrapped round with foft rags, between the
teeth, when this can be done. At the time that the
tongue is thus thruft out, the mufcular flefh, which
lies between the arch of the lower jaw and head of the
trachea, feems to be drawn upwards within the throat.
The countenance is very much contra&ed,' and he is
in a foam of fweat, the heat being very great; and the
pulfe between the fpafms is exceeding quick, fmall,
and irregular, although the heart throbs fo ftrongly,
that its motions may be plainly feen, and a palpita¬
ting fubfultory kind of undulation may not only be
felt, but perceived all over the epigaftric region. The
eyes are watery and languid, and a pale or bloody
froth bubbles out from between, the lips. The jaws
are for the moft part locked fall, fo that it is impof-
fible to give drink or nouriftiment, nor could he fwal¬
low if any thing was put into his mouth. In this ftate
they are commonly delirious: and as they cannot fub-
fift many hours under fo great a fufpenfion of the vi¬
tal and natural fun&ions, a mortal anxiety enfues and
releafes them; oftener a continued and fevere fpafm
finilhes the tragedy, when it was before almoft at an
end : but moft frequently a general convulfion puts a
period to their fufferings; and whichever way this
I C r N E. 255
happens, they for the moft part relax juft before death. Tetanus.
“ In the tetanus, the general fymptoms are nearly
the fame as in the opifthotonos, except that from the
firil attack, the lateral, abdominal, and other anterior
mufcles, are equally contracted with the pofterior ones;
and the arms become rigid as well as the lower extre¬
mities. The abdomen is always flat and rigid as in-
the laft ftage of the opifthotonos, and its contents feem
to be .thruft up into the thorax, which at the fame
time appears to be much dilated. There are here al-
fo fome intervals between the fpafms, in the time of
which the cheeks are drawn towards the ears, fo that
all the teeth may be feen as in the fpafmus cynicus*
Deglutition is more free in this than in the other dif*
eafe; yet fo far is the fick from being equally balan¬
ced between the contractions of the oppofite mufcles,
that the head is retraCted and the fpine is recurvated,
although not quite fo much as in the opifthotonos.
And the fpafm, which commences under the fternum,
is likewife common to the tetanus, which terminates
as the other, and on the fame fatal days. But who¬
ever recovers from either, labours long under a general
atonia; and they cannot for fome months raife them-
felves from a fupine or recumbent pofture without pain, ,
nor without help for fome time.”
Prognofts and Cure. There has never been any thing
like a crills obferved in thefe frightful cafes, or fa¬
vourable termination from the mere efforts of nature;
and therefore all the ph-yfician’s dependence muff be
upon art. As in cafes of tetanic affeClions, the dif.
cafe often arifes from fome particular irritation, the
removal of this muft neceffarily be an important objeCl
in the. cure :. But where it cannot be removed, bene¬
fit may often be obtained by the prevention of its in¬
fluence being communicated to , the brain. When,
however, that influence is communicated to the brain,
a cure is to be expeCted only by diminifhing and ob¬
viating it. This is principally brought, about by the
ufe either of thofe means which-have a.general ten¬
dency to diminifli aclion, or of thofe which induce a -
different ftate of a£lion. On thefe grounds the ope¬
ration of thofe remedies which are employed with
greateft fuccefs in this affection, may, we apprehend, .
be explained. Fortunately it has been found, that
opium is capable.of giving fome relief, if adminiftered
in proper time, and if the difeafe happens not to be
in the moft violent degree : the warm bath muft alfo
be brought in aid; and the patients fhould lie horizon¬
tally in the bath, and while in it have the whole body
extremely well rubbed: when taken out, they are not
to be dried, but immediately put to bed wrapt in the
fofteft blankets; and while they remain there, the belly
ought either to be ftuped, or two or three bladders
filled with, warm water kept conftantly lying on it.
The bowels at tlic fame time muft, if poffible, be kept
open, by folutions of manna and falpolychrejt, or fome
other purging fait, mixed with oleum ricini ; or if that
fhould not be at hand, .with oil of fweet almonds and
a little tin&ure of fena. The opiates are to be given
in large and frequently repeated dofes; fuch as a grain
of the extraclum thebakum, or 20 drops of the tindfture,
every fecond or third hour; and it will be fafeft not to
truft to the thebaic tindlure which is kept ready pre¬
pared in the fhops, but order the neceffary dofe of fu-
lid opium, and either give it in pills or diffylve it in ,
5 fume-.
MEDICINE.
Pratfice.
fome convenient liquid- If fvvallowing fliould be dif- there), though he finds ftrong convulfive fpafms have Tetanus.
iicult, or the jaws doled up, the opium mull be given
in dyfters; for during the whole courfe of the difeafe
it will be of fervice to order emollient dyfters to be
injected from time to time, fince thefe will anfwer not
only as a relaxing fomentation, but alfo contribute to
keep the inteftinal canal perfectly free.
feized the child, or that it has had a convulfive fit c
two, it may moft commonly be relieved, the coming
of the tetanus be prevented, and the life of the babe
faved, as Dr Hillary has more than once feen, by re¬
moving and carrying off the irritating caufe which fti-
mulates their tender bowels, by fuch gentle evacuations
When the patients recover, they continue for a long as are fuitable to their age ; and then quieting and
time very relaxed and weak; and no wonder, fince it compofing the irritation of their nerves with proper
is the nature of all fpafmodic affeftions to leave be- anodynes, and correfting the remaining acrimony of
hind them extreme weaknefs and relaxation of the muf- the nutritious juices in the prim* vi*.
cular fibres. In order to perfed the recovery, a courfe To anfwer thefe intentions, the following method,
of the Peruvian hark and the Peruvian balfam is to be
tried ; and the fpine may be rubbed with fpirituous
liniments, or with a mixture of rum and Barbadoes
tar : but thefe and all other ftimulating things, either
internally or externally, during the violence of the
fpafms, muft, in the opinion of fome practitioners, be quam primum injiciendum.
with variations pro re nata et pro ratione atatis, as the
caufe is different, has been found to anfwer the defired
effeft the beft : R. Seri ladis ^ij. Sapon. Venet. 9j.
Mann* Calab. jij. vel iij. 01. amygd. dul. ^fs. 01. f*~
niculi dul. gut. ij. Balf. Peruv. gut. v. Mifce,Ji. enema
■omitted, fince all of them as well as blifters have been
alleged to exafperate the difeafe.
This, in general, is the plan of treatment recom¬
mended by Dr Chalmers.
The fame dreadful diforders frequently attack young
children in the warm climates. Dr Hillary tells us,
that they will there arife from the fame caufes which
And if the fymptoms of the approaching tetanus
will permit, he gives fomething of the following na¬
ture to afiift the operation of the clyfter, and to carry
off the acrimony the fooner : R. Aq. Jem. fkniculi §iij.
Magnef. alb* gfs. Ocul. cancr. prap. 3j. Syr. e cichor. cum
rheo, Rofar. folut. ana 3i!j. Mifce. Or, R. Aq. fem. f*~
niculi 3 iij. Sapon. amygdal. 3fs. Magnef. alba 3fs. Syr.
ufually produce convulfions with children in Britain, e cichor. cum rheoy Mann* opt. ana 3ij. 01. amygd. dul.
^rt.1,^.. rrn/r:n - . 77..l.■ 7,     1 *   ^■  _j^■
?». from a retention of the meconium or firft excrement
after birth ; Or from a glutinous matter which is too
often found in the inteftines of young children foon
after the other is difeharged ; or from a cheefy mat¬
ter from the coagulation of the milk by an acid in the
ftomach; or from hard excrements; or from fomething
3iij. Mifce : Exhibe cochl. parv. vel duo pro ratione atatis
omm femibora, vel omni bora, donee refpond. alvus.
Two or three ftools being obtained by thefe, the
following is exhibited in order to abate the convulfive
twitchings, and prevent the tetanus from coming on :
R. Aq. fem. faniculi Jiij. Magnef. alb* 3fs. Ocul. cancr.
taken in by the mouth which is over acrid, or too hard . prap. 3j. Mofchi orient, gr. iij. Spir. C. C. gut. xv. Syr.
5 digeft, which irritates their tender bowels, and fo
produces ftartings and convulfive fpafms, with all the
other fymptoms which precede and accompany convul¬
fions in young children in Britain. And this (hows how
much more readily and eafily the nerves are affe&ed
and irritated in that warm climate, and the tetanus
produced from a much lefs caufe there, than it is in
Britain, where it is but feldom feen. But thefe caufes
not being timely removed, their acrimony is increafed,
partly by the heat of the climate, and partly by the
fever which they produce, which ftill renders them
more acrid, and fo increafes the irritation of their
bowels, that it firfl: brings on ftartings, then convul- redeunt.
mecon %k. Mifce: Exhibe cochl. parv. (a child’s fpoor
ful) ter quaterve de die, vel fapius, urgent, convulf. vel
fpafm.
But if the fymptoms (how that the tetanus is more
immediately coming on, fo that we have no time to
wait till the operation of the clyfter and opening
laxative be over, fomething of the following nature
muft be immediately given; or the tetanus will come on,
and moft probably prove fatal to fuch tender babes.
R. Aq. faniculi 3i»j. Mofchiorient.gr.). Tine/. Thebaic,
gut. iiij. Syr. e mecon. 3ij. Mifce pro duobus dof. de qui-
bus exhibe unam quam primum, et alteram ft convul. fpafm.
five fpafms, and regular convulfion fits; which, if not
foon removed, ufually Cud in a perfedl tetanus there,
and the difeafe is but feldom cured in fuch young chil¬
dren when it arrives at that (late: for when the child
lies in this miferable, rigid, immoveable condition, up¬
on moving its hands or feet in the moft gentle man¬
ner, or foftly touching any p?„rt of its body, or giving
it the lead: motion, even feeling its pulfe in the moft out any prejudice more than its dofing three or four
gentle tender manner, or the lead: noife, or even touch- L   ^ ~"r" ,-»r“
ing its clothes, will bring on the convulfive fpafms,
and caufe it to be ftrongly convulfed backwards, or
drawn into a rigid ftraight line, ftrongly extended and the opening laxative not long after it: though it may
This, Dr Hillary obferves, may be thought a bold
attempt, to give lincl. Thebaica to fuch a tender young
infant; but it is to be confidered that the little pa¬
tient will certainly die if the tetanus feize it, and that
it will come on if this do not prevent it; and he has
known a bold ignorant old midwife give four or five
drops of that tindlure to a very young infant with-
hours, though not in this cafe, but in one much lefs
violent.
The clyfter may be given at the fame time, and
immoveable like a ftafue, and will fo remain immove¬
able out of either of thofe poftures for a confiderable
time, a minute or two ; and when the difeafe is ar¬
rived at this degree, Dr Hillary thinks it is never
cured. But if the phyfician be called in time, before
Xhetitanus has come on (which is too feldom the cafe
N;> 207.
retard the operation of that for fome time, yet it
operates foon after, and gives relief; after which the
other medicines, and fomenting the body and anoint¬
ing it as before, may be ufed, if the phyfician finds it
neceflary; alfo a little of the laxative mixture may he
given once or twice a-day, if the above julep does not
anfwer
Bra&lce. M E D I
S[>afmi anfvver tliat intention of keeping the child’s body
v open for a few days afterwards, which in this cafe is
generally found, neceflary to be obferved.
Thefe methods and medicines may ,be varied accord¬
ing to circumftances. For neither the fame method nor
the fame medicines will anfwer in all cafes, though the
difeafe be the fame ; but they muft be changed as the
caufes differ, or the conftitution of the fick, or the
time of the difeafe, or as feme other circumflances
may require: which is a thing of great importance,
not only in this, but in the cure of moft other dif-
eafes; wherefore it is mentioned here, chiefly to cau¬
tion the pra&itioners in the Weft Indies.
When proper medicines are thus timely and ju-
dicioufly given ill this cafe, they feldom fail to carry
off the irritating caufe, quiet and eafe the nerves, re¬
move the convulfions and fpafms ; and confequently pre¬
vent the tetanus from coming on, and the death of the
patient. But if calling in the phyfician be deferred till
the tetanus has already ftrongly feized the child, as is
too often the cafe here, neither warm bathing, foment¬
ing, nor any other methods or medicines whatever,
will remove it or its caufes, nor fave the life of the little
tender patient.
Dr Chalmers gives an account of his having cured
one child feized with a tetanus, by purging with an
infufion of rhubarb; to which a few grains of mufk,
and a little ol. tartar, per deliq. were added, together
with the warm bath, and the frequent inje&ion of
glyfters made with an infufion of camomile flowers,
to each of which was added a fmall portion of Caftile
foap. It is much to be regretted, however, that in
thofe cafes where the affiftance of the medical art is
moft wanted, it moft generally fails. We have been
affured by a gentleman who pra&ifed for fome time
in the warm parts of America, that out of 30 cafes of
the tetanus he had feen, not one of the patients reco¬
vered, though he had given opium to the quantity of
20 grains thrice a-day ; and others, he was aflured, had
taken 30 grains thrice a-day. In the beginning of the
difeafe, the medicine produced a violent headach; but
towards the end, it had no manner of effeft whatever.
In two patieijts, the difeafe came on from the flighteft
caufes imaginable. The one accidentally fell in at¬
tempting to avoid a loaded cart, and put the heel of
his ihoe upon one o£. his thumbs in rifing; the other,
in avoiding the fame cart, {lightly ruffled the {kin of
his nofe. Both were feized with the tetanus; and
both died, notwithftanding all pofiible affiftance was
given. The former had his thumb amputated with¬
out effeft.
In the Edinburgh Phyfical and Literary Efiays,
Vol. III. Dr Donald Monro defcribes a new method
of cure, communicated to him by a gentleman who
was formerly a pra&itioner in Jamaica. While this
gentleman pra&ifed in that ifland, he had under his
care a great number of cafes of tetanus attended with
the locked-jaw. At firft, he ufed to give very freely
of opium, mulk, and other medicines of this clafs;
to bleed, and make other evacuations ; while he ufed
baths, fomentations, embrocations, and other external
applications, but all without the leaft fuccefs ; and, as
lie had loft a great many patients without being fo
lucky as to make one cure, he began to believe that
.Vol. XI. Part I.
CINE.
this difordcr always proved fat&l, and was not to be
cured by medicine, notwithftanding what fome prac¬
titioners had alleged. However, having received an
unexpefted hint concerning the good effefts of the
mercurial ointment in fuch cafes, he refolved to try
it; and ordered the firft patient that offered to be put
into a warm room, and to be rubbed two or three
times a-day with the ointment, till fuch time aaa fali-
vation was railed; when he with pleafure obferved,
that, as foon as the mercury began to affe& the mouth,
the convulfions of the mufcles of the jaws, as well as
all the other fpafms and convulfions, ceafed, and the
patient was freed of all his complaints. After this, he
treated every cafe of this kind which came under his
care in the fame manner, and cured twelve, which
were all who applied to him for advice fo early in the
diforder that there was time to bring the mercury to
the mouth before the fatal period was expefted. A
few died, in whom the difeafe was fo far advanced be¬
fore he faw them that there was not time to raife a fa-
livation. None of the cafes which were under this
gentleman’s care in the Weft Indies were the confe-
quences of wounds or capital operations ; nor has he
had any opportunity of trying it fince in cafes of the
locked jaw, which fometimes follows capital opera¬
tions, owing to his having given over practice : but he
think§, that,'from the fimilarity of the complaint,
there is no doubt that the mercurial fri&ions would
be equally efficacious in fuch cafes, as when the
diforder comes from catching cold ©r other fuch
caufes.
In the fecond volume of the Medical Tranfaftions,
we have an account of a cure performed by Dr Wil¬
liam Carter of Canterbury, by means very different
from any of thofe above related.—On the 17th of May
1767, the dodtor was called to a ftrong healthy man,
in the 21ft year of his age, and who had been con¬
fined to his bed for three weeks. What gave rife to
his prefent diforder was a wound on the inner ankle of
his .right leg, which he had received fix weeks before
from a joiner’s chifel. At that time his mouth was
fo far clofed, as to admit only the moft liquid nou-
riffiment, which he conftantly fucked through his
teeth : but his legs and jaw, and the whole length
of the fpina dorfi, were quite immoveable, being as
ftiff and rigid as thofe of a perfon long dead ; his
head was drawn backward; and he was frequently
ftrongly convulfed. The motion indeed of both his
arms was but a little impaired. From the beginning
to the end, his fight, hearing, and memory, conti¬
nued perfeft; his appetite was good ; and his fenfes,
in the day-time, entire, though fometimes wandering
in the night. As to his pulfe, that was regular; if
it deviated at all from the pulfe of a perfon in health,
it was rather flow than quick, and fomewhat fuller
than natural. Such was the fituation of his patient;
a detail of which had been given before the doftor fet
out on his journey, which he undertook with a deter¬
mined refolution to make ufe of the method recom¬
mended by Dr Silvefter, in the firft vol. of Medical
Obfervations and Inquiries, publiflied in the year 1757,
(and which has been related from Dr Chalmers and Dr
Hillary.) But, on his arrival at the houfe, he found
great quantities of the extraBum thebakum diffolved
K k had
258
Spafmi
CINE. Praaice.
his cure. Dr Cochrane, however, fays he has heard of TVan'is.
fome cafes being treated fuccefsfuily by cold water and '*~~>r***1
the Peruvian bark in St Euftatia and St Kitt's, and ia
another letter mentions his having ufed the cold bath
in other cafes of tetanus with fuccefs. But fxnce Dr
Cochrane's publication, a more full and fatisfa&ory ac¬
count of the benefit of this praftice has been commu¬
nicated in a paper publiihed by Dr Wright, in the iixth
volume of the London Medical Obfervations. Dr
Wright gives a particular account of fix cafes, in
which the beft effefts were obtained from daihing cold
water upon the patient; and he abferves, that fince he
firll ufed this method of cure he never failed in one in-
ftance to effeft a recovery, and that in a Ihorter time
than by any other method hitherto propofed. This
practice has on fome occafions been adopted by praSi.
tioners in Britain, although here the difeafe is a much,
lefs frequent occurrence. It has particularly been
employed with fuccefs by Dr Currie of Liverpool j
and we hope that ftill more extenfive praftice will con¬
firm the benefit to be derived from it, although not in
every inftance, yet in many cafes of this affection.
Very lately a different mode of cure in this affec¬
tion has been recommended by Dr Ruih, profeffor of
medicine in Philadelphia, in a paper intitled Obferva-
tions on the Caufe and Cure of Tetanus, published in
the fecond volume of the TranfaCtions of the Ameri¬
can Philofophical Society. Dr Ru(h, viewing tetanus
as being a difeafe occafioned by relaxation, thinks the
medicines indicated to cure it are fuch only as are cal¬
culated to remove this, relaxation, and to reftore tone
to the fyftem. On this ground he recommends the li¬
beral ufe of wine and the Peruvian bark and tells us,
that he has employed them with fuccefs in a&ual prac¬
tice. When the difeafe arifes from a wound of any
particular place, he recommends ilimulants to the part
afte&ed ; fuch as dilatation of the wound, and filling
it with oil of turpentine. How far this pra&ice will
be confirmed by more extenfive experience, we cannot
take upon us to determine. We may only obferve,
that a very contrary practice has been recommended as-
highly fuccefsful by fome practitioners in Spain, where
tetanic affedtions are a very frequent occurrence in>
confequence of flight accidents. There gentle emol¬
lients are ftrongly recommended, particularly hnmer-
fing the wounded part in tepid oil for the fpace of an
hour or fo at a time, and repeating this application at
fhort intervals. By this mode many cafes,, after very
alarming appearances had taken place, are faid to have
been completely and fpeedily removed. While the
praAice is very fimple, it appears at the fame time in
many refpeCts very rational, and may perhaps be con-
fidered as well deferving a trial in the firft inftance.
M E D I
had been already given him; and that, for the five
laft days, he had taken no lefs than 28 grains of that
medicine, with ,50 grains of mufk, in the fpace of 24
hours, without any fenfible effeCt, except the bring¬
ing on a confufed fleep, out of which he frequently
awoke in great hurries, attended with a violent pain
in the head, which almoft deprived him of his. fenfes.
The doCtor was afraid to extend the dofe ; and foon
determined to take fome other method, though at a
lofs what method to purfue, as, during a courfe of
almoft 30 years praCtice, nothing of the fame kind
had ever fallen under his cognizance before. Reflect¬
ing, however, that this difoider had always been deem¬
ed of the fpafmodic kind, and that the good effeCts
produced by the extradum thebakum muft probably be
owing to the relaxing and refolving faculty of that
medicine, he directed a bliiter to be applied between
the fhoulders, the whole length of the fpine ; the jaw
to be anointed with the oleum lateritium; and a purge,
confifting of the tinclura facray tinBura jalappi, and the
fyrupus de rhamno catharticoy to be given him. This
was repeated three feveral times afterwards, at the dif-
tance of three or four days between each dofe. On the
intermediate days, he was ordered the oleum fuccini,
the foetid gum, and the oleum amygdalinum. Of the
firft he took 30 drops, of the gum 20 grains, and of
the laft four ounces, in 24 hours. By thefe means,
and thefe only, the convulfions foon ceafed; and he
grew daily better and better, till at the end of a fort¬
night he was able to walk about his room, and in lefs
than three weeks became in all refpeCts well, fome fmall
weaknefs in the parts only excepted. The jaw was re¬
lieved firft, after that the fpine, and laft of all the legs.
A pain and oneafinefs in the places affeCked, neither of
which he had felt before,, were the forerunners of his
approaching amendment.
From all this it feems reafonable to conclude, either
that there is no certain remedy for tetanus in all cafes,
or that the medicines which prove effectual in one
conftitutioh will fail in another. Thus, it is poflible,
that in cafes where opium proves ineffectual, mercury
may be a remedy; and, on the contrary, where mercury
fails, opium may be effectual ; and even where both
are ineffectual, the antifpafrnodics recommended by Dr
Carter may be of ufe. It is therefore neceffary for
phyficians to be extremely careful to obferve the effects
of the firft dofes of their remedies ; for if the fymp-
toms ftiow not the leaft appearance of remiflion after a
large dofe of opium, it is improbable that it can be
cured by a repetition of the medicine ; and as no time
can be loft with fafefcy, it will then be proper to apply
mercurial ointment, or whatever elfe may be judged
proper.—Jn the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries we
have an account of the cold bath being ufed as a. re¬
medy, by Dr Thomas Cochrane, at that time phyfi-
cian at Nevis, now at Edinburgh. The patient
was an Eaft Indian boy, who had been gored by a cow,
and afterwards expofed to a rainy damp air for fome
hours. Dr Cochrane aferibes his cure to the cold bath,
which was applied by dafhing the water upon his body.
But as the patient at the fame time got laudanum, at
firft in the quantity of 200 drops a-day, and afterwards
in ftill larger dofes; and had befides his throat and
jjioulders anointed with warm oil of turpentine, was
bled, and had lenient glyfters and laxatives; it is by
so means eafy to fay what fhare the cold bath had m
Genus XLIX. TRISMUS. ^
The Locked Jaw.
Trifmus, Sauv. gen. 11.7. Lin. 124. Sag. gen. 223.
Cagiftrum, Vog. 208.
28 a
Sp. L Trismus nascentium.
Locked Jaw in children under two months old.
Trifnaus nafeentium, Sauv. fp. 1. Heifter Comp.
Med. PraCt, cap. xv. $ xo. Cleghorn on the Dif-
eafes of Minorca, Introd. p. 33. Hofer in ACL
Helvet. tom. i. p. 6?.
Pra&icc.
Spafmi This diftemper is fo clofely conueded with the te-
L1 * tanua, that it ought rather to he accounted a fymptom
of the tetanus than a primary difeafe. We have ac¬
cordingly difcuffed it under Tetanus.
*83 Sp. II. The Trismus from Wounds or Cold,
Trifmus traumaticus, Sauv. fp. 2. Lond. Med. Obf.
Vol. I. art. 1. 7. Vol. II. 34. Vol. III. 31.
Vol. IV. 7.
Angina fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 18. Z'wingeri A6I.
Helvet. Tom. III. p. 319.
Convulfio a nervi pundtura, Sami. fp. 2.
Trifmus catarrhalis, Sauv. fp. 15. Hillary's Barba-
does, 221. Lond. Med. Obf. Vol. IV. 7.
The internal remedies proper in all cafes of the
locked jaw, from whatever caufe it may proceed, have
been already mentioned under Tetanus r the external
treatment of wounded parts which may give occafion
to it belongs to the article Surgery. But of this al-
fo we have offered fome obfervations under the head
of Tetanus; and, indeed, trifmus may be confidered as
being merely an incipient tetanus, or rather a flight
degree of that difeafe.
*83 Genus L. CONVULSIO.
Convulsions.
Convulfio, swuil gen. 128. Lin. 142. Hog. 191.
Sag. gen. 235.
Convulfio univerfalis, Sauv. fp. II.
Hieranofos, Lin. 144. Hog. 190.
Convulfio habitualis, Sauv. fp. 12.
Convulfio intermittens, Sauv. fp. i<S.
Convulfio hemitotonos, Sauv. fp. I }.
Convulfio abdominis, Sa^v. fp. 10.
Convulfio ab inanitione, Sauv. fp. 1.
Convulfio ab onanifmo, Sauv. fp. 13.
Scelbtyrbe feftinans, Sauv, fp. 2.
Defcription. When convulfions attack only parti¬
cular parts of the body, they are generally attend¬
ed with fome kind of paralyfis at the fame time, by
which means the affected parts are alternately con-
, vulfed and relaxed ; a permanent convulfion, or un¬
natural contraftien of particular mufcles, is called a
fpafm or cramp. Thefe partial convulfions may attack
almoft any part of the body ; and are not unfrequent-
}y fymptomatic, in fevers, the cholera morbus, &c.
The involuntary ftartings of the tendons, the picking
of the bed-clothes, &c. in acute difeafes, &c. are all
of them convulfive diforders. Convulfions, even when
moft generally extended, differ from epilepfy in not
being attended with any mental affection or aboli¬
tion of fenfe, and not follovred by the fame torpid ftate.
Caufes. Convulfions, not only of particular parts,
but alfo over the whole body, often take place from
caufes not very evident Sometimes they feem to de¬
pend on a certain delicacy or irritability of the nervous
fyftem, which is framed with fuch exquiflte fenfibility
as to be flrongly affefted by the flighteft caufes. De¬
licate women are often fubjeft to hyfterical convulfions,
and alfo hypochondriac people. Convulfions, however,
often take their rife from wounds, irritations of the
ftomach and inteftines by worms, poifons, violent ca¬
thartics and emetics, &c..; and very often they are
25'9
fymptomatic, as in dentition, the fmall-pox, and many Convulfw.
kinds of fevers. e—-y—
Prognojis, Except in fome few cafes, convulfive dif¬
orders are always to be dreaded ; but lefs in young
people than in fuch as are advanced in life. Thofe
which attack girls under the age of puberty, will ge¬
nerally ceafe on the appearance of the menfes; and
boys have likewife a chance of being relieved as they
advance in life: but in grown up people, unlefs the
caufe be very evident, a cure is hardly to be expefted,
efpecially after the difeafe hasbeen of long continuance.
Cure. The treatment is very much the fame w’ith
that of epilepfy, afterwards to be confidered : but a
recovery is molt frequently obtained by the removal
of the exifting caufe.
Genus LI. CHOREA. 284
St Vitus’s Dance.
Scelotyrbe, Sauv. gen. 136. Sag. 243.
Chorea, Lin. 139.
Scelotyrbe chorea Viti, Sauv. fp. 1.
Chorea St Viti, Sydenh. Sched. Monit.
Defcription. This difeafe fhows itfelf firftby a kind
of lamenefs or inftability of one of the legs, which
the patients draw after them in a ridiculous manner-:
nor can they hold the arm of the fame fide ftill for a
moment ; for if they lay it on their bread, or any
other part of their body, it is immediately forced away
by a convulfive motion. If they be defirous of drink¬
ing, they ufe a number of odd gefticulations before
they can bring the cup to their mouths, becaufe their
arms are drawn this way and that by the convulfions
which alfedt them.,
Caufes, 8cc. The general caufe of St Vitus’s dance
is a debility ef the fyftem ; and hence we find it at¬
tacks only weakly boys, and more efpecially girls,
when under the age of puberty. But the particular
caufes determining the mufcles to be affe&td in fuch
and fuch a manner are entirely unknown.
Prognofs. As this diforder fcarce ever attacks any
perfonsbut fuch as are under the age of puberty, there
is almoft: a certain profpeft of its being then cured,
though generally the diforder is eafily removed before
that time.
Cure. See Epilep-sy.
Genus LTI. RAPHAN1A.
'Rapbania, Lin. 155. Prog. 143. Lin. Amoen. Acad.
Vol. VI.
Convulfio rapbania, Sauv. dp. 7.
Eclampfia typhodes, Sauv. fp. 1. Sennert de febr.
1. iv. cap. 16. Gregor. Horf. Oper. tom. II 1. viii.
obf. 22. Brunner in Ephem. Germ. D. iii. A. ii.
obf. 224. Willifch. ibid. cent. vii. obf. 13. Wepfer.
de Affeft. Capitis, obf. 120. Breflauer Summ-
lung 1717, Julio, Septembri, & Decembr. Ibid.
1723, Januar. A. N. C. Vol. VH. obf. 41.
Bruckmann. Com. Norimb. 1743, p. 50.
Defcription. According to Sauvages, this diftemper
begins with a latitude of the limbs, tranfient colds
and fhiverings, pain of the head, and anxieties of the
praecordia. Then come on fpafmodic ftartings of the
fingers and feet; alfd of the tendons and mufcles, con-
K k 2 fpicuous
MEDICINE.
260 M E D I
Spafmi fpicuous below the He in. The difeafe is attended with
heat, fever, delirium, ftupor, conftri&ion of the breaft,
fuifocating dyfpnoea, lofs of voice, horrid convulfions
of the limbs, preceded by a formication, or fenfation
as of ants or other fmall infedfs creeping on the parts.
In this ftate of the difeafe, the convulfive paroxyfms
are attended with moil violent pains in the limbs, vo¬
miting, or diarrhoea, with the paffing of worms, thiril,
and in young people an unnatural hunger. It conti¬
nues from ten days to three months. About the
eleventh or twentieth day, fome are relieved bjr
copious fweats, or purple exanthemata : while others
fall into a tabes, with ftupor, or ftiffnefs of the joints.
Caufes, &c. This difeafe is frequently epidemic in?
Suabia and other parts of Germany; where it is faid to-
be produced by feeds of radifhes, which are often mix¬
ed with rye in. that country ; and from this fuppofed
caufe the difeafe takes its name. It is alfo, however,
a very common opinion, that this difeafe depends on
the rye ufed in diet being of a bad quality, and par¬
ticularly containing a large proportion of what is call¬
ed /purred rye.
Cure. In this affe&ibn, allb, the cure, as far as it
has yet been difeovered, is very much the fame with
that of epifcpfy, the difeafe next to be confidered.
386 Genus LIU. EPILEPSIA.
Falling-sickness.
Epilepfia, £auv. gen. 134. Lin. 143. Vog. 188.
Sag. gen. 2.4. Boerb. 1071. Hoffm. III. 9. JuncL
54-
Eclampfia, Sauv. gen. 133. 180. Sag. gen. 240.
287 Sp. I. The Cerebralis, or Epilepjy depending on an
affe&ion of the Brain.
Epilepfia plethorica, Sauv. Ip. 1.
Eclampfia plethorica, Sauv. fp. 7.
Epileplia cachedlica, Sauv. fp. 2. ?
288 Sp. I. The Sympathica, or Sympathetic Epilepfy,
with a fenfation of fomething rifing from a certain
part of the body towards the Head.
Epilepfia fympathica, Sauv. fp. 8.
Epilepfia pedifymptomatica,. Sauv. fp. 6.
189 Sp. II. The Occasionalis, or Epilepfy a rifing from
various irritating Caufes.
Epilepfia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 13.
Eclampfia traumatica, Sauv. fp. 9,
Epilepfia a dolore, Sauv. fp. 1 o.
Epilepfia rachialgica, Sauv. fp. 14.
Eclampfia a doloribus, Sauv. fp. 4.
a. Rachialgica.
b. Ab otalgia.
c. A dentitione.
Eclampfia parturientium, Sauv. fp. j.
Eclampfia verminofa, Sauv. fp. 2.
Eclampfia ab atropa, Sauv. fp. 11.
Eclampfia ab osmanthe, Sauv. fp. 12.
Eclampfia a cicuta,. Sauv. fp. 13.
Eclampfia a coriaria, Sauv. fp. 14.
Epilepfia exanthematica, Sauv. fp. n,
Epilepfia cache&ica, Sauv. fp. a.
Epilepfia ftomachica,, Sauv. fp. 3.
CINE. Practice,
Eclampfia a faburra, Sauv. fp. 5. Epilepfia.
Epilepfia a pathemate, Sauv. fp. 7. ' «r—■(
Eolampfia ab inanitione, Sauv. fp. 8.
Epilepfia neophytorum, Sauv. fp.. 15.
Defcription. The epilepfy often attacks fuddenly
and without giving any warningbut more frequently
is preceded by a pain in. the head, iafikude, fome di-
fturbance of the fenfes, unquiet deep, unufual ftre’ad,
dimnefs of fight, a noife in. the ears, palpitation of the
heart, coldnefs of the joints, and in fome there is 3
fenfation of formication, or a cold-air, &c. afeendiag
from the lower extremities towards the head. In the
fit, the perfons fall fuddenly to the ground (whence the
name of the faUing/ickne/s), frequently with a violent
cry. The thumbs are fhut up clofe in the palms of the
hands, and are with difficulty taken out; the eyes are
diftorted, fo that nothing but the whites are to be
feen ; all fenfation is fufpended, infomuch, that by no
fmell, noife, or otherwife, nor even by pinching the
body, can they be brought to themfelves; they froth
at the mouth, with a biffing kind of noife ; the tongue-
is frequently lacerated by the teeth, and there is a vio¬
lent convulfive motion of the arms and legs. Some-,
times, however, the limbs, inftead of being agitated by
convulfive motions, are all ftiff, and the patients are
as immoveable as a ftatue. In children the penis i»
erefted ; and in. young men there is. an emiffion of the
femen, and the urine is often thrown out to a confi-
derable diftance. At length there is a remiffion of
the fymptoms, and the patients recover, after a longer
or ffiorter interval; when they complain of a pain, tor¬
por, or heavinefij of the head, with a laffitude of all
the joints.
Caufes, See. The difle&ion of epileptic fubjecls has
Ihown a variety of morbid appearances, which may be
fuppofed to have contributed to the difeafe ; fuch as,,
indurations in the brain or meninges ; caries of the in¬
ternal furface of the cranium ; projections of the honey
fubftance- of the lame, preffing upon the brain ; collec¬
tions of ferum or purulent matter, and earthy concre¬
tions within the Ikull; befides many others which are
recorded by Bonetus, Morgagni, and Lieutaud. But
often the caufes are impoffible to be diftovered ; for
even in thofe who have died of the difeafe, the brain,
and all other parts of the nervous fyftem have been ap¬
parently found. The difeafe will attack, ft’rpng as well
as weak people ; and ia thofe who are fubjed to it,
any confiderable excels in drinking, a forfeit, violent
paffion, or venery, &c. will certainly bring on a fit..
Some have epileptic paroxyfms returning periodically
after confiderable intervals ; and the difeafe has been
thought to have fome dependence on the phafes of the
moon.
Prognojis. If the epilepfy comes on before the time
of puberty, there are fome hopes of its going off at:
that time. But it is a bad fign when it attacks about,
the 2 ill year, and ftill worfe if the fits grow more fre¬
quent ; for then the aniraal-fundions are often deftroy-
ed, as well as thofe of the mind, and the patient be¬
comes-ftupid and foolilh. Sometimes it will terminate
in melancholy or madnefs, and fometimes in a mortal
apoplexy or palfy. It has fometimes, however, been
obferved, that epilepfies have been removed by the ap¬
pearance of cutaneous difeafes, as the itch, 'fn^dl pox*
mealksj.
Pra<£tice. M E D I
Spafmi mealies, See. While the difeafe is recent, therefore,
we are not to defpair of a cure ; but if it be of long
Handing, or hereditary, there is very little reafon to
expedf that it can be removed.
Cure. From the fymptoms occurring in epilepfy,
which conliHr of involuntary convulfive motions, and
an afteftion of the mental powers, there is reafon to
conclude, that the fit immediately depends on the in-
duftion of fome peculiar a<9;ion of the brain ; but that
convulfions may enfue from this caufe, it would feem
neceflary that there fhould alfo occur a peculiar dif-
pofition to aftion in the moving fibres. Dn this
ground then, we may fuppofe the cure to be chiefly
expedled on one of two principles; either by our be¬
ing able to prevent the peculiar a&ion of the brain,
or to remove the difpofition to aftion in the moving
fibres. The firft ii chiefly to be accomplilhed by the
removal of irritating caufes, by preventing their influ¬
ence from being propagated to the brain, when they
■ are applied to remote parts; or by counteradting
their influence, from inducing in the brain a Hate of
adtion different from that to which they give rife.
The fecond end is chiefly to be obtained by diminifh-
ing the mobility of the-nervous energy, and by
ftrengthening the tone of the moving fibres. It muft,
however, be allowed, that in all convulfive diforders,
excepting thofe which are cured by nature about the
time of puberty, the cure by artificial means is very
difficult. Numbqrlefs fpecifics have been recommend¬
ed, but all of them have failed of anfwei-ffig the ex¬
pectation. When the caufe can be difeovered, that
muff be removed. In other cafes, the cold bath, va¬
lerian root, caftor, mufk, opium, the festid gums, Pe¬
ruvian bark, with the whole tribe of nervous and an-
tifpafmodic medicines, have been recommended : but
none of thefe, or indeed any combination ol" them,
have been found generally ufeful; though the flight¬
ier, or fymptomatic cafes, may often be removed by
them.
Of late the ca/x,. improperly called the Jlouvers, of
zinc, have obtained fuch reputation in convulfive dif¬
orders as to be received into the Edinburgh Pharma-
cOpceia under the title of zincum ujlum. They were
propofed by Dr Gaubius as an antifpafmodic, in- bis
Adverfarla; and their efficacy has fince been confirmed
by various obfervations. In an inaugural differtation
publiflied by Dr Hart at Leyden, the medical virtues
of the flowers of zinc are confidered. He obferves,.
that they have long been ufed externally, chiefly for in¬
flammations of the eyes from acrid lymph. Glauber
firft propofed the internal ufe of them ; and Gaubrus
difeovered them to be the remedy of a celebrated
empiric Luddemannus, which he ftyled his hina Jixata.
After this he exhibited them with fuccefs in convul¬
five and fpafmodic difeafes. Dr Hart fuppofes, that
they adt either as abforbents, or as pofleffing a fpeei-
fic virtue : but is a ftrong advocate for their efficacy,
on whatever principles they may operate ; and, in fa¬
vour of his opinion, relates feven cafes in which they
proved fuccefsful. A girl of 17 years of age, was
feized with a flight chorea from a fright; and when
the difeafe had continued fix days, flie began to
take the flowers of zinc, by which her diforder
was removed in lefs than three weeks. Her cure
required only 16 grains of the calx, Inafew mon th
C I N E. ^ 261
the complaints returned, from the fame caufe; and were Epllepfia.
removed by four grains of the medicine divided into 
ten dofes.—A boy of about four years old, labouring
under a real epilepfy, fufpedfed to be hereditary, was
cured by a grain of the flowers of zinc taken every
day for fome time.—A man 50 years old, thrown into
convulfions from a violent paffion, was cured by a grain
of the calx taken every two hours. ' The difeafe had
gone off upon venefeclion and the ufe of fbme other re¬
medies ; but returned again in two weeks, when it was
finally removed by the zinc. The two laft cafes are •
related from Dr Gaubius,who affirms that he has ufed ■
the flowers of zinc in cafes of the chincough, hyfteric •
hiccough, and fpafmus cynicus; that they frequently
did more than .other medicines, but were by no means
fuccefsful in every cafe. The other cures mentioned
by Dr Hart are fimilar to thofe above-mentioned. Butf
it does not appear that he ever faw a confirmed epi¬
lepfy cured by this medicine.
In the firft volume of Edinburgh Medical Commen¬
taries, we have an account by Mr Benjamin Bell,
of a man afflitfted with a confirmed epilepfy, who
was confiderably relieved by the flowers of zinc.
He was about 35 years of age, and had been fub-
jetft to the difeafe. for 10 years. At firft the pa-
roxyfms did’notreturn oftener than once ainonth; but
becoming gradually more frequent; they came at lalt
to be in a manner continual, infomuch that he would •
have ten, eleven, or twelve attacks in a day, and very
feldom had an interval of 24hours. His memory and'
judgment were fo much impaired, that he could fcarce
anfwer a queftion diftinftly. He had ufed a great
variety of medicines without any benefit. About
three years before applying to Mr Bell, he had
violent rheumatic pains in his limbs, which left fuch
an extreme debility that he was never afterwards
able to get out of bed without the affiftance of two
or three people.
On the 22d ofO&ober 1772, Mr BeiFfound him in
the above mentioned condition, and preferibed as fol¬
lows t
R. Flor. Zinc. - gr. xxiv.
Ext. Gent. ji. M. f. maff. et divid. in-pill. xxiv. cap. 1,,
m. & v.
He continued to take two pills a-day till the firft of'
November; without any fenfible benefit. The dofe was
then doubled, and continued till the 12th; when the
fits, though equally, violent, became lefs frequent. The
medicine was gradually augmented to ten pills thrice a-
day ; and the confequence was, that his memory and’
underftanding returned, the Sts became much flighter
and lefs frequently repeated, though the difeafe could'
not be radically fubdued.
In a young man labouring under the epilepfy, in«
whom the fits were preceded by an aura epikptka, or-
fenfation like air arifing from the infide of the knee-
joint, the difeafe was alfo relieved, but not cured.
Dr Percival relates fome cafes of epilepfy which'
feem to have been cured by the flowers of zinc ; and;
in other cafes, where the difeafe was not entirely remo¬
ved by it, the fpafms were neverthelefs much mitigated,-
He did not obferve that it promoted any evacuation
excepting that in fome, upon being firft taken, it occa-
fioned a little ficknefs, which went off with a ftooL,
He adds, tliat thofe apothecaries who do not prepar--.
h- M E D I
pafmi this meSIcinc themfelves, are in great danger of being
"'Y'”—' jmpofed upon, as it is fometimes a mere corrofion of
the zinc by an acid, and even imperfectly vvaflied.
The good effedlis of calcined zinc as an antifpaftno-
dic are alfo attefted by Dr Haygarth of Chefter and
Dr White of York. The former gives a teft of their
goodnefs which may be of nfe to thofe who do not
prepare them, namely, that the true flowers of zinc,
when ftrongly heated, become yellow, but reaffume
their white colour on being allowed to cool. The lat¬
ter gives a cafe of hieranofos, or ftrange convulfions of
almoft all the mutcles of the body, cured by zinc, af¬
ter a number of other remedies had failed. The pa¬
tient, however, had been formerly much relieved by
Ward’s antimonial pill.
In Dr Home’s clinical experiments and hiftories,
.alfb, calcined zinc is mentioned as having been
found ferviceable upon trial in the Royal Infirmary of
Edinburgh. Of the other principal remedies which
have been recommended for the epilepfy and other
convulfive diforders allied to it, we have the following
account by the fame author.
x. The cold-bath was tried in one who bad a convul-
iive diforder of one fide, but the fymptoms were ren¬
dered much worfe by it.
2. VtnefeSion. Not to be depended on in convulfions.
3. Elettricily. In two convulfive cafes was of no
fervice.
4. Epifpajlics. Do not feem to be powerful anti-
fpafmodics.
5. Valerian. In nine convulfive cafes, for which
this remedy hath been reckoned almoft a fpecific, it
not only made no cure, but could fcarcely be reckoned
to do any good. Dr Home fuppofes that it afts as
a bitter tonic, fomething like the ferpentaria Virgini-
ana. Though much ufed at prefect, he tells us it has
always appeared to him a weak, often a hurtful, me¬
dicine.
6. M’ujk. Six convutfive patients treated with large
dofes of this remedy, were neither cured nor in the leaft
relieved.
7. Cajlor feems to be unworthy of the confidence
formerly put in it. It is indeed poffefled of a fedative
"power, and therefore may be ufeful in fpafmodic fe-
verilh cafes.
8. Slfaftttida has confiderable antifpafmodic powers,
but is not always fuccefsful. It heats and quickens
the pulfe ; and is therefore improper in cafes attended
with inflammation. It difagrees with fome from a pe¬
culiarity of conftitution ; exciting pain in the ftomach,
and vsmiiting j but this can be known only after the
exhibition of the medicine.
9. Cortex Peruvianas. Of feven fpafmodic cafes,
fix were either cured or mitigated. An epilepfy of
eight years Handing was very much relieved by taking
the bark for a month, and one of two years ftanding
by taking it for ten days. But the medicine is of a
heating nature, and therefore is not to be employed
in cafes attended with inflammatory fymptoms.
1 o. Peony root was given to two epileptic patients
without the leaft fuccefs-.
11. Vifcus quercinus, or mifletoe, was given in the
.quantity of two fcruples five times a-day to an epilep¬
tic patient, without fuccefs.
12. Extraclum hyofeiami was given to an epileptic
juitient, to one afflifted with the hemitotonos, and to
CINE. Pradtiec.
one who laboured under the hyfteric affedlon, without Epi ejsfia.
the leaft good effeft. y-—
13. Folia aurantiarum were exhibited with the like
bad fuccefs. Five drachms of the powdered leaves
were taken at once without any feniible effect.
14. Cardamine pratenfis, in three epileptic cafes, was
not attended with any fuccefs.
15. Opium did no good.
16. Cuprum ammouiucale made no cure in four cafe*
of epilepfy in which it was tried.
That in many cafes all thefe remedies have been em¬
ployed without fuccefs, is not to be denied: and in¬
deed it may with confidence be afferted, that a great
majority of cafes of epilepfy are incurable by any re¬
medy that has yet been difeovered. At the fame time,
as there is incontrovertible evidence that fome of them
have fucceeded at leaft in certain cafes, the more pow¬
erful may always be confidered as deferving a fair trial.
The cuprum ammoniacum, in particular, fee'ms well
intitled to the attention of practitioners; for though
it be a medicine of great activity, yet under prudent
adminiftration it may be employed even with very
young fubjefts without any hazard ; and in feveral in¬
veterate cafes, which had obftinately reiifted other me¬
dicines, it has brought about a complete recovery.
Genus L1V. P A L P I T A T I O. 290
Palpitation of the Heart.
Palpitatio, Sauv.gtn 130. Lin. \$2. Vog.2il.
Sag. 237. Hotfm. III. 83. Junck. 33.
The palpitation of the heart is fometimes fo vio¬
lent, that it may he heard at a confiderable diftance.
It may proceed from a bad conformation of the heart
itfelf, or fome of the large veflels. It may alfo be
occafioned by wounds or abfeefles in the heart; or it
may proceed-from polypous concretions or offifications
of that vifcus, or from plethora, fear, or fpafmodiq
affe&ions of the nervous fyftem. When it proceeds
from difeafes of the heart or large vefiels, it is abfo-
lutely incurable. In fpafmodic cafes, the remedies
above related may be ufed. If the patient be pletho¬
ric, bleeding will probably remove the diforder, at leaft
for the prefent.
Genus LV. ASTHMA. 291
Afthma, Sauv. gen, 145. Lin. 161. Vog. 268.
Sag. gen. 282.
Afthma convulfivum, et fpafmodico-flatulentum,
Hoffm. III. 94.
Afthma fpafticum, Junck. tab. 51.
Sp. I. Spontaneous Asthma.
Afthma humidum, Sauv fp. 1. Flatulentum, Flayer
on the Afthma, chap. i.
Afthma convulfivum, Sauv. fp. 2. Willis Pharm.
rat. P. II. fe&. i. cap. 12.
Afthma hyftericum, Sauv. fp. 3. Flayer on the
Afthma, chap. i.
Afthma ftomachicum, Sauv. fp 8. Floyery Scheme
of the fpecies of Afthma. Periodic Afthma 6.
Orthopnosa fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 3.
Orthopnoea hyfterica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Sp. II. The Exanthematic Asthma.
Afthma exantheraaticum, Sauv- fp. 11.
Afthma cache fticum, Sauv. fp. 13.
The
Practice. M E D I
Spafroi Sp. III. The Plethoric Asthma.
Afthma plethoricum, Sauv. fp. 15.
The afthma is a chronic difeafe, which may conti¬
nue to give very great diftrefs, at intervals, for a confi-
derable number of years. Sir John Floyer, when he
wrote his celebrated treatife, had laboured under re¬
peated paroxyfms for 30 years.
The common diftinftion is into humid and dry ; the
former is accompanied with an expe&oration of mucus
or purulent matter, but the latter is not. In the ge¬
nuine humoral afthma, the patients are obliged to lean
forward ; the infpiration is fhort and fpafmodic ; and
the expiration very flow.
Afthmatic perfons have generally fome warning of
the attack, from a languor, lofs of appetite, oppref-
fion, and fwellin.g of the ftomach from flatulence,
which precede the fit; but it is ufually in the middle
of the night that the violent difficuity of breathing
comes on.
The duration of theparoxyfm is uncertain, as it will
fometimes terminate in three or four hours, while at
other times it fhall continue for as many days ; nay,
it has been known to laft three weeks without inter-
miffion. While it fubfifts, the patient is in very great
diftrefs, not being able to lie in bed, nor fearcely to
fpeak or expeftorate, fo great is the difficulty of
breathing ; and yet, notwithftanding. all this apparent
interruption to the free paflage of the blood through
the lungs, an inflammation here feldom or never fu-
pervenes a fit of the afthma. As the paroxyfm wears
off, and the breathing becomes free, there is more or
lefs of an expeftoration of mucus; and the urine,
from being pale and limpid, becomes high-coloured,
and lets fall a copious fediment.
In order to obtain relief in the fit, we muft fome¬
times bleed, unlefs extreme weaknefs or old age fliould
forbid, and repeat it accprding to the degrees of
ftrength and fulnefs : a purging clyfter, with a folu-
tion of afafoetida, muft be immediately injefted ; and
if the violence of the fymptoms fliould not fpeedily
abate, it will be proper to apply a bliftering plafter to
the neck or breaft.
In the height of the paroxyfm, an emetic might be
• followed by dangerous fymptoras, as it would increafe
the accumulation of blood in the vefiels of the head ;
but vomiting will often prevent a fit of the afthma,
efpecially if the ftomach ftiould chance to be loaded
with any fort of faburra. A veryvftrong infufion of
noafted coffee has been found to give eafe in an afthma¬
tic paroxyfm.
Sir John Pringle fays it is the beft abater of; the pa-
roxyfms of the periodic afthma that he has feen. The
coffee ought to be of the belt Mocco, newly burnt, and
made very ftrong immediately after grinding it. He
commonly, ordered an ounce for one dilh ; which is to
be repeated frelh after the interval of a quarter or half
an hour y and which is to be taken without milk or
fugar. The medicine in general is mentioned by Muf-
grave in his treatife de Arthritide anomala ; but he firft
heard of it from a phyfician in Litchfield, who had
been informed by the old people of that place, that Sir
John Floyer, daring the latter part of his life, kept free
from, or at leaft lived eafy under, his afthma, from the
ufe of v^y ftrong coffee. This difcovery, it feems, he
C I N E, 2
made after the publication of his book upon that dif- Afthma.
eafe. Dr Percival fays he has frequently directed cof-
fee in the afthma with great fuccefs.
In the intervals of the fits, perfons fuhjeft to the afth¬
ma, efpecially the humid fpecies, Ihould take eme¬
tics from time to time. An infufion of tobacco is an
emetic that has been faid to be very ferviceable in fome
afthmatic cafes ; but its operation is both fo diftreffing
and fo dangerous, that it will never probably be intro¬
duced into common ufe as an emetic ; and fmokingor
chewing the fame has been known to prevent the fre¬
quency and feverity of the paroxyfms. Afthmatic
patients may alfo ufe the lac ammortiaci} with a
due .proportion of oxymel fcilliticum and t<inum an-
timoniale, with a view to promote expeftoration }
or the gum ammoniac, and others of fimilar vir¬
tues, may be formed into pills, and combined with
foap, as mentioned for the dyfpnoea pituitofa ; or
a mafs may be compofed of afafoetida and balfam
of Tolu, with fyrup of garlic; and thefe pills may be
waftied down by a medicated wine, impregnated with
fquills, horfe-radifh root, and muftard-feed ; or a ftrong
bitter infufion, with a little antimonial wine.
In fome cafes crude mercury will be found fervice¬
able ; in others flowers of fulphur, made into an elec¬
tuary with honey or fyrup of garlic ; and if, notwith¬
ftanding the ufe of thefe things, a coftive habit fhould
prevail, it will be neceffary, from time to time, to give
a few grains of pills of aloes and myrrh, foap and
aloes, or a. mafs of equal parts of rhubarb, fcamraony,
and foap.
The dry or fpafmodic ajlhma,. during the extreme
violence of the fit, is belt relieved by opiates; and
fometimes very large dofes are required. But in order
to obtain permanent relief, nothing is found to anfwer
better than ipecacuanha in fmall dofes. Three, five,
eight, or ten grains, according to the ftrength and
conftitution of the patient, given every other day,
have been produ&ive of the happieft effefts ; afting
fometimes as an evacuant, pumping up the vifcid
phlegm; at others, as an antifpafinodic. or fedative.
Iffues are generally recommended'in both fpecies, and
will often be found ufeful.
Changes of weather are ufually felt very fenfibly by
afthmatic people, who in general cannot live with to¬
lerable eafe in the atmofphere of large cities; though
we fhall fometimes meet with patients who agree bet¬
ter with this air, which is fo replete with grofs efflu¬
via of various kinds, than with the pureft that can be
found in country fituations. And fome are found who
breathe with the moft-eafe in a crowded room, with a
lire and candles.
A light’diet of meats that are eafy of digeftion, and.
not flatulent, is requifite for afthmatic people; and the
exercife of riding is indifpenfably neceffary.
When the afthma is found to depend.on fome other'
difeafe, whether it be the. gout or aiv intermittent fe¬
ver, or when it proceeds from the ftriking in of fome
cutaneous eruption, regard muft always be. had to the
primary difeafe : thus, in the ajlhma arthriticum, fina-
pifms to the feet, or bliftering, will be abfokitely ne-
ceffary, in order, if poffible, to bring on a fit of the
gout. And when; the dregs of an ague give rife to an
afthma, which is termed febrkulofum, and invades at'
regular intervals, we mull have recourfe to the Peru-
visa.
292
st)4 M E D I
Spafrui tjan bark. The ajlhma exanthemaikum will require
^' blifters or iffues, to give vent to the acrid matters
which were repelled from the furface of the body ;
and courfes of fulphureous waters, goat’s whey, and
fweetening diet-drinks,or perhaps mercurial alteratives,
in order to correft the lharpnefs of the juices.
Genus LVI. DYSPNOEA.
Habitual Difficulty of Breathing.
Dyfpnosa, Saav. gen. 144. Lin. 160. Fog. 267.
Sog. lgl. Junck. 32.
293 Sp. I. The Catarrhal Dyspnoea.
Afthma catarrhale, Sauv. fp. 16.
Afthma pneumonicum, Willis Pharm. rat. P. II.
feft. i. cap. ^ 2.
Afthma pituitofum, Hojfm. III. fedt. ii. cap. 2. § 3.
Afthma pneumodes, Sauv. fp. 17.
C I N E. Practice.
matters being coughed up by people labouring under Afthma.
a dyfpnoea, and threatened with confumption. In ' 
three cafes .of this kind which fell under Dr Cullen’s
infpe&ion, there was no appearance of earthy or ftony
concretions in any other part of the body. The cal¬
careous matter was coughed up frequently with a little
blood, fometimes with mucus only, and fometimes
with pus. In one of thefe cafes, an exquifite phthi-
fis came on, and proved mortal: in the other two
the fymptoms of phthifis were never fully formed; and
after fome time, merely by a milk-diet and avoiding
irritation, the patients entirely recovered.
Sauvages alfo greatly recommends milk in thefe
cafes, and foap for diffolving the concretions. The
reafon why brutes are more fubjedl to thefe pulmo¬
nary calculi than mankind, is, that they very feldom
cough, and thus the ftagnating mucus or lymph con¬
cretes into a kind of gypfeous matter.
This is readily known by the fymptoms of pneumo-
tiia and catarrh attending it, and to the removal of
thefe fymptoms the care of the phyfician muft be prin¬
cipally directed.
Sp. 11. The Dry Dyspnoea.
Dyfpnoea a tuberculis, a hydatibus, &e. Sauv. fp. 2.
4.5.20.
Orthopnoea a lipomate, Sauv. fp. 18.
This is generally accompanied with a phthifts pul-
monalis ; but Sauvages mentions one fpecies of phthi¬
fis to which the dry dyfpncea feems more particularly
to belong. The patients fall away by degrees, and
have a great difficulty of breathing, continual thirft,
and little or no fpitting. When opened after death,
their lung's are found not to be ulcerated, but ftrrivel-
led and contrafted as if they had been fmoke-dried.
Goldfmiths and chemifts are faid to be fubjedt to this
difeafe by reafon of the vapours they draw in with
their breath. Sauvages doth not mention any par¬
ticular remedy. Shortnefs of breath ariiing from tu¬
bercles, as they are termed, or a fcirrhous enlargement
of the lymphatic glands which are difperfed through
the lungs, is commonly found in fcrofulous habits,
and may be diftinguilhcd by the concomitancy of thofe
external fwellings and appearances which particularly
mark the fcrofula. This fpecies of dyfpnoea generally
ends in a phthifis. Cdurfes of goat’s whey, and of
fea-water, have been known to do fervice; but it muft
be confefled, that a perfeft cure is feldom obtained.
Iffues are of ufe in thefe cafes, as they appear to pre¬
vent the ill effedts of an over-fuluefs, if it ftiould hap¬
pen at any time to fupervene.
"Sp. III. Dyspnoea from Changes in \\izJVea~
then. (Sauv. fp. 12.)
This feems to be a difeafe entirely fpafmodic, and
the antifpafmodics already related are accordingly in¬
dicated.
Sp. IV. The Dyspnoea from Earthy Suljlances
formed in the Lungs.
Sauvages mentions this difeafe as much more com¬
mon jn brutes than in the human race: but Dr Cullen
mentions his having feen fome inftances of it; and we
have feveral accounts by different authors of calculous
N° 207. 5
Sp. V. The Watery Dyspnoea. 297
Dyfpnoea pitukofa, Sauv. fp. 1.
Orthopnoea ab hydropneumonia, Sauv. fp. 12.
This may arife from too great a defluxion of mucus
on the lungs, or from an effufion of ferum, as is men¬
tioned under the pneumonia. The treatment of the
difeafe may be gathered from what has been already
faid under the heads of pneumonia, catarrh, empye¬
ma, &c.
Sp. VI. The Dyspnoea from Corpulency. 298
Othopnosa a pinguedine, Sauv. fp. 6.
There have been many inftances of fuffocation and
death occafioned by too great corpulency. Thefe fa¬
tal effefts, however, may be almoft always avoided if
the perfohs have refolution to perfift in an adfive and
Very temperate courfe of life ; avoiding animal-food,
much deep, and ufing a great deal of exercife. In the
third volume.of the Medical obfervations, however,
there is an extraordinary inftance of internal obefity
which neither ftiowed itfelf externally, nor could be
removed by any medicines.
Other fpecies of dyfpncea have been confidered un¬
der Phthisis. It is frequently fymptomatic of dif-
eafes of the heart and large veffels, or fwellings of the
abdomen, &c.
Genus LVII. PERTUSSIS. 299
ChinCouc5h.
Pertuffis Sydenham, Ed. Leid. p. 200. 311. 312.
de acre, ad. ann. 1732.
Tuffis convulfiva, five fefina, Hqfffn. III. in,
Tuffis ferina, Sauv. fp. 10. Sag. fp. 10.
Tuffis convulfiva, Sauv. fp, it. Sag. fp. II.
Amphimerina tufficulofa, Sauv. fp. 13.
Defcription. This difeafe comes on at firft like a com¬
mon cold; but is from the beginning attended with a
greater degree of dyfpncea than is common in catarrh;
and there is a remarkable affeftion of the eyes, as if
they were fwelled, and a little.puflied out of their
fockets. By degrees the fits of coughing become
longer and more violent, till at laft they are plainly
convulfive, fp that for a confiderable time the patient
cannot refpire, and when at laft he recovers his breath,
infpiration is performed with a flirill kind of aeife like
Practice. M E D I
Spafmi the crowing of a cock. This kind of infpiration
ferves only as an introdu&ion to another convulfive fit
of coughing, which is in like manner followed by an¬
other infpiration of the fame kind ; and thus it conti¬
nues for fome time, very often till the patient vomit,
which puts an end to the paroxyfm at that time.
Thefe paroxyfms are attended with a violent determi¬
nation of the blood towards the head, fo that the vef-
fels become extremely turgid, and blood not unfre-
quently flows from the mouth and nofe. The difeafe
is tedious, and often continues for many months. It
is not commonly attended with fever.
Caufes, &c. The chincough is an infeftious difor-
der, and very often epidemic: but the nature of the
contagion is not underftood ; at leaft it is no farther
underftood than that of fmall-pox, meafles, or fimi-
lar epidemics. We well know that it is from a pecu¬
liar and fpecific contagion alone that this difeafe, as
well as the others above-mentioned, can arife. But
with regard to the nature of any of them, we are
totally in the dark. It generally attacks children, or
adults of £ lax habit, making its attack frequently in
the fpring or autumn ; at the fame time, when this
contagion is introduced into any town, village, or
neighbourhood, it will rage epidemically at any fea-
fon. Thofe alone are affedted with this difeafe who
have never before been fubjeftcd to it. For in this
aife&ion, as well as in fmall-pox, having had the dif¬
eafe once, gives defence againft future contagion. E-
very individual, however, does not feem to be equally
ri>iily affedled with this contagion ; like other con¬
tagious difeafes occurring only once in a lifetime, it
may naturally be expected to be more frequent among
children than at any other period of life. But many,
though frequently expofed to contagion, are yet not
affe&ed with the difeafe : and thofe children who live
upon unwholefome watery food, or breathe unwhole-
fome air, are moft liable to its attacks, and fuffer
moft from them. In general it has been conclu¬
ded, that whatever weakens the folids, or tends to
bring on a diflblution of the fluids, predifpofes to this
difeafe.
Prognofis* The chincough is not very often fatal.
During one epidemic, however, it is often obferved
to be much more dangerous and more fevere than du¬
ring another. This is alfo remarked with regard even
to particular periods of the fame epidemic ; and it is
alfo obferved, that on certain families this difeafe is
much more fevere than on others. Its danger, how¬
ever, is flill more connected with the period of life
at which it occurs. In children under two years of
age it is molt dangerous; and kills them by producing
convulfions, fuffocation, inflammation and fuppura-
tion of the brain or in the lungs, ruptures, and incur¬
vation of the fpine. In pregnant women it will pro¬
duce abortion ; and in adults inflammations of the
lungs, and all the confequences of pneumonia, more
frequently than in children. From a long continuance
of the difeafe patients will become afthmatic, ricketty,
and fcrofulous. It is generally reckoned a good
fign when a fit terminates by vomiting; for in this
difeafe there feems to be a great increafe of the fe-
cretion of mucus, and the vomiting affords great re¬
lief.
Cure. Pertuffis is one of thofe difeafes which af-
Vot,. XI. Part I.
C I N E. 2%
ter the contagion has exerted its influence can be Pertuflis.
terminated only by running a certain courfe : but it <~~~u
is much lefs limited in its courfe than fmall-pox and
meafles, and often it runs on to a very great length,
or at leaft it is very difficult to diftinguiffi certain fe-
quelae of this difeafe from the difeafe itfelf. And
when it exifts in the former of thefe ftates, it admits
of an artificial termination. In the treatment of this
affeftion, therefore, the obje&s at which a praftitioner
chiefly aims, are, in the firft place, the obviating ur¬
gent fymptoms, and forwarding the natural termina¬
tion of the difeafe; and fecondly, the inducing an ar¬
tificial termination. With thefe intentions various
pra&ices are employed on different occaflons. The
moft approved remedies are vomits, purges, bleeding,
and the attenuating pedforals; for the other kinds ge¬
nerally do hurt : but large evacuations of any kind
are pernicious. In the Medical Obfervations, Vol. III.
Dr Morris recommends caftor and the bark ; but in
cafes attended with any degree of inflammation, the
latter muft certainly do hurt, and the former will ge¬
nerally be infignificant. Dr Butter, in a differtation
exprefsly on the fubjecft, relates zo cafes of it cured
by the extraft of hemlock. He dire&s half a grain
a-day for a child under fix months old ; one grain
for a child from fix months to two years ; after¬
wards allowing half a grain for every year of the
patient’s age till he be 20 : beyond that period, he
direfts ten grains to be given for the firft day’s con-
fumption, gradually increafing the dofe according to
the effefl. If the patient have not two ftools a-day,
he advifes magnefia or the lixivia vitriolata fulphurea to
be added to the hemlock mixture. By this method
he fays the peculiar fymptoms of the difeafe are re¬
moved in the fpace of a week ; nothing but a flight
cough remaining. The ufe of hemlock, however,
has by no means become univerfal in confequence of
this publication, nor indeed has this remedy been
found equally fuccefsful with others who have given
it a fair trial. The remedy moft to be depended up¬
on in this difeafe is change of air. The patient, as foon
as the difeafe is fully formed, ought to be removed to
fome other part of the country : but there is no occa-
fion for going to a diftant place ; a mile or two, or
frequently a fmaller diftance, will be fufficient; and in
this new habitation, the frequency of the cough is al-
moft inftantly diminiftied to a moft furprifing degree.
After remaining there for fome time, however, the
cough will often be obferved to become again more
frequent, and the other fymptoms increafed. In this
cafe, another change of air, or even a return to the
former habitation, becomes neceffary. Manifeft bene¬
fit has even been derived by changing a patient from
one room of a houfe to another. But although change
of air has thus been advantageous, it muft alfo be re¬
marked, that when it has been had recourfe to at very
early periods it has often done mifchief, particularly
by aggravating the febrile and inflammatory fymp¬
toms. If the difeafe be attended with fever, bleed¬
ing and other antiphlogiftio remedies are proper. Dr
Buchan recommends an ointment made of equal parts
of garlic and hog’s laid applied to the foies of the
feet; but if it have any effe&, it is probably merely
as an emphjlrwn lalidum. It ought to be put on a rag
and applied like a plafter. Opiates may fometimes
L 1 be
266 M E D I
Spafml ufefuT, but m general are to be avoided. They
are chiefly ferviceable where the cough is very fre¬
quent, with little expeftoration. In thefe cafes bene¬
fit has fometimes alfo been derived from vitriolic ether,
and fometimes from the tinfture of cantharides. An
almoit inftantaneous termination has on fome occa-
iions been put to this difeafe by exciting a high de¬
gree of fear, or by inducing another febrile contagion:
But the effe&s of both are too uncertain and too
dangerous to be employed in practice.
300 Genus LVIII. PYROSIS.
The Heart-Burn.
Pyrofis, Sauv. gen. 200. Sag. 158.
Soda, Lin. 47. Vog. 1^4.
Scotis, the Water-Brash.
Pyrofis Suecica, Sauv. fp. 4.
Cardialgia fputatoria, Sauv. fp. 5.
This difeafe, whether bonfidered as primary or fymp-
tomatic, has already been fully treated under Dy¬
spepsia.
301 Genus LIX. COLICA.
The Colic.
Colica, Sauv. gen. 204. Lin. 50. Fog. 160. Sag.
162. yunck. 106.
Colica fpafmodica ct flatulenta, Hoffm. II. 284.
Rachialgia, Sauv. gzn. 211. Sag. 168.-
Ikus, Sauv. gen. 252. Vog. 162. sag. gen. 187.
Iliaca, Lini 185.
Dolor et fpafmus iliacus, II. 263.
Paffio iliaca, ‘Jitnch. 107.
^C2 Sp. I. The Spafmidic Golic.
Colica flatulenta, pituitofa, See. Sauv. fp. 1. 2. 5.
6. 7. Ileus phyfodes, volvulus* inflammatorius,
&c. Ejuftl. fp. 1. 3. 5. 7. 8. 9.
Defcriptinn. The colic is chiefly known by a vio¬
lent pain in the abdomen, commonly about the umbi¬
lical region. The pain refembles various kinds of
fenfations, as of burning, twifiing, boring, a ligature
drawn very tight, &c. The belly is generally coftive,
though fometimes there is a violent evacuation of bi¬
lious matters upwards and downwards: In thefe cafes
the difeafe is fometimes accompanied from the begin¬
ning with a weak and intermitting pulfe, cold fweats,
and fainting. In fome the difeafe comes on gradual¬
ly, beginning with an habitual coftivenefs ; and if
purgatives be taken, they do not operate. The pain
comes on generally after a meal, and Coon occalions
aaufea and vomiting. Sometimes the difeafe is attend¬
ed with pyrexia, violent thiril, and a full pulfe ; the
vomiting becomes more violent, and excrementitious
matters are thrown up with the mod exquifite pain and
tenfion of the abdomen ; an hickup comes on, which
continues obdinately ; till at lad a ceffation of pain and
fetid breath indicate a mortification of the intedines
and approaching death. Sometimes the periflaltic mo¬
tion of the intedines is fo totally inverted, that all their
contents are evacuated by the mouth, and even clyders
will be vomited ; which conditutes that difeafe com-
wiooly called the iliac pajfion.
C I N E. Practice.
Caufes, &c. Colics may arife from any fudden Cohca.
check given to perfpiration, as by violent cold applied  v~—^
to any part of the body, efpecially to the lower ex¬
tremities and abdomen. Very frequently they are oc-
cafioned by audere, acid, or indigedible aliments ta¬
ken into the domach. By any of thefe, a violent co¬
lic, or indeed an iliac palfion, may be occafioned ; for
Dr Cullen judly obferves, that this lad, though com¬
monly accounted a different fpecies of difeafe, differs
from a colic in no other way than in being in every
refpeft in a much higher degree. In thofe who have
died of this difeafe and been diffefted, the intedines
have fometimes been found twided ; but more com¬
monly there hath been an introfufeeption of the intedine,
that is, one part of the gut feems to have entered
within the other. In the Edinburgh Medical Effays,
Vol. III. we have a differtation on the life of the warm
bath in the bilious colic, in which the author derives
the diforder from a fpafmodic condridion of the inte¬
dine occafioned by the acrimony of the bile By this,
he fays, the intedine is not only contracted into an
unufual narrownefs, but coats of it have been found,
upon diffeftion, fo clofely joined, that no paffage could
be made downwards more than if they had been
drongly tied by a ligature. The formation of the in-
trofufeeptio he explains by quoting a paffage from
Peyerus, who made the following experiment on a
frog. Having irritated the intedine of the animal in
feveral different places, he obferved it to contract at
thofe places mod violently, and to protrude its contents
upwards and downwards wherever the relaxed date «f
the part would permit ; by which means the contents
were heaped together in different parts. Hence fome
parts of the intedine being dilated much more than
enough, by reafon of the great quantity of matter
thrown into them, formed a kind of fack which readi¬
ly received the condridted part into it. If this hap¬
pen in the human body, there is the greated danger
of a mortification ; becaufe the part which is condric-
ted, and at any rate difpofed to inflammation, has
that difpofition very much increafed by its confinement
within the other, and by the preffure of the contents
of the alimentary canal from the domach downwards
upon it. An iliac paffion may alfo arife from the
drangulation of part of the intedine in a hernia ; and
even a very fmall portion of it thus drangulated may
occafibn a fatal difeafe. In the Medical Obferyations,
Vol. IV. however, we have an account of an iliac paf¬
fion arifing from a very different caufe, hich could
neither have been fufpedted nor cured by any other way
than the operation of , njirct my, or opening the abdo¬
men of the patient, in order to remove the caufe of the
diforder. The patient, a woman of about 28 years of
age, died after differing extreme torture for fix days.
The body being opened, fome quantity-of a dirty co¬
loured fluid was found in the cavity of the abdomen.
The jejunum and ileum were greatly didended with air.
A portion of the omentum adhered to the mefentery,
near that part where the ileum terminates in the oe-
cum From this adhefion, which was clofe to the fpine,
there ran a ligamentous cord or procefs about two
inches and a half long, unequally thick, in fome places
not thicker than a packthread ; which by its other ex¬
tremity adhered to the coats of the ileum, about two
iaclies
Pra&iee. M E D I
Spafmi inches above the cwcum. This cord formed a circle
v.'.-v—wjtj1 mefenteryj large enough to admit a hen’s egg
to pafs through it. The chord had formed a noofe
(in a manner difficult to be explained), which included
a doubling of about two inches of the lower end of the
ileum ; and was drawn fo tight, that it not only put a
Hop to the paffage of every thing through the bowels,
and brought on a gangrene of the ilrangulated part,
but it had even cut through all the coats of the intei-
Itine on the oppofite fide to the mefentery, and made
an aperture about an inch long. In the Memoirs of
the AcadCH>y Surgery are mentioned feveral fimilar
cafes.
Priignofis. The colic is never to be reckoned void
of danger, as it may unexpectedly terminate in an
inflammation and gangrene of the inteftines. Thofe
fpecies of it which are attended with purging muft be
confidered as much lefs dangerous than thofe in which
the vomiting is very violent. The iliac pafiion, or
that attended with the vomiting of feces, is always
to be accounted highly dangerous ; but if the pafiage
through the inteftines be free, even though their pe-
•riftaltic motion ihould. be inverted, and clyfters evacu¬
ated by the mouth, there is much more hope of a
cure, than when the belly is obftinately coftive, and
there is fome fixed obftrudftion which leems to bid de¬
fiance to ajl remedies.
Cure. In the cure of the fpafmodic colic, the reco¬
very muft ultimately depend on producing a refolution
of the fpafmodic affedtion. In order to ac> ompli/h
this, it is in general neceffary to evacuate the contents
of the inteftines, and to remove morbid irritability
exiftiqg in that part of the fyftem. But in order to
prtferve the life of the patient from the moft immi¬
nent hazard, it is ftill more necefl’ary to prevent and
remove thofe inflammatory aftedfions which, often oc¬
cur in this difeafe As the chief danger in colics arifes
from an inflammation and confequent mortification of
the inteftines, it is eflentially neceflary, in the fir ft
place, to diminifli the tendency to a pyrexia, if there
Ihould happen to be. any. This is accompliflied by
bleeding, emollient injediions, w arm bathing, apd cool¬
ing medicines taken inwardly. Dr Porter, in the eflay
abovementioned, ftrongly recommends the warm bath
in thofe colics attended with violent evacuations of bile.
He fuppofes it to do fervice by relaxing the conftric-
tion of the inteftjnes, and thus preventing or removing
the introfufceptio. In the mean time opiates may be
given to eafe the pain, while every method is tried, by
cathartics and glyilers of ^various kinds, to procure a
ftool. In obftinate cafes, where ftirqidating cathartics
have proved ineftedtual, the milder kinds, fetch as man¬
na, fenna, oleum ricini, &c. will fucceed ; but where
every thing of this kind fails, recourfe muft be had to
fome of the more extraordinary methods. Some have
recommended the fwallowing of leaden bullets, on a
fuppofition that by their weight they would force
through the obftrudtion into the. gut; but thefe feem
much more likely to create than to remove an obftruc-
tion. ft is impcffible they can adt by their gravity;,
becaufe the inteftines do not lie in a ftraight line from
the pylorus to the anus ; and though this were adluaily
the cafe, we cannot luppofe that the weight oi a leaden
bullet could prove very efficacious in removing either
a fpafmodic conftridlion or an obftruction from any
CINE.
other caufe. But when we confider, not only that the
inteftines confift of a great multitude of folds, but that
their periftaltic motion (by which only the contents
are forced through them) is inverted, the futility of
tlis remedy muft be evident. It might rather be fup-
poied to aggravate the difeafe ; as the lead, by its
prtflure, wrould tend to fix the introfufeeption more
firmly, or perhaps puflr it ftill further on. The fame
thing may be faid of quickfilver : not to mention the
pernicious confequences to be apprehended from fwal¬
lowing large quantities of this mineral, even if it flrould
prove efficacious in relieving the patient for the pre-
fent. There are, however, fome late cafes on record,
particularly one by Mr William Perry, publiflied in
the fixteenth volume of the Edinburgh Medical Com¬
mentaries, in which the hydrargyrus, fwallowed in
great quantities, was attended with the happieft effedfs,
after every other remedy had been tried in vain. An¬
other method has been propofed, in the Medical Ef-
fays, for relieving the miferabie patients in this difor-
der, which in many cafes has been known to do fer-
vice. The patient is to be taken out of bed, and made
to walk about on the cold floor of a damp apartment.
At the fame time, porringers of cold water are to be
daftied on his feet, legs, and thighs; and this muft be
continued for an hour or longer, if a ftool be not pro¬
cured before that time, though this will generally be
the cafe much fooner. The exercife does not at all im¬
pair the patient’s ftrength, but rather adds to it; and
lome very remarkable inflames are adduced in the 6th
volume ot the Medical Efiays, where this proved ef¬
fectual after all other medicines h id failed. In one
perion the diieafe had come on with an habitual co-
itjvends, ana fie had been for a week tormented with
the molt violent pain and vomiting, which could be
flopped neither by anodynes nor. any other medicines,
tne iharpeit clylters being returned unaltered, and all
kinds ot purgatives thrown up foon after they were
fwallowed ■; but by the abovementioned method, a
ftool was procured in 3,5 minutes, and the patient re¬
covered. in iome others the ooftivenefs had continued
for a much longer time.—Other remedies are, the
blowing air into the iuteftines by means of a bellows,
and the injecting clyfters of the fmoke of tobacco.
But neither ot thde teem very capable of removing
the diieafe. They can‘affect only the parts below
the obftruCtion ; while, to cure the difeafe, it is ne-
ceffary that the obfiructed parts themfelves fhould be
reached by the medicine, and therefore wc have not
many well-attefted inftances of their fuceefs. In fome
obftinate cales, however, benefit has certainlv been
derived from tobacco-fmoke injections, and likewife
from injections of tepid water to the extent of feveral
pounds. For putting in practice thefe modes of cure,
a particular apparatus have been contrived ; and in
cafes even apparently defperate, neither ihould be ne¬
glected. The cold water gives a general and very con-
iiderable fhock to the fyftem, checks the perforation,
and thus drives the humours inward upon the intef¬
tines, by which they receive a much more effeAual
ftimulus than can be fuppofed to arife from any kind
of ciyfter. But when all methods have failed, the
only chance the patient can have for life is by a ma¬
nual operation.
In thofe colics which are attended with faiatings,
L1 2 &o.
a68 M E D I
Spafrai &c. from the beginning, and which generally attack
  hyfteric women and other debilitated perfons, all kinds
of evacuations are pernicious; and the cure is to be
attempted by anodynes and cordials, which will feldom
fail of fuccefs. Even there alfo, however, it is necef-
fary that the belly fhould be moved ; and for this pur-
pofe ime&ions, containing a folution of afafeetida,
which operate powerfully as antifpafmodics, are pre¬
ferable to rnoft. other modes of cure.
«CJ Sp. II. Colica Pictonum. The Colic of Poiftou.
Rachialgia Piftonum, Sauv.fy. I.
Rachialgia metallica, Saum. fp. 3.
Colica Pi&onum Citcfti et fuccedentium auflorum.
Another caufe to which violent colics are frequent¬
ly to be aferibed, and which often gives occafion to
them where it is very little lufpefted, is lead, or fome
folution or fume of it, received into the body. To
this caufe is evidently owing the colics to which
plumbers, lead-miners, and fmelters of lead, are fub-
jeft. To the fame caufe, though not fo apparent at
firil fight, are we to aferibe the Devonfhire colic,
where lead is received into the body difiblved in
cyder, the common drink of the inhabitants of that
country. This has been proved by experiment; for
lead has been extrafted from cyder in quantity fuffi-
cient to produce pernicious effe&s on the human body.
The colic of Poiftou, and what is called the dry
htlly-acbe in the Weil Indies, are of the fame nature ;
for which reafon we give the following general de-
feription of the fymptoms of all thefe difeafes.
The patient is generally firft feized with an acute
pain at the pit of the ftomach, which extends itfelf
down with griping pains to the bowels. Soon after
there is a diitenfion, as with wind; and frequent Teach¬
ings to vomit, without bringing up any thing but
fmall quantities of bile and phlegm. An obllinate
coltivenefs follows, yet fometimes attended with a
tenefmus, and the bowels feem to the patient as if
they were drawn up towards the back ; at other times
they are drawn into hard lumps, or hard rolls,
which are plainly perceptible to the hand on the belly,
by ftrong convulfive fpafms. Sometimes the coats of
the inteltines feem to be drawn-up from the anus and
down from the pylorus towards the navel. When a
ftool is procured by artificial means, as clyfiers, &c.
the feces appear in little hard knots like fheep’s dung,
called fcybala, and are in fmall quantity. There is,
however, ufually an obftinate coflivenefs ; the urine
is difeharged in fmall quantity, frequently with pain
, and much difficulty. The pulfe is generally low,
though fometimes a little quickened by the violence
of the pain ; but inflammatory fymptoms very feldom
occur. The extremities are often cold, and fometimes
the violence of the pain caufes cold clammy fweats
and fainting. The mind is generally much affe&ed,
and the fpirits arc funk. Thedifeafe is often tedious,
efpecially if improperly treated, infomuch that the
patients will continue in this miferable ftate for twenty
or thirty days fucceffively; nay, inltances have been
known of its continuing for fix months. In this cafe
the pains at lafl: become almoll intolerable : the pa¬
tient’s breath acquires a ftrong fetid fmell like excre¬
ments, from a retention of the feces, and an abforp-
C I N E.
Pradice,
tion of the putrid effluvia from them by the lafteals. Colic*.
At laft, when the pain in the bowels begins to abate, “—'v
a pain comes on in the (houlder-joints and adjoining
mufcles, with an unufual fenfation and tingling along
the fpinal marrow. This foon extends itfelf from
thence to the nerves of the arms and legs, which be¬
come weak; and that weaknefs increafes till the
extreme parts become paralytic, with a total lofs of
motion, though a benumbed fenfation often remains.
Sometimes, by a fudden metaftafis, the brain become*
affefted, a ftupor and delirium come on, and the
nervous fyftem is irritated to fuch a degree as to pro¬
duce general convulfions, which are frequently followed
by death. At other times, the periftaltic motion of
the inteftines is inverted, and a true iliac paffion is
produced, which alfo proves fatal in a ffiort time.
Sometimes the paralytic affedrion of the extremities
goes off, and the pain of the bowels returns with its
former violence ; and on the ceflation of the pain in
the inteftines, the extremities again become paralytic
and thus the pain and palfy will alternate for a very
long time.
Cure. Various methods have been attempted for
removing this terrible difeafe. The obftinate coftive-
nefs which attends it, made phyficians at firft exhibit
very ftrong purgatives and ftimulating clyfters. But
thefe medicines, by increafing the convuliive fpafms of
the inteftines, were found to be pernicious. Balfa.n
of Peru, by its warm aromatic pow'er, was found to
fucceed much better ; and Dr Sydenham accordingly
preferibed it in the quantity of 40 drops twice or
thrice a day taken on fugar. This, with gentle pur¬
gatives, opiates, and fome drops of the hotter effential
oils, continued to be the medicine commonly em¬
ployed in this difeafe, till a fpeeific was publiftied by
Dr Lionel Chalmers of South Carolina. This receipt
was purchafed by Dr Chalmers from a family where
it had long been kept a feeret. The only unufual
medicine in this receipt, and on which the efficacy of
it chiefly if not wholly depends, is vitriolated copper.
This muft be. diflblved in water, in the quantity of
one grain to an ounce, and the dofe of the folution
is a wine glafsful given falling for nine fucceffive
mornings. For the firft four or five days this me¬
dicine difeharges much seruginous bile both ways:
but the excretions of this humour leffen by degrees ;
and before the courfe be ended, it has little other ef-
fe£t than to caufe fome degree of fqueamifhnefs, or
promote a few bilious ftools, or perhaps may not
move the patient at all. At the time of ufing this
medicine the patients Ihould live upon broth made of
lean meat, gruel, or panada ; but about the feventh
or eighth day, they may be allowed bread and boiled
chicken. Here the copper feems to do fervice by its
tonic power ; and for the fame reafon, alum, recom¬
mended by Dr Percival, moll probably cures the
difeafe. He fays he has found this very efficacious in
obllinate affe&ions of the bowels, and that it gene¬
rally proves a cure in the High ter cafes of the colica
piftonum. It was given to the quantity of fifteen
grains every fourth, fifth, or fixth hour ; and the
third dofe feldom failed to mitigate the pain,, and
fometimes entirely removed it. Among purgative
medicines, the oleum Ricini is found to be the moll
efficacious.
SP. HI.
Pra&ice. MED!
, Spavfai ■ Sp. III. The Colic from Cojlivtncfu
304 Colica ftercorea. Saw. fp. 3.
Ileus a faecibus induratis, Sauv. fp. 2.
For the treatment of this fpecics, fee above.
Sp. IV. The Accidental Cone.
Colica Japonica,—accidentalis,—la&entium,—a ve-
neno, Sauv. (p. 10. 14. 18. 20.
Cholera ficca auriginofa a fungis venenatis, ejufd.
fp. 2. -
When colics arife from acrid poifonous matter taken
into the ftomach, the only cure is either to evacuate
the poifon itfelf by vomiting, or to fwallow fome other
fubftance which may decompound it, and thus render
it inaftive. The moft common and dangerous fub-
ftances of this kind are corrofive mercury and arfenic.
The former is eafily decompounded by alkaline falts ;
and therefore a folution of lixivial fait, if fwallowed
before the poifon has time to induce a mortification
of the bowels, will prove a certain cure. Much more
uncertain, however, is the cafe when arfenic is fwallow¬
ed, becaufe there is no certain and fpeedy folvent of
that fubftance yet known. Milk has been recom¬
mended as efficacious; and lately a folution of hefiar
Julphuris. The latter may poffibly do fervice ; as arfe¬
nic unites readily with fulphur, and has its pernicious
qualities more obrunded by that than by any other
known fubftance : but indeed, even the folvent powers
of this medicine are fo weak, that its effe&s as well as
thofe of others muft be very uncertain.
Some kinds of fungi, when fwallowed, are apt to pro¬
duce colics attended with ftupor, delirium, and convul-
iions; and the fame fometimes happens from eating a
large quantity of the ftiell-fiflr known by the name of
mufcles (the Mytulus). Some of the fungi, doubt-
lefs, may have an inherent poifonous quality ; but ge¬
nerally they as well as the mufcles ail on a different
principle. Their pernicious effe&s happen moft com¬
monly when they are taken on an empty ftomach ; and
are then fuppofed to be occafioned by their adhering
£0 clofe to its coats, that it cannot exert its powers,
and the whole fyftem is thrown into the utmoft difor-
der. The malady may therefore be very eafily pre¬
vented ; but when once it has taken place, it cannot
be removed till either a vomiting be excited, or the
ftomach has recovered itfelf in fuch a manner as ta
throw off the adhering matter.
305 Sp. V. Colic of New-born Infants from a Retention
of the Meconium. (Sauv. fp. 19.)
This diforder would be prevented were children al¬
lowed immediately to fuck their mothers, whofe milk
at firft is purgative. But as this is not commonly done,
the child is frequently troubled with colics. Thefe,
however, may be removed by a few grains of ipeca¬
cuanha, or a drop or two of antimonial wine. By
thefe means the ftomach is cleanfed by vomiting, and
the belly is generally loofened ; but if this laft effedt
does not happen, fome gentle purge will be neceffary.
306 Sp. VI. Colic from a Callofity of the Colon.
It is in a manner impoffible to difeover this diftem-
C I N E. 269
per before the patient’s death ; and though it fliould, Colica.
it does not admit of a cure. - v
Sp. VII. The Colic from Intefiinal Calculi. 3°7
(Sauv. fp. 10. 15.)
When certain indigeftible bodies, fuch as cheny-
ftones, plum-ftones, fmall pieces of bones, &c. are
fwallowed, they frequently prove the bafis of calculi,
formed by an accretion of fome kind of earthy matter ;
and being detained in fome of the flexures of the inte-
ftines, often occafion very violent colics. Thefe calculi
do not difeover themfelves by any peculiar fymptoms,
nor do they admit of any particular method of cure.
In the Medical Effays we have an inftance of colics
for fix years, occafioned by calculi of this kind. The
concretions were at laft paffed by ftool; and their paf.
fage was procured by caufing the patient drink a large
quantity of warm water, with a view to promote the
evacuation of bile, a redundancy of which was fup¬
pofed to be the caufe of her diforder.
Genus LX. CHOLERA, the Cholera Morbus. 308
Cholera, Sauv. 253. Lin. 186. Fog. 110. Sag. 188.
Hoffm. II. 165.
Diarrhoea cholerica, JuncL 112-
Sp. I. The Spontaneous Cholera, coming on without 309
any manifeft caufe.
Cholera fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 1. Sydenh. feft. iv.
cap. 2.
Cholera Indica, Sauv. fp. 7.
Sp II. The Accidental Cholera, from acrid matters
taken inwardly. *
Cholera crapulofa, Sauv. fp. 11.
Cholera a venenis, Sauv. fp. 4. $.
The cholera ftiows itfelf by exceffive vomiting and
purging of bilious matters, with violent pain, infla¬
tion and diftenfion of the belly. Sometimes the pa¬
tients fall into univerfal convulfions ; and fometimes-
they are affedled with violent fpafms in particular
parts of the body. There is a great thirft, a fmall and
unequal pulfe, cold fweats, fainting, coldnefs of. the
extremities, and hiccough; and death frequently en-
fues in 24 hours.
In this difeafe, as a larger quantity of bile is depo-
fited in the alimentary canal, particularly in the fto¬
mach, the firft objedl is to countera& its influence,
and to promote an eafy difeharge of it. It is next
neceffary to reftrain that increafed fecretion of bile,
by which a freffi depofition in the alimentary canal
would otherwife be foon. produced. And, in the laft
place, meafures muft often be employed to reftore.a
found condition to the alimentary canal, which is fre¬
quently much weakened by the violence of the dif¬
eafe.
On thefe grounds, the cure of, this diftemper is ef-
feiSed by giving the patient a large quantity of warm
water, or very weak broth, in order to cleanfe the
ftomach of the irritating matter which occafions the.
difeafe, and injedling the fame by way of clyfter, till
the pains begin to abate a little. After this, a large
dofe of laudanum is to be given in fome convenient
vehicle a
.=270
Spafmi
M E D l
vehicle, and repeated as there is occafion. But if the
vomiting and purging have continued for a long time
before the phyfician be called, immediate recourfe muft
be.had to the laudanum, becaufe the patient will be
too much exhaufted to bear any further evacuations.
Sometimes the propenfity to vomit is fo ftrong, that
nothing will be retained, and the laudanum itfelf
thrown up as foon as fwallowed. To fettle the llo-
mach in thefe cafes, Dr Douglas, in the Medical Ef-
fays, recommends a deco&ion of oat-bread toafted as
brown as coffee ; and the deco&ion itfelf ought to be
of the colour of weak coflee. He fays he does not
remember that this deco&ion was ever vomited by any
of his patients. An infufion of mint-leaves or good
fimple mint-water is alfo faid to be very efficcicious in
the fame cafe.
The tin&ure of opium is fometimes retained when
given in conjuhdlion with a portion of the vitriolic
acid properly diluted. But when it cannot be retain¬
ed in a fluid form by the aid of any addition, it will
fometimes fit upon the ftomach when taken in a folid
ftate.
After the violence of the difeafe is overcome, the
alimentary canal, arid the ftomach in particular, re¬
quires to be braced and ftrengthened. With this
view recourfe is often had with advantage to different
vegetable bitters, particularly to the ufe of the Co¬
lombo root; which, while it ftrengthens the flomach,
is alfo obferved to have a remarkable tendency in al¬
laying a difpofition to vomiting, which often remains
for a confiderable time after the cholera may be faid
to be overcome.
SH
Genus LXI. DIARRHOEA.
Looseness.
Diarrhoea, Sauv. gen. 253. Lin. 187. Fog. 105.
Sag. gen. 189. Junck. 112.
Hepatirrhcea, Sauv. gen. 246.
Cholerica, Lin. 190.
Codiaca, Sauv. gen. 255. Lin. 189. Vog. 109. Sag.
gen. 199.
Lienteria, Sauv. gen. Lin. i88. Sag. gen. 191.
Fog. 108.
Pituitaria, & leucorrhois, Fog. m. 112.
12 ' Sp. I. The Feculent Diarrhoea.
Diarrhoea ftercorofa & vulgaris, Sauv. fp. 1.2.
This is occafioned by the too great quarttity of mat¬
ter thrown into the alimentary canal ; and what is dif-
charged has not the appearance of excrements, but is
much whiter, and of a thinner conftftence. Voracious
people who do not fufficiently chew their food, gor¬
mandizers, and even.thofe who ftammer in their fpeech,
are faid to he liable to this difeafe. In /lighter cafes
it is removed without any medicine, or by a dofe of
rhubarb ; but where the matters have acquired a pu¬
trid taint, the diforder may be exceedingly protracted
and become dangerous. In this cafe lenient and anti-
feptic purgatives are to be made ufe of, after which the
cure is to be completed by aftringents.
^13 Sp. II. The Bilious Diarrhoea.
{Sauv. fp. 8.)
This diftemper fhows itfelf by copious ftools of a
very yellow colour, attended with gripes and heat of
CINE. Practice,
the bowels, thrift, bitternefs, and drynefs of the mouth, Diarrhwa.
yellownefs of the tongue, and frequently follows an s—
intermitting or bilious fever. When the fever is gone,
the diarrhea is to be removed by acidulated and cool¬
ing drinks, with fmall dofes of nitre.
Sp. III. The Mucous Diarrhoea.
Diarrhoea la&entium, Sauv. fp. 19.
Dyfenteria Parifraca, Sauv. fp. 3.
Diarrhoea ab hypercatharfi, Sauv. fp. 16.
Dyfenteria a catharticis, Sauv. fp. ia.
Pituitaria, Fog., j 11.
Leucorrhois, Fog. 112.
Diarrhoea pituitofa, Sauv. fp. 4.
Ccelraca mucofa, S'auv. fp. 3.
Diarrhoea ferofa, Sauv. fp. 1 o.
a. Diarrhoea urinofa.
This kind of diarrhoea, befides the matters ufuaMy
excreted, is attended with a copious dejeeftion of tire
mucus of the inteftines with great pain ; while the
patient daily pines away, but without any fever.—
Perfons of all ages are liable to it, and it comes on
ufually in the winter-time ; but is fo obftinate, that it
will fometimes continue for years. In obftinate loofe-
nefles of this kind, vomits frequently repeated are of
ihe greateft fervice. It is alfo very beneficial to keep
the body warm, and rub the belly with ftimulating
ointments; at the fame time that aftringent clyfters,
rhubarb* and ftomacluc: medicines, are to be exhibit¬
ed. Starch clyfters are very often efficacious.—Some;
kinds of loofenefs are contagious; arid Sir Johty
Pringle mentions a foldier who laboured under an
obftinate diarrhoea, who infected all thofe that ufecj
the fame privy with himfelf. In the loofenefs which
frequently followed ajdyfentery, the fame author tells
us that he began the cure with-giving a vomit of ipe¬
cacuanha, after which he put the patients on a
courfe of aftringents. He ufed a mixture of three
drachms of extract of logwood, diffolved in an
ounce and a half of fpirit of cinnamon, to which was
added, feven ounces of common water, and two
drachms of tindure of catechu. Of this the patient
took two fpoonfuls once in four or fiye hours, and
fometimes alfo an opiate at bed-time. He recom¬
mends the fame medicine in obftinate diarrhoeas of 4ft
kinds. A decoction of iimarauba bark was alfo found
effedual, when the dyfenteric fymptoms had gone off.
Dr Huck, who ufed this article in North-America, alfo
recommends it .in diarrhoeas. Two or three, ounces,of
the fimarauba are to be boiled in a pound and a half
of water to a pound, and the whole quantity taken
throughout the day. He began with the weakeft
decodtion; and, when the ftomach of the patient could
eafrly bear it, he then ordered the ftrongeft: but at
the fame time he acknowledges, that, unlefs the fick
found themfelves fenubly better within three days from
the time they began the medicine, they felde-m after¬
wards received any benefit from it. But when all
aftringents have failed, Sir John Pringle informs us,
he hath known a cure effebied by a milk and farina¬
ceous diet ; and he thinks in ah cafes the diforder
would be much more calily removed, if the patients
could he prevailed on to abftain entirely from fpirituous
liquors and animal-food. If the milk by itfelf fhould
Pradlice. M E D I
Spafmi turn Four on tnr ftomacb, a third part of lima-water
  may be added. In one cafe he found a patient receive
more benefit from good butter-milk than from fweet-
milk. The chief drinks are decodlions of barley,
rice, calcined hartfiiarn, toaft and water, or milk and
water.
Sp. IV. The Coeliac Passion.
Ccelica chvlofa, Sauv. fp. i.‘
Ccelica laftea, Sauv. fp. 4.
There are very great differences among phylicians
concerning the nature of this difeafe. Sauvages fays,
from Aretaeus, it is a chronic flux, in which the ali¬
ment is difcharged half digefled. It is attended-with
great pains of the ftomach, refembling the pricking
of pins ; rumbling and flatus in the inteftines ; white
ftools, becaufe deprived of bile, while the patient be¬
comes weak and lean. The'difeafe is tedious, periodi¬
cal, and difficult to be cured. Sauvages adds, that
none of the moderns feem to have obferved the difeafe
properly ; that the excrements indeed are white, on
account of a deficiency of the bile, but thelrelly is
bound as in the'jaundice. Dr Cullen fays there is a
dejefthm of a milky liquid ’of the nature of chyle ;
but this is treated by Vogel as a vulgar error. He
accufes the m >derns of copying from Aretaeus, who
mentions white fasces as a fymptom of the difleraper;
from whence authors have readily fallen into the no¬
tion that they never appeared of any other colour in
perfons labouring under'the cceliac paffion. This error
quickly produced another, which has been very ge¬
nerally received ; namely, that the chyle was thrown
out of the la (Seals by reafon of fome obftru&ion there,
and thus paffed along with the excrements ; of which
lie fays there is not the leafl proof, and agrees with
Aretaeus that the whitenefs is only occafioned by the
want of bile. He endeavours to prove at length, that
the coeltac paffion can neither be occafioned by an ob-
fltuSion of the la&eals, nor of the mefenteric glands ;■
though he owns that Inch as have died of this difeafe
and were difie&ed, had obflrudfions in the myfenteric
glands ; but he denies that all thofe in whom fuch
obftru&ions occur, are fuhjedt to the cceliac paf¬
fion. He confiders the diftemper as arifing from a
cachexy of the ftomachic and inteftinal juices ; and
direfts the cure to be attempted by emetics, purga¬
tives, antifeptics, and tonics, as in other ipecies of
diarrhoea..
3^6 Sp. V. The Lientery.
Lienteria fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 2..
The lientery, according to Sauvages, differs from
the cceliac paffion only in being a flighter fpecies of
the difeafe. 1'he aliment pafles very quickly through
the inteftines, with fcarce any alteration.- The pa¬
tients do not complain of pain, blit are fometimes af-
feCted with an intolerable hunger. The cure is to be
attempted by ftomachics and tonics, efpecially the-
Peruvian bark. This difeafe is moflr common at the
earlier periods of life ; and then rhubarb in fmall
quantities, particularly when combined with magnelia,
is often productive .of the.bed effects.
CINE. 271
Sp. VI. The Htpatic Fivx. Diarrhea,.
Hepatirrhosa inteftinalis, Sauv. fp. 2.
The hepatic diarrhoea is by Sauvages defcribed as 3*7
a flux of bloody ferous matter like the wafhings of
flefh, which percolates through the coats of the in¬
teftines by means of the anaftomofing vefiels. It is
the coeliac paffion of.Trallianus ; and which, according
to Sauvages, rarely, if ever, occurs as a primary dif¬
eafe. It has, however, been obferved to follow an
inflammation of the liver, and then almoft always
proves fatal.
Genus LXII. DIABETES. 31c>
A profufe Difcharge of Urine.
Diabetes, Sauv. gen. 262,. Lin. 197. Vog. 115.
sag. gen. 19Q. fundi. 99. Dobjon,. Med. Ob-
fervat. Vol. V p. 298. Home's Clinical Experi¬
ments, feft. xvi. ^ -
Diureiis, Fog. 114.
Sp. 1. The Diabetes with fweet Urine. ^ rj
Diabetes Anglicus, Sauv. fp. 2. Mead on Poifons,
Eflay I Ejufdem Monita Med. cap. ix. fe£t. 2.
Dobfon in Lond. Med. Obferv. Vol. V. art. 27
Myers Diff. inaug. de Diabete, Edmb. 1779.
Diabetes febricofus, Sauv. fp. 7. Sydenb. Ep. refp.
ad R. Brady.
Sp. II. Diabetes with infipid Urine. 323*
M. L'fler Exerc. Medicin. II. de Diabete.
Diabetes legitimus, Sauv. fp. 1. Ardaus de Morb.
diuturn. lib. ii. cap. 2.
Diabetes ex vino, fp. 5. Ephem. Germ. D. I..
A. II. Obferv. 122.
Defcription. The diabetes firft Avows itfelf by a
drynefs of the mouth and thirft, white frothy fpittle,
and the urine in fomewhat larger quantity than ufual.
A heat begins to be perceived in the bowels, which at
firft is a little pungent, and gradually increafes. The
thirft continues to augment by degrees, and the pa¬
tient gradually lofes the power of retaining his urine
for any length of time. It is remarkable, that though
the patients drink much,, the quantity of urine always
exceeds what is drank. In Dr Home’s Clinical Expe¬
riments we have an account of two patients labouring '
under this difeafe : one of them drank between to
and 12 Englilh pints a-day without being fatisfied.
The quantity was greater in the forenoon than in the
afternoon. In the other the cafe was reverfed. He
drank about four pints a-day? and more in the after¬
noon than the forenoon. The former pafied from 12
to 1 , pints of m ine in the day : the latter, 11 or 12;
fo that his urine always exceeded his drink by eight,
or at leaft Even pints When the urine is retained a
little while, there is a fwelling of the loins, ilia, and
teftes in this difeafe the ftrength-gradually decays j .
the fkin is dry and ftirivelled ; oedematous fwellings
arife in various parts of the bodyj but afterwards
fubfide without relieving the dife.afe in the leaft ; .
and the patient is frequently carried off by con-
vulfions.
The moft lingular phenomenon in this difeafe is, ,
that the urine fe-ems to be entirely or very much di-
veft-ed J
72 M E D I
Spafmi veiled of an animal-nature, and to be largely impreg-
“■ ■ nated with a faccharine fait fcarce diftinguifhable
from that obtained from the fugar-cane. This difco-
veiy was firlt made by Dr Dobfon of Liverpool, who
made fome experiments on the urine of a perfon la¬
bouring under a diabetes, who difcharged 28 pints of
urine every day, taking during the fame time from 12
to 14 pounds of folid and liquid food. Some of this
urine being fet a-fide, fell into a fpontaneous effervef-
cence, changed firft into a vinous liquor, and afterwards
into an acetous one, before it became putrid and offen-
five. Eight ounces of blood taken from the fame pa¬
tient, feparated into craffamentum and ferum ; the lat¬
ter being fweet to the tafte, butlefs fb than the urine.
Two quarts of the urine, evaporated to drynefs, left a
white cake weighing four ounces two drachms and two
fcruples. This cake was granulated, and broke eafily
between the fingers: it fmelled fweet like brown fu-
gar; neither could it by the tafte be diftinguiftied from
% fugar, except that it left a flight fenfe of coolnefs on
the tongue. The experiment was repeated after the
patient was recovered to fuch a degree as to pafs only
14 pints of urine a-day. There was now a ftrong
urinous fmeil during the evaporation ; and the refiduum
could not be procured in a folid form, but was black-
ifh, and much refembled very thick treacle. In Dr
Home’s patients, the ferum of the blood had no pre¬
ternatural fweetnefs; in one of them the craflamentum
was covered with a thick inflammatory cruft. In one
of thefe patients the urine yielded an ounce and a
half, and in the other an ounce, of faccharine matter
from each pound. It had, however, an urinous fmell,
and a faline tafte mixed with the fweet one ; and the
urine of one fermented with yeaft, we are told, into
tolerable fmall-beer.” Both thefe patients had a
voracious appetite, and perpetual gnawing fenfe of
hunger ; as had alfo Dr Dobfon’s patient. The in¬
lipid urine of thofe affefted with 'diabetes has not
been examined by phyficians with fufficient accuracy
to enable us to fpeak with confidence of its con¬
tents.
Caufes. Thefe are exceedingly obfeure and uncer¬
tain ; fpafms of the nervous fyftem, debility, and every
thing inducing it, but efpecially ftrong diuretics and
immoderate venery, have been accufed as bringing on
the diabetes. It has, however, occurred in perfons
where none of all thefe caufes could be fufpedled ; nor
have the bell phyficians been able to determine it.—
Difledtions have only Ihown that the kidneys were in
an enlarged and lax ftate. In one of Dr Home’s
patients who died, they fmelled four; which fhowed
that the urine peculiar to diabetes came from the kid¬
neys, and was not fent diredlly from the inteftines by
a retrograde motion of the lymphatics, as fome ima-
gine.
Prognofis. The diabetes is rarely cured, unlefs when
taken at the very beginning, which is feldom done;
and in a confirmed diabetes the prognofis mull there¬
fore be unfavourable.
Cure. As there is reafon to believe that in this af¬
fection the morbid fecretion of urine, which is both
preternatural in point of quantity and of quality, arifes
from a morbid diminution of tone in the kidney, the
great objedl in the cure muft be the reftoration of due
tone to the fecreting veffels of the kidney. But as
N° 207.
CINE. Practice.
even this diminifhed tone would not give rife to the Diabetes,
peculiar vitiated fecretion without a morbid fenfibility —v—--
of that organ, it is neceffarily a fecond objedl to remove
this morbid fenfibility But befides this, the morbid
fecretion of urine may alfo be counteracted both by a
diminution of the determination of fluids to the kid¬
ney, and by preventing the occurrence of fuperfluous
water in the general mafs of blood.
On thefe grounds the principal hopes of a cure in
this diftemper are from aftringent and {Lengthening
medicines. Dr Dobfon’s patient was relieved by the
following remedies ; which, however, were frequently
varied, as none of them produced their good effects
for any length of time : The bark in fubftance, with
fmall dofes of rhubarb ; decoction of the bark, with
the acid elixir of vitriol; the cold infufion of the bark,
of which he drank from a quart to two quarts daily ;
Dover’s powder; alum-whey ; lime-water; antimonials
combined with tindura Thebaiia. The warm bath was
ufed occafionally when the Ikin was remarkably hot
and dry, and the patient complained of reftlefliiefs and
anxiety. The tinfture of cantharides was likewife
tried ; but he could never take more than 25 drops
for a dofe, without exciting great uneafinefs in Ids
bowels. The bodyr was kept conftantly open, either
with rhubarb or the infufion of fena joined with
rhubarb. His common drinks were rice-water, barley-
water, lime-water, and milk ; lime-water alone ; fage,
balm, or mint-tea; fmall-beer, fimple water, and water
acidulated with the vitriolic acid. In feven months,
thefe remedies, in whatever manner varied, made no
further progrefs in removing the difeafe. In Dr Home’s
patients, all thefe medicines, and many others, were
tried without the leaft good efl'edl; infomuch that he
ufes this remarkable expreflion : “ Thus, thefe two
patients have exhaufted all that experience had ever re¬
commended, and almoft all that theory could fuggeft;
yet, in both cafes, the difeafe hasrefifted all the means
of cure ufed.” It is remarkable, that though feptics
were given to. both, in fuch quantity as evidently to
produce a putrefcency in the pnmue via', the urine re¬
mained unaltered both in quantity and quality.
But although this difeafe be frequently in its nature
fo obftinate as to refill every mode of cure, yet there
can be no doubt that particular remedies have fuc-
ceeded in different cafes. Dr Brilbane relates feveral
cafes cured by the life of tinfture of cantharides ; and
Dr M'Cormick has related fome in the 9th volume of
the Edinburgh Medical Commentaiies, which yielded
to Dover’s powder after a variety of other remedies
had been tried in vain.
Genus LXIII. HYSTERIA.
Hysterics.
Hyfteria, Sauv. gen. 135. Lin. 126. Vog. 219. Sag'
gen. 242.
Malum hyftericum, Hoffm. III. 50. Juticl. 36.
Affe&io hyfterica, Willis de Morb. Convulfiv. cap. 5.
10. 11. Sydenham Dili. Epiil. ad G. Cole, Whytt
on Nervous Diforders.
Defcripticn. The hyfteria is a convulfive difeafe,
which comeson at uncertain intervals, fometimes long¬
er and fometimes (horter, but at no ftated time. The
paroxyfms commonly begin with a languor and debi-
L lity.
Pra&lce. MED!
Spafmi Hty of tlie wliole body; yawning, ftretching, and reft-
' lefTnefs. A fenfe of coldnefs alfo in the extremities,
almoft always precedes, and for the moft part remains
during the whole time of, the paroxyfm. To this fome-
times fucceeds a fenfe of heat; and the two fenfations
alternate with each other in different parts of the body.
The face is fometimes flufhed and fometimes pale; and
fometimes the palenefs and flufhing come alternately.
There is a violent pain in the head ; the eyes become
dim, and pour out tears; there is a rumbling and in¬
flation of the intellines; a fenfation is felt lik': that of
a globe afcending from the lower part of the abdomen
or hypogaftrium, which fometimes feems to roll along
the whole alimentary canal. It afcends to the ftomach,
fbmetimes fuddenly, fometimes flowly; and there pro¬
duces a fenfe of inflation and weight, together with
anxiety, naufea, and vomiting. At lait it comes up'to
the throat, where it produces a fenfe of fuffocation,
and difficulty of breathing or fwallowing. During
this time there are the moft violent pains both in the
external and internal parts of the abdomen ; the muf*
cles are convulfed ; the umbilicus is drawn inwards;
and there are frequently fuch fpafms of the inteftines,
that neither clyfters can be injefted, nor even flatus
pafs downwards. Sometimes the paroxyfm remits af¬
ter thefe fyrnptoms have continued for a certain time,
hut more frequently the patients fall into fainting fits;
fometimes they lie without motion, as if they were in
a deep fleep; fometimes they beat their breafts violent¬
ly and continually with their hands, and fometimes
they are feized with general convulfions, and the dif-
eafe puts on the appearance of an epilepfy. In fome
patients the extremities become cold and ftiff. and the
body has the appearance of one in a catalepfy. Some¬
times a moft violent beating pain takes place in fome
part of the head, as if a nail was driving into it, and
all vifible objedfs feem to turn round ; grievous pains
attack the loins, b-ck, and bladder, and the patients
make a furpriimg quantity of urine as limpid as wa¬
ter; which laft is one of the fureft figns of the difeafe.
The mind is very much affedled as well as the body.
Sometimes the patients are tormented with vain fears;
fometimes they will laugh, at other times cry immo¬
derately ; and fometimes their temper becomes fo pee-
viffi and fretful, that they cannot enjoy a moment’s
quiet. The appearances which take place in this af
fidtion are indeed fo much varied, that they can hard¬
ly be enumerated: they may, however, with propriety,
he divided into hyfteric fits, which very much refemble
thofe of epilepfy, excepting that they are not attended
with an abolition of the internal fenfes; and hyfteric
fymptoms, fuch as the ghlus hyfl.ritus, clavus hvfh.rirus,
and the like, which are chiefly known to conftitute a
part of this difeafe from being obferved to alternate
with fits.
Caufes, &c. The general caufe of hyfteria is thought
by the heft phyficians to confift in a too great mobi¬
lity and irritability of the nervous fyftem, and of con-
fequence the difeafe may be brought on by whatever
debilitates and renders the body irritable Hence it
nioft frequently attacks females of a weak and lax habit
of body, though there are fome inftances of men alfo
attacked by it. It generally comes on between the
time of puberty and the age of 35, and makes its at¬
tacks during'the time of menftruation more frequently
Vol. XI. Parti.
CINE. 273
than at any other. It alfo more frequently feizes bar- Hyfteria.
ren women and yroung widows, than fueh as are bear-
ing children.
Pregncjis. Though the appearance of this difeafe
be fo very terrible, it feldom proves mortal unlefs by
wrong treatment: but notwithftanding this it is ex¬
tremely difficult of cure, and rarely admits of any thing
elfe than being palliated ; for though it flrould feem
to be conquered by eedicine for a time, it very quickly
returns, and that from the flighteft caufes.
Cure. The ends principally to be aimed at in the
cure of this difeafe are, in the firft place, the removal
of particular convulfive or fpafmodic affe&ions imme¬
diately producing various appearances in the difeafe,
whether under , the form of proper hyfteric fits, or
merely of what maybe called hyfteric fymptoms; and
in the fecond place, the prevention of the return of
fymptoms after they have been removed, by the employ¬
ment of proper remedies during thofe intervals from
complaints which patients often have when labouring
under this affe&ion.
The moft powerful remedy hitherto difeovered in hy¬
fteric cafes is opium, or the tinfture of ifcalled/az/.'/anKw?.
Fv this commonly the moft violent paroxyfms are
flopped, though it be infufficient to acoomplifh a radical
cure. In Dr Home’sClinical Experiments we find an in-
ftance of a cure performed by venefedlion, though this
remedy has been generally condemned in hyltericai
cafes. Afafetida feems *to Hand next in virtue to
opium; though with fome it difagrees, and oc-
cafions pains in the ftomach and vomiting. ./Ether
will alfo frequently remove an hyfteric fit: but its ef-
fedfs are of ffiort duration; and if it do not effe& a
cure foon after its exhibition, no fervice is to be ex¬
pected either by perfeverance in the ufe of it or by
increafing the dofe; and with fome conftitutions it dif¬
agrees to fuch a degree as to occafion convulfions. If
the patient be feized with a violent fit, fo that flic can
fwallow nothing, which is frequently the- cafe, it will
be proper to apply fome ftrong volatile alkali to her
nofe; or if that be not at hand, the vapour of burning
feathers is fometimes very' efficacious. In fome in¬
ftances benefit is derived from the hidden application of
cold water to the face or hands; but ftiil more fre¬
quently the application of water in a tepid ftate,
particularly the warm pediluvium, is found to be of
very great fervice in bringing about a favourable ter¬
mination of Afferent violent hyfteric fymptoms. A
plafter ofgalbanum and afafoetida will alfo prove fer-
viceable: but it muft be remembered, that none of
thefe things will prevent the return of the difeafe; and
therefore a radical cure is to be attempted by exercife,
the Peruvian bark, chalybeates, mineral waters, and
other tonics ; but particularly, where the ftate of the
patient is fuch as to be able to bear it, by the ufe of
the cold bath, which, where it does not difagree with
the conftitution, is often of the greateft fervice in pre¬
venting returns of this afFe&ion.
Genus LXIV. HYDROPHOBIA.
The Dread of Water.
Hydrophobia, Sauv. gen. 231. Lin. 86. Vog. 30:
Sag. gen. 343. Boerh. 1138. Junch. 724. Mead
on poifons. Default fur la rage. Sauv. diffi fur
la rage. James on canine madnefs. Daily, Vir-
Mm tues
32J
M E D I
tues of cinnafeer and mulk agarnft the bite of a
mad dog. Nugent on the hydrophobia. Choifel,
Nouvelle methode pour le traitement de la rage.
journal de Medicine, paffim. Medical Qbf. and In¬
quiries, vol. iii. art 34. vol. v. art. 20. 26. and
A pp. Med. Tranfatt. vol.’ii. art. 5. 12. and 15.
Heyfham, DifT. inaug. derab. canin. Edinb. 1777.
Parry, Diff. inaug. de rab. contagiof. five canin.
Edinb. 1778. Jin dry, Recherches fur la rage,
1778. Vaughan, Cafes of hydrophobia, fecond
edit. 1778.
Sp. I. Hydrophobia Rab'wfa, or Hydrophoby con-
fequent on the Bite of a Mad Animal.
Hydrophobia vulgaris, Sairv. fp. 1.
It is the opinion of fome, that Dr Cullen has done
wrong in employing the term hydrophobia as a generic
name, under which canine madnefs is included : and
it muft be allowed, that the dread of water, while it is
not univerfal, is alfo a fymptom occurring only late in
the difeafe, at leaft in the greater part of cafes. Per¬
haps his arrangement would have been lefs exception¬
able, if, following Linnaeus, he had adopted rabies as
a generic term, and had diftinguifhed this particular
fpecies by the epithet of canina, contagiqfa, or the like.
Difputes, however, about names, are in general not
very important; and it is fufficient to obferve, that
the affeftion now to be treated of is canine madnefs,
or that difeafe which arifes from the bite of a mad
animal.
Defcription. This difeafe commonly does not make
its attack till a confiderable time after the bite. In
fome few inilances it has commenced in feven or eight
days from the acident; but generally the patient con¬
tinues in health for 20, 30, or 40 days, or even much
longer. The bite, if not prevented, will in general be
healed Jong before that time, frequently with the great-
eft eafe; though fometimes it refifts all kinds of heal¬
ing applications, and forms a running ulcer which dif-
charges a quantity of matter for many days. It has
been faid, that the nearer the wounded place is to the
falivary glands, the fooner the fymptoms of hydro¬
phobia appear. The approach of the difeafe is known
by the cicatrix of the wound becoming high, hard,
and elevated, and by a peculiar fenfe of prickling at
the part; pains flioot from it towards the throat:
fdmetimes it is furrounded with livid or red ftreaks,
and feems to be in a ftate of inflammation ; though
frequently there is nothing remarkable to be obferved
about it. The patient becomes melancholy, loves fo-
litude, and has ficknefs at ftomach. Sometimes the
peculiar fymptom of the dileafe, the dread of 'water,
comeson all at once. We have an inftance of one
who, having taken a vomit of ipecacuanha for the fick¬
nefs he felt at his ftomach, was feized with the hy¬
drophobia in the time he was drinking the warm water.
Sometimes the difeafe begins like a comnaon fore throat;
and the forenefs daily increafing, the hydrophobic
fymptoms fhow themfeives like a convuifive fpafm of
the mufcles of the fauces. In others, the mind feems
to be primarily affe&ed, and they have a real dread of
Water or any liquid before they try whether they can
fwallow it or not. Dr James, in his Treatife on Ca¬
nine Madnefs, mentions a boy fent cut to fill two
CINE. Pra&icc.
bottle*, ■with water, who was fo terrified by the noife Hv.ro; ho¬
of the liquid running into them, that he fled into the bi^
houfe crying out that he was bewitched. He men- 
tions alfo the cafe of a farmer, who, going to draw
fome ale from a cafk, was terrified to fuch a degree at
its running into the veflel, that he ran out in a great
hafte with the fpigot in his hand. But in whatever '
manner this fymptom comes on, it is certain that the
moft painful fenfations accompany every attempt to
fwallow liquids. Nay, the bare fight of water, of a
looking-glafs, of any thing clear or pellucid, will give
the utmoft uneafinefs, or even throws the patient into
convulfions.
With regard to the affe&ion of the mind Jtfelf in
this difeafe, it does not appear that the patients are
deprived of reafon. Some have, merely by the dint
of refolution, conquered the dread of water, though
they never could conquer the convulfive motions which
the contad of liquids occafioped: while this refolu¬
tion has been of no avail; for the convuliions and other
fymptoms increafing, have almoft always deftroyed the
unhappy patients.
In this difeafe there feems to be an extreme fenfibi-
lity and irritability of the nervous fyftem. The eyes
cannot bear the light, or the fight of any thing white;
the leaft touch or motion offends them, and they want
to be kept as quiet and in as dark a place as pofiible.
Some complain of the coldnefs of the air, frequently
when it is really warm. Others complain of violent
heat; and have a great defire for cold air, which yet
never fails to increafe the fymptoms. In all there is a
great flow of vifcid faliva into the mouth; which is.
exceedingly troublefome to the patients, as it has the
fame effed upon thfcir fauces that other liquids have*
This therefore they perpetually blow off with violence,
which in a patient of Dr Fothergill’s occafioned a noife
not unlike the hollow barking of a dog, and which he
conjedures might have given rife to the common no*
tion that hydrophobous patients bark like dogs. They
have an infatiable thirft ; but arc unable to get down
any drink, except with the utmoft difficulty; though
fometimes they can fwallow bread foaked in liquids,
flices of oranges, or other fruits. There is a pain un*
der the fcrobiculus cordis, as in the tetanus ; and the
patients mournfully point to that place as the feat of
the difeafe. Dr Vaughan is of opinion that it is this
pain, rather than any difficulty in fwaliowing, which
diftreffes the patient on every attempt to drink. Tha
voice is commonly plaintive and mournful; but Dr
Vaughan tells us there is a mixture of fiercenefs and
timidity in the countenance which he cannot defcribe,
but by which he could know a hydrophobous perfon
without afldng any queftions.
In this -diftemper, indeed, the fymptoms are fo va¬
rious, that they cannot be enumerated ; for we will
feldom read two cafes of hydrophobia which do not
difter very remarkably in this refpeft. Some feem to
have at times a furious delirium, and an inclination to
fpit at or bite the byftanders ; while others flrow no
fuch inclination, but will even fuffer people to wipe
the infide of their mouths with the corner of a hand*
kerchief in order to clear away the vifcid faliva which
is ready to fuffocate them. In fome male patients there
is an involuntary ereftion of the peois, and emiffian.of
$23
£i&£tfce. M E D I
Spafmi tKe femen; and <1116 urine is Forced away by the £re-
quent return of the fpafms. In a letter from Dr Wolf
of Warfaw to Henry Baker, F. R. S. dated Warfaw
Bept. 26th, 1767, we have the following melancholy
account of the cafes of five pcrfons who died of the
hydrophobia: “ None of them quite loft their right
fenfes; but they were all talking without intermifiion,
praying, lamenting, defpairing, curfing, fighing, fpit-
ting a frothy faliva,. fcreeching, fometimes belching,
retching, but rarely vomiting. Every member is con-
vulfed by fits, but moft violently from the navel up to
the breaft and cefophagus. The fit comes on every
■qu rter of art hour; the fauces are not red, nor the
tongue dry. The pulfe is not at all feveriih; and when
the fit is over • nearly like a found pulfe. The face
•grows pale, then brown, and during the fit almoft
•black; the lips livid; the head is drowfy, and the
ears tingling; the urine limpid. At laft they grow
weary; the fits are lefs violent, and ceafe towards the
end ; the pulfe becomes weak, intermittent, and not
very quick ; they fweat, and at laft the whole body
■becomes cold. They compofe themfelves quietly as
if to get fleep, and fo they expire. The blood drawn
■ia few hours before death appears good in every rq-
fpeft. A general obfervation was, that the lint and
dreffings of the wounds, even when dry, were always
black, and that when the pus was very good in co¬
lour and appearance.” In one of Dr Wolf’s patients
who recpvered, the blood ftunk intolerably as it was
drawn from a vein; and one of Mr Vaughan’s patients
complained of an intolerable fetid fmell proceeding
from the wounded part, though nobody but himfelf
Could perceive it. In general, the violent convulfions
•ceafe a Ihort time before death; and even the hydro¬
phobia goes off, fo that the patients can drink freely.
But this does not always happen; for Mr Vaughan
mentions the1 cafe of a patient, in whom, “ when he
had in appearance ceafed to breathe, the fpafmus cyni-
cus was obfervable, with an odd convulfive motion in
the mufcles of the face; and the ftrange contrariety
-which took place in the aftion of thefe produced the
mbit horrid affemblage of features that can well be
conceived. Of this patient alfo it was remarkable,
that in the laft hours-of his life he ceafed to call for
drink, which had been his oonftant requeft ; but was
perpetually aiking for fomething to eat.”
The hydrophobia feems to be a fymptom peculiar
to the human race ; for the mad animals which com¬
municate the infection, do not feem to have any dread
of water. Dr Wolf, in the letter above quoted, fays
in general, that cattle bit at the fame time and by
the fame animal va mad wolf) which bit the perfons
vhofe cafes 'he related, died nearly with the fame
frightful raging as the men; but fays nothing of their
having any hydrophobia : nay, Dr James and fome
others affert, that the hydrophobia is not always an
attendant on rabies canina in the human race ; and
indeed it is certain that th^ difeafe has proved mortal
after this terrible fymptojn has been removed. With
regard to the fymptome of madnefs in dogs, they are
very equivocal; and thofe particularly .enumerated by
fome authors, are only fuch as might be expected ift
dogs much heated or agitated by being violently pur-
fued and ftruck. One fymptom indeed, if it could be
depended upon, would determine the matter; namely,
CINE. 275
that dl other dogs.avoid and run away from one that Hydropho-
is mad ; and even large dogs will not attack one of bia' s
the fmalleft fize who is infe&ed with this difeafe.
Uptn1 this fuppofition they point out a method of dif-
covering whether a dog who hath been killed was
really mad or not; namely, by rubbing a piece of meat.
along the infide of his mouth, and then offering it to a
found dog. If the latter eats it, it is a fign the dog
was not mad; but if the other rejefts it with a kind of
howling noife, it is certain that he was. Dr James
teU us, that among dogs the difeafe is infeftious by
ftaying in the fame place ; and that after a kennel has
been once infected, the dogs put into it will be for a
confiderable time afterwards in danger of going mad
alfo. A remedy for this, he fays, is, to keep geefe
for fome time in the kennel. He reje&s as falfe the
opinion that dogs when going mad will not bark; tho’
he owns that there is a very conliderable change in
their bark, which becomes hoarfe and hollow.
Caufes, &c In no difeafe whatever are we more
at a lofs to difcover the caufes than in the hydro¬
phobia. In dogs, foxes, and wolves, it feems to come
on fpontaneoufly ; though this is contefted by fome
authors. It is laid, that the caufes commonly aflign-
ed, viz. heat, feeding upon putrid flefti, want of wa¬
ter, &c. are not fufficient for producing the diftem-
per. It does not appear that madnefs is more frequent
among- dogs in the warm than in the cold climates ;
nay, in the ifland of Antigua, where the climate is
very hot, and the water very fcarce, this diftemper
has never, it is faid, been obferved. As to putrid ali¬
ment, it feems natural for dogs to prefer this to any
other, and they have been known to fubfift upon it
for a long time without any detriment. For thefe
reafons, they think the difeafe ariles from a fpecific
contagion, like the fmall pox and meafies among the
human race, which, being once . roduced by caufes
unknown, continues to be propagated by the inter-
courfd which dogs have with each other, as the dif-
eafe.s juft mentioned continue to be propagated among
the human race by means of the intercourfe which
they Jiave with one another.
With regard to the immediate caufe among man¬
kind, there is not the leaft doubt that the hydropho¬
bia is occafioned by the faliva of the mad animal be¬
ing mixed with the blood. It does not appear that
this can operate through the cuticula ; but, when that
is rubbed off, the fmalleft quantity is fufficient to com-
ffi-unicate the difeafe, and a flight fcratch with the
teeth of •*£ mad animal has been found as pernicious
as a large wound. It is certain alfo, that the infection
has been communicated by the bites of dogs, cats,
wolves, foxes, weafels, fwine, and even cocks and hens,
when in a ftate of madnefs. But it does not appear
that the dlftem ;er is communicable from one hydro-
phobous ;erfon to another, by means of the bite, or
any other way. Dr Vaughan inoculated a dog with
the faliva of a hydrophobous child, but the animal
continued free from difeafe for two months ; and
though the dodtor promifed to inform the public if it
fliould happen to occur afterwards, nothing has hi¬
therto appeared on that fubjedf. A mirfe alfo fre¬
quently kiffed the child during this time of his difor-
der, but no bad confequence enfued.
When we attempt to inveftigate the nature of.thg
M m z caufe
276 !VI E 13 f
Spafn i canfe of the hydrophobia by dlffedion?, our inquiries
1' v zre commonly difeppointed. In two bodies opened by
Dr Vaughan, there was not the leaft morbid appear¬
ance ; in the very fauces, where we might have ex-
pe&ed that the difeafp would have ihown itfelf moft
evidently, thefe was not the leaft appearance even of
inflammation. The ftomach, inteftines, diaphragm,
ceforhagus, See. were all in a natural ft ate; neither
do we find in authors of credit any certain accounts of
morbid appearances in the bodies of hydrophobous
perfons after death. Dr Vaughan therefore concludes,
that the , oifon a&s upon the nervous fyftem ; and
is fo wholly confined to it, that it may be doubted
whether the qualities of the blood are altered by it or
not; and that it afts upon the nerves by impairing and
difturbing their functions to fuch a degree as fpeedily
to end in a tptal extinction of the vital principle. As
to the difficulty in fwallowing generally believed to ac¬
company dread of the water, he treats it as a rmfre-
prelentation, as well as that the cefo, hagus with the
xnufcles fubfervient to deglutition are efpecially con¬
cerned in this difeafe. The principal foundation of
the evil, he thinks, refts on a morbid fenfibility both
of the external and internal fauces. For the fight of a
liquid, or the application of any fubftance to the in¬
ternal fauces, but more efpecially of a fluid, inftantly
excites the moft painful feelings. Nay, the fame
fymptoms are l reduced by touching the external fau¬
ces with a fluid, or by the contact of cold air with
thefe parts ; and nearly in as great a degree. But a
folid or a fluid fubftance being conveyed into the cefo-
phagus, the tranfit into the ftomach is acComplifhed
with little or no impediment; fo that in faft the diffi¬
culty is furmounted before the patient be engaged in
the adlion of fwallowing. Nor is the excruciating
pain, which never fails to be the companion of every
attempt to drink, felt in tire fauces and throat: it is,
he fays, at the fcrobicutus cordh ; to which the fuffer-
er applies his hand. From this laft circumftance,
therefore, from the prefence of the rifus far denim,
from the mufcles of the abdomen being forcibly con-
trafted, and from the fenfe of fuffocation which feems
to threaten the patient with immediate death, Dr
Vaughan has been led to think that in the hydrophobia
a new fympathy was eftablifhed between the fauces, the
diaphragm, and the abdominal mufcles.
Prognofis. When a perfon is bit, the prognofis with
regard to the enfuing hydrophobia is very uncertain.
All thofe who are bit do not fall into the difeafe ;
nay, Dr Vaughan relates that out of 30 bit by a mad
dog, only one was feized with the hydrophobia. Du¬
ring the interval betwixt the bite and the time the dif¬
eafe comes on, there are no fymptoms by which we
can judge whether it will appear or not. When once
it hath made its appearance, the prognofis is exceed¬
ingly fatal.
Prevention and Cure. It has been generally allowed
by praftitioners, that though the hydrophobia may
be prevented, yet it can’feldom if ever be cured after
it has made its appearance. The moft effential part
of the treatment therefore depends on the proper ufe
of means of prevention. The great objefts to be aim¬
ed at in prevention, are, in the firft place, the com¬
plete removal of the contagious matter as foon as pof-
fibie; or, fecondly, means of deftroying it at the part,
CINE. Practice,
where there is even the flighteft reafon to believe that H;clropho-
. it has not been completely removed. Of all the means k’3,
of removal, the complete cutting out the part to which
the tooth has been applied, is unqueftionably the moft
to be depended upon. This praftice, therefore, fhould
be had recourfe to as foon as poffible. The fooner it
can be accompliffied, the better. But as it has been
obferved, that a peculiar fenfation at the part af-
fefted always precedes the acceffion of the difeafe,
even when it takes place at a late period after the bite,
there is good ground for believing that removal of the
part may be of advantage even after a confiderable
interval. But befides removal of the contagious mat¬
ter, by cutting away the part to which it is attached,
this fhould alfo be done by careful and long continued
wafhing. This may be done, in moft inftances, be¬
fore a proper opportunity can be had of having re¬
courfe to the knife. Cold water ftiould particularly
be poured upon the wound from a confiderable height,
that the matter may be wafhed away with fome force.
Even after removal by the knife, careful walking is
ftill a neceflary and proper precaution. And after
both thefe, to prevent as far as can be the pollibility
9f any contagious matter lurking about the wounded
part, it ffiould not be allowed to heal, but a difeharge
of matter fhould be fupported for the fpace of feveral
weeks, by ointment with cantharides, or fimilar ap¬
plications By thefe means there is at leaft the beft
chance of removing the matter at a fufficiently early
period. And this mode of prevention feems to be of
more confequence than all others put together which
have hitherto been dil'covered. But befides removal,
prevention may alfo be obtained by the deftruftion of
the contagious matter at the part; and where there is
the leaft reafon to think that a complete removal has
not been obtained, thefe Ihould always be had recourfe
to With this intention the aftual cautery and burn¬
ing with gun-powder have been employed. And the
aftion of fire is probably one of the moft powerful
agents that can be ufed for this purpofe. But recourfe
has alfo been had to walking both with acids and
with alkalies Of the former kind, vinegar has been
chiefly ufed, but more may probably be expefted from
the latter; and particularly from the cauitic alkali, fo
far diluted that it can be applied with fafety : for
from its influence asa folvent of animal mucus, it gives
a better chance of a complete removal of the matter,
independent of any influence in changing its nature.
It has been thought alfo, that oil applied to the part
may be of fervice. But if recourfe be had to it, more
aftive mcafures ftiould at leaft be previoufly employed ;
and even then, fome are of opinion that it is of ad¬
vantage to increafe the aftivity of the unftuous mat¬
ter by combining it with mercury.
On thefe grounds, and by thefe means, we are in¬
clined to think that the aftion of this contagion on
the fyftem, after it has been applied by the bite of a
rabid animal, may be moft effeftually prevented. But
after this aftion has once taken place, no remedy has
yet been difeovered on which much dependence can
be put A very great variety of articles indeed
have at different periods been held forth as infallible,
both in the prevention and cure of this affeftion ; but
their reputation has, perhaps, univerfally been found¬
ed on their Being given to people, who, thongh really
Practice. M EDI
Spafmi bit by a Triad dog, were yet not infe&ed with the con-
tagion And this happily, either from the tooth be¬
ing cleaned in making the bite, or not being covered
with contagious matter, is by no means an unfrequent
occurrence. Mankind, however, even from the earli-
eft ages, have never been without fome boafted fpeci-
fic, which has been held forth as an infallible remedy
for this affe&ion till fatal experience demonftrated the
contrary. Dr Boerhaave has given a pretty full cata¬
logue of thofe fpecifics from the days of Galen to his
own time ; and concludes, that no dependence is to
be put in any of them. It is now, therefore, altoge ¬
ther unneceflary to take notice of burnt crabs, the
hyaena’s Ikin, mithridate with tin, liver of the ra¬
bid animal, or a variety of other pretended remedies
for this difeafe, proved by experience to be totally in¬
efficacious. But although no greater ceniidence is
perhaps to be put on fpecifics of modern date, it will
be proper that thefe ffiould be mentioned
Bathing in cold water, efpecially in the fea, and
drinking fea-water for a certain time, have been pre-
fcribed, and by fome accounted a certain preventive.
When this was known to fail, a long courfe of anti-
phlogiltic regimen, violent fubmerfion in water, even
to danger of drowning, and keeping the wounded place
open with cauteries, were recommended,—To this ex¬
treme feverity Dr Mead objected ; and in his treatife
on this fubjeft endeavours to fhow, that in all ages the
greateft fuccefs has been reaped from diuretics, for
whkh reafon he propofcs the following powder:
“ Take alh-coloured ground-liverwort, Iialf an ounce ;
black-pepper, two drachms: reduce them feparately to
powder, then mix them together.” This powder was
firft publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, by
Mr Dampier, in whofe family it had been kept as a
fecret for many years But this medicine, which was in-
ferted in former'editions of the London and Edinburgh
pharmacopoeias, under the name of Pulvis AntUyJJ'us,
has long loft its credit.
There is a famous Eaft-India medicine, compofed
of 24 grains of native and as much fadritious cinnabar,
made into a powder with 16 grains of mulk. This is
called the Tb/iiya/n medicine, and mull be taken into
a tea-cupful of arrac or brandy; and is faid to fe-
cure the patient for 30 days, at the expiration of
which it is to be repeated ; but if he has any fymp
toms of the difeafe, it mull be repeated in three hours,
whuh is faid to be fufficient for a cure. The firft dofe
is to he taken as foon after the bite as poffible.
Another celebrated remedy is Palmarius s powder,
compofed of the leaves of rue, vervain, fage, polypody,
wormwood, mint, mugwort, balm, betony, St John’s-
wort, and lefler centaury Thefe herbs muft be ga¬
thered in their prime, dried feparately in the fhade,
and then powdered. The dofe is a drachm, or a drachm
and an half, taken every day.
A remedy which might promife to be more effica¬
cious than any of thofe hitherto mentioned is mercu¬
ry. This hath been recommended in friftions, and
to be taken inwardly in the form of calomel'and tur-
bith-mineral, in order if poffible to raife a flight fali-
vation, on which the efficacy was thought to depend.
Befides this, venefeflion, opium, the bark, and cam¬
phor, have been tried in very large quantities ; the
warm bath ; and, in fhort, every thing which human
invention could fuggeft; but with what fuccefs, can
CINE. 277
bell be judged from the following well authenticated Hydropho-
cafes. * ki3.
In the beginning of December 1728, a young gen- ' i
tleman, aged 17, was bit by a dog in the middle-
finger ,of the right-hand about the middle of the nail.
In the beginning of January lyzq, he complained of
pain in that finger reaching along the back of the
hand to the elbow In the night between the fixth
and feventh days of that month, he became hot and
reftlefs: emollient and anodyne fomentations were ap¬
plied ; but the pain became very fharp, and the hy¬
drophobia came on in the night-time. He was blood¬
ed but became worfe every hour, and at laft quite
furious and outrageous. The bandage was thrown off
from his arm, and he loft about 20 ounces of blood
befides what had formerly been taken from him. This,
however, made no abatement of the fymptoms, and he
died the fame night.
In 1753, a . oman, feized with the hydrophobia in
confequence of the bite of a dogfuppofed to be mad, was
treated in the following manner by Dr Nugent. Firft flic
was blooded to about ry ounces; flie took x 3 grains of
mufle in powder, and alongft with it a pill of two
grains of pure opium, every three hours. A plafter
of galbanum, with half an ounce of pure opium, was
laid to her neck and throat. She began to take thefe
medicines on a Saturday morning, an hour or two
after the dread of water had commenced. In the
evening (he was a little eafier at intervals. The mufle
and opium pill were continued as before, and the
hand that was bit was ordered to be chafed with
w'arm falad oil feveral times a-day. Only two pa¬
pers of powder and two pills were taken in the night,,
for the laft made her fick and vomit. She had little
or no fleep, but lay pretty quiet.—On Sunday, 20
ounces ef blood were taken away, and a clyfter with
antimonial wine inje&ed : the pills and powders avere
continued as before. On Sunday evening (he could
fwallow liquids a little better, and (he lay quiet moft
of the night. On Monday her fwallowing was greatly
better. The mulk and opium were continued, and
twelve ounces more of blood were taken from her;
the plafter was renewed with only two drachms of
opium, and the oil was ufed as before. At .night (he
was better; her hand eafy ; and by a continuance of
thefe remedies (he recovered! - This was the cafe which
chiefly brought opium into reputation.
The following cafes publifhed by M. Deffault, a
Frenchman, firft brought mercury into reputation.—
Four men were bitten by the fame wolf,, on the fame
day, at the fame hour. They were dipped in falt-
water, and came back perfuaded that they had no¬
thing to Tear. Some days after, one of them felt a
numbed pain about his fears, while the fears themfelves
grew hard and rofe like an embroidery : he was foon
after feized with the ufual fymptoms, as was alfo ano¬
ther. The fon of the former likewife began to feel a
pain about the cicatrices, and a fwelling with hardnefs;
as did alfo the fourth. They were ordered to rub a
drachm and a half of the mercurial or blue ointment
upon the cicatrices and about the whole arm. This
was repeated three days fucceffively, and then every
other day : after the fifth friftion, he allowed an in¬
terval of two days. Befrdes this, they took every day
a drachm and an half of Palmarius’s powder. After the
third friciioa the cicatrices grew hat and foft, the pain
went.
,278
M E D I
Spafml went off, their courage returned, and their mind re-
““■V—^ fumed its former tranquillity.
But how far mercury, or indeed any thing elfe, is
from being a fpecific in the hydrophobia, will appear
from the following account of Dr Wolf’s patients.—
•In the middle of April 1767, feventeen people and a
.great number of cattle were bitten in the neighbour¬
hood of Warfaw by a mad wolf. One of thefe, an
officer, was brought into the city that fame day, and
had the beft advice of the furgeons and phyfician? in
that place ; befides which, he took the bark very co-
.pioufly with camphor. He continued well ’till the
feventh week, when he became hydrophobous* and
•died.
Eleven of the others applied to Dr Wolf on the
ninth day. Their wounds were all deeply fcarified ;
diligently walked and fomented with vinegar, fait, and
theriaca ; and kept open till the Both day, in thofe
who lived fo long. Every two weeks they were
..blooded largely, and were purged every week with
• JaUs and jalap. Their diet was moftly vegetable, and
■their drink whey and water. They all eat as much as
could be got of the herbs matrifylva and anagallis jlore
puniceo ; and they all took often of the pulvis Palmarli.
The mufcus citiereus terrejhis could not be got, or it
would alfo have been prefcribed. Belides the general
treatment, two were rubbed daily with a drachm of
mercurial ointment, and had their purges with calo¬
mel. Two took every day four ounces of vinegar,
three drachms tin&ure of poppies, and half an ounce
of rob famluci every night. One took every day
16 grains of camphor, with four fcruples of falt-
petre, and at night half an ounce of rob fambuci.
.—Two took 24. grains of mulk, with jo grains
of cinnabar. Other two took from 40 to 60
drops of fpirit of fal ammoniac, prepared with quick-
dime ; and the lail took a fcruple of cryftallized fait of
tartar made by the mixture of a little fpirit of fal am¬
moniac with a folution of that fait.
One of the tirlt who ufed the mercurial ointment
Jivas feized wkh the hydrophobia on the zzd day, im¬
mediately after being well purged with calomel. He
-was blooded cqpioully, plunged abundantly in cold
water, and had feveral clyilers adminiftered, without
•efFeft Two pounds of oil, and as much of drink,
were poured down by force ; alfo a drachm of fait of
tartar and half a drachm of mulk were given in three,
dofes. He then began to drink freely, but died the
third day. His companion then left off the ufe of
mercury, and took 80 drops a-day of Dippel’s animal
oil, till he had taken fix drachms of it ; after which
he went on with 100 drops daily of fpirit of fal am¬
moniac made with alkali.
One of thofe who took the vinegar fell lick the 33d
day. He was immediately blooded, and vomited with
ipecacuanha. This man was .too ftrong to make ex¬
periments on by force: he refufed every thing, and
died the third day. His companion, an old man, be¬
gan to be feized in the fame manner; he was purged
with falts, took the morjulce balfami Peruvian}, and
drank lemonade. He recovered, and ufed afterwards
ico drops of fpirit of fal ammoniac daily. This was
the patient formerly mentioned, vvhofe blood had the
fetid fmcll.
The man.who ufed the camphor fell fick the 33d
r'ay. He was thrice copioufly blooded, was .plunged
CINE, Practice.
forcibly into the coldefl: Water for the fpace of two Hydropfto-
hours, and was nearly drowned. He was clyffered .
With effect. He himfelf forced down, with incredible ' " -
averfion and labour, a great quantity of drink ; by
which he vomited more than 50 times abundance of
frothy flime. He took feveral ounces of oil, *and fe¬
veral bolufes of caftor and opium, of each four grains,
without effedt; and died the fourth day.
A girl who ufed the mufk with cinnabar, fell iH
the dzd day, and died the third day after. No farther
attempt was made to favc her life, (he being then at a
diftance. Her companion, a pregnant woman, then
left off the mulk, and took in its Head fpirit of fal
ammoniac.
A woman who had taken nothing, fell ill on the
40th day She fuffered terribly in the night, but lefs
in the day-time. Befides the ufual fymptoms, ffie had
great pain and fwelling in her belly. In the fpace of
two days ffie drank about two bottles of brandy, but
would tafte no other liquor. The Doctor ordered her
to mix an equal quantity of oil with her brandy, and
to take every day two bolufes of caftor and opium.—»
She recovered ; and at laft took two dofes of turbith-
mineral, by which ffie was votnited and purged.
After the Both day, all the furviving people took
thrice the turbith-naineral, except the pregnant wo¬
man ; and they afterwards continued their alkaline
medicines to the 1 octh day.
On thefe cafes Dr Wolf makes the following ob-
fervations.—“ Thus we fee, that the bark, the mer¬
cury, the acids, the mulk, the feeding on the moft fa¬
mous herbs, the fweating, the cur a antiphlogijlica,
are no fpecifics. I don’t know what to fay to the
alkalies: the danger is not yet over; and there are
ftill four people who ufed nothing, in as good health
as my patients.”
The following cafe by Dr Raymond of Marfeilles,
(hows the inefficacy of mercury even as a preventive.
— On the 19th of July 1765, Mr Boyer, aged 25, of
a bloated cache&ic habit, was bit by a mad dog in the
inferior part of the leg : the wound extended half way
round, bled freely, and was like a great fcratch. The
patient’s legs had been fwelled for a confiderable time
before the accident; and there were alfo two ulcers in
the other leg. Some hours after the accident, the ac-
tualcautery was applied to thewound. The Doftor was
not prefent at this operation 4 but the part around the
bite was rubbed with mercurial ointment immediately
after, and the debar was dreffed with the fame oint¬
ment. The efehar was feparated on the firft day, but
the dreffing was continued till the wound was cicatri-
fed. The fecond day a bolus of four grains of turbith
and eight grains of camphor was exhibited. This
procured a confiderable evacuation both by vomit and
ftool, and a fpitting alfo came on. The third day
the bitten leg was rubbed with mercurial ointment: in
the fpace of a month the fri&ions were repeated five
times on both legs, three drachms of mercurial oint-
ment being ufed in each friftion. During, the fame
time the bolus was five times repeated ; and this,treat-
ment kept up a flight falivation to the 40th day. The
evening of the t hi ref day he took the Tonquin medicine,
calk d alfo Sir George Cobb’s powder, in a bolus ; which
vomited him brilkly. This powder was repeated feven
or eight times in the month, generally with the fame
effect. During the firft feven or eight days he got four
times.
Pra&ice. M E D I
Spafmi times, in the morning, a drachm of the anagallh Jlore
y—• puniceo, frefh gathered and powdered. The 41 ft day,
the turbith bolus was prefcribed for the feventh time ;
he was bathed in the fea, and continued the bathing
for two days more. On the, 74th he was feized with
the diftemper; and died on the 76th, feemingly fuffo-
cated or ftrangled, his mouth covered with flaver, and
his face bloated. He loft his fenfes not above half a
quarter of an hour before his death, lie pulfe was.
quiet the whole time. The Doftor fays he has rea-
fon to Tufpeft the wound was not well cauterized.
Another inftance is mentioned by the fame author,
of a pregnant woman bit by the fame dog and on the
fame day with Mr Boyer, who was never feized with
the diftemper. She was treated in much the fame
manner with him, and falivated a little more. But
flie Vas bit through a fhamoy leather (hoe, which
muft neceflarily have cleaned the animal’s teeth of the
poifonous faliva before they reached her Ikin, and to
this we are naturally led to afcribe her fafety. One of
Dr Wolf’s patients alfo was a pregnant woman, and
was not feized, with the diftemper. Perhaps women
in a ftate of pregnancy may be lefs liable to this di¬
ftemper than others ; but it is more probable that the
contagion was n@t communicated.
The fame author tells us, “ there are many examples
of the inefficacy of mercurial frictions. A furgeon of
Marfeilles treated a girl about 12 years of age bit by
a mad dog, with mercurial frictions; applying them
as in the lues venerea : yet ffie died of the hydro¬
phobia on the 55th day. Her wound was not cau¬
terized.” #
In the following cafe all the moft powerful remedies
were tried.—In theafternoon of the 29th of Aug. 1778,
Dr Vlughan was called to a boy of eight years of age
labouring under a hydrophobia. He had been bit on
the wriftby a cat about a month before; of which the
marks remained, but without any ulcer, or even the
froalleft appearance of inflammation. About the middle
of the day before Dr Vaughan faw him, he began to
complain of a pain in the part bitten, which afcended up
the arm, and affefted the temple on that fide; foon af¬
ter which he fwallowed liquids with relu&ance and dif¬
ficulty. He was put into the warm bath for three
quarters of an hour, during which time he was eafier :
he had a clyfter of five ounces of frefh broth, and, 30
drops of laudanum, inje&ed immediately after his co¬
ming out of it; a liniment confifting of three drachms.
of ftrong mercurial ointment, with the lame quantity of
oil of amber, was rubbed upon the {boulders and back ;
two pills of a grain of flowers of zinc, and half a grain
of cuprum ammoniacum, were taken every three or four
hours ; and a medicated atmofphere was prepared for.
him, by burning gum ammoniac in his room. As thefe
remedies were not attended with-any good effeft, each
dofe of pills was ordered to contain two grains of cu¬
prum ammoniacum, the fame quantity of opium, three
grains of flowers of zinc, and ten grains of afafmtida ;
whilft a folution of that fetid gum, with a drachm of
laudanum, was adminiftered as. a clyfter. Thefe pills,
though repeated every four hours, afforded not the
fmalleft relief, nor did they Ihow the leaft aftionon the
frame. At laft the Dodtor refolved to put in pradfice
the defperate remedy mentioned by Van Helipont, of
throwing the patient into cold water, and keeping him
3
CINE. ^79
there till he is almoft drowned. With this view a large Hydrophe*
tub of cold water, well fatUrated with common fait, was ia,> ,
prepared, into which the poor boy was plunged over
head and ears, and there held until he ceafed to ftruggle.
He was then taken out again, and the fame operation
repeated until he became fo quiet that the Dodtor wao
under apprehenfions that a total extindtion of lifo
would take place. He was then wrapped up in a
blanket and put to bed, and he remained more quiet
than he had formerly been ; but all his former reftlefs-
nefs foon returned, his pulfe funk, and he died about
two o’clock in the morning.
Another celebrated antidote againft the poifon of a
mad dog hath been known for fome years by the name
of the Ormjhirk medicine. The true compofition of1
this is kept a fecret by the proprietors : however, it ,
has been analyfed, and the following compofition
publiihed by Dr Heyffiam as perfedtly fimilar to it in
all refpedts.
“ Take half an ounce of chalk, three drachms of
Armenian bole, ten grains of alum, one drachm of
elecampane in powdeY; mix them all together, and
add fix drops of oil of anife.”
They muft certainly be very credulous who can put
confidence in fuch an infignificant medicine as a prefer-
vative againft the hydrophobia : however, there is a;
poffibility that there maybe fome unknown ingredient
in the genuine powder; for it is difficult to analyfe
powders after the ingredients are thoroughly mixed
together. The efficacy of the medicine therefore muft
depend on the virtues of that unknown ingredient, if
any fuch there be. The following cafes, however, too
well determine that it is not infallible, as was at firft
pretended. In all probability, as well as many others,
its reputation alfo is folely refted on its being exhibi¬
ted in many cafes where no contagion was communi¬
cated to the perfon bit, and while of courfe no dif-
eafe could take place.
On the 14th of February 1774, Mr Bellamy of
Holborn, aged 40, was bit by a cat, which was killed
the fame morning. The following day he took the-
celebrated Ormfkirk medicine, fold by Hill and Berry
in Hill-Street, Berkeley-Square, and conformed nr
every refpefl to the directions given by the vender. A'
fervant-maid, who was bitten in the leg before her ma¬
iler was bitten, likewife took the fame remedy. About
the middle of April Mr Bellamy complained of a pain
in his right knee, which he fuppofed to be rheumatic,:
and which continued and in^reafed till the 7 th of June,
when he got fome pills of calomel, ipecacuanha, and-
pil. fapon. from an apothecary, with Huxham s tinc¬
ture of the bark in fmall dofes. In fix days more he*
had a titillation in the urethra, a contraction of the*
ferotum and penis to a degree- of pain, and an emif-
fion of femen after making water, to which he had*
frequent calls. The medicines were difeontinued ; and
on the 16th of.thaLmonth the hydrophobia came on,'
and Dr Fothergill was called. §ix ounces of blood were .
taken from, his arm, and a bolus of a fcruple of native)
cinnabar and half a fcruple of mulk was given every*
four hours. The diftemper manifeftly increafed through-
the day. In the evening a clyfter w*as injeCted, and
feveral times repeated during the night; he had been
put into the warm bath, and two drachms of ftrongi
mercurial ointment rubbed into his legs and thighs by
himfdf.
M E D I
In'mfelf. He vras greatly relieved by the warm bath
while he continued in it, but the fymptoms returned
with increafed violence in the night. The next day,
being greatly vtorfe, he was blooded to as great a
quantity as he could bear, had the warm bath and
clyfters repeated, and half an ounce of mercurial oint¬
ment rubbed into his thighs and legs. Pills of opium
were preferibed, but he did not take them. He died
the fame night, at half an hour after 12. This patient
was a man of great refolution, and could in part con¬
quer his averfion at water. Pie feemed to have total¬
ly forgot the accident of the bite : and cafually faid,
that he thought this diforder reftmbled the hydropho¬
bia, without fuppofing that he was afflidfed with that
diilemper at the time.—The bite on the girl’s leg re-
fufed to heal, baffled the art of a young furgeon who
attempted to cure it, and continued a running ulcer
for a long time. She did not fall into the hydropho¬
bia. Hence Dr Fothergill thinks it probable, that
keeping the wounds made by the teeth of mad animals
open for a long time, would probably be of fervice as
a preventive ; but in feme of Dr Wolf’s patients,
thefe artificial drains appear not to have been attended
with fuccefs.
On the 16th of November 1773, Thomas Nourfe,
a ftrong healthy boy of 14, was admitted into the Lei-
cefter infirmary ; having been that day month bitten
by a mad fox-hound. The wound was a large lacerated
one on the cheek,andbled veryfreely on being inflifted.
The day after he was bit he went to the fea, where he
was dipped with all the feverity ufually pra&ifed un¬
der fo difagreeable an operation. The Qrmjkirk me¬
dicine was alfo adminiftered with all due care. It was
bought of the perfon in Leicefler who is deputed by
the proprietor to fell it for him. A common adhefive
plnfter was applied to the part after fea-bathing; and
in the courfe of a month, without any further trouble,
the wound was healed ; excepting a fmall portion,
fomewhat more tkan an inch in length, and in breadth
about one-tenth. This yielded no difeharge, and was
xjuite in a cicatrizing ftate. Five days before his ad-
mifiion into the infirmary, he began to complain of a
tightnefs over his temples, and a pain in his head : in
two days the hydrophobia began to appear ; and at its
commencement he complained of a hoiling heat in his
ftomach, which was continually afeending to the fauces.
The difeafe was pretty ftrong when he came to the in¬
firmary. He got a bolus of a fcruple of mulk with
two grains of O: ium ; hen a compofition of 19 grains
•of muik, one of turbith mineral, and five grains of
opium, was direfted to be taken every third hour 5
an ounce of the ftronger mercurial ointment was to be
rubbed on the cervical vertebra: and {boulders, and an
embrocation of two ounces of laudanum, and half an
ounce of aceium faturninvm, was directed to be applied
to the throat But by this laft he was thrown into
convulfions, and the fame effeft followed though his
eyes were firft covered with a napkin. The embroca¬
tion was therefore changed fo a plafter of three
drachms of powdered camphor, half an ounce of opium,
and fix drachms confeSio Damocrit s. By thefe medi¬
cines the difeafe feemed to be fomewhat fufpended, but
the fymptoms returned with violence in the evening.
His medicine was repeated at feven; and at eight
N° 297. 4
CINE. Practice.
five grains of opium were exhibited without muik of HjHropho-
turbith. At nine, another ounce of mercurial oint-
ment was rubbed upon the (boulders, and half an'T’—
ounce of laudanum with fix ounces of mutton-
broth was injefted info the inteftines, but to no pur¬
pose. A larger dofe of opium was then given, but
with as little effect as the former, and lie died the
fame night.
In the xtsnth of September 1774, a farmer, aged
25, was bit by a mad dog, whofe teeth made a flight
wound in the fore-finger of the left hand. He was dip¬
ped, as ufual, in the fea ; jind drank the fea-water for
feme time on the fpot, which operated bnfkly as a
purge. He continued well till the 6th of June follow¬
ing, when he firft felt a pain in that hand and arm ; for
which he bathed in a river that evening, fuppofing that
it had been a rheumatic complaint. The next day he
was fick ; and in the evening was feized with a violent
vomiting, which continued all that night and till the
middle of the next day, when it was fucceeded by the
hydrophobia. He was treated with the warm bath 3
had a purgative clyftcr inje&ed ; and as foon as.it had
operated, a fecond was given, confiding of four ounces
of oil, and half art ounce of laudanum : half an ounce
of ftrong mercurial ointment was rubbed on the fauces,
and the part was afterwards covered with the cataplaf-
ma e cymino, to which was added an ounce of opium.
An embrocation was applied to the region of the fto¬
mach with continued fri&ion, confiding of half art .
ounce of fpirit of fal ammoniac, ten drachms of oil olive,
fix drachms of oil of amber, and ten drachms «f lauda¬
num. Two ounces of ftrpng mercurial ointment were
rubbed upon the ftioulderS and back ; and as a further
means of kindling a ptyalifm fpeedily, he received the
fmoke of cinnabar into the mouth by throwing a
drachm of that fubftance now and then upon a hot
iron : he was alfo diredled to take every four hours
a bolus of 15 grains of mufk, three grains of turbith
mineral, and four grains of opium. He was eaficr
while in the warm bath, and during the application of
the ointment; but died the fame night about two
o’clock
Many other inftances might be adduced of the in¬
efficacy of this pretended fpecific : the danger of ac-
quiefeing in which, will, it is hoped, create a due de¬
gree of caution in thofe to whom they who are fo un¬
fortunate as to be bit by a mad animal may commit
themfelves. Another remedy may alfo be mentioned
as having had the reputation of being fometimes fuc-
cefsful in this difeafe; which is chiefly employed in
different parts of India, particularly in the territory
of Ttnjore. The medicine to which we now allude
contains indeed feveral articles which are altogether
unknown in our materia medica : but it contains at
lead one very powerful fubftance well known to us,
viz. arfenic. This medicine, known the name of
the Snake Pills, as being principally employee again ft
the bite of the moil venomous fnakes, is eirefted t»
be prepared in the following manner:
Take white arfenic, of the roots of nellr navi, of
nevi viftiam, of the kernels of the ner valum, of pep¬
per, of quickfilver, each an equal quantity. The
quickfilver is to be rubbed-with the juice of the wild
cotton till the globules are perfectly extinguifhed.
TW
Pra&vee, M E D I
Sr afmi The arfenic being firft levigated, the other ingre-
u-^v—dients, reduced to a powder, are then to be added, and
’ the whole beat together with the juice of the wild
cotton to a confiftence fit to be divided into pills.
Though thefe pills are principally ufed againft the
bite of the cobra de capello, yet they are faid alfo
to be fuccefsful in the cure of other venomous bites ;
and, for the prevention of rabies canina, one is taken
every morning for fome length of time. Of this re¬
medy European pradtitisners have, we believe, as yet
no experience; and if, in the accounts tranfmitred
by Eaft India practitioners, it cannot be faid that we
have authentic evidence of its want of fuccefs, it can
as little be pretended that there is indubitable evidence
of its efficacy in any inflance ; and it is by no means
improbable, that it will be found equally inefficacious
with others at one time confidered as infallible.
Of the- great variety of remedies which have had
their day of reputation, there is not one which has
not poffeffed the credit, fome time or other, of pre¬
venting the noxious'effeCts arifmg from the bite of a
mad dog. A more adequate experience has with all
of them difcovered the deception. It was above ob-
ferved, that the hydrophobia is by no means the in¬
fallible confequence of being bit by a mad animal;
and that of between 20 and 30 perfons who were bit
by the dog which gave the fatal wound to one of Dr
Vaughan’s patients, not one felt the lead ill effedf
but himfelf. “ In the above number (fays the Doc¬
tor) were fome who took the Qrmfkirk Medicine ;
others went to the falt-water; and a part of them
ufed no remedy, who yet fared equally well with the
mod attentive to their injury. The fame thing has
ofteifchappened before ; and much merit, I doubt
‘ not, mas been attributed to the medicine taken, from
that celebrated one of Sir George Cobb down to the
infallible one which my good Lady Bountiful’s receipt-
book furnifhes.”
From all that has been faid, the reader will judge how
far the hydrophobia is capable of being fubdutd by any
of the medicinal powers which have yet been tried.
Some eminent phyficians affert that it is totally in¬
curable ; and allege that the indances recorded by dif¬
ferent authors of its cure have not been the genuine
kind, but that which comes on fpontaneoufly, and
which is by no means fo dangerous. Indeed two of
Dr Wolf’s patients recovered, where the difeafefeems
to have been perfectly genuine : but in thefe the poi-
fon feemed to vent itfelf partly on fome other place
befides- the nervous fydem. In one the blood was
evidently infeCted, as it had an abominable foetor ;
and the other had a violent pain and fwelling in the
belly. In all the others, it feemed to have attacked
only the nervous fydem ; which perhaps has not the
fame ability to throw off any offending matter as the
vafcular fydem.
There is, however, a poffibility that the prodigious
affeCtions of the nerves may arife only from a vitiated
date of the gadric juices ; for it is well known, that
the mod terrible convulfions, nay the hydrophobia
itfelf, will arife from an affeCtion of the domach, with¬
out any bite of a mad animal. This feems to be
fomewhat confirmed from one of Dr Wolf’s patients,
who, though he vomited more than ^o times, yet dill
;ihrew up a frothy matter, which was therefore evi-
Vol.XI. Part 1.
CINE.
dently fecreted into the domach, juft as a continual
vomiting of bilious matter fliows a continual and ex- , ' ^ ’ ,i
traordinary fecretion of bile. Dr Wolf himfelf adopts
this hypothefis fo far as to fay, that perhaps dntfirwh
may become frothy ; but in blood drawn from a veifi
not the lead fault appears either in the ferum or craffa-
mentum. He affirms, however, that the duodenum
appears to be one of the parts fird and principally af¬
fected ; and as it is not inflamed, it would feem that '
the affeCtion it fudains mud arife from the vitiated date
of its juices.
Be this as it will, however, in the hydrophobia, the
domach feems totally, or ip a great meafure, to lofe
the power which at other times it poffelfes. Two
grains of cuprum ammoniacum were repeatedly given
to a child of eight years of age without effeCt; but
this dofe would occadon violent vomiting in a drong
healthy man. Something or other therefore mud
have prevented this fubdance from a&ing on the ner¬
vous coat of the domach'; and this we can only fup-
pofe to have been the exceedingly difordered date of
the gadric juice, which occafioned fuch violent irrita¬
tion through the whole body, that the weaker dimulus
of the medicine was entirely lod. It would feem
proper therefore to confider the domach in hydro-
phobic cafes as really containing a poifonous matter,
which could not be expelled by vomiting, becaufe it
is renewed as fad as evacuated. The indication
therefore mud be, to change its nature by fuch medi¬
cines as are certainly more powerful than the poifon ;
and this indication will naturally lead us to think of
large dofes of alkaline falls. Thefe, it is certain, will
dedroy any animal-fubdance with which they come in
contact, and render even the poifon of ferpents in-
active. By exhibiting a few dofes of them, larger
no doubt than what coiild be fafely done on other oc-
cafions, we would be certain to change the date of
the domachic juices ; and thus might free the patient
from thofe intolerable fpafms which always oceafion
death in fuch a Ihort time'. Dr Wolf feems in¬
clined to think that volatile alkalies were of fer-
vice; but the above hypothefis would incline us to
ufe rather the fixed kind. At any rate, it feems
vain for phyficians to trud much to the power of
opium, mercury, mufk, or cinnabar, either fingly or
combined in any poffible way. The bark has alfo
failed, and the mod celebrated fpecifics have been
found ineffectual. Alkalies are the next mod powerful
remedies which the materia medica affords, and they
cannot be more unfuccefsful than the others have ge¬
nerally been.
Another remedy which feems adapted to change the
nature of the gadric juices is ardent fpirits. In one
of Dr Wolf’s patients two bottles of brandy feem to
have effected a cure. The oil mixed with it was of
no efficacy in other cafes, and the opium and turbith
feem not'to have been exhibited till the word was pad.
In this cafe the difeafe feems to have attacked the
vafcular as well as the nervous fydem.
In all the paftients the warm bath feems to have been
a palliative, and a very powerful one, and as fuch it
ought never to be omitted, though we can by no
means trud to it as a radical cure ; and the above hi-
dories abundantly fhow, that though the warm bath
and opium may palliate for a fhor-t time, the caufe on
N h which
582 MED!
Spafroi which the fpafms depend is ftill going on and increa-
1J’' v ” fing, till at laft the fyraptoms.become too ftrong to be
palliated even for a moment by any medicine however
powerful. At any rate, the above mentioned hypo-
thefis fuggefts a new indication, which, if attended
to, may perhaps lead to ufeful difcoveries. In cafes
where putrefcent bile is abundantly fecreted, columbo
root and vegetable acids are recommended to change
the nature of the poifon which the body is perpetually
producing in itfclf. Where corrofive mercury hath
been fwallowed, alkaline fait is recommended to de-
flroy the poifon which nature cannot expel by vomit-
ingj-and why fliould not fomething be attempted to
ddtroy the poifon which the ftomach feems to fecrete
in the hydrophobia, and which nature attempts to ex¬
pel, though in vain, by violent efforts to vomit ?
But whatever plan may be purfued in the hopes of
curing this dreadful malady after any of the fymptoms
have made their appearance, we ought, in every in-
flance of the accident that gives rife to it, to diredl our
immediate care to prevention, as being perhaps the only
real ground of hope : And the moft certain and effi¬
cacious way of preventing the ill confequences, is in-
ftantly (if it may be done) to cut out the piece in
the place that happens to be bitten. Dr James, in¬
deed, fays, that he would have little opinion of cut¬
ting or cauterifing, if ten minutes were fuffered to
elapfe from the receiving of the bite before the opera¬
tion was performed But in an inaugural differtation
lately publifhed at Edinburgh by Dr Parry, the author
is of opinion that excifion will be of ufe a confiderable
time after the bite is received. He adopts this opi¬
nion from what happens in the fmall-pox, where the
blood does not feem to receive the infedlion till fome
days after inoculation has been performed. A fecond
inflammation, he tells us, then takes place, and the in¬
fection is conveyed into the blood. In like man¬
ner, when the hydrophobous infedtion is about to be
conveyed into the blood, according to him, the wound,
or its cicatrix, begins again to be inflamed ; and it is
this fecond inflammation which does all the mifchief.
Excifion, or the cautery, will therefore be effectual
any time betwixt the bite and the fecond inflammation
of the wound. Witfiout implicitly trufting to this
doCtrine, however, or confidering it as in any degree
afcertained in what manner the poifon diffufes itfelf,
by what marks its progrefs may be known, or how
foon the fyftem may be irremediably tainted with its
malignity, it is undoubtedly fafefl not to lofe unne-
ceffarily a moment’s time in applying the knife. This,
or a dilation of the wound if it be fmall, Dr Vaughan
confiders as the only prophyfaCbics that can be de¬
pended upon. In the latter cafe, he direCts to fill the
wound with gunpowder, and fet fire to it; which
would produce a laceration of the part, and poffibly
the aCtion of ignited powder upon the poifon may have
its ufe. In all cafes, likewife, after thefe practices,
have been employed, the wound fllould be prevented
from healing for fome length of. time.
22^ Sp. II. The Spontaneous Hydrophobia.
Hydrophobia fpontanea, Sauv. fp. 2.
This difeafe very much refembles the former, fo that
it has undoubtedly been often miflaken for it. It has
been, known to come on from an inflammation of the
CINE, Fra&ice.
ftomach, where it was cured by repeated and large Hydro-
blood-letting ; in hyfteria, where it was cured by o- , t
pium, mulk* or other antifpafmodics; and in putrid v
fevers, where it was cured by evacuating the inteftinal
canal of the putrid matters by repeated clyfters. A
very good method of diftinguifhing the two is, that in
the fpontaneous hydrophobia the patient is much more
delirious than in the genuine fpecies. In the inftance
mentioned in the .Medical Effays of this fymptom at¬
tending the inflammation of the ftomach, the patient
raved in the mojl extraordinary manner. Dr Raymond
fays he remembers a fpontaneous hydrophobia attended
with tnadnefs ; and in almoft all the cafes of hydropho¬
bia which are faid to have been cured, the patient
was very delirious. Dr Nugent’s patient was very
frequently delirious, and dreaded dogs as well as wa¬
ter. In the Medical TranfaCtions a cafe is communi¬
cated by W. Wrightfon furgeon in Sedgefield, Dur¬
ham, of canine madnefs fuccefsfully treated. This mad-
nefs indeed came on after the bite of a dog faid to
be mad : but it appeared only four days after the ac¬
cident happened, and was attended with fymptoma
very unlike any of thofe abovementioned; for he fud-
denly ftarted up in a fit of delirium, and ran out of
the houfe, and after being brought in, caught hold of
the hot bars of the grate which held the fire : Where¬
as, in the true hydrophobia, the patients dread the
fire, light, or any thing which makes a ftrong im-
preffion on the fenfes, exceedingly. It is probable,
therefore, that this was only a fpontaneous hydropho¬
bia, efpecially as it readily yielded to venefedlion, 30
drops of laudanum, and pills ®f a grain and an half
of opium given every three hours, fome bolufes of
mufk and cinnabar, &c. while in fome of the former
cafes as much opium was given to a boy as would have
deprived of life the ftrongeft healthy man had he fwal¬
lowed it; and yet this amazing quantity produced
fcarce any efl’eft. This patient alfo dreaded the fight
of a dog.
Order IV. VESANI^:. ^
Paranoise, Vog. Clafs IX.
Deliria, Sauv. Clafs VIII. Ord. III. Sag. Clafs XL
Ord. III.
Ideales, Lin. Clafs V. Ord. I.
Genus LXV. AMENTIA. 326-
Folly, or Idiotifm.
Amentia, Sauv. gen. 233. Vog. 337. &7JV346.
Morofis, Lin. 106.
Stupiditas, Morofis, Fatuitas, Vog. 336..
Amnefia, Sauv. gen. 237. Sag. 347.
Oblivio, Z/i«. 107. Vog. 338.
Memoriae debilitas, Junch. 120:.
Genus LXVI. MELANCHOLIA. ^
Melancholy Madnefs.
Melancholia, Sauv. gen. 234. Lin. 71. Vog. $12.
Sag. 347. Boerh. 1089. Junck. 121.
Daemonomania, Sauv. gen. 236. Sag. 348.
Daemonia, Lin. 69.
Vefania, Lin. 70.
Paraphobia, Lin. 75.
Atbymia, Vog. 3 29,.
Pratfice. MED
Vefaiii® DeJlnum melsncholicui'n, Hoffin, III. 251,
1 *   Erotomania, Lin, 82.
Noftalgia, Sauv. gen. 226. Lin. 83. Sag. 338.
Jwtch. 125.
Melancholia nervea, Cl. Lorry de melancholia, P. I.
32$ Genus LXVI1. MANIA.
Raving or Fuaious Madnefs.
Mania, Sccuv. gen. 235. Lin. 68. Vog. 331. Sag.
349. Boerh. 1118. Junck. 122. Battie on
Madnefs.
Paraphrofyne, Lin. 66.
Amentia, Z/b. 67.
Delirium maniacum, Hojfm. III. 251.
Although thefe diftempers may he confidered as
diftinft genera, yet they are fo nearly allied, and fo
readily change into each other, that it fufficiently jn-
ftifies the treating all of them together.
The diftinguiihing charaiteriftic of madnefs, accord¬
ing to Dr Battie, is a fatfe perception ; and under this
general character may be comprehended all kinds of
what is called madnefs, from the moil filly ftupidity and
idiotifm to the moft furious lunacy. Frequently the
different kinds of madnefs are changed into each other
by the cafual excitement of fome pafiion: thus, an
idiot may become furioufly mad, by being put in a
violent paffion ; though this does not fo often happen
as the change of melancholy into the raving madnefs,
and vice verfa.
It is a very furprifing circumftance, that mad peo¬
ple are not only lefs liable to be feized with infeftious
diforders than thofe who are in perfect health; but
even when labouring under other difeafes, if the pa¬
tients chance to be feized with madnefs, they are fome-
times freed from their former complaints. Of this kind
Dr Mead relates two very remarkable inftances.
On the other hand, it has been known, that an in¬
termittent fever, fupervening madnefs of long {land¬
ing, has proved a cure for the madnefs; the fenfes ha¬
ving returned when the fever terminated. Dr Monro
faw two inftances of this himfelf; and mentions it as
an obfervation of his predeceffor in the care of Beth-
lem hofpital.
Another remarkable circumftance is, that immode¬
rate joy, long continued, as effedtually diforders the
mind as anxiety and grief. For it was obfervable in
the famous South- Sea year, when fo many immenfe
fortunes were fuddenly gained, and as fuddenly loft,
that more people had their heads turned, from the pro¬
digious flow of unexpected riches, than from the en¬
tire lofs of their whole fubftance.
Mad people, efpecially of the melancholic kind,
fometimes obftinately perfevere in doing things which
muft excite gre^t pain ; whence it fhould feem as if
their minds were troubled with fome diftrafting no¬
tions, which make them patiently bear the prefent di-
ftrefs, left more fevere tortures ftiould be inflicted; or
poffibly they may think, that, by thus tormenting the
body, -they render themfelves more acceptable to the
divine Being, and expiate the heinous fins of which
they may imagine themfelves to have been guilty.
It is, however, alfo highly probable, that their feel¬
ings differ exceedingly from what they are in a natu¬
ral ftate ; at leaft they are every day obferved to en¬
sure, appaiently without the fmalleft uneafinefs, watch-
1 c 1 N E.
ing, hunger, and cold, to an extent which in a ftate M
of health would not only be highly diftreffing, but to
the greater part of individuals would even prove fatal.
And this refiftance of hunger, cold, and fleep, affords
perhaps the beft left for diftinguiftiing cafes of real
infanity, from cafes where the difeafe is only feigned,
and appearances of it put on, to anfwer particular pur-
ppfes; at leaft where this power of refiftance is pre¬
fent, we have good reafon to conclude that the af-
feCtion is not feigned.
Cure. Although we be well acquainted with many
of the remote caufes of this difeafe, fome of the prin¬
cipal of which have already been mentioned, yet we
are ftill fo ignorant of the influence of thefe upon the
fyftem, as giving a derangement of the mental facul¬
ties, that no general principles on which the cure
may be conduced, can with any confidence be point¬
ed out.
It may, however, be obferved, that while fome reme¬
dies feem to operate by producing an artificial term!-
nation of this complaint, many others have effe& only
as aiding a natural termination. And where a re¬
covery from this difeafe does take place, it moft fre¬
quently happens in confequence of a natural conva-
lefcence. All the fpecies and degrees of madnefs
which are hereditary, or that grow up with people from
their early youth, are out of the power of phyfic; and
fo, for the moft part, are all maniacal cafes of more than
one year’s {landing, let them arife from what fource fo-
ever. Very often mere debility, the dregs of fome
particular difeafe, fuch as an ague, the fmall-pox, or
a nervous fever, {hall occafion different degrees of
fooliflmefs or madnefs. In thefe cafes, the cure muft
not be attempted by evacuations; but, on the con¬
trary, by nouriftiing diet, clear air, moderate exercife,
and the ufe of wine : whereas, in almoft all the other
maniacal cafes, which arife from different fources, and
which come on in confequence of intemperate living,
violent paffions, or intenfe thinking, it is generally
held, that evacuations of every kind are neceffary, un-
lefs the conftitution of the patient be fuch asabfolute-
ly forbids them.
Blood is moft conveniently drawn either from the
arm or jugulars; and if the weaknefs be fuch as ren¬
ders it improper to take away much blood, we may
apply cupping-glaffes to the occiput.
Vomiting, in weakly people, muft be excited by the
vinum ipecacuanae; but in the more robuft by emetic
tartar or antimonial wine : the moft efficacious ca¬
thartics are the infufion or tindlure of black hellebore,
or infufion of fena quickened with tinfture of jalap*
but if there be fuppreffion of the menfes, or hasmor-
rhoidal difcharge, then aloetic purges will be more pro¬
per ; and in fome inftances cooling faline purgatives,
fuch as lixiviated tartar, are of great fervice. In ge¬
neral, mad people require very large dofes, both of
the emetics and cathartics, before any confiderable ope¬
ration enfues.
Dr Monro affures us, that the evacuation by vomit¬
ing is infinitely preferable to any other : the prodigi¬
ous^ quantity of phlegm with which the patients in
this difeafe abound, he fays, is not to be got the bet¬
ter of but by repeated emetics ; and he obfefves, that
the purges have not their right effedt, or do not ope¬
rate to fo good purpofe, until the phlegm be broken
N n 2 and
M E P I C I N E. Practice.
and attenuated by frequent emetics. He mentions the by tying the fleeve-ftriugs round the he has no Mania,
cafe of a gentleman who had laboured under a melan- ufe of his hands. 'A broad llrap of girth-web is then ■—
choly for three years, from which he was relieved en- carried acrofs the breaft, and fattened to the bedttead,
tircly by the ufe of vomits and a proper regimen. In- by which means the patient is confined on his back ;
creaiing the difcharge by urine, is alfo of the greateft and if he Ihould be fo outrageous as to require further
moment, efpeciaily when any degree of fever is pre- reftraint, the legs are fecured by ligatures to the foot
fent. The cutaneous difcharges are alfo to be promo- of the bed; or they may be fecured by being both
ted; for which purpofe the hot bath is of the higheft put into one bag not very wide, which may be more
fervice in maniacal cafes. Hoffman afferts, that he eafily fixed than the feet themfelves, at leatt without
has feen numerous inttances, both of inveterate melan- giving pain.
choly and raging madnefs, happily cured by means of It is of great ufe in praftice to bear in mind, that
warm bathing ; bleeding and nitrous medicines having all mad people are cowardly, and can be awed even by
been premifed. Camphor has alfo been highly com- the menacing look of a very expreffive countenance ;
mended; but, if we can believe Dr Locker of Vienna, and when thofe who have charge of them once imprefs
not very defervedly. Having found very good effects them with the notion of fear, they eafily fubmittoany
from a folution of this medicine in vinegar, he took thing that is required. The phyfician, however,
it for granted that all the fuccefs was owing to the fhould never deceive them in any thing, but more efpe-
camphor; therefore, in order to give it a fair trial, he cially with regard to their diftemper : for as they are
felected feven patients, and gave it in large dofes of half generally confcious of it themfelves, they acquire a
a drachm twice a-day. This was continued for two kind of reverence for thofe who know it ; and by
months, and the do&or was furprifed to find that letting them fee that he is thoroughly acquainted with
only one of his patients received any benefit He then their complaint, he may very often gain fuch an afeen-
returned the other fix back to the camphorated julep dant over them that they will readily follow his di-
made with vinegar, and in a few weeks four of them regions.
recovered the ufe of their reafon. This inclined him It is a more difficult matter to manage thofe whofe
to think that the virtue depended folely on the vine- madnefs is accompanied either with exceffive joy or
gar, and accordingly he began to make the trial, with great deje&ion and defpondency, than thofe
Common vinegar was firft given: but after a little while who are agitated with rage : and all that can be done
he fixed on that which had been dittilled, and gave is to endeavour to excite contrary ideas, by repreffing
about an ounce and half of it every day ; the patients the immoderate fits of laughter in the one kind by chi¬
having been previoufly prepared by bleeding and pur- ding or threatening (taking care, however, not abfo-
ging, which was repeated according as it was found lately to terrify them, which can never be done without
neceffary. He gives a lift of eight patients who were danger, and has often added to the mifery of the uu-
cured by this method; fome in fix weeks, others in happy fufferer); and difpelling the gloomy thoughts in
two months, and none of them took up more than the other, by introducing pleafing concerts of mufic,
three months in perfecting the cure. He does not in- or any other fpecies of entertainment which the pa*
deed give the ages of the patients, nor mention thecir- tients have been known to delight in while they had
cumflances of the cafe ; he only mentions the day on the ufe of their reafon.
which the ufe of the vinegar was begun and the day Though bliftering the head has generally been
on which they were difeharged; and he adds, that dire&ed, Dr Mead fays he has oftener found it to do
they all continued well at the time of his writing. harm than fervice : but he recommends iffues in the
Dr Locker informs us, that this medicine a&s back; and advifes to keep the head always clofe
chiefly as a fudorific ; and he obferved, that the more ffiaved, and to wafli it from time to time with warm
the patients fweated, the fooner they were cured : it vinegar. Opium has by many been forbidden in ma-
xvas alfo found to promote the menftrual difcharge in niacal cafes, as fuppofing that it always increafes the
fuch as had been obftruAed, or had too little of this difturbance ; hut there are inttances where large dofes
falutary evacuation. °f this medicine have been found to prow a cure.
Both reafon and experience fhow the neceffity of and perhaps if it were tried oftener we fhould find
confining fuch as are deprived of their fenfes ; and no powerful effeds from it: there certainly cannot much
fmall (hare of the management confifts in hindering harm enfue from a few dofes, which may be immedi-
rhem to hurt themfelves or do mifehief to other per- ately difufed if they fhould be found to exafperate the
fons. It has fometimes been ufual to chain and to difeafe.
heat them : but this is both cruel and abfurd ; fince The diet of maniacal patients ought to be perfeAly,
the contrivance called the Jlrait ivaijlcoat anfwers light and thin : their meals fhould be moderate; hut
every purpofe of reftraining the patients without hurt- they fhould never be fuffered to live too low, efpeciaily
ing them. while they are under a epurfe of phyfic : they fhould
Thefe waiftcoats are made of ticken, or fome fuch be obliged to obferye great regularity in their hours :
ftrong Huff; are open at the back, and laced on like even their amufements fhould be fuch as are heft fuited •
a pair of flays ; the fleeves ai;e made tight, and long to their difpofition ; and after the difeafe appears to
enough to cover the ends of the fingers, where they be fubdued, chalybeate waters and the cold bath will
are. drawn clofe with a firing like a purfe, by which be highly proper to ftrengthen their whole frame and
contrivance the patient lias no power of his fingers; fecure them againft a relapfe,
and, when laid on his back in bed, and the arms
brought acrof§ the cheft, and fattened in that pofition.
Genus
Praflice.
M E D I
329
Genus LXVIII. ONEIRODYNIA.
Uneasiness in Sleep.
Somnium, Vog. 339.
Somnambulifmus, Sauv. gen. 22i. Lin. 77. Sag.
333-
Hvpnobatafis, Vog. 340.
Nodtambulatia, Junck. 124.
Ephialtes, Sauv. gen. 138. Lin. 163. Sag. 245.
Incubus, Vog. 221. Junck. go.
The greateft uneafinefs which people feel in deep is
that common! )r called the incubus or night-mare. Thofe
feized with it feem to have a weight on their breads
and about their praecordia. Sometimes they imagine
they fee fpedlres of various kinds which opprefs or
threaten them with fuffocation. Neither does this
uneafinefs continue only while they are afleep ; for it
is fome time after they awake before they can. turn
themfelves in their beds or fpeak; nay, fometimes,
though rarely, the diftemper has proved mortal.—The
incubus rarely feizes people except when the ftomach
is oppreffed with aliments of hard digeftion, and the
patient lies on his back. It is to be cured by eating
light fuppers, and railing the head high; or, if it be¬
come very troublefome, antifpafmodic medicines are to
be adminiftered, and the body ftrengthened by chaly-
beates. The fame method is to be followed by thofe
who are fubjedl to walking in their deep ; a pradlice
which muft neceffarily be attended with the greatell
danger: and fomnambulifm may juftly be confidered
as merely a different modification of this difeafe. Ac¬
cordingly Dr Cullen has diftinguilhed the one by the
title, of oneirodynia aBiva, and the other by that of onei¬
rodynia gravans.
GLASS III. CACHEXIA.
Cachexiae, Sauv. Clafs X. Sag. Clafs VIII.' Sag.
Clafs III.
Deformes, Lin. Clafs X.
Order I. MARCORES.
Macies, Sauv. Clafs X. Order I. Sag. Clafs III.
Order I.
Emaciantes, Lin. Clafs X. Order I.
CINE.
Genus LXX. ATROPHIA.
Nervous Consumption.
285
333
Defcription. This affection confifts principally in a
waiting of the body, without any remarkable fever,
cough, or difficulty of breathing ; but attended with
want of appetite and a bad digeftion, whence the
whole body grows languid, and waftes by degrees.—
Dr Cullen, however, afferts, that fome degree of fe¬
ver, or at leaft of increafed quicknefs of the pulfe, al¬
ways attends this difeafe.
Caufes. Sometimes this diftemper will come on
without any evident caufe. Sometimes it will arife
from paffions of the mind; from an abufe of fpiri-
tuous liquors ; from exceffive evacuations, efpecially.
of the femen, in which cafe the diftemper hath got
the name of tabes dorfalis. It may arife from mere old
age, or from famine.
Prognojis. This diftemper, from whatever caufe it
may arife, is very difficult to cure, and often termi¬
nates in a fatal dropfy.
Cure. The general principles on which the treat¬
ment of this difeafe is to be regulated, very much de¬
pend on the caufe by which it is induced; and it is
unneceffary to add, that this muft be removed as far as
poffible. Next to this, the difeafe is moft effectually
combated by the introduction of nutritious aliment in¬
to, the fyftem, and by obtaining the proper affimila-
tion and digeftion of this. With the firft of thefe in¬
tentions, recourfe muft be had to the diet that is moft
nutritious, and at the fame time of eafieft digeftion..
But from the condition of the ftomach commonly at¬
tending this difeafe, it is neceffary fmall quantities on¬
ly fhould be taken at a time, and that it fhould be fre¬
quently repeated. With the fecond intention, fto-
machic and nervous medicines are the articles chiefly
at leaft to be depended upon in this cafe- The Peru¬
vian bark, elixir of vitriol, and chalybeates, are ex¬
cellent ; and thefe fhould be conjoined with gentle ex-
ercife, as far as the ftrength and other circumftances
of the patient will admit. In that fpecies of the di¬
ftemper occafioned by venereal exceffes, it is fo effen-
tially neceflary to abftain from them, that without it
the beft remedies will prove altogether ufelefs. But
this is fo feldom complied with, that the tabes dorfalis
almoft always proves mortal. .
Genus LXIX. TABES.
Wasting of the Body.
Tabes, Sauv. gen. 5. .Lin. 209. Vog. 306. Sag.
IOOi
This diforder is occafioned by the abforption of pus
from fome ulcer external or internal, which produces
an heCtic fever. The primary indication therefore muft
be to heal the ulcer, and thus take away the caufe of
the difeafe. If the ulcer cannot.be healed, the patient
will certainly die in an emaciated ftate. But the pro¬
per treatment of the tabes proceeding from this'caufe,
falls to be confidered under the head of Ulcer in Sur¬
gery, and likewife under the genera Siphylis, Scro¬
fula, Scorbutics, &c. difeafes in which ulcers are
leaft a very common fymptom.
Order II. INTUMESCENTIME.
Intumefcentiae, Sauv. Clafs X. Ord. II. Sag. Clafs
III. Ord. II.
Tumidofi, Lin. Clafs X.. Old. II.
Genus LXXI. POLYSARCIA.
Corpulency..
Pdlyfarcia, Sauv. gen. 279. Lin. 213. Vtg. 540.
Sag. 160. Steatites, Vog. 390.
In a natural and healthy ftate, the fat, or animal
oil, is not allowed to diffufe itfelf throughout the cel¬
lular interftices at large, but is confined to -the places
where fuch an oily fluid is neceffary, by a particular
apparatus of diftincl vefides. . But in fome conftitu-
tions the oily part of the blood appears to exceed the
requifite proportion, and eafily feparates from the other
con*.-
m
M E D I
Intutne- conflituent parts ; or there is an uncommon tendency
f‘'ul>t:w to the feparation of oily matter. In thefe cafes it is
apt to accumulate in fuch quantities, that we may fup-
-pofe it to burft thofe veficles which were originally
deftined to hinder it from fpreadingtoo far; or almolt
•every cell of the membrana adipofa, many of which
are in ordinary cafes altogether empty, may be com¬
pletely filled with fat.
The increafe of the omentum particularly, and the
accumulation of fat about the kidneys and mefentery,
fwell the abdomen, and obftrudt the motions of the
•diaphragm ; whence one reafon of the difficulty of
breathing which is peculiar to corpulent people; while
the heart, and the large veflels conne&ed therewith,
are in like manner fo encumbered, that neither the fy-
ilaltic nor fubfultory motion can be performed with
Sufficient freedom, whence weaknefs and fiownefs of
the pulfe : but when the whole habit is in a manner
■overwhelmed with an oily fluid, the enlargement of the
cellular interftices will neceffarily interrupt the general
diftribution and circulation throughout the nervous
and vafcular fyItems; impeding the action of the muf-
cular fibres, and producing infenfibility, fomnolency,
.and death.
Thefe cafes are the more deplorable, as there is but
little profpedt of a cure. For the animal oil is of too
grofs a nature to be eafily taken up by abforption ;
and we know, that when fluids are accumulated in the
cellular fyftem, there are only two ways in which
•they can be carried off or efcape ; namely, by the
abforbents, which take their rife from the cellular
interftices, and through the pores of the Ikin by tran-
fudation.
Another misfortune is, that the difeafe fteals on fo
imperceptibly,‘that it becomes inveterate before people.
begin to think of purfuing the proper means of re¬
lief.
In this difeafe the cure muft turn upon two points:
Firft, on preventing the farther depofition of fat, by
avoiding the introdudfion of fuperfluous aliment, par¬
ticularly of fatty matters, into the fyftem; and, fe-
condly, on promoting and forwarding the abforption
■of fat. On thefe grounds, befides what may be done
by proper regimen, a variety of articles have been re¬
commended in the way of medicine.
Soap has been propofed as a remedy to melt down
and facilitate the abforption of the fat in corpulent
people ; and Dr Fleming fome years ago publiihed a
little treatife, wherein he recommends this medicine,
and relates the cafe of a gentleman who is faid to have
received confiderable benefit from it. But perhaps the
foap-leys would be more powerful, and might be more
eafily taken, ffieathed, as diredled when recommended
as a diffolvent of the ftone.
Lieutaud advifes to take acetum fcilliticum in fmall
dofes, with frequent purging and brilk exercile. But
it will hldom happen that the patients will be found
fufficiently fteady to perfift in any of thefe courfes, it
being the nature of the diforder to render them irrefo-
lute and inattentive to their condition. Therefore the
principal ufe of rules muft be with a view to preven¬
tion ; and perfons who are difpofed to corpulency ffiould
take care in time to prevent it from becoming an ab-
iblute difeafe, by ufing a great deal of exercife, not
indulging in fleep, and abridging their meals, efpecially
CINE. Pra&ice.
that of fupper. Salted meats are lefs fattening than Po yfarci^
fuch as are frefli; and drinking freely of coffee is re-
commended to corpulent people.
But Dr Fothergill obferves, that a ftrict adherence
to vegetable diet reduces exuberant fat more certainly
than any other means that he knows ; and gives two
cafes wherein this regimen fucceeded remarkably well.
The famous Dr Cheyne brought himfelf down in this
way, from a moft unwieldy bulk to a reafonable de¬
gree of weight; as he himfelf informs us. Itdeferves,
however, to be remarked, that every practice for the
removal or prevention of fatnefs muft be ufed with
great caution and prudence : for not a few, anxious
to prevent this affeftion, have had recourfe to a regi¬
men and to medicine which have proved fatal. This
has particularly arifen from the exceffive ufe of acids,
probably operating by entirely deftroying the action
of the chylopoietic vifeera.
Genus LXXII. PNEUMATOSIS. 336
Emphysema, or Windy Swelling.
Pneumatofis, Sauv. gen. 280. Fog. 391. Sag. 107.
Emphyfema, Sauv. gen. 13. Lin. 288. Fog. 392.
Leucophlegmatia, Lin. 214.
The emphyfema fometimes comes on fpontaneoufly;
but more frequently is occafioned by wounds of the
lungs, which, giving vent to the air, that fluid infi-
nuates itfelf into the cellular texture, and often blows
it up to a furprifing degree. It muft be obferved,
however, that it is only in cafes of laceration of the
lungs where this difeafe can take place; for in a
Ample wound, the effufion of blood always prevents
the air from getting out. The cure is to be ac-
complilhed by fcarifications and compreffes; but in
fome cafes only by the paraccntefis of the thorax.
When air introduced from the lungs is colle&ed in a
confiderable quantity in the cavity of the thorax, the
operation of the paracentefis is perhaps the only means
of cure. Upon an opening being thus made, the air
fometimes ruftres out with incredible violence; and
the patient receives at leaft immediate relief from cir-
cumftances the moft diftreffing imaginable. In fome
inftances it is followed even by a complete cure.
Genus LXXIII TYMPANITES. 33?
Tympany.
Tympanites, Sauv. gen. 291. Lin. 219. Fog. 516.
Sag. 11 8. Boerh. 226. Junck. 87.
Affeftio tympanitica, Hojfm. III. 339.
Meteorifmus, Sauv. gen. 292.
This is an inflation of the abdomen, and is of two
kinds : 1. That in which the flatus is contained in the
inteftines, in which the patient has frequent explo-
fions of wind, with a fwelling of the belly frequently
unequal. 2. When the flatus is contained in the ca¬
vity of the abdomen ; in which cafe the fwelling is
more equal, and the belly founds when ftruck, without
any confiderable emiffion of flatus. Of thefe two,
however, the former difeafe is by much the moft com¬
mon ; infomuch, that many, even extenfively engaged
in pra&ice, have never met with an inftance of true
abdominal tympanites. In both cafes the reft of the
body falls away.
CaufeSi
Pra«5lice,
MEDICINE.
Caufes, &c. The tympany fometlmes takes place
in thofe who have been long troubled with flatulencies
in the ftomach and inteftines. It happens frequently
to women after abortion ; to both fexes after the fup-
preflion of the hemorrhoids; and fometimes from te¬
dious febrile diforders injudicioufly treated.
Prognojis. This difeafe is generally very obftinate,
and for the moft part proves fatal by degenerating in¬
to an afcites. Sometimes, if the patient be healthy
and flrong, the difeafe may terminate favourably, and
that the more readily if it has followed from fome dif-
order. A he&ic confumption, dry cough, and ema
ciated countenance in a tympany, with a fwelling of
the feet, denote approaching death in a very fhort
time.
Cure. With a view to the prevention of this af-
fedtion, it is neceffary, in the firfl place, to avoid, aa
far as it can be done, caufes giving rife to an uncom¬
mon extrication of air, by preferving the proper tone
of the alimentary canal.. After this affedlion has ta¬
ken place, the indications are, firll, to expel the air
already extricated and confined in different cavities ;
and, fecondly, to prevent further accumulation. On
thefe grounds different remedies are employed. The
cure, however, is principally attempted by carmina¬
tive, refolvent, and ftomachic medicines, gentle laxa¬
tives, and at laft tonics, efpecially chalybeates. In
the Edinburgh Medical Effays, Vol. I. we have a very
j-emarkable hiiiory of a tympany by Dr Monro fenior.
The patient was a young woman of 22 years of age,
who fell into the dillemper after having a tertian ague,
in which (lie was badly treated. She became a pa¬
tient in the Edinburgh Infirmary the 24th of March
1730; took feveral purgatives ; and fome dofes of
calomel; ufed the warm bath ; and had an antihyfte-
ric plafter applied over the whole belly, but with very
little effedl. She was monftroufiy diftended, infpmuch
that the fkin feemed to be in danger of burfting : her
breathing was much ftraitened; but the fwelling fome¬
times gradually decreafed without any evacuation. The
returns and degree of this fwelling were very uncertain;
and when the belly was moft detumefied, feverat une¬
qual and protuberant balls could be felt over the whole
abdomen, but efpecially at its fides. Her ftomach
was good, Ihe had no thirft, and her urine was in
proportion to the quantity Ihe drank. She was very
coftive, had her menfes at irregular periods, but no
cedematous fwellings appeared in the feet or any where
elfe. In this fituation fhe continued from the time of.
her admiffion till the 21ft of June, during which in¬
terval Ihe had only her menfes twice. Throughout
this fpace of time, the following circumftances were
obferved, 1. Several times, upon the falling of the
fwelling, (he complained of a headach ; once of pains
throughout all her body, once of a giddinefs, twice of
a naufea and vomiting, and the laft time threw; up,
green bile ; and once her ftomach fwelled greatly,
whilft the reft of the abdomen fubfided. 2. During
the flowing of the menfes lhe did not fwell, but became
very big upon their flopping. 3. Blood-letting and*
emetics, which were made ufe of for fome accidental
urgent fymptoms, had no very fenfible effedt in ma¬
king the tympany either better or worfe. 4. She ne¬
ver had paffage of wind either way, except a little
belching fome days before the firft monthly evacua¬
tion.
Some time before the laft eruption of the menfes,
the purgatives were given more fparingly ; and an-
tihyfterics of the ftrongeft kinds, fuch as afafcetida,.
oleum corn. cerv. &c. mixed with foap, were gi¬
ven in large dofes, accompanied with the hotter
antifcorbutics as they are called, as horfe-radilh and
ginger-root infufed in ftrong-ale with fteel The pa¬
tient was ordered to ufe frequent and ftrong fridlions;
to all the trunk of her body and extremities, and to
ufe moderate exercife. Immediately before the men-
ftrua began to flow, clyfters of the fame kind of me¬
dicines were inje&ed. The menfes were in fufficient
quantity ; but as foon as they ceafed, her belly increa-
fed in its circumference four inches and a half, but
foon fubfided. She then complained of pains, which
a gentle fvveat carried off. Borborygmi were for the
firft time obferved on the fame day, June 2 jth ; and
having taken fome tintlura facra at night, Ihe paffed'
a fmall quantity of blood next day by ftool. This was
the firft appearance of the return of the haemorrhoids,,
to which (he had been formerly fubjecl,
The two following days her faponaceous, antihy-
fteric, and antifcorbutic medicines being ftill conti¬
nued, fhe had fuch explofions of wind upwards and
downwards, that none of the other patients would re¬
main in the fame room, nay fcarce on the fame floor-
with her. Her belly became lefs and fofter than it
had been from the firft attack, of the difeafe; her me¬
dicines, with a dofe of fyrup of buckthorn at proper
intervals, ftill were continued, only the proportion of
fteel was increafedher flatulent difcharge went on
fuccefsfully, and fhe gradually recovered, her former
health.
Genus LXXdV. PHYSOMETRA.
Windy Swelling of the Uterus..
Phyfometra, Sauv. gen. 290. Sag. 1x9,.
Hyfterophyfe, Fog. 3x7.
The treatment of this is not different from that of
the tympany. It is however, upon the whole, a very
rare difeafe ; and when it takes place, very feldom if
ever admits of a cure.
Genus LXXV. ANASARCA.
Watery Swelling overthe Whole Body.
Anafarca, Sauv. gen. 281. Lin. 215. Fog. 313.
Sag. 108. Boerh. 1225. Hoffm. III. 322. Junck.
87. Monro on the Dropfy. Millman Aminad-
verfiones de hydrope 1779.
Phlegmatia,. Sauv. gen. 282.
Angina aquofa, Boerh. 791.
In this difeafe the feet firft begin to fwell, efpe¬
cially in the evening, after exercife, and when the pa¬
tient has flood or fat long ; which fwelling rifes fre¬
quently to the thighs. By lying in bed, the fwelling
becomes lefs, or even almoft difappears.. In the pro-
grefs of the difeafe, the fwelling often rifes to the hips,
loins, and belly, and at laft covers the whole body.
This difeafe, befides the other fymptoms aftewards
mentioned under Ascites, is attended with a remark-
7 abii
M E D I
able difficulty of breathing. In the cure of this, as
well as other fpecies of dropfy, the general intentions
are, firft, the evacuation of the water already effufed
either by natural or artificial outlets 5 and, fecondly,
the prevention of it from accumulation, which is
chiefly to be expefted from fupporting a due aftion
of the abforbents, and from keeping up a proper dif-
charge by the ferous excretories.
The remedies employed with thefe intentions are
much the fame with what are employed againft the
more important genus of afcites. Only it may be
here noticed, that in anafarca it is ufual to fcarify the
feet and-legs. By this means the water is often dif-
scharged : but the operator mult be cautious not to
make the incifion too deep; they ought barely to pe¬
netrate through the Ikin ; and efpecial care muft be
taken, by fpirituous fomentations and proper digeiyves,
to prevent a gangrene. Dr Fothergill obferves, that
the fafeft and moft efficacious way of making thefe
drains is by the inftrument ufed for cupping, called a
fcar'jlcator; and he always orders it to be fo applied
as to make the little wounds tranfverfely ; as they not
only difcharge'better, but. are alfo longer in healing,
than when made longitudinally.
Notwithftanding every precaution, however, gan¬
grene will often enfue ; and it is upon the whole a
much fafer pradfice to evacuate the water by the na¬
tural outlets, the valvular lymphatic abforbents; and
with this intention emetics and cathartics, but parti¬
cularly diuretics, are often employed with fuccefs.
Genus LXXVI. HYDROCEPHALUS.
Water in the Head.
Hydrocephalus, Sami. gen. 285. Lin. 216. Boerh.
1217.
Hydrocephalum, Vog. 384.
This differs from the hydrocephalus formerly treat¬
ed of at fome length under the title of Apoplexia Hy-
•drocephalica, chiefly in the water being colledled in
the external parts of the head, whereas the former is
entirely within the fliull. In the fifth volume of the
Medical Obfervations we have an account of a very ex¬
traordinary cafe of this kind. The patient was a child
only of a few days old, and had a tumor on his head
-about the fize of a common tea-cup, which had the
appearance of a bladder diftended with water ; near
the apex was a fmall opening, through which a bloody
ferum was difcharged. In other refpe&s the child was
healthy. No application was ufed but a piece of linen
dipt in brandy. The tumor continued to increafe
for many months ; at the end of which time the mem¬
brane containing the water appeared equally thick
with the other part of the fcalp, except one place a-
bout the iize of a fhilling,1 which continued thin, and
at times appeared as if it would burft. He continued
in this lituation for about 17 months, when the cir¬
cumference of the head was 20 inches, the bafc 164-,
the middle 18 ', ar.d from the bafe to the apex near 84-.
The water was then drawn off, and the child died in
two days. Almoft all other cafes of this diftemper
have proved fatal; the futures of the fkull generally
give way, and the whole external part of the head is
.equally enlarged : but in the inftance juft now given
N1' 208.
C I N E. Practice,
there was a deficiency of part of the bones. Although, Hydrocq.
however, in fome inftances where the head is thus en- pfiaius.
larged to an enormous fize, the water is exterior to 'v
the brain, and therefore intitled to the appellation of
hydrocephalus exterior, yet much more frequently in
thofe inftances where there is a manifeft feparation of
the bones of the cranium at the futures, the water is
ftillcontained within the ventricles; and accordingly the
difeafe may be much more properly diftinguiihed into
the acute and chronic hydrocephalus, than as is com¬
monly done into the internal and externa1. Although
the latter be much flower in its progrefs, fometimes
fubfifting even for years, yet it is equally difficult of
cure with the former, and very often it proves fatal
in a few days if the water be drawn off by an artificial
opening, which may be very eafily performed by a
mere punfture with a common lancet, without either
pain or any immediate hazard from the operation it-
felf, although the water be lodged in the ventricles ;
for thefe are diftended to an enormous fize, and the
fubftance of the brain almoft totally deftroyed, fo that
hardly any thing is to be punctured but membranes.
Genus LXXVIL HYDRO RACHITIS. 341
Spina Bifida.
Hydrorachitis, Sauv. gen. 287. Mongagn. de fed.
XII. 9. ct feq.
Spinola, Lin. 289.
Spina bifida, Vog. 386.
This difeafe, .which confiffs in a loft tumor on the
lumbar vertebra, attended with a feparation of the
vertebra themfelves, though generally confidered as
approaching to the nature of rachitis, is commonly
referred to the article Surgery, which may be con-
fulted with regard to this affedtion.
Genus LXXVIII. HYDROTHORAX. 342
Dropsy of the Breast.
Hydrothorax, Sauv. gen. 150. Vog. 311. Boerh.
1219.
This affedlion, particularly with refpedt to its caufes,
is in many circumftances fimilar to other kinds of
dropfy, particularly to afcites. But from the fitua-
tion of the water which is here depofited in the cavity
of the thorax, it may naturally be fuppofed that fome
peculiar fymptoms will occur. Befides the common
fymptoms of dropfy, palenefs of the countenance,
fcarcity of urine, and the like, this difeafe is, in fome
inftances, attended with a flu&uation of water within
the breaft; which when it does occur may be confi¬
dered as a certain diftinguifhing mark of this affeftion»
But befides this, it is alfo diftinguiflied by the remark¬
able affeftions of circulation and refpiration with which
it is attended.
The breathing is peculiarly difficult, efpecially in a
recumbent pofture ; and in many inftances patients
cannot breath with tolerable cafe, unlefs when fitting
eredf, or even Hooping fomewhat forwards. The
pulfe is very irregular, and has often remarkable inter-
miffions. But the difeafe has been thought to be prin¬
cipally characterized by a fudden ftarting from fleep, in
confequence of an almoft inexpreffible uneafy fenfation
n referred
Practice. M E D I
Intume- referred to the breafl, and attended with ftrong palpi-
t fcent^e tation, which may probably arife from an affedfion ei-
~*r ther of circulation or of refpiration
That thefe fymptoms are common attendants of
this difeafe, is undeniable ; and they are certainly the
belt chara&eriftics of this afFedlion with which we are
yet acquainted: but it mufi be allowed that they are
prefent in fome cafes where there is no water in the
bread ; and that in other inftances where the difeafe
exifts, they are either altogether wanting, or occur
only to a very flight degree. Certain diagnoftics,
therefore, of this difeafe ftill remain to be difeovered.
When hydrothorax is prefent from the afle&ion of
the vital fundtions with which it is attended, it may
readily be concluded that it is a dangerous difeafe,
and in many, inftances it proves fatal. The cure, as far
as it can be accompliftied, is obtained very much on
the fame principles as in other dropfies. Here, how¬
ever, probably from the uncertainty of the diagnoftics,
the artificial abftradfion of water, by paracentefis of
the thorax, is lefs frequently had recourfe to than in
afeites ; though in fome inftances, after other means
have failed, it has been faid not only to give relief of
fymptems highly urgent, particularly dyfpnoea, but
even to produce a complete cure. Benefit is often-ob¬
tained from an artificial difeharge of water by the ap¬
plication of blifters to the breaft : but in this, as well
as other dropfies, a difeharge is chiefly, effedfed by the
natural outlets, particularly from the ufe of cathartics
and diuretics. In this fpecies of dropfy, more per¬
haps than in any other, recourfe has been had to the
•ufe of the digitalis purpurea, or fox-glove, fo ftrongly
recommended as a diuretic by Dr Withering in his Trea-
tife refpefting the ufe of it. There can be no doubt that
this article, tho’ fometimes productive of inconvenience
from the diftreffing ficknefs and fevere vomiting which
it not unfrequently excites though ufed even but in
fmall dofes, often operates as a -powerful diuretic, and
produces a complete evacuation of water, after other
articles have failed. From the effedts mentioned above,
however, as well as from its influence on the pulfe,
which it renders much flower, it is neceflary that it
fhould be employed with great caution and in fmall
dofes. A dram of the dried leaves of the digitalis,
macerated for four hours in half a pint of warm wa¬
ter, forms an infufion which may be given in dofes of
an ounce, and-the dried powder of the leaves in dofes
of one or two grains : thefe dofes may be gradually
increafed, and repeated twice or oftener in the day ;
but this requires to be done with great caution, left
fevere vomiting, or other diftreffing fymptoms, ffiould
take place.
»43 Genus LXXIX. ASCITES.
Dropsy of the Abdomen.
Afeites, Sauv. gen. 288. Lin. 217. Fog. 314.
gen. iij. Boerh. 1226. Hojfm. III.
'Junck. 87. D. Moure on the Dropfy, 1765.
Mil man, Animadverfiones de Hydrope, 1779.
• Defcriptiov. This difeafe affumes. three different
forms : i. When the water immediately -wafties the in-
teftines: 2.‘ When ;t is interpofed between the abdo¬
minal mufcles and peritonaeum ; or, 3. When it iscon-
Vou. XI. Part I.
C I N E.
tained in facs and hollow veficles; in which cafe it is
called the encyjled dropfy. Some phyficians of great re¬
putation have afferted, that the water was often placed
within the duplicature of the peritonasum : but this is
alleged by Dr Milman to be a miftake, as that mem¬
brane is looked upon by the bed anatomifts to be
Angle ; and he thinks that the abovementioned phyfi¬
cians have been led into this error from obferving the
water collected in the cellular fubftance of the peri¬
tonaeum.
In the beginning of an afeites the patient becomes
languid, breathlefs, and has an averfion at motion :
his belly fwells; and when ftruck, the found of fluc¬
tuating water is perceptible; there is a difficulty of
breathing when the belly is preffed. There is an almoft
continual third, which in the progrefs of the difeafe
becomes very urgent; the urine is thick, in fmall quan¬
tity, anefcred. The pulfe i? fmall and frequent; and
as the belly fwells, the other parts wafte away. A
fever at laft arifes, which, conftantly increafing, in the
end carries off the patient. Thefe fymptoms are mod
urgent where the waters are in immediate conta&with
the inteftines ; in the other kinds the reft of the body
is lefs wafted ; nor is there fo great third or difficulty
of breathing.
Canfes, &c. The immediate caufe of dropfy is a
greater effufion of ferum by the exhalant arteries
than the abforbents take up. This may be occa-
fioned either by too great a quantity of liquid thrown
out by the former, or by an inability of the latter to
perform their office. This commonly happens in people
whofe bodies are of a weak and lax texture, and hence
women are more fubjecl to this malady than men ;
chlorotic girls efpecially are very apt to become drop-
fical.
Sometimes, however, this difeafe is occafioned by
a debility of the vital powers, by great evacuations of
blood, or by acute difeafes accidentally protrafted
beyond their ufual period ; and although this caufe
feems very different from a laxity of fibres, yet the
dropfy feems to be produced in a fimilar manner by
both. For the vital powers being debilitated by ei¬
ther of thefe caufes, naturally bring on a certain de¬
bility and laxity of the folids; and on the other hand
a debility of the folids always brings on a debility of
the vital powers ; and from this debility of the vital
powers in both cafes it happens, that thofe humours
which ought to be expelled from the body are not, but
accumulate by degrees in its cavities. There is, how¬
ever, this difference between the two kinds of dropfy
arifing from thefe two different caufes, That in the one
which arifes from laxity the folid parts are more in¬
jured than in that which arifes from a debility of the
vital powers. In the former, therefore, the water feems
to flow out from every quarter, and the body fwells
all over. But when the difeafe is occafioned by a de¬
bility of the vital powers, though the folids be lefs da¬
maged, yet the power of the heart being much di-
minifhed, and the humours fcarce propelled through
the extreme veffels, the thin liquids, by which in
a healthy ftate the body is daily recruited, are car¬
ried by their own weight either into the cavities or
into the cellular texture. lienee thofe aqueous effu-
fions which follow great evacuations of blood, or vio-
O 0 lent
290
Intume
fcentise
M E D I
lent loofenefles, begin in the more depending parts of
the body, gradually afcending, till they arrive at the
cavity of the abdomen, or even the thorax.
But another and much more fufficient caufe for the
produ&ion of dropfy is an obftruftion of the circula¬
tion ; and this may take place from polypi in the heart
or large veffels, and hard fwellings in the abdomen.
Inftances have been obferved of a dropfy arifing from
lleatomatous tumors in the omentum, and many more
from a fcirrhous liver or fpleen, and from an infarc¬
tion and obftruftion of the myfenteric glands, by which
means the lymph coming from the extremities is pre¬
vented from arriving at the heart. Scirrhofity of
the liver, the moft common caufe of afcites, pro¬
bably operates by augmenting effufion in confequence
of its preventing the return of the venous blood, the
greater part of the veins from the abdomen going to
the formation of the vena portarum.
Laltly, whatever, either within or without the vef¬
fels, contracts or (huts up their cavities, produces a
more copious and eafy tranfmiffion of the thin humours
through the exhalant arteries, at the fame time that it
prevents their return by the abforbent veins. This
has been eftablifhed by experiment. For Lower ha¬
ving perforated the right fide of the thorax in a dog,
tied the vena cava, and fewed up the wound. The
animal languilhed for a few hours, and then died. On
diffe&ion, a great quantity of ferum was found in the
abdomen, as if he had long laboured under an afcites.
In like manner, having tied the jugular veins of another
dog, a furprifing fwelling took place in thofe parts
above the ligatures, and in two days the creature died.
On diffeftion, all the mufcles and glands were vaftly
diftended, and quite pellucid, with limpid ferum. From
thefe experiments, and fome cafes of the difeafe men¬
tioned by different authors, it appears, that when the
veins are obftrufted fo that they cannot receive the ar¬
terial blood, the ferum is feparated as by a (litre into
the more open cavities and laxer parts of the body,
while the thicker part (Magnates and is collected in the
proper blood-veffels.
The too great tenuity of the humours is very fre¬
quently accufed as the caufe of dropfy, and many au¬
thors have afferted that dropfy might arife merely from
a fuberabundance of water in the blood. For this
fome experiments are quoted, from which they
would infer, that when a great quantity of aque¬
ous fluid is introduced into the blood, the fuperfluous
fluid ought by no means to pafs through the extremities
of the fanguiferous arteries into the veins in the com¬
mon eourfe of circulation, but by being effufed into the
cavities (liould produce a dropfy. But this can on¬
ly happen when the vital powers are very much dimi-
niftied; for, in a natural (late, the fuperfluous quantity
is immediately thrown out by the (kin or the kidneys :
and agreeable to this we have an experiment of Schult-
zius, who induced a dropfy in a dog by caufing him
drink a great quantity of water ; but he had firft bled
him almoft ad deliquium, fo that the vital powers were
in a manner oppreffed by the deluge of water. In this
manner do thofe become hydropic who are feized with
the difeafe on drinking large quantities of water either
when wearied with labour, or weakened by fome kinds
of difeafea. Dr FothergilL relates an inftance of a
CINE. Practice.
perfon who, being advifed to drink plentifully ef bar- Afcites.
ley-water, in order to remove a fever, raftily drunk 12 t
pounds of that liquor every day for a month, and thus
fell into an almoft incurable diftemper. But if this
quantity had been taken only during the prevalence of
the fever, he would in all probability have fuffered no
inconvenience, as is probable from what has been
related concerning the dieeta aquea ufed by the La¬
bans.
It is moreover evident from experiments, that, in a
healthy ftate, not only water is not depofited in the ca¬
vities, but that if it is inje&ed into them it will be ab-
forbed, unlefs fome laxity of the folids has already
taken place. Dr Mufgrave injected into the right
fide of the thorax of a dog four ounces of warm wa¬
ter ; whence a difficulty of breathing and weaknefs im¬
mediately followed. But thefe fymptoms continually
leffencd, and in the fpace of a week the animal feem-
ed to be in as good health as before. Afterwards he
inje£ted 16 ounces of warm water into the left cavity
of the thorax in the fame dog; the fame effects fol¬
lowed, together with great heat, and ttrong pulfation
of the heart; but he again recovered in theTpace of a
week. Laftly, he injefted 18 ounces of water into
one fide of the thorax, and only fix into the other:
the fame fymptoms followed, but vaniftied in a much
(horter time; for within five days the dog was reftored
to perfeft health. During this time, however, he ob¬
ferved that the creature made a greater quantity of
urine than ufual.
The remote caufes of dropfy are many and various.
Whatever relaxes the folids in fuch a manner as to give
an occafion of accumulation to the ferous fluids, difi*
pofes to the dropfy. A lazy indolent life, rainy wet
weather, fwampy or low foil, and every thing which
conduces to vitiate the vifcera, or infenfibly to produce
obftruftions in them, paves the way for a dropfy.
Hence thofe are ready to fall into the difeafe who ufe
hard and vifcid aliments, fuch as poor people in fome
countries who ufe coarfe brown bread, and children
who are fed with unwholefome aliments ; and the fame
thing happens to thofe who drink immoderately of fpi-
rituous liquors.
Prognofu. When the dropfy arifes from a fcirrhus
of the liver or fpleen, or any of the other vifcera, the
prognofis muft always be unfavourable, and alfo when
it arifes from diforders of the lungs. Neither is the cafe
more favourable to thofe in whom the fmall veffels are
ruptured, and pour out their liquids into the cavity ©f
the abdomen. Thofe certainly die who have polypi in
the veffels, or tumors compreffing the veins and veffels of
the abdomen. A dropfy arifing from obftruftions in
the menfentetk: glands is likewife difficult to cure, whe¬
ther fuch obftru&ions arife from a bad habit of body,
or from any other caufe ; if we can, however, by any
means remove the difeafe of the glands, the dropfy
eafily ceafes. But in thofe who fall into dropfy without
any difeafe preceding, it is not quite fo dangerous;
and even though a difeafe has preceded, if the patient’s
ftrength be not greatly weakened, if the refpiration be
free, and the perfon be not affedted with any particu¬
lar pain, we may entertain great hopes of a cure. But
where a great lofs of blood is followed by a fever, and
that by a dropfy, the patients almoft always die, and
that
Pra£tice. MED!
Inturre- that in a fhort time : thofe, however, are very fre-
fcent:x quently cured who fall into this difeafe without any
^ preceding hasmorrhagy.
Cure. In the cure of this difeafe authors chiefly
mention two indications, i. To expel the fuperflu-
ous quantity of water; and, 2. To prevent its being
again collected. But before we proceed to fpeak of
the remedies, it is necefiary to take notice, that by
the animal-econony, if a great evacuation of a fluid
takes place in any part of the body, all the other
fluids in the body are directed towards that part, and
thofe which lie as it were lurking in different parts
will be immediately abforbed, and thrown out by
the fame pafiage. Hence the humours which in hy¬
dropic perfons are extravafated into the different cavi¬
ties of the body will be thrown into the inteftines,
and evacuated by purgatives; or by diuretics will be
thrown upon the kidneys, and evacuated by urine.
It is, however, not only neceffary to excite thefe
evacuations in order to remove this malady, but
they mult be afiiduoufly promoted and kept up till
the abundant humour is totally expelled. For this
reafon Sydenham has advifed purgatives to be admi-
niftered every day, unlefs, either through the too
great weaknefs of the body, or the violent operation
of the purgative, it fhall be neceffary to interpofe a
day or two now and then ; becaufe if any confiderable
intervals be allowed to take place between the exhi¬
bition of the purgatives, an opportunity is given to
the waters of colle&ing again. In this method, how¬
ever, there is the following inconvenience, that, when
the waters are totally evacuated, the ftrength is at
the fame time fo much exhaufled, that the dillemper
commonly returns in a very fhort time. Hence almoft
our only hopes of curing a dropfy confift in gently
evacuating the waters by means of diuretics. But
the efficacy of thefe is generally very doubtful. Dr
Friend hath long ago obferved, that this part of me¬
dicine is of all others the moft lame and imperfect;
but a French phylician, Mr Bacher, lately difcovered,
as he alleges, a method of making the diuretics much
more fuccefsful. His reputation became at laft fo
great, that the French king thought proper to purchafe
his fecret for a great fum of money. The balls of his
medicine was hellebore-root, the malignant qualities
of which he pretended to correct in the following
manner. A quantity of the dried roots of black hel¬
lebore were pounded, and then put into a glazed
earthen veffel, and afterwards fprinkled with fpirit
of wine. They were fuffered to ftand for twelve
hours, llirring them about twice or thrice during
that fpace of time. They were then fprinkled
again, and at laft good Rhenifh wine was poured on
till it flood fix fingers above the roots. The mixture
was frequently agitated with a wooden fpatula ; and
as the wine was imbib’d by the roots, more was
poured on, fo as to keep it always at the fame height
for 48 hours. The whole was then put on the fire
and boiled for half an hour, after which the decoftion
was violently prefied out; the fame quantity of wine
was added as at firft, and the mixture boiled as be¬
fore. After the fecond expreffion the woody refiduum
was thrown away as ufelefs. Both the flrained liquors
are then mixed together with two parts of boiling
water to one of the deco&ion. The whole is after-
C I N E.
wards evaporated in a filver veflel to the confidence of Afc
a fyrup. One part of the extradl is again added with
two parts of boiling water, and the whole infpiflated
as before.—By this means, fays he, the volatile nau-
feous acrid particles are feparated by evaporation,
and the fixed ones remain corre&ed and prepared for
medicinal ufes; adding, towards the end, a ninth
part of old brandy, and evaporating to the con¬
fluence of turpentine. Mr Bacher reafons a good
deal on the way in which this procefs corre&s the me¬
dicine; but tells us, that notwithilanding the improve¬
ment, his pills will not have the deflred effetl unlefs
properly made up. For forming them, they ought
to be mixed with matters both of an invifcating
and indurating nature; yet fo prepared that it will
be readily foluble in the flomach, even of a per-
fon already debilitated. For anfwering thefe pur-
pofes, he chofe myrrh and carduus benediclus, and
then gives the following receipt for the formation of
his pills
“ Take of the extraft of hellebore prepared as
above direfted, and of folution of myrrh, each one
ounce; of powdered carduus benedi&us three drachms
and a fcruple. Mix them together, and form into a
mafs, dividing it into pills of a grain and an half each.’'
To thefe pills Mr Bacher gives the name of the pi/u-
la tonic#, from an idea, that while they evacuate the
water, they at the fame time aft as tonics ; and thus
from augmenting the aftion of the lymphatics, pre¬
vent the return of the difeafe. And if both thefe in¬
tentions could be effeftually anfwered by the ufe of
the fame remedy, it would unquellionably be of great
importance in praftice.
The effefts of thefe pills were, we are told, very fur-
prifing. Dr Daignan relates, that he gave them to
18 hydropic patients at once; and thefe he divided
into three clafles, according to the degree of the dif¬
eafe with which they were affefted. The firlt clafs con¬
tained thofe who laboured under an anafarca following
intermittent fevers. The fecond clafs contained thofe
who had an anafarca, together with fome degree of
afcites, arifing from tedious febrile diforders. All thefe
were cured; but thefe two clalTes confifted of fuch cafes
as are moft eaflly removed. But the third contained fix
who were feized with a moft violent anafarca and afci¬
tes, after being much weakened by tedious diforders,
and of confequence in whom the difeafe was very
difficult to be cured. Even of thefe, however, four
were cured, and the other two died. The body of
one of thefe being diffefted, both fidcs of the cavity
of the thorax were found to be full of a black iffi-red
water. The lungs were unfound ; there was a poly¬
pous concretion in the right ventricle of the heart;
the liver and fpleen were hard, and of a preternatural
bulk ; and the glands of the mefentery were obftrufted
and infarfted. In the other, the liver and pancreas
were fcirrhous, and the fpleen very hard.
The fame medicines were given by De Horne to
eight perfons, fix of whom had both an anafarca and
aicites, but the other two only an afcites. Four of
thefe recovered; three died without being freed from
the dropfy ; one in whom the dropfy was cured died
in a ffiort time after, having for fome time before his
death become fpeechlefs.
By thefe patients 10 of the pills were taken at once;
O o 2 and
292 M E D I
Intume- and the fame dofe repeated to the third time, with an
t_ ce”tla' ■ interval of an hour betwixt each dofe. At firft they
proved purgative, and then diuretic ; by which laft
evacuation they finally cured the difeafe. But though
Mr Bacher was firmly of opinion that his pills cured
the dropfy by reafon of the above-related corre£Hon ;
yet it is certain that, in the hands of other prac¬
titioners, thefe very pills have failed, unlefs they
alfo made ufe of the fame regimen recommended by
that phyfician ; while, on the other hand, it is alfo
•certain, that different medicines will prove equally
efficacious in dropfical cafes, provided this regimen is
made ufe of.
For a great number of ages it has been recommend¬
ed to dropfical patients to abilain as much as pof-
fible from drink, and thus to the torments of their dif¬
eafe was added that of an intolerable thirft ; and how
great this torment was, we may underftand from an
example of a friend of king Antigonus, who, having
been clofely watched both by order of the phyficians
anti alio of the king, was fo unable to bear the raging
thirft occafioned by his difeafe, that he fwallowed his
cwn excrements and urine, and thus fpeedily put an
end to his life. Dr Milman Ihows at great length the
pernicious tendency of tin's practice. He maintains
that it is quite contrary to the fentiments of Hippo¬
crates and the bell ancient phylicians. He afferts,
that unlefs plenty of diluting drink be given, the bell
diuretics can have no effedl. He condemns alfo in the
ftrongeft terms the practice of giving dropfical patients
only dry, hard, and indigeftiftle aliments. Thefe would
opprefs the ftomach even of the moft healthy; and how
much more mull they do fo to thofe who are already
debilitated by labouring under a tedious diforder ? By
vhat means alfo are thefe aliments to be diflblved in
the ftomach when drink is with-held ? In this difeafe
the faliva is vifeid, and in fmall quantity; from whence
it may be reafonably conjedlured, that the reft of the
fluids are > of the fame nature, and the gaftric juices
like wife depraved. Thus the aliments lie long in the
ftomach ; and if the vifeera were formerly free of ob-
ftru&ions, they are now generated; the ftrength fails;
perfpiration and other excretions are obftru&ed ; the
vifeid and pituitous humours produced by thefe kinds
of food float about the prsecordia, and increafe the dif¬
eafe, while the furface of the body becomes quite dry.
Nay, fo much does this kind of diet confpire with the
difeafe, that 100 pounds of fluid will fometimes be
imbibed in a few days by hydropic perfons who take
no drink. Even in health, if the body from any caufe
becomes dry, of deprived of a confiderable part of its
juices, as by hunger, labour, &c. it will imbibe a con¬
fiderable quantity of moifture from the air ; fo that we
muft impute the abovementioned extraordinary inha¬
lation, in part at leaft, to the denial of drink, and to the
nature of the aliment given to -the fick. The following
is the account given by Dr Milman of his pradlice in
the Middlefex hofpitah
If the patient be not very much debilitated, he is
fometimes treated with the purging waters, and a dofe
of jalap and calomel alternately. On the intermediate
days he gets a faline mixture, with 40 or 60 drops of
acetum fciliiticum every fixth hour; drinking with the
purgatives oat-gruel and fome thin broths. That he
might the better afeertain what lhare the liquids given
CINE. fraefike.
along with the medicines had in producing a copious, Afcite*.
flow of urine, he fometimes gave the medicines in the —v——J
beginning of the diftemper without allowing the drink:
but though the fwellings were ufually diminiffied a
little by the purgatives, the urine ftill continued fcanty,
and the patients were greatly weakened. Fearing,
therefore, left, by following this courfe, the ftrength of
the fick might be too much reduced, he then began his
courfe of diuretic medicines, giving large quantities of
barley-water with a little fhl dlurelicus; by whic h
means, fometimes in the ffiort fprce of 48 hours after
the courfe was begun, the urine flowed out in very
large quantity : but as faline drinks are very difagree-
able to the tafte, a drink was compofed purpofely for
hydropic perfons, of half an ounce of cream of tartar
diflblved in two pounds of barley-water, made agree¬
ably fvveet with fyrup, adding one or two ounces of
French brandy.
To this-compofition Dr Milman was induced by
the great praifes given to cream of tartar by fome
phylicians in hydropic cafes. In the sic!a BononienJ'ia,
15 cafes of hydropic patients ate narrated who were
cured only by taking half ao ounce of cream of tar¬
tar daily. But it is remarkable, that by thefe very
patients the cream of tartar was taken for 20, 30,
nay 40 days, often without any perceptible effe£l; yet
when diflblved in a large quantity of water, it Ihowed
its falutary effe&s frequently within as many hours, by
producing a plentiful flow of urine. This liquor is
now the common drink of hydropic patients in the ho-
fpital abovementioned, of which they drink at pleafure
along with their medicines.
Among purgative medicines Dr Milman recom¬
mends the radix fenek*; but fays the deeo&ion of it, ac¬
cording to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, is too ftrong,
as he always found it excite vomiting when prepared
as there dtrebled, and thus greatly to diftrefs the pa¬
tients : but when only half an ounce or fix drachms
of the root are ufed to a pound of decobhon, inft-ead
of a whole ounce as dtrebled by the Edinburgh col¬
lege, he finds it an excellent remedy ; and though it
may fometimes induce a little vomiting, and frequently
a naufea, yet it feldom failed to procure nine or ten
ftools a-day, and fometimes alfo proved diuretic. But
we muft take care not to<be too free in the ufe of fe-
neka, or any other purgative, if the patients be very
weak ; and therefore, after having ufed purgatives for
fome time, it will be proper to depend upon diuretics
entirely for perfebling the cure ; and of the fucceft of
this method our author gives fome very remarkable in
ftances. But he obferves, that after the- dropfy is re¬
moved, the patients will fometimes die without any evi¬
dent caufe ; and of this it is proper that the phyficians
ffionld be aware. It is remarkable with what cafe a
flux of urine is induced in thofe who have a feirrhous
liver; while on the other hand, in one who had the
mefenteric glands obftrufted, along with a feirrhofity
of the liver and vitiated ftate of the lungs, the moft
powerful diuretics proved meffeblual. In fome cafes Dr
Milman thinks the kidneys may be fo prefled with the
weight of the water, as to be unable to perform their
office. With regard, however, to diuretics in gene¬
ral, it may be remarked, that the operation of none
of them can be certainly depended upon. In part'-
cular conftitutiou!, and at particular times, ene will
Practice. M E D I
Intume be obferved to fucceed, after another, though com-
fccti i e jnonly much more powerful, has been tried in vain.
,r" Accordingly various articles of this kind are often
ufed in fuccefiion. Recourfe is particularly often had
to the roots of taraxacum, of colchicum, and of fquills;
the latter, efpeeially when combined with calomel, is
often found to be a very powerful diuretic. And in¬
deed mercury in different forms, probably from a&-
ing as a deobilruent, is often of very great ufe in
dropfical complaints. Among other diuretics, the
ladfuca virofa has of late been highly extolled by Dr
Collins of Vienna, and the nicotiana tabaccum by Dr
Fowler of York : but neither has been extenfively
introduced into practice, although we have known
fome inftances in which the latter has been ufed with
great advantage-
The water having been drawn off, we ai-e to put
the patient on a courfe of ftrenglheners : inch as the
Peruvian bark, with fome of the warm aromatics, and
a due proportion of rhubarb infufed in wine and chaly-
beates. Gentle exercife, and friftions on the belly', with
iuch a courfe of diet as iball be light and nourifhing,
are alfo to be enjoined : and it may be obferved, that
the ufe of tonic medicines is by no means to be de¬
layed till a complete evacuation of the water can be
obtained. On the contrary, by alternating, and even
combining the ufe of evacuants and tonics, the influ¬
ence of both is often very much promoted.
When the patient can by no other means be-;relieved,
the operation of paracentefis muft be had pecourfe to,
which is deferibed under the article Surgery.
,, Genus LXXX. HYDROMETRA.
Dropsy of the Uterus.
Hydrometra, Sauv. gen. 289. Sag. 116. Bot'r/j.
1224.
345 Genus LXXXI. HYDROCELE.
Dropsy of the Scrotum.
Ofcheocele, Sau-v. gen. 41. Fog. 388.
Ofcheophyma, Sag. 44.
Hydrops feroti, Fog. 389.
Hydrops tedium, Boerh. 1227.
For the treatment of thefe two difeafes, we may
refer the reader to what has already been faid of other
fpecies of dropfy, particularly afeites. ' But both are
chiefly to be combated by chirurgical operation, efpe-
cially the latter, in which it feldom fails to produce a
complete cure.
Genus LXXXIt. PHYSCONIA..
Swelling of the Belly.
Phyfconia, Sauv. gen. 283. Fog. 325. Sag.
gen. 110.
Hypofarca, Lin. 218.
This difeafe may arife from a variety of caufes, as from
afwelling of the liver,fpleen,kidneys, uterus, omentum,
ovarium, mefentery, inteflines, &c. and fometimes it
arlfes merely from fat. In the former cafes, as the vif-
cera are generally feirrhous and indurated, the diftem-
per is for the mod part incurable ; neither is the pro-
fpeft much better where the difeafe. is occadoned by a
great quantity of fat..
CINE. 293
Genus LXXXIII. RACHITIS. Rachit;.,.
The Rickets. • ’ * J
Rachitis, Sauv. gen. 294. Lin. 212. Fog. 312. 347
Sag. gen. 120. Boerh. 1480. Hoffm. III. 487.
Zeviani della Rachitide. GUJfon de Rachitide.
Defcription. This is one of the difeafes peculiar to
infancy. It feldom attacks children till they are nine
months, nor after they are two years old; but it fre¬
quently happens in the intermediate fpace between
thefe two periods. The difeafe {hows itfelf by a dac-
cid tumor of the head and face, a loofe dabby {kin,
a fwelling of the abdomen, and falling away of the
other parts, efpecially of the mufcles. There are
protuberances of the epiphyfes of the joints ; the ju¬
gular veins fwell, while the red decreafe ; and the legs
grow crooked. If the child has begun to walk be¬
fore he be feized with this difeafe, there is a flownefs,
debility, and tottering in his motion, which foon
brings on a condant defire of fitting, and afterwards
of lying down ; infomuch that nothing at lad is move-
able but the neck and head. As they grow older,
the head is greatly enlarged, with ample futures ; the
thorax is compreffed on the ddes, and the dernum
rifes up {harp, while the extremities of the ribs are
knotty. The abdomen is protuberant, and the teeth
black and carious. In fuch patients as have died of
this difeaje, all the folids appear foft and flaccid, and
the fluids diffolved and mucous.
Caufes. The rickets, may proceed from ferofulous
or venereal taints in the parents, and may b'e increafed
by thofe.of the nurfe. It is likewife promoted by-
feeding the child with aqueous and mucou? fubdances*.
crude fummer-fruits, dlh, unleavened farinaceous ali¬
ment, and too great a quantity of fweet things.—
Sometimes it follows intermittent fevers and chronic
diiordeis ; and in fhort, is caufed by any thing which
tends to debilitate the. body, and induce a viicid and
unhealthy date of the juices.
Prognojts. The rickets do not ufualiy prove fatal
by themfelves, but if not cured in time, they
make the perlon- throughout life deformed, in vari¬
ous ways; and often produce very pernicious dif-
orders, fuch as carious bones in different parts of
the. body.
Cure. This is to be effected by mild cathartics, al¬
teratives, and tonics, fuch as are ufed in other difeafes
attended with a debility of the fydem and a vitiated
date of the blood and juices. In the Wedern Iflands
of Scotland, the medicine ufed for the cure of the
rickets is an oil extrafted from the liver of the Ikate-
filh. The method of application is as follows : Fird,
the wrids and ankles are rubbed with the oil in the
evening: this immediately raifes a fever of feveral
hours duration. When the fever from the drd rub¬
bing fubddes, the fame parts are rubbed again the
night following ; and repeatedly as long as the rub¬
bing of thefe parts continues to excite the fever.—.
When no fever can be excited by rubbing the wrids
and ankles alone, they are rubbed agam along with
the knees and elbows. This increafed undlion brings
on the fever again ; and is praitifed as before, till it
no longer has that effedf. Then the vertebra and
ddes. are rubbed, along with .the former parts; and:
this.-
294 M E D I
Intume- this unftion, which again brings on the fever, is re-
t ’fcentiie. peated as the former. When no fever can be any longer
excited by this undtion, a flannel-fhirt dipped in the
oil is put upon the body of the patient: this brings
on a more violent and fenfible fever than any of the
former un&ions; and is continued till the cure be com¬
pleted, which it commonly is in a fhort time.
A German phyfictan, Dr Strack, has lately pub-
lifhed a paper, in which he recommends the filings
of iron as a certain remedy in the rickets. This
difeafe, he obferves, in general begins with children
when they are about 16 months old. It is feldom
obferved with children before they be one year old,
and feldom attacks them after they pafs two ; and it
is very generally worfe where it begins early than
•where it begins late.
For effedling a cure, it is, he affirms, a matter of
the utmoft confequence to be able to diftinguiffi, very
early, whether a 'child will be affli&ed with rickets or
not. And this, he allures us, may be determined by
the following fymptoms : Palenefs and fwelling of the
countenance ; and in that part of the cheeks which
Ihould naturally be red, a yellow colour approaching
to that of fulphur. When that is the cafe, he directs
that a medicine Ihould be immediately had recoarfe
to which will retard the further progrefs of the dif-
'eafe and remove what has already taken place. For
this purpofe, he advifes that five grains of the filings
of iron, and as much rhubarb, fhould be rubbed up
•with ten grains of fugar, and given for a dofe every
morning falling, and every evening an hour before
•fupper. But if confiderable loofenefs Ihould be pro¬
duced, it will be necelfary, at firll, to perfill in the ufe
of one dofe only every day.
After a month’s continuance in this courfe, ac¬
cording to Dr Strack, there in general enfues a keen
appetite for food, quick digeftion, and a copious flow
of urine; by means of which the fulnefs of the face
and yellownefs of the complexion are by degrees re¬
moved, while the natural colour of the countenance
and firmnefs of the body in general are gradually re-
itored. This pra&ice, he aflures us, has never failed of
fuccefs in any one inftance; not even in thofe children
born of parents greatly affli&ed with the rickets.
In addition to the ufe of chalybeates, great benefit
is often alfo obtained in this difeafe from the ufe of
the cold bath ; which, under prudent adminillration,
is perhaps one of the moll effe&ual. remedies for this
complaint with which we are yet acquainted.
When the bones of rickety children begin to bend,
they may fometimes be reflored to their natural lhape
by comprefles, bolfters, and proper fupports. See the
article Surgery.
24.8 Order III. IMPETIGINES.
Impetigines, Sauv. Cl. X. Ord. V. Sag. Cl. III.
Ord. V.
349 Genus LXXXIV. SCROFULA.
King’s-evil.
Scrofula, Sauv. gen. 285. Fog. 367. Sag. 121.
Struma, Lin. 284.
Dtfcr'iption. This difeafe Ihows itfelf by hard, fcir-
C I N E.
Pra&ice.
rhous, and often indolent tumors, which arife by (le- Scrofula,
grees in the glands of the neck, under the chin, arm- -v—
pits, and different parts of the body, but moll com¬
monly in the neck, and behind the ears. In procefs
of time, the cellular fubllance, ligaments of the joints,
and even the bones themfelves, are affe&ed. In fcro-
fula the fwellings are much more moveable than thofe
of the fcirrhous kind ; they are generally fofter, and
feldom attended with much pain ; they are tedious in
coming to fuppuration; are very apt to difappear fud-
denly, and again to rife in fome other part of the body.
We may hkewife mention as chara&eriltic circum-
llances of this difeafe, a remarkable foftnefs of the
Ikin, a kind of fulnefs of the face, generally with large
eyes, and a very delicate complexion.
Caufes. A variety of caufes have been mentioned
as tending to produce fcrofula; viz. a crude indi-
gellible food; bad water; living in damp, low fitua-
tions; its being an hereditary difeafe, and in fome
countries endemic, &c. But whatever may m differ-
rent circumllances be the exciting or predifpofing
caufes of the fcrofula, the difeafe itfelf either de¬
pends upon, or is at leaft much connected with, a de¬
bility of the conllitution in general, and probably of
the lymphatic fyllem in particular, the complaint al¬
ways fliowing itfelf by fome affedtions of the latter.
And that debility has at leall a confiderable influence
in its production is probable, not only from the ma-
nifeft nature of fome of the caufes faid to be pro¬
ductive of fcrofula, but likewife from fuch remedies
as are found moll ferviceable in the cure, which are all
of a tonic invigorating nature.
Prognofis. The fcrofula is a diftemper which often
eludes the mod powerful medicines, and therefore phy-
ficians cannot with any certainty promife a cure. It
is feldom, however, that it proves mortal in a Ihort
time, unlefs it attacks the internal parts, fuch as the
lungs, where it frequently produces tubercles that bring
on a fatal confumption. When it attacks the joints,
it frequently produces ulcers, which continue for a
long time, and gradually wafte the patient; while
in the mean time the bones become foul and cor¬
roded, and death enfues after a long feene of mifery.
The prognofis in this refpeCl mult be regulated en¬
tirely by the nature of the fymptoms.
Cure. It was long fuppofed that fcrofula depended
upon an acid acrimony of the fluids; and this, it is
probable, gave rife to the ufe of burnt fponge, diffe¬
rent kinds of foap, and other alkaline fubftances, as
the bed remedies for acidity. But although a four-
nefs of the domach and pr'ma via does no doubt fre¬
quently occur in thefe complaints, yet this fymptom
feems.to be entirely the confequence of that general
relaxation which ia fcrofula fo univerfally prevails, and
which does not render it in the lead neceflary to fup-
pofe a general acefcency of the fluids to take place;
as the^one very frequently, it is well kn wn, even in '
other complaints, occurs without the leaft fufpicion of
any acid acrimony exiding in the other. This is alfo
rendered very probable from the indolent nature of
fcrofulous tumors, which have been known to fubfid
for years without giving any uneafinefs ; which could
not have been the cafe, if an acid, or any other acri¬
mony, had prevailed in them.
In the treatment of fcrofula, different morbid con-
I ditions,
Fra&ice. M E D I
linpetigines gitlon*, exifling in different parts, require, according
to circumftances, various means of cure : but, upon
the whole, the remedies direfted may be confidered as
ufed with a view either to the tumors, to the ulcera¬
tions, or to the general Hate of the fyftem.
Gentle mercurials are fometimes of ufe as refolvents
in fcrofulous fwellings ; but nothing has fuch confi-
derable influence as a frequent and copious ufe of Pe¬
ruvian bark. Cold bathing too, efpecially in the fea,
together with frequent moderate exercife, is often of
lingular fervice here; as is likewife change of air, efpe¬
cially to a warm climate.
In the fcrofulous inflammation of the eyes, or oph¬
thalmia ftrumofa, the Peruvian bark has alfo been given
with extraordinary advantage: and we meet with an
inftance of its having cured the gutta rofacea in the
face; a complaint which it is often difficult to remove,
and which is extremely difagreeable to the fair fex.
From the various cafes related of tumefied glands,
it appears, that when the habit is relaxed and the cir¬
culation weak, either from conftitution or accident, the
bark is a moft efficacious medicine, and that it a£ts as
a refolvent and difcutient. It will not, however, fuc-
ceed in all cafes; but there are few in which a trial
can be attended with much detriment. Dr Fothergill
obferves, that he has never known it avail much where
the bones were affefted, nor where the fcrofulous tu¬
mor was fo fituated as to be accompanied with much
pain, as in the joints, or under the membranous cover¬
ings of the mufcles; for when the difeafe attacks thofe
parts, the periofteum feldom efcapes without fome in¬
jury, by which the bone will of courfe be likewife af-
fefted. Here the Peruvian bark is of no effett r in-
ftead of leffening, it rather increafes the fever that ac¬
companies thofe circumftances: and, if it do not really
aggravate the complaint, it feems at leaft to accelerate
the progrefs of the difeafe.
Various are the modes in which the bark is admi-
niftered : Dr Fothergill makes ufe of a deco&ion,
with the addition of fome aromatic ingredients and a.
fmall quantity of liquorice-root, as a form in which a
fufficient quantity may be given without exciting dif-
guft. But where it is eafily retained in the ftomach
in fubftance, perhaps the beft form of exhibiting it is
that of powder; and in this ftate it is often advan-
tageoufly conjoined with powder of eicuta, an article
poffeffing very great deobftruent powers.
The powder, however, foon becomes difagreeable to
very young patients ; and the extraft feems not fo
much to be depended upon as may have been imagined.
In making the extra&, it is expofed to fo much heat,
as muft have fome effeft upon its virtues, perhaps to
their detriment. In adminiftering it, likewife, if great
care be not taken to mix it intimately with a proper
vehicle, or fome very foluble fubftance, in weak bowels
k very often purges, and thereby not only difappoints
the phyfician, but injures the patient. A fmall quan¬
tity of the cortex Winteranus added gives the medicine
a grateful warmth; and a little liquorice, a few rai-
fins, gum arabic, or the like, added to the decoftion
before it be taken: from the fire, by making the liquor
vifcid enables it to fufpend more of the fine particles
®f the bark; by which procefs the medicine is not on¬
ly improved in efficacy, but at the fame time rendered
kfs difagreeable.
CINE. 295
In indolent fwellings of the glands from vifcid hu- Scrofula,
mours, fea-water alfo has been ftrongly recommended “■ v
by Dr Ruffel.
Dr Fothergill alfo acquaints us, that the cicuta even
by itfelf is not without a confiderable (hare of efficacy
in removing fcrofulous diforders. He mentions the
cafe of a gentlemwoman, about 28 years of age, af-
flifted from her infancy with fcrofulous complaints, fe-
vere ophthalmies, glandular fwellings, &c. cured by
the extratlum cicuta: taken conftantly for the fpace of a
year. He obferves, however, that when given to
children even in very fmall dofes, it is apt to produce
fpafmodic affeftions; for which reafon he rarely exhi¬
bits it to them when very young, or even to adults of
very irritable habits.
Dr Fothergill gives feveral other inftances of the
fuccefs of cicuta in fcrofulous cafes, and even in one
which feemed to be not far removed from a confirmed
phthifis; but owns that it feldom had fuch good effefts
afterwards: yet he is of opinion,, that where there are
fymptoms of tubercles forming, a ftrumous habit, and
a tendency to phthifis, the cicuta will often be fer-
viceable. It is anodyne, correfts acrimony, and pro¬
motes the formation of good matter. With regard to-
the quality of the medicine, he obferves, that the ex-
traft prepared from hemlock before the plant arrives
at maturity, is much inferior to that which is mads
when the hemlock has acquired its full vigour, and is
rather on the verge of decline: juft when the flowers
fade, the rudiments of the feeds become obfervable,
and the habit of the plant inclines to yellow. This,
he thinks, is the proper time to colleft the hemlock.
It has then had the full benefit of the fummer heat;,
and the plants that grow in- expoftd places will gene¬
rally be found more active than thofe that grow in
the (hade. The lefs heat it undergoes during the pre¬
paration, the better. Therefore, if a confiderable quan¬
tity of the dry powder of the plant gathered at a
proper feafon be added, lefs boiling will be neceffaryv
and the medicine will be the more efficacious. But
let the extracft be prepared in what manner foever it
may, provided it be made from the genuine plant,
at a proper feafon, and be not deftroyed by boiling,
the chief difference obfervable in ufing. it is, that a
larger quantity of one kind is required to produce a
certain effeft than of another. Twenty grains of
one fort of extract have been found equal in point
of efficacy to thirty, nay near forty, of another ; yet
both of them made from the genuine plant, and moft
probably prepared with equal fidelity. To prevent
the inconveniences arifing from this uncertainty, it
feems always expedient to begin with fmall dofes, and
proceed ftep by ftep till the extraft. produces certain
effects, which feldom fail to arife from a full dofe.
Thefe effeifts are different in different conftitutions.
But, for the moft part, a giddinefs affecting the head,
and motions of the eyes as if fomething pulhed them
outwards, are firft felt; a flight ficknefs, and trembling
agitation of the body; a laxative ftool or two. One
or all thefe fymptoms are the marks of a full dofe, let
the quantity in weight be what it will. Here we muft;
flop till none of thefe effedts be felt; and in three or
four days advance a few grains more. For it has been
fuppofed by moft of thofe who have ufed this medicine.
to any good purpofe, that the cicuta feldom procures
any
eg5 r M EDI
iliTipetigine any benefit, though given for a long time, unlefs in as
' /— large a dofe as the patient can bear withput fuffering
any of the inconveniences above mentioned. There
is, however, reafon to believe,-that its effefts as a dif-
cutient are in no degree dependent on its rtarcotie
powers : and we are inclined to think, that recourfe
is often had to larger dofes than are neceffary ; or at
leaftthat the fame benefit might be derived from fmal-
ler ones continued for an equal length of time.
Patients commonly bear a greater quantity of the
extraft at night than at noon, and at. noon thkn in the
morning. Two drachms may be divided into thirty
pills. Adults begin with two in the morning, two
at noon, and three or four at night, with direc¬
tions to increafe each dofe, by the addition of a pill
to each, as they can bear it.
But after all, the bell form under which the cicufa
can, we think, he exhibited, is that of powder from the
leaves. This, either in a Hate of powder or made into
pills, may be given at firll to the extent of four or five
grains, and the dofe gradually riling till it amount
to 15 or 20 grains twice or thrice a day. Given to
this extent, particularly when conjoined with the Pe¬
ruvian bark, it has often been found of great lervice
in fcrofulous cafes. At the fame time it mull be al¬
lowed, that fuch patients, after refilling every mode of
cure, will have in fome in-llances a fpontaneous reco¬
very in the progrefs of life, probably from the fylleni
acquiring additional vigour.
35o Genus LXXV. SYPHILIS.
Lues Venerea, or French Pox.
Syphilis, Sauv. gen. 3086. Lin. 6. Vog. 3I9’
Sag. 126.
Lues venerea, Boerh. 1 440. Hnjj'm. III. 413. junck.
96. sl/truc de lue Venerea.
Dr Aftmc, who writes a very accurate hillory of
the lues venerea, is fully convinced that it is a new
difeafe, which never appeared in Europe till fome time
between the years 1494 and 1496, having been im¬
ported from America by the companions of Chrilto-
pher Columbus; though this opinion is not without
its opponents. Dr Sanches in particular has contend¬
ed with much learning and ability, that it appeared in
Europe at an earlier period: But it is at leall certain,
that it was altogether unknown to the medical prac¬
titioners of Greece and Rome, and that it was a very
common difeafe in America when the Europeans firll
■vifited that country. But at whatever period it may
have been introduced into Europe, or from whatever
fource it may have been obtained, there can be no doubt
that, as well as fmall-pox or mealies, fyphilis depends
on a peculiar fpecificcontagion; on a matter fm generis
which is alone capable of inducing this difeafe.
The venereal infetlion, however, cannot, like the
■contagious miafmata of the fmall-pox and fome other
difeafes, be carried through the air, and thus fpread
from place to place: for unlefs it is tranfmitted from
the parents to the children, there is no other way of
contracting the difeafe but from actual cbntaCl with
the infectious matter. Thus, when a nurfe happens
to labour under the difeafe, the infant that ihe fuckles
■will receive the irifedticn; as, on the other hand, when
the child is inftdied, ttie nurfe is liable to receive it:
Nq2oS. 2'
CINE. Praclics.
and there have even been inltances known oflyrng-in Syihihs.
women being infefted very violently, from having em-
ployea a perfon to draw their breads who happened to
have venereal ulcers in the throat. It may be caught
by touching venereal fores if the cuticle be abraded
or torn ; and in this way accoucheurs and midwives
have fometimes been infected feverely. Dr Mac-bride
fays, the moll inveterate pox he .ever faw was caught
by a midwife, who happened to have a whit clow on
one of her fingers when Hie delivered a woman ill of
the lues venerea.
But by far the moll ready way of contrafling this
difeafe is by coition, the genital parts being much
mote bibulous than the reft of the body. When the
diforder is communicated, the places where the mor-
bific matter enters are generally thofe where it fir it
makes its appearance; and as coition is the moll ufual
way of contracting it, fo the firlt fymptoms commonly
appear on or near the pudenda.
The patient's own account will, for the moll part,
help us to diilinguifli the difeafe : but there are fome¬
times cafes wherein w-e cannot avail ourfclves of this
information, and where, inllead of confeffing, the par¬
ties hall conceal all circumitances; while, on the
other hand, there are now and then people to he met
with, who eifuade themfel-ves that fymptoms are ve¬
nereal, which in reality are owing to fome other caufe:
and therefore it is of the utmoil importance to inform
ourfelves thoroughly of the nature of thofe fymptoms
and appearances which may be confidered as pathog¬
nomic ligns of lues venerea.
In the firll place, when we find that the local
fymptoms, fuch as chancres, buboes, phymoiis, and
the like, do not give way to the ufual methods-; or
when thefe complaints, after having been cured, break
out again without a fiefh infedlion ; we may jullly
fufpeil that^the virus has entered the whole mafs of
fluids: but if at the fame time ulcers break out in the.
throat, and the face is deformed by callous tubercles,
covered with a brown or yellow fcab, we may be af¬
fined that the cafe is now become a confirmed lues,
which will require a mercurial courfe.
When eruptions of the furfiiraceous and fuperficial
kind are venereal, they are not attended with itching:;
and the fcale' being picked off, the fkin appears of a
reddilh brown, or rather copper-colour, underneath 4
whereas leprous eruptions are itchy, throwoff a great¬
er quantity of feales, and rife in greater blotches,
efpecially about the joints of the knees and elbows.
Venereal tubercles or pultules are eafily dillinguilhed
from carbuncles of the face, by not occupying the
cheeks dr the nofe, nor.as having a purulent apex, but
are covered at top, either with a dry branny feurf like
the fuperficial eruptions juft now mentioned, or elfe
with a hard dry. fcab of a tawney yellow hue; they
particularly break out among the hair or near to it,
on the forehead or on the temples.
Venereal ulcers affedling the mouth are diftinguilh-
able from thdfe which are fcorbutic in the following
manner : j. Venereal ulcers firft affett the tonfils, fau¬
ces, and uvula ; then the gums hut thefe very rarely :
on the contrary, fcorbutic ulcers affecl the gums firll
of all; then the fauces, tonfils, and uvula. 2. Vene¬
real ulcers frequently fpread to the nofe ; fcorbutic
ones almoft never. 3. Venereal ulcers are callous in
Rta&ic*. MEDICINE.
.Impetigincs the edges; fcorhutic ones are not fo 4. Venereal great heat, itching, and ulceration of the eye-lids.
ulcers are circumfcribed, and, for the' moil part,- are 2. A finging and hiding noife in the ears, with ulcers
circular, at lead they are coniined to certain places 5 or caries in the bones of the meatus auditorius. 3.0b-
fcorbutic ones are of a more irregular form, fpread ftinate head-achs. 4. Obdinate cutaneous eruptions,
wider, and frequently affefl the whole mouth 5. Ve- of the itchy or leprous appearance, not yielding to the
nereal ulcers are for the mod part hollow, and generally milder methods of treatment. 5. Swellings of the
covered at bottom with a white or yellow dough ; bones 5 and, 6. Wandering and obdinate pains. None
but fcorbutic ones are more apt to grow up into loofe of thefe fymptoms, ho wever, can be known to be vene-
fungi.' 6. Venereal ulcers are red in their circumfe- real, except they happen to coincide with fome one or
rence, but fcorbutic ones are always livid. 7. Vene- other of the more certain figns.
real ulcers frequently rot the fubjacent bones, the fcor- ~ It may, perhaps, be considered as a Angularity in
butic ones feldom or never. 8 And ladly, Venereal this difeafe, that the diagnofis is often more difficult
ulcers are mod combined with other fymptoms which in the advanced than in the early periods of the affec-
are known to be venereal; fcorbutic ones with the di- tion. That is, with thofe who have been certainly
Ilinguidiing figns of the feurvy, fuch as difficult fubjefted to fyphilis, it is often very difficult to fay
breathing, lidleffitefs, fwelling of the legs, rotten whether certain fymptoms, remaining after the ordi-
gums, &c. nary modes of cure have been employed, be fyphilitic
Another fure fign of the confirmed lues is often af- or not. Very frequently, as appears from the fequel,
forded from certain deep-feated nodlurnal pains, parti- nodlurnal pains, ulcerations, and the like, remaining
cularly of the {bins, arms, and head. As for any fu- after a long courfe of mercury has been employed, are
perficial wandering pains that have no fixed feat, and in no degree of a venereal nature, but are in reality to
which affeft the membranes of the mufcles and liga- be confidered as confequences rather of the remedy
ments of the joints, they, for they moft part, will be than of the difeafe ; and are accordingly bell removed
found to belong to the gout or rheumatifm, and can by nourilhing diet, gentle exercife, and tonics But as
never be confidered as venereal unlefs accompanied long as any fymptoms of any kind remain, it is often im-
with fome other evident figns ; but with regard to the poffible to convince fome patients that they are cured ;
.pains that are deeply feated, and always fixed to the and it is often impoffible for a phyfician with certainty
fame place, and which affedl the middle and morefolid to affirm that the difeaie is altogether overcome,
part of the ulna, tibia, and bones of the cranium, Upon the whole, we are firit to dillinguifli and con-
and rage chiefly and with greateft violence in the fore- fider the feveral fymptoms apart; and then, by com¬
part of the night, fo that the patient can get no reft paring them with each other, a clear judgment may be
till morning approaches, thefe may ferve to convince formed upon the general review.
us that the difeafe has fpread itfelf throughout the JPrognnJts. Being thoroughly convinced that rhe cafe
whole habit, whether they be accompanied with other is venereal, we are to confider, fir ft of all, whether it
fymptoms of the lues or not. Gummata in the flelhy be of a longer or ftiorter date ; for the more recent it
parts, nodes in the periofteum, ganglia upon the ten is, it will, aeteru paribus, be lefs difficult to remove,
■dons, tophi upon the ligaments, cxojlofes upon the But there are other circumllances which will affift us
bones, and fiti at the verge of the anus, are all of them in forming a prognoftic as to the event. As,
figns of the confirmed lues : thefe are hard indolent 1. The .age of the patient. This diforder is more
fwellings; but as they fometimes arife independently dangerous to infants and old people than to fuch as
of any venereal infection, and perhaps may proceed are in the flower and vigour of life, in whom fome
from a fcrofulous taint, unlefs they be accompanied part of the virus may be. expelled by exercife, or may
or have been preceded by fome of the more certain be fubdued in fome degree by the ftrength of the con-
and evident fymptoms of the lues, we muftbe cautious llitution.
about pronouncing them venereal. When thefe fwel- 2. The fex. Though women are for the moft part
lings are not owing to the fyphilitic virus, they are weaker than men, and therefore fhould feem lefs able
very feldom painful, or tend to inflame and fuppurate ; to refill the force of any difeafe, yet experience fhows
whereas thofe that are venereal ufually do, and if they that this is ealier borne by them than by men ; per-
lie upon a bone generally bring on a caries. haps owing to the menftrual and other uterine dif-
Thefe carious ulcers are moft commonly met with' charges, by which a good lhare of the virus may be
upon the ulna, tibia, and bones of the cranium ; and carried off immediately from the parts where it was
when accompanied with nocturnal pains, we can ne- firll applied ; for it is obfervable, that whenever thefe
ver hefitate about declaring their genuine nature. Fi e- difeharges are obftrudled, or ceafe by the ordinary
■quent abortions, or the exclufion of fcabby, ulcerated, eourfe of nature, all the fymptoms of this difeafe grow
half-rotten, and dead fetlifts, happening without any worfe.
manifdt caufe to difturb the fetus before its time, or 3. The habit of body. Perfons who have acrid
•to deftroy it in the womb, may be reckoned as a fure juices will be liable to fuffer more from the venereal
fign that at leaft one of the parents is infetled • poifon than fuch as have their blood in a milder Hate ;
Thefe then are the principal and moft evident figns hence, when people of a fcorbutic or fcrofulous har
of the confirmed lues. There are others vyhich are more bit contract venereal diforders, the fymptoms are al-
■equivocal, and which, unlefs we can fairly trace them ways remarkably violent, and difficult to cure. And
back to fome that are more certain, cannot be held as for the fame reafons, the confirmed lues is much more
-figns of the venereal difeafe : Such are, 1. Obftinate to be dreaded in aperfon already inclined to anafthma,
-inflammations of the eyes, frequently returning with phthifis, drppfy, gout, or any other chronic diftem-
Vox.. XI. Part I. I1 P
M E D I
Impetigin^sper, than In one of a found and healthy confutation.
2" 1 » 1 - For as the original difeafe is increafed by the accef-
fion of the venereal poifon, fo the lues is aggravated
by being joined to an old diforder. The more nume¬
rous the fymptoms, and the more they affe& the bones,
the more difficult the cure. Of all combinations the
union of fyphilis with fcrofula is perhaps the moil
difficult to overcome : but if the acrimony ffiould
feize on the nobler internal parts, fuch as the brain,
the lungs, or the liver, then the difeafe becomes incu¬
rable, and the patient will either go off fuddenly in an
apople&ic fit or fink under a confumption.
Cure. Viewing this difeafe as depending on a pe¬
culiar contagious matter introduced into the fyftem,
and multiplied there, it is poffible to conceive that a
cure may be obtained on one of three principles; ei¬
ther by the evacuation of the matter from the fyftem,
by the deftrudlion of its adtivity, or by counteracting
its influence in the fyftem. It is not impoffible that
articles exift in nature capable of removing this com¬
plaint on each of thefe grounds: but we may ven¬
ture at leafl to affert, that few fuch are yet difco-
vered. Notwithftanding numbers of pretended infal¬
lible remedies for fyphilis, mercury is perhaps the only
article on which dependence is placed among European
practitioners ; and vvith^egard to its mode of opera¬
tion, all the three different opinions pointed out have
been adopted and fupported by different theorifts 
But although many ingenious arguments have been
employed in fupport of each, we are, upon the whole,
inclined to think it more probable that mercury operates
by deftroying the activity of the venereal virus, than
that it has effedb either by evacuating it, or by ex¬
citing a ftate of adlion, by which its influence is ccun-
terafted. Some pradtitioners have affirmed, that the
difeafe may be totally extirpated without the ufe of
mercury : but, excepting in flight cafes, it appears from
the moil accurate obfervations, that this grand fpeci-
fic is indifpenfable ; whether it be introduced through
the pores of the fkin, in the form of ointments, pla-
fters, waflies, &c. ; or given by the mouth, difguifed
in the different lhapes of pills, troches, powders, or fo-
lutions. •
Formerly it was held as a rule, that a falivation
ought to be raifed, and a great difeharge excited. But
this is now found to be unneceffary : for as mercury
probably afts by feme fpecific power in fubduing and
corredling the venereal virus, all that is required is to
throw in a fufficient quantity of the medicine for this
purpofe ; and if it can be diverted from the falivary
glands fo much the better, fince the inconveniences
attending a fpitting are fuch as we fhould always wifh
to avoidT.
Mercury, when combined with any faline fubftance,
has its adlivity prodigioufly increafed ; hence the
great variety of chemical preparations which have
teen contrived to unite it with different acids.
Corrofive fublimate is one of the moft adtive of all.
the mercurial preparations, infomuch as to become a
poifon even in very fmall dofes. It therefore cannot
fafejy be given in fubftance ; but muft be diflolved in
order to render it capable of a more minute divifion.
We may fee, by looking into Wifeman, that this is an
old medicine, thouch feldom given by regular pradti-
€ I N E. Pradice.
tioners. How it came to be introduced into fo remote Syphilis,
a part of the world as Siberia, is not eafily found out;
but Dr Clerc, author of the Hlfloire Naturelle de
PHomme Malade, affures us, that the fublimate folu-
tion has been of ufe there time out of mind.
It appears to have been totally forgotten in other
places, until of late years, when the Baron Van Swieten
brought it into vogue; fo that at one period, if we credit
Dr Locher, they ufed no other mercurial preparation
at Vienna. The number of patients cured by this re¬
medy alone in the hofpital of St Mark, which is undef
the care of. this gentleman, from 1754 to 1761 inclu-
five, being 4880.
The way to prepare the folution is, to diffolve a#
much fublimate in any kind of ardent fpirit (at Vien¬
na they ufe only corn-brandy) as will give half a grain
to an ounce of folution. The dofe to a grown per-
fon is one fpoonful mixed with a pint of any light pti-
fan or barley-water, and this to be taken morning
and evening : the patients fliould keep moftly in a
warm chamber, and lie in bed to fweat after taking
the medicine : their diet Ihould he light; and they
ought to drink plentifully throughout the day, of whey,
ptifan, or barley-water. If the foltition does not keep
the belly open, a mild purge mull be given from time
to time ; for Locher obferves, that thofe whom it pur¬
ges two or three times a-da'y, get well fooner than
thofe whom it does not purge: he alfo fays, that it
very feldom affefts the mouth, but that it promotes-
the urinary and cutaneous difeharges. This courfe is
not only to be continued till all the fymptoms difap-
pear, but for fome weeks longer. The fhorteft time
in which Locher ufed to let the patients out was fix
weeks ; and they were continued on a courfe of de-
codion of the woods for fome weeks after they left
off the folution.
This method has been introduced both in Britain
and Ireland, though by no means to the exclufion of
others ; but it appears, that the folution does not tarn
out fo infallible a remedy, either in thefe kingdoms,
or in France, as they fay it has done in Germany. It
was feldom if ever found to perform a radical cure*
and the frequent ufe of it proved in many cafes highly
prejudicial It has therefore been fucceeded in prac¬
tice, even at Vienna, by mercury exhibited in other
forms ; and, among thefe, by a remedy firft recom¬
mended by Dr Plenck, and fince improved by Dr
Saunders ; confifting of mercury united with mucilage
of gum arabic, which is faid to render its exhibition
perfectly mild and fafe. For particulars, we refer to
Dr Saunders’s treatife.
But a late French writer, fuppofed to be Dr Petit,
in a fmall book, intitled A parallel of the different
methods of treating the venereal difeafe, infills, that there
is neither certainty nor fafety in any other method that*
the repeated fri&ions with mercurial ointment.
If therefore it is determined to have recourfe to
the mercurial frictions, the patient may with advan¬
tage be prepared by going into the warm bath fome
days fucceffively ; having been previoufly blooded if o£
a plethoric habit, and taking a dofe or two of fome
proper cathartic.
The patient being fitted with the neceffary appara¬
tus of flannels, is then to enujr on the courfe.
If
Pra£tice. M E D I
Impetigines If the perfon be of a robufl habit, and in the prime
of life, we may begin with two drachms of the wi
guentum hydrargyri fortius, (Ph. Lond.) which is to
be rubbed in about the ankles by an affillant whofe
hands are covered with bladders : then having inter¬
mitted a day, we may expend two drachms more of the
ointment, and reft for two days ; after which, if no
forenefs of the mouth comes on, ufe only one drachm ;
and at every fubfequent fri&ion afcend till the oint¬
ment (hall reach the trunk of the body ; after which
the rubbings are to be begun at the wrifts, and from
thence gradually extended to the fhoulders. In order
to prevent the mercuty from laying too much hold of
the mouth, it muft be diverted to the (kin, by keep¬
ing the patient in a conflant perfpiration from the
warmth of the room, and by drinking plentifully of
barley-water, whey, or ptifan ; but if, neverthelefs,
the mercury (h@uld tend to raife a fpitting, then, from
time to time, we are either to give fome gentle cathar¬
tic, or order the patient into a vapour or warm bath :
and thus we are to go on, rubbing in a drachm of the
ointment every fecond, third, or Fourth night, accord¬
ing as it may be found to operate ; and on the inter¬
mediate days either purging or bathing, unlefs we
(hould choofe to let the falivation come on ; which,
however, it is much better to avoid, as we (hall
thus be able to throw in a larger quantity of mer¬
cury.
It is impofiible to afcertain the quantity of mercury
that may benecefiaryto be rubbed in, as this will vary ac¬
cording to circumftauccs ; but we are always to continue
the fricftions for a fortnight at lead, after all fymp-
toms of the difeafe (hall have totally difappeared ; and
when we have done with the mercury, warm bathing,
and fudorific deco&ions of the woods, are to be con¬
tinued for fome time longer.
This is a general (ketch of the methods of treat¬
ment for the confirmed lues; but for a complete hi-
ftory of the difeafe, and for ample dire&ions in every
fituation, we refer to Aftruc, and his abridger Dr
Chapman.—We have to add, however, that a method
of curing this difeafe by fumigation has been lately re¬
commended in France; but k feents not to meet with
great encouragement. One of the moft recent pro-
pofals for the cure of the venereal difeafe is that of
Mr Clare, and confifts in rubbing a fmall quantity of
mercury under the form of mercurius muriatus micis, or
calpmel as it is commonly called, on the infide of the
cheek ; by which means it has been fuppofed that we
will not only aveid the inconveniences of unftion, but
alfo the purgative efft&s that are often produced by
this medicine when taken into the ftomach. But af¬
ter all, the introdu&ion of mercury under the form
■of un&ion, as recommended by the lateft and beft
writers in Britain on the venereal difeafe, Dr Swe-
diaur, Mr John Hunter, and others, is ftill very ge¬
nerally preferred in Britain to any mode that has yet
been propofed.
Where, after a long trial of mercury, diftrefling
fymptoms ftill remain, particularly obftinate ulcera¬
tions and fevere pains, benefit has often been derived
from the ufe of opium : but there is little reafon to
believe, as has been held by fome, that of itfelf it af¬
fords an infallible cuie of this difeafe ; at lead we are
WKlin^d- to think* that all the fafts hitherto brought
CINE. 2Q9
in fupport of the cure of fyphilis by opium are at the Syphilis. ^
utmoft very doubtful.
In obftinate ulcerations, remaining probably after
the venereal virus has been overcome, and refilling
the ufe of mercury, a complete cure has in many in-
ftances been obtained from the ufe of the root of the
mezereon, the daphne mezercum of Linnaeus. This
article has been chiefly employed under the form of
decoftion ; and it now appears that it is the bafis of
an article at one time highly celebrated in venereal
complaints, under the title of bjbon diet-drink. But,
upon the whole, thefe fequelae of this difeafe are per¬
haps more readily overcome by country air, gentle
exercife, and nourifliing diet, particularly a milk diet,
than by the ufe of any medicine whatever. It muft
indeed be allowed, that for combating different feque¬
lae, various practices accommodated to tjie nature of
thefe wall on particular occafions be requifite. But
into the confideration of thefe we cannot here propofc
to enter.
Genus LXXXVI. SCORBUTUS.
Scurvy.
Scorbutus, Sauv. gen. 391. Lin. 223. Fog. 318.
Sag. IZ*]. Boerh. 1148. Hojfm. III. 369.
flinch. 91. Lind on the Scurvy. Hulme de Scor-
buto. Rouppe de morbis Navigantium.
Defcription. The firft indication of the fcorbutic dia-
thefis is generally a change of colour in the face, from
the natural and healthy look to a pale ant} bloated com¬
plexion, with a liftleffnefs, and averfion from every fort
of exercife; the gums foon after become itchy, fwell,
and are apt to bleed on the flighted touch; the breath
grows offenfive; and the gums, fwelling daily more and
more, turn livid, and at length become extremely fun¬
gous and putrid, as being continually in contaft with
the external air; which in every cafe favours the pu-
trefa&ion of fubftances difpofed to run into that (late,
and is indeed abfolutely Aquifite for the production
of actual rottennefs.
The fymptoms of the fenrvy, like thofe of every
other difeafe, are fomewhat different in different fub-
jc£ls, according to the various circumftances of confti-
tution; and they do not always proceed in the fame
regular courfe in every patient. But what is very re¬
markable in this difeafe, notwithllanding the various
and immenfe load of diftrds under w'hich the patients
labour, there is no ficknefs at the ftomach, the appe¬
tite keeps up, and the fenfes remain entire almoft to
the very laft : when lying at reft, they make no com¬
plaints, and feel little diftrefs or pain; but the mo¬
ment they attempt to rife or ftir themfelves, then the
breathing becomes difficult, with a kind of ftraitnefs
or catching, and great oppreffion, and fometimes they
have been known to fall into a fyncope. > This catch¬
ing of the breath upon motion, with thelofs of ftrength,
dejeftion of fpirit, and rotten gums, are held as the ef-
fential or diftinguiffiing fymptoms of the difeafe. The
(kin is generally dry, except in the very laft ftage,
when the patients become exceedingly fubjedt to faint-
ings, and then it grows clammy and moift : in fome
it has an anferine appearance ; but much oftener it is
fmooth and (hining; and, when examined, is found
to be fpread over with fpots not rifing above the fur-
face* of a redilh, bluiih, livid, or purple colour, with
P p 2 a
SSi
300 M E D I
impetigine- a fort of yellow rim round them. At firft thefe fpots
v——- are for the moft part fmall, but in time they increafe
to large blotches. The legs and thighs are the places
where they are principally feen ; more rarely on the
head and face. Many have a fwelling of the legs,
which is harder, and retains the imprdfion of the fin¬
ger longer than the common dropfical or truly cede-
matous fwellings. The flighted wounds and bruifes,
in feorbutic habits, degenerate into foul and unto¬
ward ulcers. And the appearance of thefe ulcers is
fo lingular and uniform, that they are eaiily dillin-
guiflied from all others. Scorbutic ulcers afford no
good digeftion, but give out a thin and fetid ichor
mixed with blood, which at length has the appear¬
ance of coagulated gore lying caked on the furface
of the fore, not to be feparated or wiped off without
fom? difficulty. The flefh underneath thefe Houghs
feels to the probe foft and fpongy, and is very putrid.
Neither detergents nor efcharotics are here of any
fervice ; for though fuch Houghs be with great pains
taken away, they are found again at the next dreffing,
where the fame fanguineous putrid appearance always
prefents itfelf. Their edges are generally of a livid
colour, and puffed up with excrefcences of proud flefh
ariling from below the Hein. As the violence of the
difeafe increafes, the ulcers fhoot out a foft bloody fun¬
gus, which often rifes in a night's time to a monftrous
fize ; and although dellroyed by cauteries, aftual or
potential, or cut away with the knife, is found at next
drefling as large as ever. It is a confiderable time,
however, before thefe ulcers, bad as they are, come
to affect the bones with rottennefs.—Thefe appear¬
ances will always ferve to affure us that an ulcer is
fcorbutic ; and fliould put us on our guard with re-
fpeft to the giving mercurials, which are the molt
pernicious things that can be adminiftered in thefe
cafes.
Scorbutic people, as the difeafe advances, are feldom
free from pains ; though they have not the fame feat
in all, and often in the fame perfon ftiift their place.
Some complain of univerfal pain in all their bones; but
moft violent in the limbs, and efpecially the joints: the
moft frequent feat of their pain, however, is fome part
of the breaft. The pains of this difeafe feem to arife
from the diftra&ion of the fenfible fibres by the extra-
vafated blood being forced into the interftices of the
periofteum and of the tendinous and ligamentous parts;
whole texture being fo firm, the fibres are liable to
higher degrees of tenfion, and confequently of pain.
The ftates of the bowels are various: in fome there
is an ©bftinate coftivenefs; in others a tendency to a
flux, with extremely fetid ftools: the urine is alfo rank
and fetid, generally high-coloured ; and, when it has
flood for fome hours, throws up an oily feum on t*.e
furface. The pulfe is variable ; but moft commonly
flower and more feeble than in the time of perfect
health. A ftiffnefs in the tendons, and weaknefs in the
joints of the knees, appear early in the difeafe: but as
it grows more inveterate, the patients generally lofe
the ufe of their limbs altogether; having a contradtion
of the flexor-tendons in the ham, with a fwelling and
pain in the joint of the knee. Some have their legs
monitroufly fvvelled, and covered over with livid fpots
or ecchymofes ; others have had tumors there; fome,
though without fwelling, have the. calves of the legs
CINE. Pradlicer,
and the flelh of the thighs quite indurated. As per- Scorbutus..
fons far gone in the feurvy are apt to faint, and even  v*
expire, on being moved and brought out into the frelh
air, the utmoft care and circumlpeftion are requifite
when it is neceffary to ftir or remove them.
Scorbutic patients are at all times, but more efpe¬
cially .as the difeafe advances, extremely fubjeQ: to
profuft bleedings from different parts of the body; as
from the nofe, gums, inleftines, lungs, &'c. and like-
wife from their ulcers, which generally bleed plenti¬
fully if the fungus be cut away. It is not eafy to-
coneeive a more difmal and diveriified fcenc of mifery?
than what is beheld in the third and laid ftage of this
diftemper; it being then that the anomalous and more
extraordinary fymptoms appear, fuch as the burfting
out of old wounds, and the diffolution of old fractures
that have been long united.
Caufes. The term feurvy has been indiferiminate-
ly applied, even by phyficians, to almoft all the dif¬
ferent kinds of cutaneous foulnefs; owing to fome
writers of the laft century, who comprehended fuch a
variety of fymptoms under this denomination, that
there are few chronic diftempers which may not be fo
called, according to their fcheme : but the difeafe
here meant is the true putrid feurvy, fo often fatal,
to feamen, and to people pent up in garrifons with¬
out fufficient fupplies of found animal-food and frefb
vegetables ; or which is fometimes known to be. en-t
demic in certain countries, where the nature of the
foil, the general ftate of the atmofphere, and the
common courfe of diet, all combine in.producing that
Angular fpecies of corruption in the mafs of blood-
which conftitutes this difeafe ; for the appearances, on-
differing fcorbutic fubje&s, fufficiently (how that the
feurvy may, with great propriety, be termed a difeafe
of the blood.
Dr Lind has, in a poftfeript to the third edition of
his treatife ou the feurvy, given the refult of his
obfervations drawn from the diffe&ion of a confider¬
able number of victims to this fatal malady, from which
it appears that that true fcorbutic ftate, in an advanced
ftage of the diftemper, confifts in numerous effufiona
of blood into the cellular interftices of moft parts o£
the body, fuperficial as well as internal; particularly
the gums and the legs ; the texture of the former
being almoft entirely cellular, and the generally de¬
pendent ftate of the latter rendering thefe parts, o£
all others in the whole body, the moft apt.to receive*
and retain the ftagnant blood, when its crafis comes,
to be deftroyed; and it lofes that glutinous quality,
which, during health, hinders it from efcaping thro’
the pores in the coats of the blood-veffels or through:
exhalant extremities
A dropfical indifpofition, cfpecially in the legs and
breaft, was frequently, but not always, obferved in the
fubjefts that were opened, and the pericardium was
fometimes found diftended with water : the water
thus "Colle&ed was often fo fliarp as to fhrivel the
hands of the diffe&or; and in fome inftances, where
the Hein happened to be broken, it irritated and fefter-
ed the wound.
The flefliy fibres were found fo extremely lax and
tender, and the bellies of the mufcles in the legs and
thighs fo ftuffed with the effuftd ftagnating blood,
that it was always difficult, and fometimes impoffible,
to
Pra&lce.
M E D I
Impetiginesto raife or feparate one mufcle from another. He
fayS that the quantity of this effufed blood was ama¬
zing ; in fome bodies it feemed that almoft a fourth
part of the whole mafs had efcaped from the velfels ;
and it often fay in large concretions on the periofteum,
and in fome few inftances under this membrane im¬
mediately on the bone. And yet, notwithftanding
this, diffolved and depraved hate of the external flefliy
parts, the brain always appeared perfe&ly found, and
the vifcera of the abdomen, as well as thofe in the
thorax, were in general found quite uncorrupted.
There were fpots indeed, from extravafated blood,
obferved on the mefentery, intellines, ftomach, and
omentum ; but thefe fpots were lirm, and free from
any mortified taint; and, more than once, an effufion
of blood,«as large as a hand’s breadth, has been feen
on the furface of the ftomach ; and what was remark¬
able, that very fubjeft was not known while living to
have made any complaint of licknefs, pain, or other
diforder, in either ftomach or bowels.
Thefe circumftances and appearances, with many
others that are not here enumerated, all prove to a de-
monftration a putrefcent, or at leaft a highly depraved
ftate of the blood : gnd yet Dr Lind takes no fmall
pains to combat the idea of the fcurvy’s proceeding
from animal-putrefadfion ; a notion which, according
to him, “ may, and hath milled phyficians to pro-
pofe and adminifter remedies for it altogether ineffec¬
tual.”
He alfo, in the preface to his third edition, talks
of the mifchief done by an attachment to delufive theo¬
ries. He fays, “ it is not probable that a remedy for the
fcurvy will ever be difcovered from a preconceived hy-
pothefis, or by fpeculative men in the clofet, who
have never feen the difeafe, or who have feen at moft
only a few cafes of itand adds, “ that though a
few partial fafts and obfervations may, for a little,
flatter with hopes of greater fuccefs, yet more enlarged
experience muft ever evince the fallacy of all pofitive
affertions in the healing art.”
Sir John Pringle, however, is of a veiy different
opinion. He “ is perfuaded, after long refleftion, and
the opportunities he has had of converfing with thofe
who to much fagacity had joined no fmall experi¬
ence in nautical pra&ice, that upon an examination
of the feveral articles which have either been «f old
approved, or have of late been introduced into the
navy,, it will appear, that though thefe means may
vary in form and in mode of operating,, yet they all
fome way contribute towards preventing putrefaftion;
whether of the air in the clofer parts of a ftiip, of
the meats, of the water, of the clothes ana bedding,
or of the body itfelf.”
What Dr Lind has above advanced is the more re¬
markable, as, in the two former editions of his book,
he embraced the hypothefis of animal-putrefa&ion be¬
ing the caufe of the fcurvy ; and if thefe effufions of
blood, from a deftru&ibn of its crafis and the diffolved
Hate of the mufcular fibres, together with the rotten
condition of the mouth and gums, do not betray pu-
trefcency, it is hard to fay what does, or what other
name we ftiall beflow on this peculiar fpecies of de¬
pravation which conftitutes the fcurvy.
The blood, no doubt, derives its healthy properties,
and maintains them, from the due fupplics of whole-
C I N E. 30*
fome food; white the infoluble, fuperfluous, effete, and Scorbutus..
acrid parts, are carried off by the feveral difcharges 11
of ftool, urine, and perfpiration.
Our fenfes of tafte and fmell are fufficient to in¬
form us when our food is in a ftate of foundnefs and
fweetnefs, and Confequently wholefome; but it is from
chemiftry that we muft learn the principles on which
thefe qualities chiefly depend.
Experiments of various kinds have proved, that the
foundnefs of animal and vegetable fubftances depends
very much, if not entirely, on the prefence of their
aerial principle ; fince rottennefs is never obferved to
take place without an emiffion of fixed air from the
putrefying fubftance : and even when putrefadtion has
made a confiderable progrefs, if aerial acid can be
transferred, in fufficient quantity, from fome other
fnbftance in a ftate of effervefcence or fermentation,
into the putrid body, the offenfive fmell of this will
be deftroyed; and if it be a bit of rotten flefli with
which the experiment is made, the firmnefs of its fibres
will be found in fome meafure reftored.
The experiments of Dr Hales, as well as many’-,
others made fince his time, fhow that an aerial prin¬
ciple is greatly connedled with, and remarkably abun¬
dant in, the gelatinous parts of animal bodies, and in
the mucilage or farina of vegetables. But thefe are
the parts of our food which are moft particularly nu¬
tritive ; and Dr Cullen, whofe opinion on this as on
every other medical fubjedl muft be allowed of the
grcateft weight, affirms, in his Leftures on the Mate¬
ria Medica, that the fubftances on which we feed are
nutritious only in proportion to the quantities of oil
and fugar which they refpe&ively contain. This oil
and fugsr are blended together in the gelatinous part
of our animal-food, and in the mucilaginous and fari¬
naceous part of efculent vegetables; and, while thus
intimately combined, are not perceivable by our tafte,
though very capable of being developed and rendered
diftind by the power ef the digeftive organs; for in
confequence of the changes produced during digeftion,
the oily and the faccharine matter become manifeft to
our fenfes, as we may fee and tafte in the milk of a-
nimals, which is chiefly chyle a little advanced in its
progrefs toward fanguification; the oil is obferved to
feparate fpontaneoufly, and from which a quantity of
actual fugar may be obtained by a very fimple pro-
cefs.
Thus much being premifed, we can now readily
comprehend how the blood may come to lofe thofe
qualities of fmoothnefs, mildnefs, and tenacity, which,
are natural to it. For if, in the firft place, the fluids,
and organs fubfervierit to digeftion ftiould be fo far-
diftempered or debilitated that the nutritious parts of
the food cannot be properly developed, the blood
muft be defrauded of its due fupplies ; which will alfo
be the cafe if the aliment ftiould not originally con¬
tain enough of oily and,faccharine matter, or fhould
be fo circumftanced, from being dried or faked, as to
hinder the ready extrication of tl.ie nutritious parts;
or laftly, if the natural difcharges ftiould be inter¬
rupted or fufpended, fo that the fuperfluous, acrid,
and effete fluids are retained in the general mafs; in
all thefe inftances the blood muft of neceffity run into
proportionate degrees of depravation.
And hence we may underftand how it may poffibly-
happen,
M E D I
Impetigines liappen, that when perfons are greatly weakened by
* ’ ~v~"—' Ibme preceding diforder, and at the fame time debar¬
red the ufe of proper bodily exercife, the fcorbutic
diathefis fhould take place, even though they enjoy
the advantages of pure air and wholefome diet. But
thefe are folitary cafes, and very rarely feen ; for
whenever the fcurvy feizes numbers, and can be con-
■ fidered as an epidemic difeafe, it will be found to de¬
pend on a combination of the major part, or perhaps
all, of the following circumftances:
X. A moift atmofphere, and more efpecially if cold
be joined to this moifture. z. Too long ceflation
from bodily txercife, whether it be from conftraint,
or a lazy llothful difpofition 3. Deje&ion of mind.
4. Negleft of cleanlinefs, and want of fufficient clo¬
thing. 5. Want of wholefome drink, either of pure
water or fermented liquors. And, 6. Above all, the
being obliged to live continually on faked meats, per¬
haps not well cured, without a due proportion of the
vegetables fufficient to correft the pernicious tendency
of the fait, by fupplying the bland oil and faccharine
matter requiiite for the purpofss of nutrition.
Thefe general principles refpedting the caufes and
nature of fcurvy, feem to afford a better explanation
of the phenomena of the difeafe than any conje&ures
refpe&ing it that have hitherto been propofed. It
muff, however, be allowed, that Dr Lind is by no
means the only writer who is difpofed to confider this
difeafe as not referable to the condition of the circu¬
lating fluids. In a late ingenious treatife on this fub-
je& by Dr Milman, he ftrenuoufly contends, that the
primary morbid affedlion in this complaint is a debili¬
tated ftate of the folids arifing principally from want
of aliment. But his arguments on this fubjeft, as well
as thofe of Dr Lind, are very ably anfwered by a ftill
later writer on this fubjeft. Dr Trotter, who has drawn
his obfervations refpefting it from very extenfive expe¬
rience, and who confiders it as clearly eftablilhed, by
incontrovertible fafts, that the proximate caufe of
fcurvy depends on fome peculiar ftate of the blood 
Dr Trotter, in the fecond edition of his Obfervations
on the Scurvy, from the refult of farther obfervation
and later difcoveries in chemiftry, has attempted, with
much ingenuity, to prove that the morbid condition
of the blood, which takes place in fcurvy, arifes from
the abftra&ion of vital air, or, as it is now generally
called, oxygene; and this opinion, though ftill, per¬
haps, in fome particulars requiring farther confirma¬
tion, is, it mult be allowed, fupported by many plau-
fible arguments.
Prevention and Cure. The fcurvy may be prevent¬
ed, by obviating and correding thofe circumftanccs
■in refpeft of the non-naturals which were mentioned as
contributing to the difeafe, and laid down as caufes.
It is therefore a duty highly incumbent on officers
commanding at fea, or in garrifons, to ufe every pof-
fible precaution; and, in the firft place, to corre<ft the
coldnefs and moifture of the atmofphere by fufficient
fires: in the next, to fee that their men be lodged in
dry, clean, and well ventilated births or apartments:
thirdly, to promote cheerfulnefs, and enjoin frequent
exercife, which alone is of infinite ufe in preventing
the fcurvy : fourthly, to take care that the cloathing
be proper, and cleanlinefs of perfon ftri&ly obferved :
fifthly, to fupply the* with wholefome drinlt, either
I N E. Pra&ice.
pure water or found fermented liquors ; and if fpirits Scorbutus,
be allowed, to have them properly diluted with wa- ——v——*
ter and fweetened with melaffes or coarfe fugar : and
laftly, to order the faked meats to be fparingly ufed,
or fometimes entirely abftained from ; and in their
place, let the people live on different compofitions of
the dried vegetables; frefh meat and recent vege¬
tables being introduced as often as they can poffibly
be procured.
A clofe attention to thefe matters will, in general,
prevent the fcurvy from making its appearance at all,
and will always hinder it from fpreading its influence
far. But when thefe precautions have been negle&ed,
or the circumftances fuch that they cannot be put in
practice, and the difeafe hath actually taken place,
our whole endeavour muft be to reftore the blood to
its original ftate of foundnefs : and happily, fuch is
the nature of this difeafe, that if a fufficiency of
new matter, of the truly mild nutritious fort, and par¬
ticularly fuch as abounds with vital air, fuch as re¬
cent vegetables, or different acid fruits, can be- thrown
into the circulation while the fleffiy fibres retain
any tolerable degree of firmnefs, the patient will re¬
cover ; and that in a furprilingly fhort fpace of time,
provided a pure air, comfortable lodgings, fufficient
cloathing, cleanlinefs, and exercife, lend their necef-
fary aid.
i his being the cafe, the plan of treatment is to be
conduced almoft entirely in the dietetic way ; as the
change in the mafs of blood, which it is neceffary to
produce, muft be brought about by things that can be
received into the ftomach by pints or pounds, and not
by thofe which are adminiftered in drops or grains,
drachms or ounces. For here, as there is no diforder
of the nervous fyftem, we have no need of thofe
active drugs which are indifpenfably neceffary in fe¬
brile or nervous difeafes; the fcorbutic diathefis be¬
ing quite oppofite to that which tends to produce
a fever or any fpecies of fpafmodic diforders ; nay.
Dr Lind fays, he has repeatedly found, that even the
infection of an hofpital fever is long relifted by a fcor¬
butic habit.
It will now naturally occur to the reader, what
thofe alimentary fubftances muft be which bid the
faireft to reftore the blood to its healthy ftate ; and he
needs fcarcely to be told, that they are of thofe kinds
which the ftomach can bear with pleafure though ta¬
ken in large quantities, which abound in jelly or mu¬
cilage, and which allow thofe nutritious parts to be
eafily developed ; for though the vifcera in fcorbutic
patients may be all perfeftly found, yet we cannot ex¬
pert that either the digeftive fluids or organs fhould
poffefs the fame degrees of power, which enable them,
during health, to convert thexrude dry farinacea, and
the hard faked flefh of animals, into nourifhment. We
muft therefore fearch for the antifcorbutic virtue in the
tender fweet flefh of herbivorous animals; in new
milk; and in the mucilaginous acid juices of re¬
cent vegetables, whether they be fruits, leaves, or
roots.
The four juices of lemons, oranges, and limes, have
been generally held as antifcorbutics in an eminent de¬
gree, and their power afcribed to their acid; from a#
idea that acids of all kinds are the only correftors of
putrefa&ion. But the general current of practical
obfervatioBs
Practice. M E D I
Impetlginesobfervations fhows, and oup experiments confirm It,
 that the virtue of thefe juices depends on their aerial
principle; accordingly, while perfectly recent and in
the mucilaginous ftate, and efpecially if mixed with
wine and fugar, the juices of any one of thefe fruits
will be found a moft grateful and powerful antifcor-
butic.
Dr Lind obferving, “ that the lemon-juice, when
given by itfelf undiluted, was apt, efpecially if over-
dbfed, to have too violent an operation, by occafion-
ing pain and ficknefs at the ftomach, and lometimes a
vomiting ; therefore found it neceflary to add wine
and fugar. A pint of Madeira wine, and two ounces
of fugar, were put to four ounces and a half of juice,
and this quantity was found fufficient for weak pa¬
tients toufe in 24 hours : fuch as were very weak lipped
a little of this frequently according as their iirength
would permit; others who were ftronger took about
two ounces of it every two hours; and when the pa¬
tients grew ftill ftronger, they were allowed eight
ounces of lemon juice in 24 hours.”
While this very pleafant mixture, which is both a
cordial and an antifeptic, may be had, it would be
needlefs to think of prefcribing any other ; but when
the frefh juice cannot be procured, we mull have re-
courfe to fuch other things as may be obtained. But
tl»e various modes of combining and- adminiftering
t-hefe, fo as to render them perfeftly agreeable to the
ftomach, muft always be regulated by circumftances,
and therefore it will be in vain to lay down particu¬
lar dire&ions^ fince all that we have to do is, to fix
on fuch fruits and other frefh vegetables as can be
tnoft conveniently had and taken, and contrive to give
them in thofe forms, either alone or boiled up with
fleih-meat into foups, that will allow the patients to
confume the greateft quantities.
The firft promifing alteration from fuch a courfe is
ufually a gentle diarrhoea ; and if, in a few days, the
fkin becomes foft and moift, it is an infallible fign of
recovery; cfpecially if the patient gain ftrength, and
can bear being ftirred or carried into the open air
without fainting.
But if the belly fhould not be loofened by the ufe
of the fiefh vegetables, nor the Ikin become foft and
moift, then they muft be afijfted by fte-wed prunes, or
a decodfion of tamarinds with cream of tartar, in or¬
der to abate the coftivenefs ; and by drinking a light
decodtien of the woods, and warm bathing, in order
to relax the pores of the Ikin ; for nothing contributes
more to the recovery of fcorbutic patients than mode¬
rate fweating.
With regard to particular fymptoms, antrfeptic
mouth-waters compofed of a decodfion of the Peruvian
bark and infufion of rofes, with a folution of myrrh,
muft be ufed occafionally, in order to cleanfe the mouth,
and give firmnefs to the fpongy gums. Swelled and in¬
durated limbs, and ftiffened joints, muft. be bathed with
warm vinegar, and relaxed by the fteam of warm wai¬
ter, repeatedly csaveyed to them, and confined to the
parts by means of clofe blankets: ulcers on the legs
tnuft never be treated with undluous applications
nor (harp efcharotics; but the dreffing ftiould confiit of
lint or foft rags, dipt in a ftrong decodlion of Peru¬
vian bark.
This difeafe at no time requires, or indeed bears,
CINE. 3°5
large evacuations, either by bleeding or purging ; and. Scorbutus.,
as has been already mentioned, the. belly muft only "r"
be kept open by the frefh vegetables "or the mildeft
lakatives. But we are always to be careful that fcor¬
butic perfons, after a long abftinence from greens and
fruits, be not permitted to eat voracioufly at firft, left
they fall into a fatal dyfentery.
All, however, that has now been laid down as ne-
ceffary towards the cure, fuppofes the patients to be
in fituations where they can be plentifully furnifhed
with all the requifites; but unhappily thefe things are
not to be procured at fea, and often deficient in gar-
rifons : therefore, in order that a remedy for the fcur-
vy might never be wanting, Dr Macbride, in the year
1-762, firft; conceived the notion, that the infufion
of malty commonly called wort, might be fubftituted
for the common antifcorbutics ; and it was accord¬
ingly tried.
More than three years elapfed before any account
arrived of the experiments having been made: at
length, ten hiftories of cafes were received, wherein
the wort had been tried, with very remarkable fuccefs;
and this being judged a matter of great importance to
the feafaring pprt of mankind, thefe were immediate¬
ly communicated to the public in a pamphlet under
the title of yin hijlorical account of a ne w method of treat*
ing the feurvy at fea.
This was in 1767 ; but after that time a confider-
able number of letters and medical journals, fufficient
to make up a fmall volume, were tranfmitted to the
author, particularly by the furgeons of his Majcity’s
ffiips who had been employed of late years for ma¬
king difeoveries in the fouthern hemifphere. Certain
it is, that in many initances it has fucceeded beyond
expectation. In others it has fallen ffiort: but whether
this was owing to the untoward fituation of the pati¬
ents, or inattention on the part of the perfons who were
charged with the adminiftration of the wort, not pre¬
paring it properly, or not giving it in fufficient quan¬
tity, or to its own want of power, muft be collected
from the cafes and journals themfelves..
During Captain Cook’s third voyage, the moft re¬
markable, in refpeCt of the healthinefs of the crew,
that ever was performed, the wort is acknowledged to
have been of lingular ufe.
In a letter which this very celebrated and fuccefs-
ful circumnavigator wrote to Sir John Pringle, he
gives an account of the methods purfued for prefer-
ving the health of his people ; and which were pro¬
ductive of fuch happy effeCts, that he performed “ a
voyage of three years and 18 days, through all the
climates from 520 north to 71" fouth, with the lofs of
one man only by difeafe, and who died of a compli¬
cated and lingering illnefs, without any mixture of
feurvy. Two others were unfortunately drowned, and
one killed by a fall; fo that out of the whole number
118 with which he fet out from England, he loft
only four.
He fays, that much was owing to the extraordinary
attention of the admiralty, in caufing fucb articles to.
be put on board as either by experience or conjeChire
werejudged to tend moft to preferve the health of fea-
men; and with refpeCt to the wort, ue expreffes-
himfelf as follows:
“ Wc had on board a large quantity of malt, o£
4 which.
304 M E D I
•Imperig nes which was made /mid wort, and given (not only to
thofe men who had manifeft; fymptoms of the feurvy,
but to fuch alfo as were, from circumtlances, judged
to be molt liable to that diforder) from one or two to
three pints in the day to each man, or in fuch propor¬
tion as the furgeon thought neceffary, which fome-
times amounted to three quarts in the 24 hours : this
is without doubt one of the bell antifcorbutic fea-
medicines yet found out; and if given in time, will,
with proper attention to other things, lam perfuaded,
prevent the feurvy from making any great progrefs
for a conlxderable time : but 1 am not altogether of
opinion that it will cure it, in an advanced ftate, at fen.”
On this laft point, however, the Captain and his
Surgeon differ; for this gentleman pofitively alferts,
and his journal (in Dr Macbride’s polfeffion) confirms
it, that the infufion of malt did effe£t a cure in a con¬
firmed cafe, and at fea.
The malt, being thoroughly dried, and packed up
in fmall calks, is carried to fea, where it will keep
found, in every variety of climate, for at leall two
years: when wanted for ufe, it is to be ground in a
hand-mill, and the infufion prepared from day to day,
by pouring three meafures of boiling water on one
‘of the ground malt ; the mixture being well malhed,
•is left to infufe for 10 or 12 hours, and the clear in¬
fufion then Itrained olf. The patients are to drink it
in fuch quantities as may be deemed neceffary, from
one to three quarts in the courfe of the 24 hours: a
panado is alfo to be made of it, by adding bifeuit,
and currants or raifins; and this palatable mefs is ufed
by way of folid food. This courfe of diet, like that
of the recent vegetables, generally keeps the bowels
fufficiently open ; but in cafes where coftivenefs ne-
-verthelefs prevails, gentle laxatives mull be interpofed
from time to time, together with diaphoretics, and the
topical affillants, fomentations and gargles, as in the
common way of management.
Captain Cook was alfo provided with a large flock
-of four hr out; (cabbage-leaves cut fmall, fermented
and flopped in the fecond ftage of fermentation.) A
pound of this was ferved to each man, twice aeweek,
while they were at fea. Sour krout, fince the trial
made of it on board Captain Cook’s fhips, has been
extenfively ufed by direction of the Britilh govern¬
ment in many other fituations, where fcorbutus has
prevailed ; and it has been found to be highly fervice-
nble both in preventing and in curing the difeafe. It
-was particularly found during the late American war
to be highly beneficial to the Britiih troops befieged
-in Bofion, who were at that time entirely fed on fait
provifions font from England. '! he feurvy at one
-period broke out among them with very alarming ap¬
pearances.; but by the feafonable arrival of a quantity
of four krout, it was effedlually overcome. Care,
however, mull be bellowed, that this article be pro¬
perly prepared and properly kept When due at¬
tention is paid to thefe particulars, it may be prefer-
ved in good condition for many months ; and is con¬
sidered both by failors and foldiers as a very accept¬
able addition to their fait provifions. But when fer-
ved out to them in a putrid ftate, it is not only high¬
ly difagreeable to the talle, but probably alfo pernici¬
ous in its effedls
Among other means of preventing feurvy, Captain
CINE. PracUce.'
Cook had alfo a liberal fupply of portalle Jo up • -Scorbutus,
of which the men had generally an ounce, three —'
days in the week, boiled up with their peafe ; and
fometimes it was ferved to them oftener; and when
they could get frelh greens, it was boiled up with
them, and made fuch an agreeable mefs, that it
was the means of making the people eat a greater
quantity of greens than _ they would otherwife have
done. And what was Hill of further advantage,
they were furnilhed with fugar in lieu of butter or
oil, which is feldom of the fweetdl fort; fo that the
crew were undoubtedly great gainers by the exchange.
In addition to all thefe advantages of being fo
well provided with every neceffavy, either in the way
of diet or medicine, Captain Cook was remark¬
ably attentive to all the circumilances refpe&ing clean-
linefs, exercife, fufficient cloathing, provifion of pure
water, and purification of the air in the clofer parts
of the Ihip.
From the effeft of thefe different means, as em¬
ployed by Captain Cook, there can be little doubt
that they will with due attention be fufficient for the
prevention and cure of the difeafe, at leall in moll fi¬
tuations : but befides thefe, there are alfo fome other
articles which may be employed with great advantage.
Newly brewed fpruce-beer made from a decodlion
of the tops of the fpruce-fir and melaffes, is an ex¬
cellent antifcorbutic : it adls in the fame way that the
wort does, and will be found of equal efficacy, and
therefore may be fubftituted. Where the tops of
the fpruce-fir are not to be had, this beer may be pre¬
pared from the effence of fpruce as it has been call¬
ed, an article which keeps eafily for a great length of
time. But in fituations where neither the one nor
the other can be had, a moll falutary mefs may be
prepared from oatmeal, by infufing it in water,
in a wooden veffel, till it ferments, and begins to
turn fourilh; which generally happens, in mode¬
rately warm weather, in the fpace of two days.—
The liquor is then llrained off from the grounds,
and boiled down to the confiflence of a jelly, which
is to be eat with wine and fugar, or with butter and
fflgar.
Nothing is more commonly talked of than a land-
[curvy, as a dillinft fpecies of difeafe from that which
has been now deferibed ; but no writer has yet, given
a deferiptiqn fo clear as to enable us to diftinguifh it
from the various kinds of cutaneous foulnefs and erup¬
tion, -which indeed are vulgarly termed fcorbutic, but
which are a-kin to the itch or leprofy, and for the moll
part require mercurials. Thefe, however, are very dif¬
ferent d-ifeafes from the true fcorbutus, which, it is well
known, may prevail in certain fituations on land as well
as at fea, and is in no degree to be attributed to fea air.
Genus LXXXVM. ELEPHANTIASIS. ?|2
'Elephantiafis, Sauv. gen. 30:. Vog. 321. Sag.
gen. 128.
Elephantia Arabum, Vog. 322.
The bell account of this difeafe i-s that by Dr He-
berden, publilhed in the IrHl volume of the Medical
Tranfadlions. According to him, frequently the firil
fymptom is a fudden eruption of tubercles, or bumps
of different fizes, of a red colour, more or lefs intenfe
3 (attended
Practice. M E D I
Impetigines (attended with great heat and itching), on the body,
legs, arms, and face ; fometimes in the face and neck
alone, at other times occupying the limbs only ; the
patjent is feverifh; the fever ceafmg, the tubercles re¬
main indolent, and in fomc degree fcirrhous, of a livid
or copper colour, but fometimes of the natural colour
of the fl<in, or at leaft very little altered ; and fome¬
times they after fome months ulcerate, difcharging 'a
fetid ichorous humour in fmall quantity, but never
laudable pus.
The features of the face fwell and enlarge greatly;
.the part above the eye-brows feems inflated ; the hair
of the eye-brows falls off, as does the hair of the beard;
but Dr Heberden has never feen any one whofe hair
has hot remained on his head. The ala naji are fwelled
and fcabrous; the noftrils patulous, and fometimes af-
fe&ed with ulcers, which, corroding the cartilage and
feptum riaji, occafion the nofe to fall. The lips are tu¬
mid ; the voice is hoarfe; which fymptom has been ob-
ferved when no ulcers have appeared in the throat, al¬
though fometimes both the throat and gums are ulce¬
rated. The ears, particularly the lobes, are thickened,
and occupied by tubercles. The nails grow fcabrous
and rugofe, appearing fomething like the rough bark
of a tree ; and the diftemper advancing,' corrodes the
parts gradually with a dry fordid fcab or gangredous
ulcer ; fo that the fingers and toes rot and feparate
joint after joint. In fome patients the legs feem rather
polls than legs, being no longer of the natural fhape,
but fwelled to an enormous fize, and indurated, not
yielding to the preffure of the fingers ; and the fuper-
ficies is covered with very thin fcales, of a dull whitilh
colour, feemingly much finer, but not fo white as thofe
obferved in the lepra Gracorum. The whole limb is
overfpread with tubercles, interfperfed with deep fif-
fures ; fometimes the limb is covered with a thick moift
fcabby cruft, and not unfrequently the tubercles
ulcerate. In others the legs are emaciated, and
fometimes ulcerated; at other times affedted with
tubercles without ulceration. The mtifcular fleih
between the thumb and fore-finger is generally ex¬
tenuated.
The whole ikin, particularly that of the face, has
a remarkably ftiining appearance, as if it was varniftied
or finely polilhed. The fenfation in the parts aff'edi¬
ed is very obtufe, or totally abolifhed ; fo that pinch¬
ing,, or pundinring the part, gives little or no uneafi-
nefs ; and in fome patients, the motion of the fingers
and toes is quite deftroyed. The breath is very offen-
five ; the pulfe in general weak and flow.
The difeafe often attacks the patient in a different
manner from that above-defcribed, beginning almoft in-
fenfibly ; a few indolent tubercles appearing on vari¬
ous parts of the body or limbs, generally on the legs
or arms, femetimes on the face, neck, or bread, and
fometimes in the lobes of the ears, increafing by very
flow degrees, without any diforder, previous or con¬
comitant, in refpedl of pain or uneafinefs.
To diftinguilh the diftemper from its manner of at¬
tacking the patient, Dr Heberden ftyles the firft by
jluxion and the other by congejlicn. That by fluxion
is often the attendant of a crapula, or furfeit from
grofs foods ; whereby, perhaps, the latent feeds of the
diforder yet dormant in the mafs of blood are excited;
and probably from frequent obfervation* of this kind
Voi.XI. Part L
CINE, 305
(the lall meal always having the blame laid on it), it Etephan-
is, that, according to the received opinion, either fifh, .
(the tunny, mackarel, and (hell-fifh, in particular), Y " " -
melons, cucumbers, young garden-beans, or mul¬
berries, eaten at the fame meal with butter, cheefe,
or any preparation with milk, are fuppofed to pro¬
duce the diftemper, and are accordingly religioufly
avoided.
Violent commotions of the mind, as anger, fear, and
grief, have more than once been obferved to have gi¬
ven rife to the diforder; and more frequently, in the fe¬
male fex, a hidden fuppreflion of an accuftomed evacu¬
ation, by bathing the legs and feet in cold water at an
improper feafon.
The diforder by fluxion is what is the ofteneft en¬
deavoured to be remedied by timely application ; that
by congeftion, not being fo confpieuous, is generally
either negle&ed or attempted to be concealed, until
perhaps it be too late to be cured, at leaft unlefs the
patients would fubmit to a longer courfe of medicine
and ftrifter regimen of diet than they are commonly
inclined to do.
Several incipient diforders by fluxion have been known
to yield to an antiphlogiftic method, as bleeding, re¬
frigerant falls, in the faline draughts, and a folution
of cryftals of tartar in water, for common drink,
(by this means endeavouring to precipitate part of
the peccant matter, perhaps too grofs to pafs the pores
by the kidneys); and when once the fever is overcome,
the Peruvian bark combined with faffafras is the
remedy principally to be relied on. The only to¬
pical medicine preferibed by Dr Heberden, was an
attenuating embrocation of brandy and alkaline fpi-
rit. By the fame method fome confirmed cafes have
been palliated. But, excepting in one patient, he
never faw or heard of a confirmed elephantiafis ra¬
dically cured. He adds, however, that he never met
with another patient poffeffed with prudence and perfe-
verance enough to profecute the cure as he ought.
Genus LXXXVIII. LEPRA.
The Leprosy.
Lepra, Sauv. gen. 303. Lin. 262. Sag. 129.
Lepra Gracorum, Vog. 320.
This diftemper is but little known to phyficians in
the weftern parts of Europe. Wallis tells us, that it
firft begins with red pimples! or puftules, breaking out
in various parts of the body. Sometimes they appear
fingle ; fometimes a great number arife together, efpe-
cially on the arms and legs: as the difeafe increafes,
frefti pimples appear, which, joining the former, make
a fort of clutters ; all which enlarge their borders, and
fpread in an orbicular form. The fuperficies of thefe
puftules are rough, whitifh, arid fcaly ; when they are
fcratched the fcales fall off, upon which a thin ichor
oozes out, which foon dries and hardens into a fcaly
cruft. Thefe clutters of puftules are at firft fmall and
few ; perhaps only three or four in an arm or leg, and
of the fize of a iilver penny. But if the difeafe be fuf-
fered to increafe, they become more numerous, and the
clufters increafe to the fize of a crown-piece, but not
exa&ly round. Afterwards it increafes to fuch a de¬
cree, that the whole body is covered with a leprous
feurf. The cure of this diftemper is very much the
Qjl fame
306 M E D I
Ipipetiginesfame with that of the Elephantiasis. Here, how-
CVer, recourfe is frequently had to antimonial and mer¬
curial medicines, continued for a confiderable length
of time. In conjun&ion with thefe, warm bathing,
particularly the vapour bath, has often-been employed
with advantage.
Although what can ftridfly. be called lepra is now,
at lead, a very rare difeafe in this country, yet to this
general head may be referred a variety of cutaneous
affedlions which are here very common, and which
in many inftances prove very obftinate. Thefe appear
under a variety of different forms; fometimes under
that of red puftules; fometimes of white feurfs^
fometimes of ulcei-ations ; and not unfrequently a tran-
fition takes place from one form to another, fo that
they cannot be divided into different genera from the
external appearance- Thefe affe&ions will' often yield
to the remedies already mentioned.; but where anti-
monials and mercurials either fail, or from different
circumftances are confidered as unadvifable,. a cure
may fometimes be effefted by others. In particular
cafes, purging mineral waters, the decodfion of elm
bark, the infufion of the cenanthe crocata,, and various
others, have been employed with fuccefs. Diffe¬
rent external applications alfo have fometimes been
employed with advantage. An article ufed in this
way, known under the name of Gowland’s lo¬
tion, with the compofition of which we are unac¬
quainted, has been much celebrated, and has been faid
to be ufed with great fucctfs, particularly againft
eruptions, on the face and nofe.
454 GEN.tis LXXXIX. FRAMBOESIA.
The Yaws.
Frambcefia, S'auv. gen. 125. Sag. 125.
Defcription. The defeription which is given of this
diftemper by the anonymous author of a paper in the
. fixth volume of the Edinburgh Medical Effays (art. 76)
differs, in fome circumftances, from one that Sauvages
received from M. Virgile, an eminent furgeon of Mont¬
pelier, who pradfifed 12 years in the ifland of St Do¬
mingo ; and therefore he diftinguifhes the frambajia
into two fpecies, Guineen/is and Americana.
The frambcefia Guineenfs is faid by the firft men¬
tioned writer to be fo common on the coal! of Guinea
and other parts of Africa, that it feldom fails to at¬
tack each individual of both fexes, one time or other,
in the courfe of their lives ; but moft commonly du¬
ring childhood or youth. “ It makes its appearance
in little fpots on the cuticle, level with the flcin, at firft
no larger than a pin’s head, which increafe daily, and
become protuberant like pimples : foon after the cu¬
ticle frets off, and then, inftcad of finding pus or
ichor, in this fmall tumor, only white Houghs or
fordes appear, under which is a fmall red fungus,
growing out of the cutis, increafing gradually to very
different magnitudes, fome lefs than the fmalleft wood
ftrawberry, fome as big as a rafpberry, and others ex¬
ceeding in fize even the largeft mulberries; which berries
they very much refemble, being knobbed as they are.”
Thefe protuberances, which give the name to the dif¬
eafe, appear on all parts of the body : but thegreateft
numbers, and the largeft fixed, are generally found in
the groins, and about the pudenda or anus, in the
arm-pits, and on the face; when the yaws are very
CINE. Pra&ice.
large, they are few in number ; and when remarkablyFramkoefia.
numerous, they are, lefs in fize. The patients, in allv—"v-—
other refpefts, enjoy good health, do not lofe their apr
petite, and feem to have little other uneafinefs than
what the fores occafion.
M. Virgile deferibes the fpecies of yaws that is
common among the negroes of St Domingo, and
which Sauvages has termed frambafa Americana, as be¬
ginning from an ulcer that breaks out indiferimirntely
in different parts of the body, though moft commonly
on the legs; at. firft fuperficial, and not different from
a common ulcer in any other circumftances fave its not
healing by the ufual applications ; fooner or later,
numerous fungous excrefcences break out on the fur-
face of the body, as before deferibed, like little berries,
moift, with a reddifh mucus. Beiides thefe, the foies
of the feet and palms of the hands became raw, the
flcin fretting off, fo as to leave the mufcles bare ; thefe
excoriations are fometimes moift with ichor and fome¬
times dry, but always painful, and confequently very
diftreffing. They are mentioned alfo by the author of
the article in the Medical Effays; and both he and
M. Virgile obferve, that there is always one excre-
fcence, or yaw, of an uncommon fize, which is longer
in falling off than the others, and which is confidered
as the mafer-yaw, and fo termed. An ingenious in¬
augural differtation on the fubjeft of the yaws was
lately publifhed at Edinburgh by Dr Jonathan An-
derfon Ludford, now phyfician in Jamaica. The
author of that differtation confiders Dr Cullen as im¬
properly referring frambcefia to the clafs of cachexias.
He thinks that this difeafe ought rather to be referred
to the exanthemata; for, like the fmall-pox, he tells
us it has its acceffion, height, and decline. It begins
with fome degree of fever, either more or lefs violent .
it may be propagated by inoculation ; and it attacks
the fame individual only once in the courfe of a life¬
time, thofe who once recover from the difeafe being ne¬
ver afterwards affected with it. Thefe particulars re-
fpedting frambcefia are refted not merely on the autho¬
rity of Dr Ludford, but are fupported alfo by the
teftimony of Dr William Wright, a phyfician of dif-
tinguifhed eminence, who, while he refided in Jamaica,
had, in the courfe of extenfive pra&ice, many oppor¬
tunities of obferving this difeafe, and to whom Dr
Ludford acknowledges great obligations far having
communicated to him many important fads refped-
ing it.
Dr Ludford confiders the yaws as being in every in-
ftance the confequence of contagion, and as depend¬
ing on a matter fui generis. He confiders no peculiar
predifpofition from diet, colour, or other circumftan?
ces, as being in any degree neceffary. He views
the difeafe as chiefly arifing from contad with the
matter, in confequence of fleeping in the fame bed,
walking in the fame veffel with the infeded, or the
like. In fliort, the yaws may be communicated by
any kind of contad ; nay, it is even believed that flies
often convey the infedion, when, after having gorged
themfelves with the virulent matter by fucking the uIt
cers of thofe who are difeafed, they make pundures in
the fldn of fuch as are found, and thus inoculate
them ; in confequence of which the diforder will foon
appear, provided the morbife difpoftion of body be pre-
fent.
Prognofs. The yaws ate not dangerous, if the cure
PraifUce. M E D I
tofetigine^ be fliilfully managed at a proper time ; but if the pa-
tient has been prematurely falivated, or has taken any
quantity of mercury, and his fltin been fuddenly clear¬
ed thereby, the cure will be very difficult, if not im-
prafticable.
Cure. In attempting the cure of this difeafe, the
four following indications are chiefly to be held in
1. To fupport the ftrength of the patient.
2. To promote excretion by the Hein.
3. To correft the vitiated fluids.
4. To remove and counteraft the injuries done either
to the conftitution in general, or to particular parts,
by the difeafe.
With the firft of thefe intentions, a liberal diet, con-
fifting of a confiderable quantity of animal food, with
a confiderable proportion of wine, and gentle exercife,
are to be employed : but the cure is principally to
be effefted by mercurial falivation, after the virulent
matter has been completely thrown out to the furface
of the body by fudorrfics. The following are the par¬
ticular dire&ions given on this head by the author of
the article in the Medical Effays. The yaws being an
infectious difeafe, as foon as they begin to appear on
a negro, he muft be removed to a houfe by himfelf;
or, if it is not certain whether the eruption be the
.yaws or not, (hut him up feven days, and look on him
again, as the Jews were commanded to do with their
lepers, and in that time you may be commonly cer¬
tain.
As foon as you are convinced that it is the yaws,
give a bolus of flowers of fulphur, with camphor and
theriaca. Repeat this bolus every night for a fortnight
t>r three weeks, or till the yaws come to the height;
that is, when they neither increafe in fize or number :
then throw your patient into a gentle falivation with
calomel given in fmall dofes, without farther prepara¬
tion ; five grains repeated once, twice, or thrice a-day,
is fufficient, as the patient can bear it. If he fpits a
quart in 24 hours, it is enough. Generally, when the
falivation is at this height, all the yaws are covered
with a dry fcaly cruft or fcab ; which, if numerous,
look terribly. Thefe fall off daily in fmall white fcales;
and in ten or twelve days leave the fltin fmooth and
clean. Then the calomel may be omitted, and the
falivation permitted to go off of itfelf. A dram of
corrofive fublimate diffolved in an ounce of rum or
brandy, and the folution daubed on the yaws, will, it
is faid, ip general clear the fltin in two days time,
After the falivation, fweat the patient twice or thrice
in a frame or chair with fpirits of wine; and give an
alterative eleftuary of aethiops and gum guaiac. He
may likewife ufe the decoftion of guiacum and faffa-
fras fermented with melaffes, for his conftant drink
while the eleftuary is taking, and a week or a fort¬
night after the ele&uary is finifhed.
The. mafter-yaw muft be confumed an eighth or a
tenth part of an inch below the (kin, with Mercur. corrof.
rub. £5 alum. ujl. an. part, /equal, and digefted with
Ung. bajil. Jlav. §j. and mercur. corrof. rub. jj. and
cicatrized wi th lint preffed out of fpirits of wine, and
with the vitriol of copper.
After the yaws are cured, fome patients are affliifted
with carbuncles in their feet; which fometimes render
them incapable of walking, unlefs with pain. The
CINE* 307
method of cure is, by bathing and paring, to deftroy Trichoma,
the cuticle, and then proceed as in the mafter-yaw. »
The gentle efcharotics are to be preferred, efpecially
here ; and all imaginable care is to be taken to avoid
the tendons and periofteum.
To children under fix or feven years old, at the pro¬
per time of falivating, when the yaws are come to
their full growth, give a grain or two of calomel in
white fugar, once a-day, once in two days, or once in
three days, fo as only to keep their mouths a little fore
till the yaws dry, and, falling off in white fcales, leave
the (kin clean. This fucceeds always, but requires a
longer time than in adults.
In St Domingo they falivated by undtion ; but it
does not appear that fuccefs always followed this
practice. It is alfo ufual in that ifland to give the fo¬
lution of corrofive fublimate along with a decoftion
of farfaparilla. Twelve ounces of this root, and 12
pounds of the coarfeft fugar, macerated for 15 days in
12 quarts of water, is mentioned as a fpecific, and faid
to be the prefcription of an Englifti phyfician ; the
dofe is four ounces every fixth hour.
Genus XC. TRICHOMA.
The Plica Polo NIC A, or Plaited Hair.
Trichoma, Sauv. gen. 311. Sag. 137.
Plica, Lin. 313.
Plica live Rhopalofis, Vog. 323.
This difofder is only met with in Poland and Li¬
thuania, and confifts of feveral blood-veffels running
from the head into the ends of the hairs ; which cleave
together, and hang from the head in broad flat pieces,
generally about an ell in length, but fometimes they
are five or fix yards long ; one patient hath more or
lefs of thefe, up to 20, and fometimes 30. They are
painful to the wearer, and odious to every fpeftator.
At the approach of winter an eruptive fever happens
to many in thefe countries i the eruptions principally
infeft the head, and when at the height an ichorous hu¬
mour flows from them. In this ftate they are too ten¬
der to admit of being touched, and the matter running
down the hairs mats them together 5 the (kin by de¬
grees breaking, the ramifications of the capillaiy vef-
fels following the courfe of the hair, or prolonged out
of the (kin, are increafed to a vaft length.
No method of relief is yet known ; for if the dif-
charge be checked, otthe veffels Cut off,the confequence
is an increafe of more miferable fymptoms, and in the
end death. Sennertus fays, when all the morbid mat¬
ter is thrown out of the body the plicae fall off fponta-
neoufly. He further obferves, that the only fafe prac¬
tice in this cafe is, to folicit the peccant matter to the
hairs, to which it naturally tends; and that this is bed
anfwered by lotions of bear’s-breech. Some fay that
a dccoftion of the herb club-mofs, and its feeds, with
which the head is to be walked, is a fpecific.
Genus XCL ICTERUS.
The Jaundice.
I tier us, Lin. 224. Hog. 306. Boerh. 918. junch,
90.
Aurigo, Sauv. gen. 306. Sag. 132.
Cachexia iderica, Hoffm. HI. 301.
Qjl2
355
35S
Defcription.
5© 8 M E D I
imp«tigines Defcr'ipt'wn. The jaundice firft fhows itfelf by a lift-
leflhefs and want of appetite, the patient becomes dull,
oppreffed, and generally coftive. Thefe fymptoms
have continued but a very Ihort time, when a yellow
colour begins to diffufe itfelf over the tunica albuginea,
or white part of the eye, and the nails of the fingers ;
the urine becomes high coloured, with a yellowilh fe-
diment capable of giving a yellow' tinft to linen ; the
ftopls are whitilh or grey. In fome there is a moft;
violent pain in the epigaftric region, which is confider-
ably increafed after meals. Sometimes the patient has
a continual propenfity to fleep ; but in others there is
too great watchfulnels; and fometimes the pain is fo
great, that though the patient be fleepy he cannot
compofe himfelf to reft. The pains come by fits; and
rooft women who have had the jaundice and born chil¬
dren, agree, that they are more violent than labour-
pains. As the difeafe increafes, the yellow colour be¬
comes more and more deep ; an itching is felt all over
the ikin ; and even the internal membranes of the vif-
cera, the bones, and the brain itfelf, become tinged, as
hath been ftiown from difiedtions, where the bones have
been found tinged fometimes for years after the jaun¬
dice has been cured.
In like manner, all the fecretions are affe&ed with
the yellow colour ©f the bile, which in this difeafe is
diffufed throughout the whole mafs of fluids. The fa-
liva becomes yellowifh and bitter ; the urine excefilvely
high-coloured, in fuch a manner as to appear almoft
black ; nay, the blood itfelf is fometimes faid to ap¬
pear of a yellow colour when drawn from a vein j yet
Dr Heberden fays that he never faw the milk altered
in its colour, even in cafes of very deep jaundice- In
procefs of time the blood begins to acquire a tendency
to diffolution and putrefa&ion ; which is known by
the patient’s colour changing from a deep yellow to a
black or dark yellow. Haemorrhagies enfue from vari¬
ous parts of the body, and the patients frequently die
of an apoplexy ; though in fome the difeafe degene¬
rates into an incurable dropfy; and there have not been
wanting inftances of fome who have died of the dropfy
after the jaundice itfelf had been totally removed.
Caufes. As the jaundice confifts in a diffufion of
the bile throughout the whole fyftem, it thence fol¬
lows, that whatever may favour this diffufion is alfoto
be reckoned among the caufes of jaundice. Many dif-
putes have arifen concerning the manner in which the
bile isreforbed into the blood; but it is now generally
agreed that it is taken up by the lymphatics of the
gall-bladder and biliary dufts. Hence, a jaundice
may arife from any thing obftrufting the paffage of
the bile into the duodenum, or from any thing which
alters the Rate of the lymphatics in fuch a manner as
to make them capable of abforbing the bile in its na¬
tural ftate Hence the jaundice may arife from fcirrhi
of the liver or other vifcera preffing upon the biliary
dudls, and obftrudling the paffage of the bile ; from
flatus diftending the duodenum, and {hutting up the
entrance of the duftus communis choledochus into it;
from the fame orifice being plugged up by vifcid bile,
or other fordes; but by far the moft frequent caufe of
jaundice is the formation of calculi, or more properly
biliary concretions: for although they were long con-
fidered as being of a calcareous nature, yet more accu¬
rate experiments have now demonftrated, that they con-
C I N E. Pra<5Uce.
fill principally of a febaceous matter; accordingly, while Jfleru*.
they are fo light as to fwim in water, they are aifo ''1T
highly inflammable. Thefe are found of almoft all
fixes, from that of a fraall pea to that of a walnut, or
bigger: they are of different colours; and fometimes
appear as if formed in the inward part by cryttalliza-
tion, but of lamellae on the outer part; though fome¬
times the outward part is covered with rough and
fliining cryftals, while the inward part is lamellated.
Thefe enter into the biliary dudts, and obftrudl them,
cauiing a jaundice, with violent pain for fome time ;
and which can be cured by no means till the concretion
is either paffed entirely through the dudtus communis
or returned into the gall-bladder. Sometimes, in the
opinion of many celebrated phyficians, the jaundice is
occafioned by fpafmodic conitriftions of the biliary
dufts; but this is denied by others, and it is not yet
afcertained whether thefe duffs are capable of being
affefted by fpafm or not, as the exiftence of mufcular
fibres in them has not with certainty been difcovered.
It cannot, however, be denied, that violent fits of paf-
fion have often produced jaundice, fometimes tempora¬
ry, but frequently permanent. This has been by fome
deemed a fufficient proof of the fpafmodic contra&ion
of the du<fts; but their opponents fuppofe, that the
agitation occafioned by the paffion might pufh for¬
ward fome biliary concretion into a narrow part of the
duff, by which means a jaundice would certainly be
produced, till the concretion was either driven back¬
ward or forward into the duodenum altogether. But
even fuppofing the dufts themfelves to be incapable of
fpafm, yet there can be no doubt that by a fpafm of
the inteftines biliary concretions may be retained in
the dufts ; and indeed it is principally where the duft
entering obliquely into the inteftinc forms as it were a
fpecies of valve that thefe concretions are retained..
In a very relaxed ftate of the body there is alfo an
abforption of the bile, as in the yellow fever; and in¬
deed in all putrid diforders there is a kind of yellowilh
tinft over the fkin, though much lefs than in the true
jaundice. The reafon of this is, that in thefe difor¬
ders there is ufually an increafed fecretion of bile,
commonly of a thinner conliftence than in a healthy
ftate, while the orifices of the lymphatics are probably
enlarged, and thus ready to abforb a fluid fomewhat
thicker than what they ought to take up in a healthy
ftate; but thefe diforders are of fhort duration in com-
parifon with the real jaundice, which fometimes lafts
for many years. Thefe affeftions, however, cannot
with propriety in any cafe be confidered as real in¬
ftances of jaundice ; for to conftitute that difeafe, bile
muft not only be prefent in the blood, but wanting ia
the alimentary canal.
It is obfervable, that women are more fubjeft to
jaundice than men, which probably arifes from their
more fedentary life ; for this, together with fome of
the depreffing pafiions of the mind, are found to pro¬
mote the acceffion of the difeafe, if not abfolutely to
produce it. Pregnant women alfo are frequently at¬
tacked by the jaundice, which goes off after their de¬
livery.
Proghofis. As jaundice may arife from many dif¬
ferent caufes, fome of which cannot be difcovered du¬
ring the patient’s life, the prognofis muft on this ac¬
count be very uncertain. The only cafes which admit
of
Pra&ice. M E D I
Impetigine* of a cure are thofe depending upon biliary concretions,
or obftruftions of the biliary du&s by vifcid bile ; for
the concretions are feldom of fuch a lize that the
duds will not let them pafs through, though frequent¬
ly not without extreme pain. Indeed this pain, though
fo violent, and almoft intolerable to the lick perfon,
affords the bell prdgnofis; as the phyfician may rea¬
dily affure his patient that there is great hope of
his being relieved from it. The coming on of a gentle
diarrhoea, attended with bilious ftools, together with
the ceffation of pain, are figns of the difeafe being
cured. We are not, however, always to conclude, be-
caufe the difeafe is not attended with acute pain, that
it is therefore incurable; for frequently the paffage of
a concretion through the biliary duds is accompanied
only with a fenfation of flight uneafinefs.
Cure. The great objed to be aimed at in the cure
of jaundice is unqueftionably the removal of the caufe
which obftruds the paffage of bile into the inteftine :
But before this can be accomplifhed, pradices are often
neceflary for alleviating urgent fymptoms; which may
be done fometimes by fupplying the want of bile in
the alimentary canal, fometimes by affording an exit
for bilious matter from the general mafs of blood, but
moll frequently by obviating the effeds of diftenfion
and obllrudion to the circulation in the fyftem of the
liver.
The meafures to be employed for the removal of the
obftrudion muft depend very much on the nature of
the obilruding caufe.
When the jaundice arifes from indurated fvvellings
or fcirrhi of the vifcera, it is abfolutely incurable; ne-
verthelefs, as thefe cannot always be difcovered, the
phyfician ought to proceed in every cafe of jaundice as
if it arofe from calculi. The indications here are, i. To
diffolve the concretions; and, 2. To prevent their for¬
mation a fecond, time. But unhappily the medical
art has not yet afforded a folvent for biliary concre¬
tions. They cannot even be diffolved when tried out
of the body either by acids or alkalies, or any thing
but a mixture of oil of turpentine and fpirit of wine ;
and thefe fubftances are by far too irritating to be
given in fufficient quantity to affed a concretion in
the biliary duds. Boerhaave obferves, that difeafes
of the liver are much more difficult to cure than thofe
in any other part of the body ; becaufe of the diffi¬
culty there is in getting at the part affeded, and the
tedious and round-about paffage the blood hath to it.
The juice of common grafs has indeed been recom¬
mended as a fpecific in the jaundice, but on no very
good foundation. Gliffon obferves, that black cattle
are fubjed to biliary concretions when fed with hay
or dried ftraw in winter, but are cured by the fuccu-
lent grafs in the fpring; and Van Swieten tells a ftrange
ftory of a man who cured himfelf of the jaundice by
living almoft entirely on grafs, of which he de¬
voured fuch quantities, that the farmers were wont to
drive him out of their fields ; but other praditioners
have by no means found this in any degree effedual.
The only method of cure now attempted in the jaundice
is to expel the concretion into the inteftines; for which
vomits and exercife are the principal medicines. The
former are juflly reckoned the moft efficacious medi¬
cines, as they powerfully fhake all the abdominal and
thoracic vifcera; and thus tend to diflodge any ob-
C I N E.
ftmding matter that may be contained In them. But
if there be a tendency to inflammation, vomits muft
not be exhibited till bleeding has been premifed. We
muft alfo proceed with caution if the pain be very
{harp; for in all cafes where the difeafe is attended
with violent pain, it will be neceflary to allay it by
opiates before the exhibition of an emetic. There is
alfo danger, that, by a continued ufe of vomits, a con¬
cretion which is too large to pafs, may be fo impaded
in the duds, that it cannot even be returned into the
gall-bladder, which would othervvife have happened,
in all cafes, therefore, if no relief follows the exhibition
of the fecond or third emetic, it will be prudent to for¬
bear their farther ufe for fome time.
Of all kinds of exercife, that of riding on horfeback
is moft to be depended upon in this difeafe. It ope¬
rates in the fame manner with vomits, namely, by the
concuffion it gives to the vifcera ; and therefore the
cautions neceffary to be obferved in the ufe of vomits
are alfo neceftary to be obferved in the ufe of riding.
Cathartics alfo may be of fervice, by cleanfing the
prim# vide, and foliciting a difeharge of the bile into
the inteftines; but they muft not be of too draftic a
nature, elfe they may produce incurable obftrudions,
by bringing forward concretions that are too large
to pafs. Anodynes and the warm bath are, fervice-
able by their relaxing quality; and there can be no
doubt that, from afting as powerful antifpafmodics,
they often give an opportunity for the difeharge of
concretions by very flight caufes, when they would
otherwife be firmly retained. Soap has been fuppofed
to do fervice as a folvent; but this is now found to
be a miftake, and it afts in no other way than as a re¬
laxant or as a gentle purgative.
But when all means of relief fail, as in cafes of feir-
rhous, we can then only attempt to palliate the fymp¬
toms, and preferve the patient’s life as long as poffible.
This is beft accompliihed by diuretics; for thus a great
quantity of bilious matter is evacuated, and the fyftem
is freed from the bad confequences which enfue on its
ftagnation in the habit. But even this is by no means
equal to the common evacuation by ftool; nor can all
the attempts to fupply the want of bile in the inteftines
by bitters and other ftomachics reftore the patient to
his wonted appetite and vigour. If the pain be very
violent, we muft on all occafions have receurfe to
opiates; or if the blood has acquired a tendency to
diflblution, it muft be counterafted by proper anti-
feptics.
If the difeafe goes off, its return muft be prevented
by a courfe of tonic medicines, particularly the Peru¬
vian bark and antifeptics t but we can by no means be
certain that the jaundice will not return, and that at
any interval; for there may be a number of .concre¬
tions in the gall-bladder, and though one hath pafled,
another may very quickly follow, and produce a new
fit of jaundice; and thus fome people have continued
to be affefted with the diftemper, at fhoit intervals,,
during life.
In the Eaft-Indies, mercury has been lately recom¬
mended as exceedingly efficacious in diforders of the
liver, efpecially thofe which follow intermitting and
remitting fevers. Dr Monro, in his Obfervations on
the means of preferving the health of foldiers, acquaints
us, that he has feen fome ifteric cafes which, he thought,
received
^ 309
(510 M E D I
Impetigir.es received benefit from taking a few grains of mercurius
v dulcis at night, and a purge next morning; and this
repeated two or three times a-week.
Infants are fubjeft to a temporary jaundice, com¬
monly called the gum, foon after birth, the caufe of
which is not well underftood. It differs remarkably
from the common jaundice; as, in the latter, the dtf-
eafe is firft difcoverable in the white of the eyes; but
though the fkin of infants in the gum is all over yel¬
low, their eyes always remain clear. The diforder
goes off fpontaneoufly, or by the ufe of a gentle pur¬
gative or two.
357
35?
359
3603
CLASS IV. LOCALES.
Vjtia, Sauv. Clafs I. Lin. CL XI. Vog. Cl. X.
Sag. Cl. I.
Plagse, Sag. Cl. II.
Morbi organici Auftorum.
ORDEftl. DYSiESTHESliE.
Dyfsfthefi*, Sanv. Cl. VI. Ord. I. Sag. Cl. IX.
Ord. I.
Genus XC1I. CALICO.
The Cataract.
Caligo, Sauv. gen. 153. Fog. 288. Sag. gen. 259.
Catarafta, Lin. 109.
A cataraS is an obftrudfion of the pupil, by the in-
terpofition of fome opaque fubftance which either di-
minifhes or totally extinguifhes the fight. It is ge¬
nerally an opacity in the cryftalline humour. In a
recent or beginning cataraSi, the fame medicines are
to be ufed as in the gutta ferena ; and they will fome-
times fucceed. But when this does not happen, and
the cataraft becomes firm, it muft be couched, or ra¬
ther extra&ed; for which operation, fee Surgery.—
Dr Buchan fays he has refolved a recent cataraft by
giving the patient fome purges with calomel, keeping
a poultice of frefh hemlock conftantly upon the eye,
and a perpetual blifter on the neck.
There is, however, but little reafon to fuppofe that
thefe praftices will frequently fucceed. A refolution
can only be effe&ed here by an abforption of the
opaque matter; and where this is poffible, there is
perhaps a better chance of its being effected by the
agency of the eledtric fluid than by any bthes means.
Tor this purpofe eleftricity is chiefly applied under
the form of the eledric aura, as it has been called; but
even this is very rarely fuccefsful.
Genus XCMI. AMAUROSIS.
The Gutta Serena.
Amaurofis, .SaMv. gen. 155. Lin. no. Fog. 238.
Sag. 261.
Amblyopia, Lin. 108. Fog. 236.
A gutta ferena is an abolition of the fight without
any apparent caufe or fault in the eyes. In every cafe
it depends on an affedlion of fome part of the optic
nerve. But -the affedfions which may produce this
difeafe are of different kinds. When it is owing to a
CINE. Practice,
decay or walling of the optic nerve, it does not admit Amaurofis.
of a cure ; but when it proceeds from a compreflion »
of the nerves by redundant humours, thefe may be in
fome meafure drained off, and the patient relieved.
For this purpofe, the body mull be kept open with
the laxative mercurial pills. If the patient be young,
and of a fanguine habit, he may be bled. Cupping
with fcarifications on the back part of the head will
likewife be of ufe. A running at the nofe may be
promoted by volatile falts, flimulating powders, &c.
But the molt likely means of relieving the patient,
are ilfues or blifters kept open for a long time on the
back part of the head, behind the ears, or on the
neck; which have been known to reftore fight even af¬
ter it had been for a eonfiderable time loft.—Should
thefe fail, recourfe muft be had to a mercurial faliva-
tion; dr, what will perhaps anfwer the purpofe better,
12 grains of the corrofive fublimate mercury may be
difiblved in an Englilh pint and a half of brandy, and
a table-fpoonful of it taken twice a-day, drinking half
a pint of the deco&ion of farfaparilla after it.—Of
late eledlricity has been much celebrated as efficacious,
when no other thing could do fervice ; and here it
has in fome degree the fame chance of fuccefs as in
other cafes of infenfibility, depending on an affedlion
of the nerves, in fome of which it has certainly in par¬
ticular cafes been of ufe.
In the amaurofis, Dr Porterfield obferves, that it is
of the utmoft confeqt ence to know of how long Hand¬
ing the difeafe has been; which is not always eafily
done if one eye only be affedled. This is a very elfen-
tial point; becaufe an amaurofis of long Handing is al¬
together incurable. Mr Boyle mentions the cafe of a
man who had a cataraft for feveral years without know¬
ing it himfelf, though others did. He difeovered it
at laft by happening to rub his found eye, and was fur-
prifed to find himfelf in the dark. When a perfon
therefore has a gutta ferena only in one of the eyes, he
may thinlqthat the eye has but lately loft the power of
fight; though this perhaps has been thecafe for feveral
years On the*other hand, he may imagine that a recent
difeafe of this kind is really of long Handing. But by in¬
quiring at what time he firft became fubjedt to mi-
ftakes in all aftions that require the diftance to be ex¬
actly diftinguiflred, as in pouring liquor into a glafs,
fluffing a candle, threading a needle, we may difeovef
the age of the difeafe, and thence be affifted to form
a more juft prognoftic with refpeA to its cure. Dr
Porterfield gives an inftance of his conjecturing in this
manner concerning the cafe of a young lady who had
difeovered a lofs of fight in one of her eyes only the
day before. The difeafe was thought to be of long
Handing ; but as the DoCtor found that fhe had only
been fubjedt to millakes of the kind above mentioned
for about a month, he drew a favourable prognoftic,
and the difeafe was cured.
Genus XCIV. DYSOPIA.
Depraved Vision.
Amblyopia, Sauv. gen. 154. Sag. 258.
There are feveral fpecies referred to this genus by
Dr Cullen, vi%.
1, Dyfopia Tenebrarum; 2. Dy/o/ua Luminis.—
The former of thefe is properly the nydalopia, or night-
blindnefs,.
361
Pra^ice. MEDICINE.
Djisetthe-blindnefs, of ancient authors. But amongft both the
Greek and Latin writers, there is a direft oppofnion
“ v in the ufe of this word nyctalopia ; fome faying it fig-
nifies “thofe who sArnot ke by night,” and others ex-
prefs by it “ thofe who cannot fee during the day, but
during the night.”—The difference in the account of
this diforder, as to its appearing in the night or in
the day, is reconciled by confidering it as of the in¬
termitting kind : the difference then will confifl in the
different times of its approach ; fo it may be called pe¬
riodica! b'lindnefs. Intermittents appearing in a variety
of modes, and the fuccefs of the bark in fome in-
ftances of this fort of blindnefs, both favour the opi-
aion of its being an intermittent difeafe of the eyes;
and this view has accordingly been takeri of it by fome
late writers, particularly in fome papers in the Lon¬
don Medical Obfervations, and Medical TranfaCtions.
3. Dyfopia Proximorum (Prcjbytia), or the defeft
of thofe who fee only at too great dijlance. 4. Dyfo-
pia Dissitorum (Myopia), or the defeat of thofe who
areJhortJighted.—Thefe are diforders which depend ©n
the original flrudfure or figure of the eye, therefore
admit of no cure. The inconveniences arifing from
them may, however, be in fome meafure remedied by
the help of proper glaffes. The former requires the
aid of a convex, and thejatter of a concave glafs.
5. Dyfopia Lateralis ; a defect by which objedts
cannot be viewed diftinftly but in an oblique pofition.
—Thus, in viewing an objedl placed on the left, they
turn their face and eye to the right, and vice verfa.—
This diforder may proceed from, various caufes both
natural and accidental, fome of which admit of no re¬
medy. If it be occalioned by a partial adhefion of the
eye-lids, the hand of the furgeon is required : if by a
tranfverfe pofrcion of the pupil, fome mechanical con¬
trivance is neceffary. If it be owing to an albugo co¬
vering part of the pupil, or to a film rendering a por-;
tion of the cornea opaque, the remedies for thefe af-
fedfions are to be here applied.
362
363
364
Genus XCV. PSEUDOBLEPSIS.
Imaginary VIsion of Objedts which do not exiftr
Suffufio, Sauv. gen. 217. Sag. 329.
Phantafma, Lin. 73. Sag. 289.
This very often takes place when the body is dif*
eafed, and then the patient is faid to be delirious.
Sometimes, however, in thefe cafes, it does not amount
to delirium ; but the perfon imagines he fees gnats or
other infedts flying before his eyes; or fometimesj
that every thing he looks at has black fpots in it,
which laft is a very, dangerous fign. Sometimes alfo
fparks of fire appear before the eyes ; which appear¬
ances are not to be difregarded, as they frequently
precede apoplexy or epilepfy. Sometimes, however,
people have been affedted in this manner during life
without feeling any other inconvenience. Such a dif-
order can rarely if ever be cured.
Genus XCVI. DYSECCEA.
Deafness, or Difficulty of Hearing.
Genus XCVII. PARACUSIS.
Depravation of Hearing.
Paracufis, Sauv. gen. 159. Sag. 265.
Syrigmus, daw. gen. 219. Sag. 231.
The fundtions of the ear may be injured by wounds, 1
ulcers, or any thing that hurts its fabric. The hear- '
ing may like wife be hurt by exceifive noife ; violent
colds in the head ; fevers ; hard wax, or other fiib-
ftances flicking in the cavity of the ear ; too great a
degree of moiflure or drynefs of the ear. Deafnefs is
very often the effedt of old age, and is incident to
moft people in the decline of life. Sometimes it is
owing to an original fault in the ftrudture or forma¬
tion of the ear itfelf. When this is the cafe it admits
of no cure ; and the unhappy perfon not only conti--
nues deaf, but generally likewife dumb, for life.
When deafnefs is the-effedt of wounds or ulcers of
the. ears, or of old age, it is not eafily removed-
When it proceeds from cold applied to the head, the
patient muft be carefuj to keep his head warm, efpe-.
daily in the night; he fliould likewife take fome gentle
purges, and keep his feet warm, and bathe them fre-<
quently in lukewarm water at bed-time. When deaf¬
nefs is the effedt of a fever, it generally goes off after
the patient recovers. If it proceed from dry wax
flicking in the ears, it may be foftened by dropping
oil into them ; afterwards they mull be fyringed with
warm milk and water.
If deafnefs proceeds from drynefs of the ears, which
may be known by looking into them, half an ounce
of the oil of fvveet almonds, and the fame quantity of
camphorated fpirit of wine, or tindture of afafoetida,
may be mixed together, and a few drops of it put into
the ear every night at bed-time, flopping them after¬
wards with a little woof or cotton. Some, inftead of
oil, put a fmall flice of the fat of bacon into each ear,
which is faid to anfwer the purpofe very well.—When
the ears abound with moifture, it may be drained off
by an iffue or feton, which fliould be .made as-near the
affedted parts as poffible.
Some, for the cure of deafnefs, recommend the gall
of an eel mixed with fpirit of wine, to be dropped in¬
to the ear; others, equal parts of Hungary-water and
fpirit of lavender. Etmuller extols amber and muik;
and Brookes fays, he has often known hardnefs of
hearing cured by putting , a grain or two of mulk in¬
to the ear with cotton-wool. Where, however, an
application with confiderable ftimulant power is necef¬
fary, camphorated oil, with the addition of a few drops
of volatile alkaline fpirit, may be confidered as one of
the bell. It is proper, however, to Begin with a fmall
quantity of the alkali, increafing it as the ear is found
to bear it. In fome inftances, where deafnefs depends
on a ftate of infenfibility in the nerves, eledlricity, par¬
ticularly under the form either of fparks. or of the
eledtric aura, has been employed with great fuccefs.
But thefe and other applications muft be varied ac¬
cording to the caufe of the diforder.
Though fuch applications may fometimes be of fer-
vice, yet they much oftener fail, and frequently they
do hurt. Neither the eyes nor ears ought to be tam¬
pered with; they are tender organs, and require a very
delicate touch. For this reafon, what we would chief¬
ly recommend in deafnefs, is to keep the head warm.
From whatever caufe' this diforder proceeds, this is al¬
ways proper; and more benefit has often been derived
from it alone, in the moft obftinate cafes of deafnefs2
than from any medicines whatever.
5
Genu's
.55 2
Dyfefthe. Genvs XCVII1. ANOSMIA.
. , DtfeS ef Smelliko,
3^5 Anofmia, Sauv. gen. 156. Lin. 113. Vog. 248.
262.
Caufes. Morbid affe&ions in the fenfe of fmelling,
may be confidered with refpeft to their caufes, as an¬
ting from one of two fources; either from fome orga¬
nic affeftion of the parts here principally concerned,
or from a mere atonic Hate of the parts without any
obvious affection. The fenfe of fmelling may be di-
fninifhed or deftroyed by various difeafes of the parts;
as, the moillure, drynefs, inflammation or fuppuration
of that membrane which lines the infide of the nofe
commonly called the olfactory membrane; the compreffion
of the nerves which fupply this membrane, or fome
fault in the brain itfelf at their origin. A defe&, or
too great a degree of folidity, of the fmall fpongy
bones of the upper jaw, the caverns of the forehead,
&c. may likewife impair the fenfe of fmelling. It
may alfo be injured by a colleftion of fetid matter in
thofe caverns, which keeps conilantly exhaling from
them. Few things are more Hurtful to the fenfe of
fmelling than taking great quantities of fnuff.
Cure. When the nofe abounds with moifture, after
gentle evacuations, fuch things as tend to take off
initation and coagulate the thin fliarp ferum may
be applied; as the oil of anife mixed with tine flour,
camphire diffolved in oil of almonds, &c. The va¬
pours of amber, frankincenfe, gum-maftic, and ben¬
jamin, may likewife be received into the nofe and
mouth. For moiftening the mucus when it is too dry,
fome recommend fnuff made of the leaves of marjoram,
mixed with oil of amber; and anifeed ; or a fternuta-
tory of calcined white vitriol, 12 grains of which may
be mixed with two ounces of marjoram-water and fil¬
trated. The fteam or vapour of vinegar thrown
upon hot iron received up the noftrils is likewife
of ufe for foftening the mucus, opening obftruttions,
&c.
If there be an ulcer in the nofe, it ought to be
dreffed with fome emollient ointment, to which, if the
pain be very great, a little laudanum may be added.
If it be a venereal ulcer, it is not to be cured without
mercury. In that cafe, the folution of the corrofive
fubVimate in brandy may be taken, as dire died in the
gutta ferena. The ulcer ought likewife to be waffled
with it; and the fumes of cinnabar may be received
up the noftrils.
If there be reafon to fufpe& that the nerves which
fupply the organs of fmelling are inert or want fti-
mulating, volatile falls, ftiong fnuffs, and other things
which occafion fneezing, may be applied to the nofe.
The forehead may likewife be anointed with balfam
of Peru, to which may be added" a little of the oil of
amber.
366 Genus XCIX. AGEUSTIA.
Defeat of Testing.
Ageuftia, Sauv. gen. 157. Sag. 263.
Ageuftia, Lin. 114.
Apogeufis, Vog. 449.
Caufe. This difeafe alfo may arife either from aa
organic affe&ion, ox an atonic ftale of the parts. The
N° 208.
Practice.
tafte may be diminilhed by crufts, filth, mucus, A^euftia.
aphthae, pellicles, warts, &c. covering the tongue;   *
it may be depraved by a fault of the faliva, which, be¬
ing difeharged into the mouth, gives the fame fenfa-
tion as if the food which the peribn takes had really a
bad tafte; or it may be entirely deftroyed by injuries
done to the nerves' of the tongue and palate. Few
things prove more hurtful either to the fenfe of tailing
or fmelling than obftinate colds, efpecially thofe which
afl’edl the head.
Cure. When the tafte is diminiftied by filth, mu¬
cus, &c. the tongue ought to be feraped, and fre¬
quently wafhed with a mixture of water, vinegar, and
honey, or fome other detergent. When' the faliva is
vitiated, which feldom happens unlefs in fevers or
other difeafes, the curing of the diforder is the cure
of this fymptom. To relieve it, however, in the mean
time, the following pra&ices may be of ufe : if there
be a bitter tafte, it may be taken away by vomits,
purges, and other things which evacuate bile : what
is called a nidorous ta/ie, arifing from putrid humours,
is corredled by the juice of citrons, oranges, and other
acids : a fait tafte is cured by plentiful dilution with
watery liquors: an acid tafte is deftroyed by abforbents
and alkaline falts, as powder of oyfter-lhells, fait of
wormwood, &c.
When the fenfibility of the nerves which fupply the
organs of tafte is diminilhed,' the chewing of horfe-
radifti, or other ftimulating fubftances, will help to
recover it.
Genus-C. ANAESTHESIA. 367
Defetd of the Senfe of Feeling.
Sauv. gen. 161. Lin. 218. Vog. 267.
Caufes, &c. This fenfe may be hurt by any thing
that obftru&s the nervous influence, or prevents its
being regularly conveyed to the organs of touching,
as preffure, extreme cold, &c. It may likewife be
hurt by too great a degree of fenfibility, when the
nerve is not fufficiently covered by the cuticle or fcarf-
Ikin, or where there is too great a tehfion of it, or it
is too delicate. Whatever diforders the fundtions of
the brain and nerves, hurts the fenfe of touching.
Hence it appears to proceed from the fame general
caufes as palfy and apoplexy, and requires nearly the
fame method of treatment.
In a jiupor, or defect of touching, which arifes
from an obltrudtion of the cutaneous nerves, the pa¬
tient mull firft be purged ; afterwards fuch medicines-
as excite the adtion of the nerves, or ftimulate the fy-
llem, may be ufed. For this purpofe, the fpirit of
hartlhorn, either by itfelf or combined with effential
oils, horfe-radiih, &c. may be taken inwardly; the
difordered parts, at the fame time, may be frequently
rubbed with frelh nettles or fpirit of fal ammoniac.
Blifters and linapifms applied to the parts will like¬
wife be of ufe ; and alfo warm bathing, efpecially in
the natural hot-baths.
Order II. DYSOREXI^E, 368
Sect. I. APPETITUS ERRONEI.
Morofitates, Sauv. Clafs VIII. Order II. Sag.
Clafs XIH. Order II.
6
MEDICINE.
Fathetici,
Pra6Hce. M EDI
Dyforcxix Pathetic!, Lin. Clafs V. Older II.
  Hyperaefthefes, Vog. Clafs VII.
369 Genus Cl. BULIMIA.
Insatiable Hunger, or Canine appetite.
Bulimia, Sauv. gen. 7.2$. Lin. 79. Sag. gen. 335.
Bulimus, Vog. 296.
Addephagia, Vog. 297.
Cynorexia, Vog. 298.
CINE.
eafes, as for example in fevers, often point out a na-
tural cure. The indulgence of fuch appetites to a —"V
moderate degree is feldom produdlive of any incon¬
venience, and often followed by the belt confequences.—
Hence there are fome practitioners who think that
fuch craving Ihould very generally be indulged ; par¬
ticularly when the patient can allign no reafon what¬
ever for fuch particular longings, but is merely
prompted by an uncommon and inexplicable defire.
This difeafe is commonly owing to fome fault in
the ftomach, by which the aliments are thrown out
too foon ; and unlefs the perfon -be indulged in his
defire for eating, he frequently falls into fainting fits.
Sometimes it is attended with fuch a Hate of the fto¬
mach, that the aliment is reje&ed by vomit almoft im¬
mediately after being fwallowed ; after which the ap¬
petite for food returns as violent as ever. But there
are many circumftances which feem to render it pro¬
bable that it more frequently arifes. from a morbid
condition of the fecreted fluid poured into the fto¬
mach, by means of which the aliment is difiblved.
When the aftivity of this fluid is morbidly increafed,
it will both produce too hidden a folution of the folid
aliment, and likewife operate as a powerful and pecu¬
liar ftimulus to the ftomach, giving an uneafy fenfa-
tion, fimilar to that which takes place in natural hun¬
ger. Such things are proper for the cure as may-
enable the ftomach to perform its office: chaly-
beates and other tonics will generally be proper.
In fome, brandy drunk in a morning has been ufe-
ful; and frequent fmoking tobacco has relieved others.
Oil, fat meat, pork, opiates, and in fhort every
thing which in a found perfon would be moft apt
to pall the appetite, may alfo be ufed as tempo¬
rary expedients, but cannot be expedted to perform
a cure. In fome, the pylorus has been found too
large ; in which cafe the difeafe muft have been in¬
curable.
Genus CII. POLYDIPSIA.
37° Excessive Thirst.
Polydipfia, Sauv. gen. 224. Lin. So. Vog. 275.
Sag. 336.
This is almoft always fymptomatic ; and occurs in
fever, dropfy, fluxes, See. The cure is very generally
obtained only by the removal of the primary difeafe ;
and it is belt palliated by the gradual introdudfion of
diluents : But when thefe are contraindicated, it may
often be fuccefsfully obviated by fnch articles taken
into the mouth as have effect in augmenting the flow
of faliva.
Genus CII1. PICA.
37l Longing, or Falfe appetite.
Pica, Sauv. gen. 222. Sag. 334.
Citta, Lin. 78.
Allotriophagia, Vog. 299.
Malacia, Vog. 300.
The pica is alfo very generally fymptomatic of
other difeafes, as of worms, chlorofis, pregnancy, &c. ;
and is therefore chiefly to be combated by the re¬
moval of the primary affedtion. It may, however, be
obferved,that peculiar longings occurring in certain dif-
Vol, XL Part I.
Genus CIV. SATYRIASIS. 371
Satyriafis, Sauv. gen. 228. Lin. 81. Sag. 340.
Satyriajis is a violent defire of venery in men,
even fo that reafon is' depraved by it. The pulfe is
quick, and the breathing fhort; the patient is fleeplefs,
thirfty, and loathes his food; the urine is evacuated
with difficulty, and a fever foon comes oh. Thefe fymp-
toms, however, are probably not fo much theconfequence
of fatyriafis, as merely concomitant effedls refulting
from the fame caufe. And indeed this affedtion is
moft frequently the concomitant of a certain modifi¬
cation of infanity. The nature and caufe of this af¬
fedtion are in moft inftances very little afeertained ;
but as far as we are acquainted with the treatment, it
agrees very much with the affedtion next to be men¬
tioned, which, of the two, is the moil common occur¬
rence.
Genus CV. NYMPHOMANIA.
Furor Uterinus. 37
Nymphomania, Sauv. 229. Sag. 341.
Satyriafis, Lin. 81.
The furor uterinus is in moft inftances either a
fpecies of madnefs or an high degree of hyfterics.
Its immediate caufe is a preternatural irritability
of the uterus and pudenda of women (to whom the
diforder is proper), or an unufual acrimony of the
fluids in thel'e parts.—Its prefence is known by the
wanton behaviour of the patient: Ihe fpeaks and
-adts with unreftrained obfeenity; and as the dif¬
order increafes, ffie fcolds, cries, and laughs, by
turns. While reafon is retained, Ihe is filent, and
feems melancholy, but her eyes difeover an unufual
wantonnefs. The fymptoms are better and worfe un¬
till the greateft degree of the diforder approaches, and
then by every word and adlion her condition is too
manifeft.— In the beginning a cure may be hoped for;
but if it continue, it degenerates into a mania —In
order to the cure, blood-letting is commonly had re-
courfe to in proportion to the patient’s ftrength.
Camphor in dofes of 15 or 20 grains, with nitre,
and fmall dofes of the tindlure of opium, ffiould be
repeated at proper intervals. Some venture to give
cerufa acetata in dofes from three to five grains. Be-
fides bleeding, cooling purges fliould alfo be repeated
in proportion to the violence of fymptoms, Sic. What is
ufeful in maniacal and hypochondriac diforders, is alfo
ufeful here, regard being had to fanguine or phlegma¬
tic habits, &c. When the delirium is at the height, give
opiates to compofe ; and ufe the fame method as in a
phrenitis or a mania. Inje&ions of barley-water, with
a fmall quantity of hemlock-juice, according to Rive-
rius, may be frequently thrown up into the uterus :
R * this
314 M E D I
Dyforenia thlf is called fpectfic; but mattimor.y, if poffible, ftould
u « be preferred. For although this cannot be reprefent-
ed as a cure for the difeafe when in an advanced ftate,
yet there is reafon to believe that it has not unfre-
quently prevented it where it would otherwife have
taken place.
3?4 Genus CVL NOSTALGIA.
Vehement Desire of revisiting one’s Country.
Noftalgia, Sauv. gen. 226. Lin. 83. Sag. 338.
This is to be reckoned a fpecies of melancholy; and
imlefs it be indulged, it very commonly proves not
only incurable but even fatal. Although it cannot
be confidered as altogether peculiar to any nation,
yet it is obferved to be much more frequent with
fome than with others; and it has particularly been
remarked among Swifs foldiers in the fervice of fo¬
reign ftates.
Sect. II. ylPPETlTUS DEFICIENTES.
Anepithymiae, Sauv. Clafs VI. Ord. II. Sag. IX.
Ord. II.
Privativi, Lin. Clafs VI. Order III.
Adynamiae, Vog. Clafs VI.
J7,e Genus CVII. ANOREXIA.
Want of Appetite.
Anorexia, Sauv. gen. 162. Lin. 116- Vog. 279.
Sag. 268.
The anorexia is fymptomatic of many difeafes, but
feldom appears as a primary affe&ion ; and it is very
generally overcome only by the removal of the affediion
on which it depends.
I76 Genus CVIII. ADIPSIA.
Want of Thirst.
Adipfia, Sauv. gen. 163. Lin. 117. Vog. 281. Sag.
269.
This by Dr Cullen is reckoned to be always fymp¬
tomatic of fome diftemper affecting the fenforium com¬
mune.
■377 Genus CIX. ANAPHRODISIA.
Impotence to Venery.
Anaphrodifa, Sauv. gen. 164. Sag. 270.
Atecnia, Lin. ! iq.
Agenefia, Vog. 283.
For this, fee the article Impotence in the alphabe¬
tical ord&r.
378 Order III. DYSCINESLE.
,7q Genus CX. APHONIA.
i/J Lofs of Voice.
Aphonia, Sauv. gen. 166. Lin. 115. Vog. 253.
Sag. 272.
The lofs of voice may proceed from various caufes.
If one of the recurrent nerves, which are formed by
the par vagutn and the nervus acceJforiusy and reach
the larynx, be cut, the perfon is capable of only as it
were a half-pronunciation ; but if both be cut, the
CINE. . Practice.
fpeech and voice are both loll. The lofs of fpeech Aphonia,
happening in hyfteric patients is alfo called aphonia;
but more properly that lofs of fpeech is thus named
which depends on fome fault of the tongue.
Seeing that the motion of any part is deftroyed, or
leffened at lead, by the interception of the nervous
fluid in its paffage thither, and that the nerves deftined
for the motion of the tongue arife principally from
the fifth pair, it appears that the feat of this diforder
is in the faid fifth pair of nerves, and that the imme¬
diate caufe is a diminution or total deftruftion of
the nervous power in them. Hence a palfy of
the tongue, which is either antecedent or fubfequent
to hemiple&ic or apopledlic diforders, demand our ut-
moft attention.
If an aphonia appears alone, it generally befpeaks
an approaching hemiplegia or apoplexy ; but if it fuc-
ceed thefe diforders, and is complicated with a weak
memory and a fluggifhnefs of the mental powers,
it threatens their return. That aphony ufually ter¬
minates the beft which proceeds from a ttagnation of
ferous humours compreffing the branches of the fifth
pair of nerves, which run to the tongue ; but it is no
lefs afflidfive to the patient, and is very obflinate of
cure.
Other caufes of this diforder are, the flriking in of
eruptions on the fkin, a congeftion of blood in the
fauces and tongue, obftrudted periodical evacuations
in plethoric habits, fpafmodic affedlions, worms, a
crumb of bread falling into the larynx, fear, too free
an ufe of fpirituous liquors; alfo whatever deltroys the
ligaments which go from the arytaenoid to the thyroid
cartilages, will deftroy the voice.
The prognofics vary according to the caufe or caufes.
That fpecies which is owing immediately to fpafms,
foon gives way on the removal of them. If a palfy of
the tongue be the caufe, it is very apt to return, tho’
relieved, but often continues incurable.
In order to the rare, we muft endeavour fir ft' to re¬
move whatever obftrudfs the influx of the nervous fluid
into the tongue, and fecondly to ftrengthen the weak
parts. Thefe general intentions, in ail cafes, being
regarded, the particular caufes muft be removed as
follows :
If worms be the caufe, antifpafmodies may give pre-
fent relief; but the cure depends on the deftruction or
expulfion of the animals themfelves. In cafe of a con¬
geftion of blood about the head, bleeding and nitrous :
medicines are to be ufed.—That fpecies of aphony
which remains after the (hock of an hemiplegia or apo¬
plexy, requires blifters to be applied to the nape of the
neck ; other means are rarely effectual.—If fpafmodic
conftri&ions about the fauces and tongue be the caufe,
external paregorics are of the greateft fervice, anodyne
antifpafmodies may be laid under the tongue, and the
feet bathed in warm water ; carminative clyfters alfo
are ufeful.—When a palfy qf the tongue produces this
complaint, evacuations, abcording to the patient’s
habit, muft be made, and warm nervous medicines
muft be externally applied, and internally adminifter-
ed; blifters alfo fhould be placed between the fhoul-
ders,—la cafe of repelled cuticular eruptions, fudo-
rifics Ihould be given, and the patient’s drink fhould
be warm. The fpiritus ammonias fuceinatus, or vi-
num antimonii, may be employed either in combina-
Practice. M E D I
Dyfcinefi* tlon with other articles or by themfclves, and given,
at proper diftances of time, in the patient's drink,
or on a lump of fugar.— Sometimes the ferum flows
fo rapidly to the fauces and adjacent parts, in a
falivation, as to deprive the patient of all power
to fpeak-; in this cafe diaphoretips and laxatives,
with a forbearance of all mercurials, are the i’peedieit
remedies.
Genus CXI. MUTITAS.
Dumbness.
Mutitas, Sauv. gen. 165. 257. Sag. 271.
Dumb people are generally born deaf; in which
cafe the diftemper is incurable by medicine.: though
even fnch people may be taught not only to read and
write, but alfo to fpeak and to underhand what others
fay to them. For fome obfervations on the method
in which this has been accomplifhed, we may refer the
reader to the article Dumbness in the alphabetical
order. But in thefe cafes, admitting of cure in the
manner above alluded to, the dumbnefs proceeds prin¬
cipally, if not folely, from the deafnefs. For when it
proceeds from a defedl of any of the organs ne-
ceflary for fpeech, the tongue for inftance, it is al¬
ways incurable ; but if it arife from a palfy, the
medicines applicable in that cafe will fometimes re-
ftore the fpeech.
Genus CXII. PARAPHONIA.
Change in the Sound of the Voice.
Paraphonia, Sauv. gen. 168.
Caeophonia, Sag. 274.
Raucedo, Lin. 146.
Raucitas, Vog. 252.
Afaphia, &c. Vog. 250, 251, 254, 2jy, 256.
The voice may be changed from various caufes. In
males it becomes much more hard about the time of pu¬
berty ; but this can by no means be reckoned a difeafe.
In others it proceeds from a catarrh, or what we call
a cold; it arifes alfo from affection of the nofe and pa¬
late, as polypi, ulcers, &c. in which cafe the cure be¬
longs properly to Surgery. In fome it arifes from a
laxity of the velum pendulum palati and glottis, which
makes a kind of fnoring noife during infpiration. The
cure of this lafl cafe is to be attempted by tonics and
fuch other medicines as are of fervice in difeafes at¬
tended with laxity.
Genus CXIII. PSELLISMUS.
Defe£l in- Pronunciation.
Pfellifmus, Sauv. gen. 167. Lin. 138. Sag. 273.
Traulotis, &c. Vog. 258, 259, 260, 261.
Of this difeafe (if fuch it may be called), there
are many different kinds. Some cannot pronounce
the letter S ; others labour under the fame difficulty
with R, L, M, K. &c.; while fome who can with fuf-
ficient eafe pronounce all the letters, yet repeat their
words, or the firft fyllables of them, in fuch a ft range
manner, that they can fcarce be underftood. Very
frequently thefe defefts arife entirely from habit, and
may then be got the better of by thofe who have the
. refolution to attempt it; as we are told that De-
mofthenes the celebrated orator got the better of a
CINE.
habit of Hammering by declaiming with pebbles in
his mouth. Sometimes, however, pronunciation may
be impeded by a wrong conformation of the tongue
or organs of fpeech 5 and then it cannot by any pains
whatever be totally removed.
3*5
Pfellifmus.
Genus CXIV. STRABISMUS. 383
Squinting.
Strabifmus, Sauv. gen. 1x6. Lin. 304. Vog. 514.
Sag. 222.
Defcription. This difeafe fhows itfelf by an un¬
common contra&ion of the mufcles of the eye ; where¬
by the axis of the pupil is drawn towards the nofe,
temples, forehead, or cheeks, fo that the perfon can¬
not behold an objeft diredfly.
Caufes, Prognofis, 8cc. I. This difeafe may proceed
from cuftom and habit; while in the eye itfelf, or in
its mufcles, nothing is preternatural or defe&ive.
Thus children by imitating thofe that fquint, and
infants by having many agreeable objects prefented
to them at once, which invite them to turn one eye to
one and the other eye to another, do frequently con¬
trail a habit of moving their eyes differently, which
afterwards they cannot fo eafdy correct. Infants
likewife get a cuftom of fquinting by being placed
obliquely towards a candle, window, or any other
agreeable objeit capable of attracting their fight: for
though, to fee the objeit, they may at firft turn both
eyes towards it; yet, becaufe fuch an oblique fituation
is painful and laborious, efpecially to the moft diftant
eye, they foon relax one of the eyes, and content
themfelves with examining it with the eye that is
next it ; whence arifes a diverfity of fituation and a
habit of moving the eyes differently.
In this cafe, which may admit of a cure if not too
much confirmed, it is evident, that objedts will be feen
in the fame place by both eyes, and therefore mult
appear fingle as to other men ; but becaufe, in the eye
that fquints, the image of the objeft to which the
other eye is direfted falls not on the moft fenfible and
delicate part of the retina, which is naturally in the
axis of the eye, it is eafy to fee that it mull be but
faintly perceived by this eye. Hence it is, that while
they are attentive in viewing any objedl, if the hand
be brought before the other eye, this object will be
but obfeurely feen, till the eye change its fituation,
and have its axis directed to it; which change of situ¬
ation is indeed very eafy for them, becaufe it depends
on the mufcles of the eyes, whofe functions are entire;
but, by reafon of the habit they have contradted of
moving their eyes differently, the other eye is at the.
fame time frequently turned afide, fo that only one at
a time is diredted to the objedt.
That all this may be the better perceived; for an ob-
jedl, caufe them to look at the image of the upper part
of your nofe in a plain mirror, while you Hand di-
reclly behind them, to obferve the diredlion of their
eyes.
II. The ■flralifmus may proceed from a fault in the
firft conformation, by which the moft delicate and
fenfible part of the retina is removed from its natural
fituation, which is diredtly oppolite to the pupil, and is
placed a little to a fide of the axis of the eye ; which
obliges them to turn away the eye from the objed
R r 2 they
V6
Dyfcinefise
MEDIC INE. Practice.
they would view, that its pi&uure may fallen this moft When the eye has this conformation, no objeft to Strnbi£mu*r
feniible part of the organ. which it is directed can be clearly feen, becaufe its  v
When this is the cafe, the difeafe is altogether in- image falls not on the retina at the axis of the eye;
curable, and the phasnomena that arife therefrom differ and therefore the eye turns afide from the object it
in nothing from the phaenomena of the former cafe, would view, that its image may fall on the moft fen-
exce; ting only that here, i. The objedl to which the fible part of the retina.
eye is not directed will * e beft feen ; which is the re- When the ftratufmus proceeds from this caufe, the
verfe of what happens when this difeafe arifes barely prognoftic and the phaenomena that attend it will be
from habit and cuftom. 2. No objeft will appear much he fame as in the cafe immediately preceding ;
altogetheV clear and diftinft : for all obje&s to which from which neverthelefi it may be diftinguifhed by
the eye is directed, by having their image painted in the obliquity of the cornea, which is manifeft to the
the retina at the axis of the eye, where it is not very fenfes and if the cornea be alfo more arched and
feniible, will be but obfeurely feen ; and objects that prominent than what it is naturally, which is common-
are placed fo far to a fide of the optic axis as is ne- ly the cafe, the eye will alfo be fhort-fighted.
.ceffary for making their image fall on the moft fenfible V. This want of uniformity in the motions of our
and delicate part of the retina, muft appear a little eyes, may arife from a defedf, or any great weaknefs
confufed, becaufe the feveral pencils of rays that come or imperfedlion, in the fight of both or either of the
therefrom fall too obliquely on the cryitadine to be eyes; and this, according to Dr Porterfield, is the
accurately collefted in fo many diftinS points of the moft common caufe of this difeafe. The prognoftic in
retina:; though it muft be acknowledged, that this this cafe is the fame with that of the difeafe from which
confufion will, for the moft part, be fo fmall as to efcape it proceeds.
unobferved. VI. Another caufe from which the ftrabifmus may
III. This difeafe may proceed from an oblique po- proceed, lies in the mufcles that move the eye. When
fition of the cryftalline, where the rays that come di- any of thofe mufcles are too fhort or too long, too
re<ftly to the eye from an objedt, and that ought to tenfe or too lax, or are feized with a fpafm or paralyfis,
converge to the point of the retina, which is in the their equilibrium will he deftroyed, and the eye will
axis of the eye, are, by reafon of the obliquity of the be turned towards or from that fide where the mufcles
cryftalline, made to converge to another point on that are faulty.
.fide of the vifual axis where the cryftalline is moft In this cafe, the difeafe frequently yields to medi-
elevated ; and therefore the objedl is but obfeurely cine, and therefore admits of favourable prognoftic ;
.feen, becaufe its image falls not on the retina at the excepting only when, by a fault in the firft confor-
axis of the eye, where it is moft: fenfible : But the mation, any of the mufcles are longer or fhorter than
rays that fall obliquely on the eye, will, after refrac- their antagonift ; in which cafe, if ever it fhould hap-
tion, converge to this moft fenfible part of the re- pen, no medicine can be of any ufe.
tina ; and, by converging there,, muft imprefs the As to what concerns the optical phsenomena, they
mind with a clearer idea of the objedl from whence are the fame here as in cafe firft : only when the dif-
they came. It is for this reafon that the eye ne- cafe commences not till, by cuftom and habit, the
ver amoves uniformly with the other, but turns away uniform motion of the eyes has been rendered ne-
from the objeft it would view, being attentive to ceffary, all objedts do for fome time appear double •
the objedl to which it is not diredfed. When this is but in time they appear fingle.
the cafe, it is in vain to expedl any good from me- Lajlly, This want of uniformity in the motions of
tlicine. our eyes proceed from a preternatural adhefion or
The fymptoms that naturally arife fropi it are, attachment to the eye-lids: of this we have an inftance
j. The o'bjedt to which the eye is diredled will be in Langius. And that the fame thing may alfo be oc-
but faintly feen, becaufe its image falls on the retina cafioned by a tumor of any kind within the orbit,
where it is not very fenfible. 2. The objedt to which preffmg the eye afide, and reftraining it from follow-
the eye is not diredled, by having its image painted ing the motions of the other, is fo evident, that in-
on the retina at the axis of the eye, will be clearly ftances need not be brought- to prove it. Here al-
perceived. But, 3. This fame objedl muft appear fo the cafe may admit of a favourable prognoftic;
fomewhat indiftindl, becaufe the pencils of rays that and as for what concerns the optical phasnomena,
flow from it are not accurately colledled in fo many they muft be the fame as in the cafe immediately pre-
diftindl points in the retina, by reafon of their oblique ceding.
incidence on the cryftalline. 4. It muft be feen, not The cure, in confirmed cafes, is. to be effec-
in its proper place, but thence tranflated to fome ted by mechanical contrivances, by which the per-
other place fituated in the axis of vifion. And, 5. Be- fon may be obliged to look ftraight upon objedls, or
ing thus tranflated from its true place, where it is feen not fee them at all ; or at leaft that he may fee with
by the other eye that does not fquint, it muft neceffa- unealinefs and confufedly when he fquints. In the
rily appear double ; and the diftance between the 68th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadtions we have
places of its appearance will be ftill greater, if the an account of a confirmed cafe of fquinting of a very
cryftalline of the other eye incline to the contrary uncommon kind. The patient was a boy of five years
old, and viewed every objedl which was prefented to
IV. This difeafe may arife from an oblique pofi- him with but one eye at a time. If the objedl was
tion of the cornea ; which, in this cafe, is gene- prefented on his right fide, he viewed it with his left
rally more arched and prominent than what it is na- eye; and if it was prefented on his left fide, he viewed
turally. it with his right eye. He turned the pupil of that
eye
/Practice. M E D I
| Dyftiaefias eye which was on the fame fide with the obje£t in
v" >' fuch a direction that the image of the object might
fall on that part of the bottom of the eye where the
optic nerve enters it. When an objeft was held di¬
rectly before him, he turned his head a little to one
fide, and obferved it with but one eye, viz. that moft
diilant from the objeCt, turning away the other in
the manner above defcribed ; and when he became
tired of obfervxng it with that eye, he turned his head
the contrary way, and obferved it with the other eye
alone, with equal facility 5 but never turned the axis
of both eyes on it at the fame time. He faw letters
which were written on bits of paper, fo as to name
them with equal eafe, and at equal dillances, with one
eye as with the other. There was no perceptible dif¬
ference in the diameters of the irifes, nor in the con-
traftility of them after having covered his eyes from
the light. Thefe obfervations were carefully made by
writing fingle letters on fhreds of paper, and laying
wagers with the child that he could not read them
when they were prefented at certain diftances and in
certain directions.
As from thefe circumftances it appeared that there
was no defeCt in either eye, which is frequently the
cafe with perfons who fquint, and hence that the dif-
eafe was Amply a depraved habit of moving his eyes,
the difeafe feemed capable of a cure. A paper gno¬
mon was made for this purpofe, and fixed to a cap j
and when this artificial nofe was placed over his real
nofe, fo as to projeCt an inch between his eyes, the
child, rather than turn his head fo far to look at oblique
objeCts, immediately began to view them with that eye
which was next to them. 6ut having the misfortune
to lofe his father foon after this method was begun to
be followed, the child was negleCted for fix years, du¬
ring which time the habit was confirmed in fuch a
manner as feemed to leave little room to hope for a
cure. The fame phyfician, however, being again cal¬
led, attempted a fecond time to remove the deformity
by a fimilar contrivance. A gnomon of thin brafs
was made to Hand over his nofe, with a half circle of
the fame metal to go round his temples : thefe were
covered with black filk, and by means of a buckle be¬
hind his head, and a crofs-piece over the crown of
his head, this gnomon was worn without any incon¬
venience, and projected before his nofe about two
inches and an half. By the ufe of this machine he
foon found it lefs inconvenient to view all oblique ob¬
jects with the eye next to them inftead of the eye op-
pofite to them.
After this habit was weakened by a week’s ufe of
the gnomon, two bits of wood, about the fize of a
goofe-quill, were blackened all but a quarter of an inch
at their fummits; thefe were frequently prefented to
him to look at, one being held on one fide the extre¬
mity of his black gnomon, and the other on the other
fide of it. As he viewed thefe, they were gradually
brought forwards beyond the gnomon, and then one
was concealed behind the other : by thefe means, in
another week, he could bend both his eyes on the fame
objeCt for half a minute together; and by continuing
the ufe of the fame machine, he was in a fair way of
being cured when the paper was written.
Dr Darwin, who writes the hiftory of the above cafe,
edds, that all the other fquinting people he had occa-
fion to attend, had one eye much lefs perfect than
CINE. 3^
the other : thefe patients, fays he, are certainly cure-Scrabilmu-.
able by covering the bed eye many hours ia a day j as —"~v '*
by a more frequent ufe of the weak eye, it not only
acquires a habit of turning to the objeCls which the
patient wifiies to fee, but gains at the fame time a more
dittinCt vifion; and the better eye at the fame time
feems to lofe fomewhat in both thefe refpe&s, which
alfo facilitates the cure.
Genus CXV. CONTRACTURA. 384
Contractions of the Limbs.
ContraCtura, Sauv. gen. 119. Lin. 2^^. Sag. 225.
Obfiipitas, Sauv. gen. xi.
Caput-obftipum. Fog. 513,.
Digitium, Fog. 221.
The contraction of various mufcles of the body is
generally the confequence of fame other difeafe, as
the rheumatifm, gout, fcurvy, or palfy, efpecially
that fpecies of the latter which follows the cohca Pitio--
num. It is exceedingly difficult of cure ; though the
warm medicinal waters are much recommended, and
have fometimes done great fervice. Of late eleCtricity
has been found to perform furprifing cures in this
way.
Order IV. APOCENOSES. 385
Apocenofes, Fog Clafs II. Ord. IT.
Fluxus, Sauv. Clafs IX. Sag. Clafs V.
Morbi evacuatorii, Lin. Clafs IX.
Genus CXVI. PRQFUSIO. 3.86
Flux of Blood.
Profufio Lin. 239.
Hsemorrhagia, Fog. 81. Boerh. 218.
The difeafe commonly known by the name of bloody
flux, is the putrid or contagious dyfentery, a difeafe
which has already been treated of. But independent
of the difcharge of blood which then takes place, fne-
morrhagy may take place from the alimentary canal
as well as from other parts of the fyitem. In fuch
inftances, however, if we except the place from which
the difcharge occurs, the phenomena are very much
the fame as in menorrhagia, htemoptyfis, and ether
hsemorrhagies already treated of; while the difeafe
is to be combated on the fame principles and by the
fame remedies.
Genus CXVII. EPHIDROSIS. g
ExceJJivs Sweating. ^ ^
Ephidrofis, Sauv. gen. 258. Sag. gen. 194.
Sudor, Lin. 208.
Hydropedefis, Fog. 121.
This is generally fymptomatie ; and occurs in al~
moft all fevers, but efpecially in the latter ftages of
the hedtic. Sometimes it is a primary difeafe, arifing
merely from weaknefs; and then eafily admits of a
cure by the ufe of the Peruvian bark, the cold bath,
and other tonics.
Genus CXVIII. EPIPHORA.- gg
Flux of the Lachrymal Humour.
Epiphora, Sauv. gen. 259. Lin. 172. Fog. 99.
Sag. 195.
This by Sauvages is deferibed as an involuntary
effufioB
:3i8 M E D I
Apoccnofes effufion of tears without any remarkable itching, heat,
or pain. It follows long-continued ophthalmias; or
it may be occafioned by immoderate ftudy, or any
thing that.weakens the eyes : hence it comes on about
the age of 50 years, when the eyefight naturally be¬
comes weak. It in general grows worfe in the win¬
ter-time, and is very hard to cure. Some authors re¬
commend purgatives, and blilters on the nape of the
neck, in order to draw off the abundant humours ; but
as the difeafe evidently proceeds from weaknefs, it
would rather feem proper to pttrfue a contrary method.
Sauvages recommends to the patients to abitain from
lludy, wine, and faked meats ; and alfo to avoid fmoke
or wind, and at night to foment the eyes with an in-
fufion of four cloves in twb ounces of proof-fpirit.—
Hungary water, rofe water with white vitriol diflolved
in it, &c. have alfo been recommended.
389 Genus CXIX. PTYALISMUS.
Salivation.
Ptyalifmus, Sauv. gen. 261. Lhi. 176. Fog. 103.
*%• <97-
- A falivation is often fymptomatic, but rarely a pri¬
mary difeafe. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that when
the latter happens to be the cafe, it arifes from lax¬
ity ; and then is to be cured by allringents and to¬
nics. In the Medical Tranfa&ions we have the fol¬
lowing account of a falivation brought on by a fo¬
reign fubftance irritating one of the parotid glands.
In the month of April 17P, a young lady about
the age of 16 years, of a delicate habit, but fubjecl
to no particular complaints, perceived the beginning
of a difeafe which afterwards proved moft obllinate
and loathfome, viz. an inceffant fpitting. The quan¬
tity of this difcharge was different at different times,
varying from one pint to two pints and an half in 24
hours. As to its quality, it teemed to be no other
than the ordinary fecretion of the falival glands. By
fo large and conflant ah evacuation, her ilvength be¬
came extremely impaired, and the moft efficacious
medicines had proved ufelefs. She had taken large
quantities of the Peruvian bark, both alone and com¬
bined with preparations of iron : and afterwards the
fetid gums, opium, amber, alum, and the Neville-
Hok-water, had in fucceffion been given her. In the
mean time an exaft regimen had been preferibed: ffie
had been ordered to ride conftantly ; and to confine
herfelf to a mucilaginous diet, fuch as veal, calve’s
feet, &c. Likewife a gently opening medicine had
now and then been interpofed. The difeafe ftill conti¬
nued unaltered, ffic had afterwards tried the tinBura
' jaturnina ; and had, at the fame time, been encoura¬
ged to chew the Peruvian bark, and to fwallow the
faliva. But all thefe attempts had been vain ; and af¬
ter ffie had taken fome or other of the medicines
above mentioned until the end of September 1753,
namely, above two years, it appeared to her phyfician.
Sir George Baker, unreafonable to expedf relief in fuch
a cafe from any internal medicines whatever.
He now conceived a fufpicion, that fome extrane-
ous body having accidentally found,its way into the
?i;aiius audkonus, might poffibly be the caufe of this
extraordinary fecretion, by keeping up a continued ir-
'itation in the parotid glands. With this view he e*-
2
CINE.
Practice.
amined her ears, and extra&ed from them a quantity Ptyahlmu*.
of fetid wool. How, or when, it came thither, no  
account could be given.
To this fubftance he attributed the beginning of
the falivation, notwithftanding that the difeafe did not
immediately abate on the removal of the wool; as it
appeared to be no improbable fuppofition that the dif--
charge might be continued by the force of habit,
though the original caufe no longer remained.
It feemed therefore expedient to introduce fome
other habit,, in the place of the increased fecretion of
faliva ; which habit might afterwards be gradually left
off. With this intention, he prevailed on the patient
to chew perpetually a little dry bread, and to fwallow
it with her fpittle. In a few weeks, it became necef-
fary for her to chew the bread only at certain hours in
the day ; and thus, after two months, ffie became en¬
tirely free from a moft difguftful and tedious difor-
der.
It is worthy of obfervation, that, at firft, the fwal-
lowing of fo much faliva frequently occaftoned a nau-
fea; and that then, for a few hours, ffie was obliged
to fpit it out as ufual; and that, during the greateil
part of the time, when ffie chewed the bread, ffie had
a ftool or two every day more than common.
Genus CXX. ENURESIS.
jdn involuntary Flvx of Urine.
Emtrefis, S<mv. gen. 264. Lin. 195. Vog. 113.
Sag. 200.
This is a diftemper which frequently affedls chil"
dren, otherwife healthy, when afteep ; and is extreme¬
ly difagreeable. Often it is merely the effedt of lazi-
nefs, and may be driven off by proper corredlien ; but
fornetimes it proceeds from an atony or vveaknefs of
the fphindter of the bladder. Many ridiculous cures
have been preferibed for it, and among the reft field-
mice dried and powdered. Tonics are frequently of
ufe ; but fometimes the diftemper proves obftinate, iit
fpite of every thing we can ufe. In the London Me¬
dical Obfervations we find blifters much recommend¬
ed in this difeafe, when applied to the region of the os
facrum. A girl of 13 years of age had been fubjedb
to an enurefis for four years. She could retain her
water but a very little while in the day-time, but it
flowed continually in the night. She had taken Pe¬
ruvian bark and, elixir of vitriol in confiderable
quantities ; alfo Valerian and the volatile julep, with¬
out effe&. She was feverely threatened, as the phy¬
fician fufpe&ed it might arife from a bad habit; but
this producing no effeft, a blifter was applied to the os
facrum, which in 24 hours totally removed the difeafe.
A man aged 32, having been feized with an inconti¬
nence of urine and palfy of the lower extremities in
confequence of taking a quack medicine, was cured of
the incontinence of urine in 24 hours by one blifter,
and of the palfy itfelf by another. A woman of 50
having been feized with an enurefis and paralytic af-
fe&ion of the right thigh and leg in confequence of a
ftrain, was cured of both by a fingle blifter. Several
other cafes are there mentioned, by which the power
of blifters in removing this diftemper feems to exceed
that of every other medicine whatever.
Genus
Pra&ice.
Apotenofes
MED
Genus CXXI. GONORRHOEA.
c
for Jr
I N E. 3 if
many patients it is of a yellowiili, an i fome- OonorrhcM
Gonorrhoea, Saw. gen. 208. Lin. 200. Fog. 118. °f a Sreenifh hue the vet7 [ but in gene-l-
„ „ _ 0 ral it becomes more conhitent towards the dofe' ot the
d,7S- •04, difeafe.
The gonorrhoea is a flux of vifcid matter of various
colours, from the urethra in men and the vagina in
women. It commonly proceeds from coition with a
perfon infefted with the venereal difeafe, and is one of
the moft common forms under which that* difeafe
fliows itfelf.
Defcription. The firfl: fymptoms of the difeafe in
men are commonly a fenfation at the end of the penis
not unlike a flea-bite, together with a fulnefs of the
lips of the urethra, and fome degree of tendon' in the
pesis, the urinary canal feeling as if tightened, and
the urine flowing in a fmall and unequal itream : a
little whitiflr mucus is to be feen about the orifice of
the urethra, and oozing from it when (lightly prefled,
efpecially if the p refill re be made on the fpot where the
forenefs is mod felt. The difcharge foon increafes in
quantity, and varies in its tolour according to the
degree of inflammation. The patient feels a fenfation
of heat and pain in evacuating his urine, particularly
at certain fpots of the Urethra, and above all towards
its orifice ; and the involuntary ere&ions to which he
is fubje&ed from the fiimulus, particularly when warm
in bed, occafion a diftortion or curvature of the penis,
attended with exquifite pain. When the inflammation
is violent, the glans appears tumid and tranfparent,
the tenlion extends through the whole of the penis,
the perinceum is affe&ed with fwelling and rednefs, and
even the loins, buttocks, and anus, fympathize and
afford a very uneafy fenfation. Sometimes the prepuce
inflames about the end of the penis, and cannot be
drawn back, occafioning what is called <iphymo/is ; at
other times, as in the parathym'fisi it remains in an
inflamed (late below the glans, fo that it cannot be
drawn forwards; and, if the ffrifture and inflammation
be violent, may terminaiie in gangrene. Now and
then, efpecially when there is a phymofis, we may
perceive a hard chord extending along the back of the
penis- This is an inflamed lymphatic, and may be
confidered as a prelude to a bubo. When, however,
a bubo does appear, almofl univerfally fome ulceration
is previoufiy to be difcovered about the prasputium,
or glans peniswhich gives ground to prefume that
feme other contagious matter befides that of gonor¬
rhoea may have been applied to the urethra. For it is
certain that matter capable of communicating the con¬
tagion of gonorrhoea to a female, is often copioufly
applied to the whole glans penis of a male for feveral
days together, without giving either ulceration or
bubo.
In mild cafes, the feat of the difeafe is in the urethra,
not far from its orifice ; but it frequently happens that
the virus infinuates itfelf much higher up, fo as to af-
feft Cowper’s glands, the profiate, and parts very near
to the neck of the bladder.
In the generality: of cafes, the inflammation goes
on increafmg for feveral days, commonly for a week
ora fortnight; after which the fymptoms begin to
abate ; and the running, when left to itfelf, gradually
leffens in quantity, and becomes whiter and thicker,
till at length it totally flops. The colour of the mucus,
however, is by no means a certain guide in thefe cafes:
Inwomen,the external partsofgenerationbeingfewer
and more Ample, the difeafe is lefs complicated than in
men. Sometimes the vagina only is affefted ; and when
this happens, the fymptoms are very trifling : but in
general it comes on with an itching and fenfation of.
heat as in the other fex ; and is attended with inflam¬
mation of the nymphs, infide of the labia, clitoris,
caruncuhe rnyrtifonnes, the orifice and fometimes the
whole of the meatus ur'tnarius. Very often the deep-
feated glands of fire vagina are affefted, and it is fome¬
times difficult to diftinguiffi the difcharge of a go¬
norrhoea from that of the fluor albus.
Caufes, life. Many ingenious arguments have of
late been advanced to prove, that the gonorrhoea and
the lues venerea are different affections, originating
from two diftinCt fpecies of virus ; and this contro-
verfy (till, perhaps, remains to be decided by future
faCts. Certain it is, that in 19 of 20 cafes of gonor¬
rhoea, no fymptom whatever of fyphilis appears ; and
that the difeaie readily admits of cure without having
recourfe to thofe remedies which are univerfally requi-
fite for combating the contagion of fyphilis. It is by
no means wonderful, that in fome cafes both conta¬
gions, fuppofing them different, ffiould be communi¬
cated at the fame time. Nay, cafes are by no means
rare, where the contagion of itch, though effentially
different from both, has been communicated with ei¬
ther. But as undeniable proof that the contagion in
both cafes is precifely the fame, it has been alleged by
fome, that the matter of a chancre introduced into the
urethra will generate a gonorrhoea, and that the dif¬
charge from a gonorrhoea will produce chancre, bubo,
and every other fymptom of fyphilis. On the other
hand, however, it is contended, that when experiments
of this nature are conducted with the greateft accu¬
racy, the matter of fyphilis uniformly produces fyphi¬
lis, and that of gonorrhoea, gonorrhoea only. With¬
out pretending to decide on which of thefe experi¬
ments the greateft dependence is to be put, we may
only obferve, that while an almofl inconceivably fmall
portion of fyphilitic matter applied to the glans penis, •
from connection with an infefted female, infallibly
produces fyphilis if it be not fpeedily removed, the
matter of gonorrhoea, in every inftance of that difeafe,
is applied to the whole furface of the glans penis for
many days together without producing almoft any
bad effedt whatever. From this, therefore, there is
ground for inferring, either that it is not capable of
being abforbed, or that if abforbed it is innocent.
But while there have been difputes with regard to
the peculiar nature cf the matter in gonorrhoea, there
have alfo been conti overfies with refped to the lource
-from whence it is derived. While fome fuppofe it to
be principally purulent matter arifihg from ulcerations, .
others affert that no fuch ulceration is ever produced in ;
the urethra by gonorrhoea. They contend that the in-
creafed fecretion in thefe cafes is exadtlw iimilar to
what happens in the catarrh. But the companion
will by no means hold good in every particular : in the
latter the whole membrane, of the nofe is equally irri¬
tated ; whereas in the gnnorrhcea, only particular parts
of i
320 M E D I
Apocenofes 0f the urethra feem to he affedled. The difeafe, in
' the generality of cafes, feldom extends more than an
inch and a half along that canal, and in many is con¬
fined (at lead in the beginning) to a fmall fpot about
an inch from the extremity of the glans. The dif-
charge is produced from that part of the urethra where
the pain is felt; and the patient, when he voids his
urine, feels no fmarting till it reaches the inflamed fpot:
but as the diforder increafes, the inflammation affefts
a greater number of points, juft in the fame manner as
chancres affeift different parts of the glans. It might
be fuppofed that difleftion would at once clear up this
matter, and put an end to the difpute ; but this is far
from being the cafe. Dr Simmons has feen feveral
urethras opened in perfons who had a gonorrhoea at
the time of their death : in three of them the furface
of the utethra, as in the cafes related by Morgagni,
appeared for fome way down of a flight red colour,
and in all of them was covered with mucus ; but with¬
out any appearance of ulceration, except in two diflec¬
tions at Paris, in which moft of the gentlemen prefent
were convinced that they faw evident marks of it :
but Dr Simmons fays that the appearances were to
him not fufficiently fatisfa&ory to enable him to decide
with certainty on the fubjecft. On the other hand,
when we coniider that the difcharge in a gonorrhoea is
fometimes tinged with blood, and that when this hap¬
pens a little blood-vefiel is no doubt ruptured, we
can have no reafon to doubt that an ulceration may,
and fometimes does, happen in thefe cafes ; efpecially
as we often obferve an excoriation near the orifice of
the urethra. It is certain, that wherever there is con-
fiderable inflammation, there will be danger of ulcera¬
tion. Befides, from a negle£ted or badly-treated go¬
norrhoea, we often fee fiftulas in perinea, and other ul¬
cers of the urethra, penetrating through its fubftance,
and affording a paffage to the urine. And there can
be no doubt that flight ulcerations of this canal often
occur, and are afterwards perfedlly obliterated, in a
fimilar manner to what happens in the papillae of the
tongue, the tonfils, &c. Such an obliteration will
the more readily take place in a part like the urethra,
defended with mucus, and not expofed to- the air,
w hich is known to have no little effect in hardening a
cicatrix.
But whether ulcers take place or not, whether the
virus of gonorrhoea be precifely of the fame kind with
that which gives fyphilis, or of a different kind, there
is reafon from the phenomena of the difeafe to con¬
clude, that the matter firft a&s by mixing with the
mucus at the extremity of the urethra ; and that from
thence it is propagated upwards, particularly where
the excretories of mucus are moft numerous; and that
on the parts to which it is applied, it operates as a pe¬
culiar irritating caufe. The confequences of this ir¬
ritation will be inflammation and an increafed fecre-
tion of mucus; and fo far the complaint will be local.
In ninety-nine cafes of an hundred a local affe&ion of
this kind conftitutcs the whole of the difeafe ; and of
this inflammation, ulcerations within the urethra, ftric-
tures, and other local affe&ions, may be the confe-
quence. But whether a difeafe of the habit ever takes
place, unlefs when the contagion of fyphilis is commu-
N° 209. 1
CINE. Practice.
nicated with ftratof gonorrhoea, ftill remains to be de- Gononhcea
termined by future obfervations and experiments. ——V”*"*
Nothing can be more variable than the period at
which the difeafe makes its appearance after infeiftion.
Perhaps, at a medium, we may place it between the
4th and 14th day: but in fome cafes it happens within
24 hours; and in others, not before the end of five or
even fix weeks : neither of thefe extremes, however,
are common.
From what has been faid of the manner in which
the contagious matter in gonorrhoea afts, and of the
influence it exerts on thofe parts with which it comes
in contaft, it follows, that the prevention of gonor¬
rhoea muft depend on the removal of the contagious
matter as foon as that can be done; and where this is
either altogether negledfted or not properly aecom-
plifhed, that the cure muft depend on counteracting
the inflammation which this contagious matter ex¬
cites, and the confequences which refult from it.
The firft of thefe intentions may be moft certainly
and moft eafily accomplifhed by careful lotion of all
the parts to which the contagious matter has any
chance of being applied. Thefe parts, at leaft on the
firft application of the matter, are readily acceffible :
for even in men there is no reafon to believe that it
at firft penetrates to any extent in the urethra. This
waffling of the parts fhould be performed as foon as
poffible; becaufe then the matter is both moft ac¬
ceffible and leaft involved with jnucus : but although
waffling cannot-be accomplifhed at an early period, it
fhould not be neglected afterwards ; for from the dif¬
eafe uniformly commencing, even when it does not
appear till a confiderable time after the application of
the contagions matter, with a peculiar fenfe of titilla-
tion at the external parts, particularly in men at the
extremity of the urethra, there is reafqin to believe that
the contagious matter attached to the mucus may re¬
main latent there for a very confiderable time. For
the purpofe of waffling, with -a view to the prevention
of this difeafe, recourfe may be had to almoft any wa¬
tery fluid, provided it be not fo ftimulant as to pro¬
duce bad effe&s from injuring the parts. Pure water,
roperly applied, is perhaps one of the belt lotions ;
ut there can be no doubt that its power in removing
the contagious matter may be fomewhat increafed by
fuch additions as render it a more powerful folvent of
mucus. With this intention, one of. the moft power¬
ful additions is the vegetable alkali, either in its mild or
cauftic ftate. In the latter ftate it is the moft adtive,
but in the former it is moft fafe ; and the lixiva puri-
Jicata of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, to the extent
of half a drachm, diffolved in fix or eight ounces of
water, is one of the beft lotions that can be employed.
The purpofe of removing the contagion may often alfo
be effedtually anfwered from waffling with water im-.
pregnated with foap ; for there the alkali, though in
a cauftic ftate, is prevented from exerting any difa-
greeable effe&s, in confequence of its being combined
with oily matters.
With the view of preventing gonorrhoea, fome have
advifed, that the alkali either in its mild or cauftic
ftate, properly diluted with water, fhould be injetfted
into the urethra : and there can be no doubt, that by
this
1?ra&icei M E D I
Apocenofes this means the Contagious matter, when it has entered
W'.y-—"* the urethra, may be temoved. A removal may alfo
be effe&ed by the injeftion of a weak folution of cor-
rofive fublimate, which feema to aft not by diilblving
the mucus but by producing an augmented fecre-
tion. But at a very early period of the difeafe, injec¬
tions are probably unnecelfary ; and if it has made
any confiderable progrefs, they are dangerous: for from
the augmented fenfibility of the part, even very gentle
one^ are apt to excite a high degree of inflamma¬
tion.
There are practitioners who, fuppoflng that the body
’poflefies powers to expel the virus, and that the dif¬
eafe has a certain period to run through its feveral
ftages of progrefs, acme, and decline, are for leaving
the cure to nature5 oral leaft content themfelves with
afiifting her by an antiphlogiftic regimen, gentle eva¬
cuations, and the like.
That in many cafes the diforder admits of a natural
cure, there can be no doubt; the increafed fecretionof
mucus carrying off the virus fafter than it is formed,
till at length the infe&ion is wholly removed : But it
is equally certain, that in every Cafe, by the applica¬
tion of fuitable remedies to the inflamed part, we may
fhorten the duration of the complaint, and abridge the
fufferings of the patient, with the fame certainty and
fafety as we are enabled to remove the effe&s of an
Ophthalmia or any other local inflammation, by proper
topical applications. General remedies, fuch as occa-
fional blood-letting, a cooling diet, the liberal ufe of
diluting liquors, and mild purges, are by all allowed
to be ufeful, and even neceflary. Aftruc was of opi¬
nion that in thefe cafes blood-letting ought to be re¬
peated five or fix times; and there are ftill many prac¬
titioners who depend much on repeated evacuations of
this fort for a removal of the inflammation. But there
is, perhaps, not one cafe in ten in which it is at all re-
quifite; and this fmall number of cafes will confift only
of the ftrongand plethoric; in fuch, when the chordee
is frequent and painful, and the pulfe hard and full,
the lofs of from eight to twelve ounces of blood will be
beneficial, but it will be feldom neceffary to repeat the
operation. The inflammation in thefe cafes is kept up
by the local ftimulus of the virus and the urine ; and
all that we can expeCf from venefe&ion is to moderate
the pain and the frequency of ereftion. In perfpns of a
delicate haljit, and of an irritable fibre, the evacuation
Vill do no good; but if repeated will certainly be liable
to do harm, by increafing irritability, and of courfe
rendering the patient more fufceptible of ftimulus.
The utility, and even the necefilty, of a cooling re¬
gimen, are fufliciently obvious; wine and fpirituous
liquors, fpieeries, a fiih-diet, much animal-food, and
failed and high-feafoned diihes of every fort, will con-
ftantly add to the complaint The patient Ihould eat
meat only once a-day, and that fparingly. He ihould
abftain from hot fuppers. Milk, mild vegetables, and
fruit, ihould conftitute the principal part of his diet
while the inflammatory fymptoms continue. Every
thing that tends to excite the venereal imagination
fhould be ftudioufly avoided; for whatever promotes
ereftions of the penis will increafe the inflammation,
and of courfe add fuel to the difeafe. For the fame
reafons much walking or riding on horfeback will be
.hurtful, from the irritation kept up in the'perineum
Voi.XL Part I.
CINE. 321
by fuch means. Violent exercife of any kind, or any Gonorrhoea
thing that is liable to increafe the heat and the momen- “
turn of the blood, will of couffe be improper.
The drinking freely of mild, cooling, mucilaginous
liquors, fuch as linfeed-tea, orgeat, whey, milk and
water, almond emulfion, and the like, will be extreme¬
ly ufeful, by diluting the urine, and preventing its
falts from ftimulating the urethra. When the heat
and pain in making water are very confiderable, muci¬
laginous fubftances.are found to have the beft efTeft,
particularly the gum tragacanth It is a common
pra&ice to give equal dofes of this gum or gum ara-
bic and nitre, and to difiblve nitre in the patient’s
drink, with a view to leffen the inflammation. But in
thefe cafes nitre is always improper : it is known to
be a powerful diuretic, its chief a&ion being upon the
urinary paflages; fo that the ftimulus it occafions will
only ferve to increafe the evil it is intended to alleviate.
Cream of tartar, on account of its diuretic quality,
will be equally improper. Our view here is not to
promote a preternatural flow of urine; for the virus,
being infoluble in water, cannot eafily be waihed away
by fuch means; but our objedf ought to be, to render
the urine that is fecreted as mild and as little ftimu¬
lating as poffible-
Mild purges, which conftitute another material part
of the general remedies, are no doubt extremely ufe¬
ful when exhibited with prudence; but it is well known
that the abufe of purgative medicines in this difeafe
has been productive of numerous evils. Formerly it
was a pretty general practice to give a large dofe of
calomel at bed-time, three or four times a-week; and
to work it off the next morning w.th a Itrong dofe
of the p'Jvla cocci#, or feme other draftic purge. This
method was perfevered in for feveral weeks : in confe-
quence of which the patient often found himfelf trou¬
bled with an obftinate gleet, and ; erhaps his conftitu-
tian materially injured ; the effeft of fuch a method
being (efpecially in irritable habits) to weaken the
ftomach and bowels, and lay the foundation of hypo-
chondrial complaints. Violent purging likewife often
occafions ftrangury, hernia humoralis, and other trou-
blefome fymptoms.
The purges employed in thefe cafes fhould be gentle?
fuch as Rochelle fait, manna, tartarifed alkali, and the
like. They fhould be given only in a dofe fufficient
to procure two or three ftools, and be repeated only
every two or three days. The daily ufe of the pur¬
gative eleftuaries that are ftill given by fome prucli-
tioners, ferves only to. keep up a continual irritation
on the bladder, and of courfe to prolong the inflam¬
mation.
The topical remedies that are ufed confift chiefly of
different forts of injections, the ingredients of which,
are extremely various; but their modes of operation
may in general be referred to their mucilaginous and
fedative, or to their detergent, ftimulating, and aftrin-
gent qualities. , In the hands of fkilfol pra&itioners,
great advantages may doubtlefs be derived from the
ufe of thefe remedies; but, on the other hand, the
improper and unfeafonable admin iftration of them
may prove a fource of irreparable mifehief to the pa¬
tient.
We know that mucilaginous and oily injeftions will
tend to allay .the local inflammation; and that a feda^
S « tivc
322
Apo:eriefc
M E D I
4 tive injcclion, fucli as a folution of opium, will leffen
the irritability of the parts, and of courf- produce a
limilar effeft; the utility’of fuch applications is there¬
fore fufficiently obvious.
A detergent injeftion, or one that will aft upon the
mucus of the urethra, increafe the difcharge of it, Wafh
it away, and with it the venereal virus that is blended
with it, can only be ufed as a prophylaftic before the
fymptoms of infeftion have made their appearance.
But great circumfpeftion is neceffary in the ufe of
this kind of injeftion. If it be too weak, it can
be of no efficacy ; and if it be too llrong, it may prove
dangerous to the patient. A fuppreffion of urine has
been brought on r>y the improper life of an injeftion
of this kind. When, the fymptoms of inflammation
have once made their appearance, the ft'imulus of fuch
an injeftion muft be extremely hazardous. Execration
of the urethra has but too often been produced by re¬
medies of this fort in the hands of adventurous and
unfltiiful praftitioners.
While the inflammation of the urethra continues,
every thing that ftimulates it muft be hurtful. If the
injeftion excites a painful fenfation in the urethra, as
is but too often the cafe, it will be liable to produce
fwelled tefticles, difficulty in making water, excoria¬
tion, and other effefts of increafed inflammation : if,
by its aftringency, the running be checked before the
virus that excited the difcharge be properly fubdued,
the patient will be expofed to frefh dangers; and per¬
haps to a variety of local complaints, fuch as obftruc-
tions in the urethra, and abfceiTes m per in tea, which are
well known to be fometimes o^'ing to applications of
this fort improperly managed.
When the inflammation has fubfided, gently ftimu-
latiirg and aftringent injeftions may be ufed with fafe-
ty, and with confiderable advantage : for as the in¬
flammation is at firft excited by the ftimulusof the ve¬
nereal virus, fo when the former begins to lefien, we
may be ai'fured that the aftivity of the latter has abated
in proportion ; and, in general, when the inflamma¬
tory fymptoms are entirely removed, it will be found,
that the mucus is no longer of an infeftious nature,
but is merely the effeft of an increafed fecretion and
of relaxation. Mild aftringents will therefore ferve to
brace atid ftrengthen the veflels fecreting mucus, and
in this way will leflen the difcharge, and greatly pro¬
mote the cure It is certain, that in the greater num¬
ber of cafes, a gonorrhoea, which if treated by internal
remedies alone, would continue for five or fix weeks,
or longer, may, when judicicv/ly treated with injec¬
tions, be cured in a fortnight, and very often in lefs
time. The great aim, therefore, of the praftitioner
ought to be at firft to make ufe of fuch injeftions only
as will tend todubricate the furface of the urethra, and
to counteraft and deftroy the ftimulus of the vi’sus: as
the inflammation abates, he may add fome gently aftrin-
gent preparation to a mucilaginous and fedative injec¬
tion; taking care that its aftringency be fuited to the
ftate of the difeafe, and to the irritability of the pa¬
tient. Amongft a great variety of fubftances, mer¬
cury in different forms is one of thofe that is the moft
frequently employed in injeftions. All thefe mercu¬
rial injeftions have more or lefs of aftringency ; and,
Recording to Dr Simmons, it is folely to this property
CINE. Fra&ice;
that we are to aferibe their effefts; for the idea ofGononhoei
their correfting the venereal virus was originally in- v
troduced, and has, bethinks, been continued upon mi.
ftaken principles
Calomel, mixed with the mucus difeharged in a go*
norrhcea, has no more power in deftroying the infec¬
tious properties of that mucus than ceruffe or any other
preparation would have. A diluted folution of fubli-
mate injefted into the urethra, will, like a folution of
verdigrife, or blue vitriol, or any other ftyptic, con-
ftringe the mouths of the lacunae ; but this is all that
it will do, for it will never leffen the infeftidus nature
of the virus. The fame thing may be obferved of
crude mercury extinguifhed by means of mucilage, or
of mercurial unftion, blended with the yolk of an egg,
and which, when thrown up into the urethra, will aft
nearly in the fame manner as balfam of copaiva, or any
other ftimulating injeftion. The ftimulus of calomel,
however, has often been found of confiderable efficacy;
and in women, when the vagina only was affefted, af¬
ter wafhing the parts well, the cure has been ae-
compliftied by rubbing them repeatedly with mercurial
ointment
As tire gonorrhcca'is only a local affeftion, it may
be inferred, that the internal ufe of mercury is unne-
ceffarv towards the cure. Very often indeed this
complaint may be removed without having recourfe
to mercurials. Sometimes patients have been met with
whofe general health has been greatly impaired by a
long continued ufe of mercury in fuch cafes, while the
original difeafe, the gonorrhoea, was rendered much
woife by it. In fome it degenerated into a gleet, that
was cured with extreme difficulty; in others it brought
on a variety of diftrefiing fymptoms. In cafes of go¬
norrhoeas, therefore, whenever mercury is adminiftered,
it ought to be, not with a view to expedite the cure,
but merely to obviate the dangers of fyphilis. When
the infeftion is apparently flight, and the inflamma¬
tion and the fymptoms trifling, we may proceed with¬
out the affiftance of mercury, efpecially if the patient
be of a weak, relaxed, and irritable, habit, likely to be
injured by mercurial medicines. On the other hand,
when the difcharge is violent, the inflammation con*
fiderable, or the leat of the difeafe high up in the ure¬
thra, it is perhaps the moft prudent plan to give mer¬
curials in fmall dofes, and in fuch forms as feem the
beft adapted to the conftitution of the patient.
The piluU hydrargyri, as prepared according to the
receipts inferted in the laft edition either of the Lon¬
don or Edinburgh pharmacopoeias, in both of which
the mercury is rendered aftive merely by triture, may
perhaps be confidered as one of the mildeft and moft
efficacious forms under which mercury can be exhibited
by the mouth. Its efficacy will depend on its not ir¬
ritating the bowels, and fo palling off by ftool; care
muft likewife be taken to prevent its affefting the
mouth. Of the chemical preparations of mercury, the
mildeft and leaft irritating is calomel. It may be given
from gr. ifi. to gr. iii. at bed-time, occafionally inter-
poftng a mild purgative to prevent it from falivating;
but in general the mercurial pill juft mentioned is to
be preferred.
When there is no chancre nor bubo, no appearance
in Ihort of fyphilitic infeftion, it would be improper
Pracllce. M E D I
Avoce- to ajminifter corrofive fublimate, the mercunus calci-
. natus, or any other of the more aciid preparations of
’ mercury.
After a gonorrhoea proceeding from venereal caufes
has been removed, another kind of running without
pain, called the gonorrhica mucofa, or gleet, fometimes
remains. Somefimes it arifes from a conftri&ion and
excoriation of the urethra, and frequently it is the ef¬
fect of an enlargement and difeafed Hate of the pro-
Hate. In each of thefe cafes, as the gleet is the effe6l
of irritation, the cure will depend on the removal of
the local difeafe that occafions it. But there is ano¬
ther fpecies of gleet that feems to depend chiefly on
relaxation. It is in general free from infection, and
is moft common in thofe who have had long and fre¬
quent gonorrhoeas. It is likewife often the efteft ef a
debilitated habit, from fevere purging, or a long con¬
tinued ufe of mercurials. A difcharge of this kind is
more frequent in women than in men; or, at leaft, the
fiuor albus, after a gonorrhoea, will often be miftaken
for a gleet.
When there is no reafon to fufpeA remaining con¬
tagion, aftringent injeftions will be of the greateft fer-
vice. It will be neceffary, at the fame time, to attend
to the health of the patient, by employing the Peruvian
hark, chalybeate waters, cold bathing, and fuch other
remedies as will teed to llrengthen the fyftem : and
indeed by the ufe of thefe, particularly by the Peru¬
vian bark, fuch runnings are often fuccefsfully com¬
bated in thofe who from apprehenfion of dangerous
confequences cannot be prevailed upon to employ in-
jeftions. When there is no tendency to inflammation,
the balfam of copaiva may be prefcribed with advan¬
tage in large dofes. Dr Simmons fays he once faw a
complaint of this fort removed by applying a blifter
to the perinteum, after it had refilled a variety of other
remedies. In the Medical Obfervations alfo we have
an account of a gleet and incontinence of urine re¬
moved at once by a blifter to the os facrum. In ge¬
neral however, the other methods above mentioned
will be fufficient to remove it, though fometimes it
will continue for a long time in fpite of all our endea¬
vours to check it.—Other kinds of gononhoEa, in
. which the femen itfelf is ejedted, efpecially during
fieep, may be cured by tonics and a mild cooling re¬
gimen
392 Order V. EPISCHESES.
353 Genus CXXII. OBSTIPATIO.
.Costiveness.
Obftipatio, Lin. 166. Vog. 128. Sag. 221.
Coflivenefs is fometimes occafioned by debility in
dyfpeptic perfons, fometimes it is the effedt of rigi¬
dity, and fometimes it is fymptomatic of the colic.
It may proceed from an exceffive heat of the liver;
drinking rough red wines, or other aflringent liquors;
too much exercife, efpecially on horfeback: it may
lik- wife proceed from a long ufe of cold infipid food,
which does not fufficiently ftimulate the inteftines.
Sometimes it is owing to the bile not defcending to
the inteftines, as in the jaundice; and at other times
£t proceeds from difeafes of the inteftines themfelves,
CINE. 3
as a pally, fpafms, tumors, a cold dry Irate of the in- Obflipa
teftines. See. —-y~
Exceflive coftivenefs is apt to occaflon pains of the
head, vomiting, colics, and other complaints of the
bowels. It is peculiarly hurtful to hypochondriac and
hyfteric perfons, as it generates wind and other diftref*
ling fymptoms.
Perfons who are generally coftive fhould live upon
a moiftening and laxative diet; as roafted or boiled
apples, pears, ftewed prunes, raifins, gruels with cur¬
rants, butter, honey, fugar, and fuch like. Broths
with fpinage, leeks, and other foft pot-herbs, arelike-
wife proper. Rye-bread, or that which is made of a
mixture of wheat and rye together, ought to be eat.
No perfon troubled with coftivenefs ftiould eat white
bread alone, efpecially that which is made of fine
flour. The heft bread for keeping the belly foiuble
is what in fome parts of England they call mejlin. It
is made of a mixture of wheat and rye, and is very
agreeable to thofe who are accuftomed to it.
Coftivenefs is increafed by keeping the body too
warm, and by every thing that promotes the perfpi-
ration ; as wearing flannel, lying too long a-bed, See.
Intenfe thought, and a fedentary life, are likewife
hurtful. All the fecretions and excretions are pro¬
moted by moderate exercife without doors, and by a
gay, cheerful, fprightly temper of mind.
The drink fliould be of an opening quality. All ar¬
dent fpirits, auftere and aftringent wines, as port, cla¬
ret, &c. ought to be avoided. Malt liquor that is fine
and of a moderate ftrength is very proper. Butter¬
milk, whey, and other watery liquors, are likewife
proper, and may be drank in turns, as the patient’s
inclination diredls.
Thofe who are troubled with coflivenefs ought, if
poflible, to remedy it by diet, as the conftant ufe of
medicines for that purpofe is attended with many in¬
conveniences, and often with bad confequences. In
time the cuftom becomes neceflary, and generally ends
in a total relaxation of the bowels, indigeftion, lofs of
appetite, wafting of the ftrength, and death.
The learned Dr Arbuthnot advifes thofe who are
troubled -ith coftivenefs to ufe animal-oils, as frefh-
butter, cream, marrow, fat broths, &c. He likewife
recommends the exprefled oils of mild vegetables, as
olives, almonds, piftaches, and the fruits themfelves ;
all oily and mild fruits, as figs; decoftions of mealy
vegetables; thefe lubricate the inteftines ; fome fapo-
naceous fubftances which ftimulate gently, as honey,
hydromel, or boiled honey and water, unrefined fugar,
&c.
The doftor obferves, that fuch lenitive fubftances
are proper for perfons of dry atrabilarian conftitutions,
who are fubjeft to aftri&ion of the belly and the piles,
'and will operate when ftronger medicinal fubftances are
fometimes ineffedtual; but that fuch lenitive diet hurts
thofe whofe bowels are weak and lax. He likewife
obferves, that all watery fubftances are lenitive ; and
that even common water, whey, -four milk, and butter¬
milk, have that effetft:—That new milk, efpecially
afies milk, ftimulates ftill more when it fours on the
ftomach; and that whey, turned four, will purge
ftrongly :—That moft part of fruits are likewife laxa¬
tive j and that fome of them, as grapes, will throw
S 8 2 fuck
3H M E D I
Epifchefes fuch as take tkem immoderately, into a cholera mor-
^ bus, or incurable diarrhoea.
When the body cannot be kept open without medi¬
cine, gentle dofes of rhubarb may be taken twice or
thrice a-week. This is not near fo injurious to the
ftomach as aloes, jalap, or the other draftic purga¬
tives fo much in ufe. Infufions of fena and manna
jhay Hkewife be taken, or half an ounce of tartarifed
alkali diffolved in water-gruel. About the (ize of a
nutmeg of lenitive ele&uary taken twice or thrice a-
day, generally anfvvers the purpofe very well.
394
Genus CXXOl. ISCHURIA.
Suppression of Urine.
Ifchuria, Sauv. gen. 293. Lin. 167. Vog. 129.
Sag. 212. Home’s Clinical Experiments, fedt. xv.
This diftemper is diftinguifhed into various fpecies,
according as the feat of it is in the kidneys, the
ureters, the bladder, or the urethra ; and hence thefe
fpecies are named renalis, ureteric a, veficalis, and ure-
thralis.
395 I* Ifchuria renalis, or a fuppreffion of urine from an
affection of the kidneys, happens but rarely; however.
Dr Home in his Clinical experiments defcribes fuch
a cafe. In the end of December 1774, a man of a
full habit, aged 35, was feized with fhivering, cold-
nefs, and fevere cough. Three days after, his urine
appeared high-coloured, was paffed with pain, and
in fmall quantity. About the 8th of January 1775,
he was attacked with violent pains in the fmall of his
back, over the whole abdomen, and in the ankles,
with pain in the region of the liver when preffed. A
general fwelling was afterwards obferved all over the
body, but moftly in the ankles and abdomen, which
laft was tenfe and hard. Thefe were attended with
vomiting, bad appetite, and confiderable thirft. When
he entered the clinical ward (January 21ft), the cough,
ficknefs, and vomiting, had gone off, but the fuppref¬
fion of urine remained. The little which he made was
paired with his ftools, fo that Dr Home faw it but
once ; and then it was pale, and had a white powder
at bottom. The pains and fwellings, which retained
the impreffion of the finger, continued ; he had a
head-ach, and a very flow pulfe, beating only 48 ftrokes
in a minute. He had taken a great many diuretic
medicines before he came in. The day after his re¬
ception, he was feized with a fpontaneous diarrhoea,
which continued during the remainder of his life,
Cryftals of tartar were exhibited in dofes of half an
ounce each morning; at bed-time he took 20 drops
of tincture of opium with a fcruple of nitre, and con¬
tinued this courfe for eight days without any increafe
of urine. The ftronger and heating diuretics were
then tried, as an infufion of juniper berries and pills
©f garlic ; but they were attended with no fenfible ad¬
vantage. Whenever the pulfe became fo ftrong that
he could bear bleeding, eight ounces of blood were
taken away, which was fizy. This was thrice repeat¬
ed; he appeared eaiier after each bleeding, his pulfe
bore it well, and the fwellings and other, fymptoms
abated. The heating diuretics, in this Hate, were
given up ; and a mixture of vinegar and nitre was
fubftituted in their place, in each dofe of which, taken
every two hours, there was a- fcruple of nitre. Fo-
C I N E. Pra&ice^
mentations were applied to the region of the kidneys, Ifchuria.
and camphorated oil was afterwards rubbed on the v ■ '
part. He was ordered the femicupium, which from
a deficiency of water in the hofpital at that time he
got only once; and which then feemed to have a good
effeA, as he pafied a gill of urine when he was in it.
Notwithftanding this, however, the difeafe continually
gained ground; he became comatofe, delirious, and
died ten days after his admiffion.—On dilfc&ion, the
kidneys were found of an irregular form; fome watery
veficles appeared on their furface, containing black.
gritty particles like fine fand ; and the lower part of
the right kidney was confiderably inflamed. The
pylorus, part of the duodenum, and a confiderable
part of the fmall inteftines, were much inflamed. In
the abdomen were found about five pounds of fluid,
and in the cavities of the thorax about half a pound.
The lungs were a little inflamed, and full of fmall
tubercles on their furface and in their fubllance : the-
heart was large, and a polypus in each ventricle. About
fix ounces of fluid were found in the pericardium : in
the brain nothing preternatural appeared, except about
an ounce of water in each ventricle.
Dr Home feems to have been at a lofs for the re¬
mote caufe of this fuppreffion of urine, which mani-
feftly had its immediate origin from the kidneys having
loft the power of performing their fundlions. He
thinks the inflammation which appeared in the right
kidney was fcarce fufficient to have occafiohed the
diftemper, as the other would have fupplied its place:
for which reafon alfo he thinks that the ifchuria was
owing to a general affe&ion. of the fyftem ; and that
it was of an arthritic nature, the patient having been
troubled with complaints of that kind for a long time
before.
2. The ifchuria ureterica is alfo a rare difeafe, unlefs 396
the obftruftion proceeds from a ftone or clot of blood
flopping up the paffage. Gravel or ftones, indeed, are
very frequently formed in the kidneys; and, by falling
into the ureters, occafion an ifchuria, with violent pain,
and fymptoms more or lefs urgent in proportion to
the fize and fhape of the ftones. Sometimes it is
attended with coldnefs of the extremities, naufea,
vomiting, and fpaftic conftridtion of the prascordia,
a difficulty of making water, conftipation of the
belly, difficulty of breathing, ftupor of the thigh,
retraflion of the tefticle to the os pubis, inquietude,
lofs of ftrength, fyncope, and convulfion fits. When
the violent pain has continued for feveral days and
nights without intermiffion, and has brought the pa¬
tient exceeding low, and the fuppreffion of urine is-
complete, with coldnefs of the extremities and con-
vulfions of the tendons, death is at hand. Nor is-
it a good fign when the ftone continues long in the
ureter; for then the appetite decays, a naufea and
retching to vomit fupervene, and the patient is com,
fumed with a hedtic heat. Sometimes.the . ain is atr
tended with an inflammation of the .ftomach ;md in¬
teftines; and fometimes the difeafe ends in a dropfy
of the breaft, or lethargy, which foon carry off the
patient.
The indications of cure are, to exclude the ftone as
eafily as poffible, and prevent the breeding of otherst.
If the patient be of a fanguineous temperamen'.,. Syr
denham recommends to take away ten ounces of blood
from
Praflice. MEDICINE.
Epifchefes from the affe&ed fide; and then to give the patient a and of a light colour. His body had a ilrong dif-
  gallon of poflet-drink in which two ounces of marfh- agreeable fmell; his fkin was dry, belly bound, and
mallow roots have been boiled, injecting at the fame his appetite entirely gone, fo that he had hardly taken
time an emollient glyfter. After the poffet-drink has any food for 12 days. His legs fwelled llightly for
been vomited up, and the clyfter returned, give ,a feme daysintheevening. His pulfe was generally regular,
pretty large dofe of an opiate. But if the patient be fometimes flower than natural, and fometimes a little
old or weak, or fubjedt to nervous affections, bleeding quicker; being once felt at 64, and another time at 92.
may be omitte'd, efpecially if his urine at the begin- He was often feized, efpeciaily after eating or drink-
ning of the fit be coffee-coloured, and mixed with ing, with hiccough ; which increafed and lafted till his
, gravel; but as to other things, the cure is the death. On the 20th day of his difeafe, after feme
fame.—Huxham greatly recommends an emollient dofes of fquills, the general fwelling of his abdomen
bath prepared of a deco&ion of marfh-mallow root, fell, became much fofter, and more diflinftly difcover-
linfeed, fenugreek feed, and flowers of chamomile, to ed the fwelling of the left fide. The next day a-
which may be added a few white-poppy feeds. By vomiting came on ; he became delirious, and died
the ufe of this bath he fays he has feen the moil; cruel the day following. The body being opened, it ap-
fit of the gravel fuddenly ended, when neither copious peared that the tumor which was fo diftin&ly felt
bleeding nor opiates had the leaft effeft. Mild diu- on the left fide of the abdomen, was owing to a di-
retics are alfo of fervice. Hoffman recommends dul- ftenfion of the bladder with urine. Its fundus reach-
cified fpirit of nitre-as proper to relax the fpaftic ftric- cd to about the divifion of the aorta into the iliacs ;
ture. It is to be taken with fuitable diftilled waters it entirely filled the pelvis, and contained between-
and fyrup of poppies ; or in broth, with a few fpoon- five and fix pounds of urine of a pale colour. On
fuls of oil of fweet almonds. Turpentine glyfters are examining the external furface, its neck, and the be-
alfo accounted very ferviceable; and may be prepared ginning of the urethra, were found to be furrounded
of ten ounces deco&ion of chamomile, with half an with a fcirrbofity, which impeded the evacuation of
ounce of turpentine diffolved in the yolk of an egg, the urine. The bladder itfelf was much thickened,
and about as much honey. The fed diureticus, or but not more in one part than another. The ureters
acetated alkali, is much efteemedby fome, when taken entered naturally ; but were much thickened in their
along with an opiate. But when the ftone is too big upper half near the kidney. The kidneys were fome-
to pafs, Arbuthnot recommends a cool and diluent what enlarged; particularly the left, which had feveral
diet to hinder the further growth of it. Whey, in- watery veficles on its external furface. Thefe organs
fufion of linfeed, deco&ion of marfhmallows, and gent- were not in their ufual fituation ; but lay clofe on
fy refolving diuretics, are alfo proper To put a ftop each fide of the fpine, and very near the aorta; fo
to the vomiting, balfamum traumaticum may be ufed that the renal veffels were very fhort. What was very
with fuccefs when almoft every other means have failed. Angular, the lower end of each rofe over the fpine,.
397 3- The ifehuria vejicalit may arife from a ftone in and they were united together by their membranes
the bladder; and this indeed is the moft common and fubftances, the aorta palling beneath the union-
caufe of it: but there are certain cafes in which. The bladder had preffed confiderably on this part ;
though the ufual quantity of urine, or perhaps more, and the peritoneum covering them was confiderably
be paffed, the patient dies from the retention of a ftill thicker than natural. The lungs adhered every-where
greater quantity in the bladder. Of this Dr Home to the pleura, an4 in in fome places very firmly; they
gives the following inftances. A man of 58 years of were of a loofe texture and black colour; and the
age, of a ftrong fpare habit, and never fubjeft to the veins of the lower extremities were turgid with blood,
gravel, had, during the winter of 1777, a cough It does not appear that this patient got any medicines
with expectoration, which went off in the beginning farther than a few dried fquills, which diminilhed the
1778. About the 17th of February 1778 he felt fwelh'ngs and brought off much wind.. He alfo got
fome difficulty in paffing his urine, and much pain a mixture of muik, and afterwards of opium, for his
about the region of the bladder. He continued in hiccough ; but without fuecefs. His difeafe was mif-
this way for ten days, after which he became eafier on taken for an afeites ; and the catheter was not tried :
application of fome medicines. The abdomen then but in. another cafe the ufe of this inftrument was
fwelled, and he had pains in his loins and thighs, apparently of more fervice than any internal medicines.
On the 3d' of March he was admitted into the clinical This laft patient was about 90 years of age, and
ward : his abdomen was then fwelled and tenfe ; and laboured under fymptoms veiyfimilar to thofe already
an evident fluftuation was felt, which fome that touched mentioned. When admitted into the clinical ward,.
him thought was fonorous and produced by wind. A he had the hypogaftric region. fwelled, and difficulty
tumor was difeovered betwixt the navel and fpine of paffing his water ; but without pain,, vomiting, or
of the os ilium on the left fide, which gave him much hiccough. He had loft all appetite ; was thirfty, and.
pain, efpepially when preffed. This tumor became eoftive. Flis pulfe was 11 a, and weak. In the even-
more eafily felt after the fwelling of the abdomen de- ing about three Englifli pints of pale clear urine were
creafed, feemed round, and very near as large as the drawn oft by.means, of the catheterthe next day
head of a child. It appeared very much on the left all the fymptoms were gone off or abated. After
fide, even when the patient lay on the right, and the. this he continued to pafs fome urine, fometimes vo-
tumor then became dependent. He paffed urine fre- luntarily, fometimes involuntarily and infenfibly; but
quently, and rather more than in health, as. it was fo much always remained behind, that his bladder
computed at four pints a-day. It was always clear, was conftantly full, unlefs when , the urine was drawn
3 • oft*.
Ifch
326
M E D I
398
Ej ifchcTes 0fi, which was clone twice every day. The urine was
^' "v"" fometimes pale, fometimes of a deep red colour; and
once there was fome blood mixed with it, which
perhaps might have been occafioned by the catheter.
About the iixth day the urine was very putrid, with
much purulent-like matter at the bottom, and waspaf-
fed with more pain. About the nth, the putrid
fmell went off. The next day all the urine puffed in-
fehfibly except what was drawn off; and an hiccough,
though not very fevere, had come on. In this way
he continued without fever, though frequently troubled
with the hiccough, efpecially during thofe nights in
which the urine had not been drawn off. A month
after admittance, the bladder, with the affiftance of
the catheter, was almoll entirely, though infenfibly
evacuated, and the hiccough had left him ; he had no
Other complaint but that of voiding his urine infen¬
fibly, the natural effedl of a feirrhous bladder, and
which was probably incurable. With this patient
the hot bath and mercurials were tried, in order
to foften the feirrholity of the bladder, but without
effect
4. The ifcbttia urethrae's arifes from fome tumour
flopping up the paffage of the urethra, and thus hin¬
dering the flow of urine. It is an uncommon diftem-
per, and generally follows a gonorrhoea. Dr Home
gives us an example of this alfo.—The patient was a
man of 60 years of age, who had laboured under a
gonorrhoea fix months before, and which was flopped
by fome medicines in two or three days. He felt,
foon afterwards, a difficulty in paffing his urine, which
gradually increafed. About 10 days before his ad-
miffion into the clinical ward, it was attended with
pains in the glans, and ardor tirhvt; he had paffed
only about eight ounces the day before his admiffion,
and that with very great difficulty ; and the hypo-
gaftric region was fwelled and pained. _ On introdu¬
cing the catheter, three pounds of urine were drawn
off, by which the pain and fwelling were removed.
The inftrument required force to make it pafs the
neck of the bladder, and blood followed the opera¬
tion ; and the finger, introduced into the anus, felt a
hard tumour about its neck. He was treated with
mercurial pills and ointment, by which the fwelling
about the neck of the bladder foon began todecreafe;
but at the fame time a fwelling of the right tefticle
appeared. He was vomited with four grains of
turbith-mineral, which operated gently; and here Dr
Home obferves, that though thefe vomits are little
ufed, from a miftaken notion of their feverity, he
never faw them operate with more violence than other
vomits, or tfian he could have wiflied. The fwelling
diminifhed in confequence of the vomit and fome ex¬
ternal applications; and the cure was completed by
bleeding and a decoftion of mezereon-root.
Genus CXXIV. DYSURIA.
Difficulty of discharging urine.
Dyfuria, Sauv. gen. 265. Lin. 57. Vog. 164
Sag 213.
Strarfguria auSlorum.
A difficulty of making water may arife from many
different caufes ; as from fome acrid matter in the
blood, cantharides, for xnftance : and hence a ftran-
399
CINE. Pra&ice.
gury very often fucceeds t’ c application of blifteis.
In many cafes' it arifes fr m a compreffion of fome
of the neighbouring parts; of t >e uterus, for inftance,
in a date of pregnancy. Or it may arife from a fpaf-
modic affe&ion of the bladder, or rather its fphindter ;
or from an inflammation, ot thefe parts, or others near
them. Hence the difeafe is diftinguifhed into fo many
fpecies, the cure of which depends upon the remedies
indicated by their different caufes.
But the moft common, as well as the moft dangerous
fpecies is that arifing from a calculous concretion, or
Stone in the Bladder. 400
Dyfuria calculofa, Sauv. fp. 12.
The figns uf a ftone in the bladder are, pain, efpe¬
cially about the fphinfter; and bloody urine, in confe¬
quence of riding or being joked in a carriage; a fenfe
of weight in the perln<eum ; an itchinefs of the glans
penis ; flimy fediment in the urine; and frequent flop-
pages in making water; a tenefmus alfo comes on
while the urine is difeharged : but the moft certain
fign is, when the ftone is felt by the finger introduced
into the anus, or by the catheter.
Caufes, &c. It is not eafy to fay what the parti¬
cular caufes are that occafion the apparently earthy
particles of the fluids to run together, and form thofe
calculous concretions which are found in different parts
of the body, and efpecially in the organs for {training
off and difeharging the urine.
The gout and ftone are generally fuppofed to have
fome affinity, becaufe gouty people are for the moft
part afflidted with the gravel. But perhaps this is
in part owing to their long confinement, and to the
lying on the back, which people who labour under
the gout are often obliged to fubmit to; fince the
w-ant of exercife, and this pofture, will naturally fa¬
vour the ftagnation of grofs matters in the kidneys :
befides, there are many inftances of people feverely
affli&ed with the ftone for the greateft part of a long
life, who have never had the leaft attack of the
gout.
There is, however, good reafon for believing, that
fome farther connection takes place between the two
difeafes; and when treating of the gout we have al¬
ready given fome account of the opinion of an inge¬
nious anonymous author, who has endeavoured to
prove, that both the one and the other depend on a
peculiar acid, the concreting or lithic acid, which is
always prefent in blood ; and which may be precipi¬
tated from thence by various caufes, fuch as the intro¬
duction of other acids, or the like. When thus preci¬
pitated, he fuppofes it to produce the whole phenome¬
na of both difeafes. The objections we formerly ftated
to his theory of gout, do not equally militate againft
that of calculus; and it is at leaft certain, from the
beft chemical analyfis, that what are commonly called
urinary calculi, and have been confidered as entirely
an earthy matter, confift principally of acid in a folid
ftate united only with a fmall proportion of earth or
mucus. We may, therefore, whether this hypothefi*
be altogether well founded or not, juftly view lithia-
fis as depending on the feparation of an acid from
the blood.
Whatever may be the particular caufe of the dif-
pofitioo
Praaic?. M E D I C I N E.
I'plfcheffs pofition to TttlAaJ!sy the kidneys appear to be the moil the hiilory of one who was differed at Pan's, in whom
likely places for particles to concrete or run together, the pylorus, a great part of the duodenum, and the
becaufe of the great quantity of blood which paffes ftomach it ft If, were found incruftatod with a ftony
through the renal arteries, and which comes imme- matter, to the thicknefs of a finger’s breadth. And it
diately from the heart, fraught with various newly- is well known, that the water of the river Seine, with
received matters, that have not undergone much of. which that city is fupplied, is fo impregnated with
the aftion of the veffels, and therefare cannot as yet calcareous matter, as to incruilate, and in a ihort time
be fuppofed to be thoroughly aflimilated. to choak up, the pipes through which it runs. But on
Anatomills who have Carefully examined the kid- the other hand it is objedled, tliat the human calculus
neys in the human fubjetl, particularly M. Bertin, in- is of animal origin, and by chemical analyfis appears
form us, that there are two fets of tuhili urtnferi; to bear very little analogy to the ftony concretions of
the one continued diredtly from the extremities of water: and though it be allowed, that more perfona
the renal artery, and the other fpringing from that are cut for the ftone in the hofpitals at Paris than in
velicular texture which is confpicuous in the kid- " moft other places; yet upon inquiry it is found, that
neys. many of thofe patients come from different provin-
It is in this veficular part of the kidney that we ces, and from towns and villages far diftant from the
prefume the particles of the concreting matter firft Seine.
ftagnate and coalefce : for it is hardly to be fuppofed, Dr Percival conjeflures, that though this difeafe may
that fnch folid matters could be allowed to flop in chiefly depend upon a peculiar difpofition to concrete
the extremities of the renal arteries, fince the blood, in the animal fluids, which in many inftances is here-
and the urine feparated from it, muft flow through ditary, and in no inftance can with certainty be impu-
thefe veflels with great degrees of force and velocity; ted to any particular caufe ; yet hard water is at leafl
but in the intermediate veficula the particles may lie, negatively favourable to this diathefis, by having no
and there attradling each other, foon come to acquire tendency to diminifh it. The urine of the moft healthy
fenfible degrees of magnitude, and thus become fand perfon is generally loaded with an apparently terreous
or gravel. As long as this fand or gravel formed in matter, capable in favourable circumflances of forming
the veficular part of the -kidney lies quiet, there will a calculus; as is evident'from the thick crull which it
be no pain or uneafinefs, until the concretions become depofits on the iides of the veflels in which it is contain-
, large enough to prefs either on the adjoining tubuli, ed. And it feems as if nature intended by this excre-
or on the blood-veiftls ; then a fenfe of weight, and tion to difeharge all the fuperfluous falts of the blood,
a kind of obtufe pain in the loins, will be felt. But together with thofe earthy particles, which are either
when the fmall pieces of concreting matter fhall be. derived from our aliment, and fine enough to pafs thro’
diflodged and walked off by the force of the circu- the lafteals, though infuperable by the pow ers ofed
lating fluids, or loofened by fome fpafmodic a&’on of culation, or which arife from the abrafion of the fid
the moving fibres in thefe parts, they will in their paf- or from the diffolution of the red globular .par1
fage create pain, raife different degrees of inflamma- fluids. Now water, whether ufed as nature ; •
tion, or perhaps lacerate fome blood-veffels, and caufe with it, or mixed with wine, or taken under t;
bloody urine. When thefe little concretionshappen to be of beer or ale, is the great diluter, vehicle, ami .
detained in the pelvis of the kidney, or any other ftruum, both of our food, and of the faline, ear;
place where a flow of urine continually paffes, they and excrementitious parts of the animal juices. And ft
foon increafe in fize, and become calculi, from the con- is more or lefs adapted to the performance of thefe o;
ftant acceffion of particles, which are attradled by the flees, in proportion to its degree of purity. For it
original bit of fand, which thus becomes the nucleus muft appear evident to the moft ordinary underftand-
of a ftonc. ing, that a menftruum already loaded, and perhaps fa¬
it is an opinion which Hippocrates firft advanced, turated with different contents, cannot adt fo power-
and which has been almoft univerfally adopted by his fully as one which is free from all fenfible impregna-
followers, and has remained till lately uncontrovert- tion. Nor is this reafoning founded upon theory alone;
ed, that the ftone and gravel are generated by the ufe for it is obferved, that Malvern water, which iffues
of hat'd water. And from this quality, which the wa- from a fpring in Worcefterfhire remarkable for its un-
ters of certain fprings poffefs, of depofiting a large common purity, has the property of diffolving the little
earthy fediment, either in the aqiitedudls thro’ which fabulous ftones which are often voided in nephritic
they are conveyed, or in the veffels in which they are complaints. And the folution too, which is a proof
boiled or preferved, it was eonjedlurcd, that in paf- of its being complete, is perfectly colourlefs. Hence
ling through the kidneys, and efpecially whilft re- this water is drunk with great advantage in diforders
tained in the bladder, they would let fall their groffer of the urinary paffages And during the ufe of it, the
particles, which by the continued appofition of frefti patient’s urine is generally limpid, and feldom depofits
matter, connefted by the animal gluten, and compadt- any fandy fediment. Yet notwithftanding this appear¬
ed by the mufcular a£tion of that organ, would in ance of tranfparency, it is certainly at fuch times load¬
time form a calculus fufficiently large to produce a ed with impurities, which are fo diluted and diffolved
train of the moft excruciating fymptoms. And this as not to be vifible. For it is attended with a ftrong
reafoning a priori has been fuppofed to be confirmed and fetid fmell, exaftly refembling that of afparagus.
by fails and experience ; for not to mention the au- Hoffman mentionsapure,light, fimplewater in theprin-
thority of Hippocrates, Dr Lifter has obferved, that cipality of Henneberg, in Germany, which is remark-
ihe inhabitants of Paris are peculiarly fubjedt to the able for its efficacy in the ftone and gravel; and a wa-
ftrone in the bladder. Nicholas de Blegny has related ter of fimilar virtues was difeovered not many years
agp>
3Z8
Epifchefes
M E D I
ago in the black forefl-} near Oftcrod, which upon exa¬
mination did not afford a Angle grain of mineral mat¬
ter. Indeed it i& worthy of obfervation, that moft of
the fprings which were formerly held in great efteem,
and were called holy wells, are very pure, and yield little
or no fediment.
Dr Percival informs us that a gentleman of Man-
-chefter, who had been long, fubjeft to nephritic com-
■plaints, and often voided fmall Hones, was advifed
to refrain from his own pump-water, which is un-
■commonly hard, and to drink conftantly the foft wa¬
ter of a neighbouring fpring ; and that this change
alone, without the afe of any medicine, has ren¬
dered the returns of his diforder much lefs frequent
•and painful. A lady alfo, much affe&ed with the gra-
•vel, was induced by the perufal of the hrft edition of
Dr Percival’s Effay, to try the effeft of foft water;
and by the conftant ufe of it remained two years en¬
tirely free from her diforder.
In nephritic cafes, diftilled water would be an ex¬
cellent fubftitute for Malvern water, as the following
experiment evinces.
Two fragments of the fame calculus, nearly of equal
weight, were immerfed, the one in three ounces of diftil-
Jed water, the other in three ounces of hardpump-water.
The phials were hung up clofe together in a kitchen-
chimney, at a convenient diftance from the fire. After
.14 days maceration, the calculi were taken out, and
carefully dried by a very gentle heat. The former, viz.
that which had been immerfed in diftilled water, was
diminifhed in its weight a grain and a half; the latter
'had loft only half a grain.
It is the paffage of thefe calculi from the kindeys
down into the bladder, which occafions the pain, vo¬
miting, and other fymptoms, that conftitute what is
ufually termed a jit of the gravel or Jlone.
When an inflammation is actually raifed, the dif-
.eafe is known by the name of nephritis, and has been
already treated of.
As foon as the ftone paffes through the ureter, and
falls into the bladder, the pain and other nephritic
fymptoms ceafe; and every thing will remain quiet,
cither till the ftone be carried into the urethra, or until
it has remained long enough in the bladder to acquire
-weight fufficient to create new diftrefs.
If a ftone happens to be fmooth and of a roundifti
form, it may lie in the bladder and acquire confide-
-rable bulk before it can be perceived by the patient;
but when it is angular, or has a rugged furface, even
•though it may be fmall in fize, yet it feldom fails to
raife pain, and occafion bloody urine, or the difeharge
of a flimy fluid, with tenefmus, and difficulty in making
water.
There have been various attempts made to diffolve
the ftone ; and there are certainly feme articles which
have this effe6l when applied to them out of the body';
but the almoft total impoffibility of getting thefe con¬
veyed to the kidneys, renders it' extremely doubtful
•whether a folvent ever will be difeovered. Of all the
articles employed for this purpofe, no one perhaps has
had greater reputation than fixed alkaline fait in its cau-
.ftic ftate, particularly under the farm of the aqua li-
xivi caujlica: but this being of a very acrid nature.
It requires to be well (heathed oy means of fame
gelatinous or mucilaginous vehicle. Veal-broth is as
W 20$.
CINE. PratfKcii
convenient as any for this purpofe ; and accordingly * Dyfuria.
it is ufed by thofe who make a fecret of the cauftic —-v—*-'
alkali as a folvent of calculus.
Mr Blackrie, who has taken much pains in this in¬
quiry, has proved very fatisfa&orily, that Chittrick’s
noftrum is no other than foap-lees given in veal-broth,
which the patients fend every day to the do&or, who
returns it mixed up with the medicine, in a clofe veffcl
fecured by a lock.
It is not every cafe, however, that either requires
or will bear a courfe of the cauftic alkali. Some cal¬
culi are of that foft and friable nature, that they will
diffolve even in common water ; and there are cafes
wherein it appears that the conftant ufe of fome very
fimple decq&ion or infufion of an infignificant vege¬
table, has brought away large quantities of earthy
matter, in flakes which apparently have been united
together in layers to form a ftone. Dr Macbride af-
fures us, that a decoiftion of raw coffee, only' 30 ber¬
ries in a quart of water, boiled till it acquired a deep
greenifti colour, taken morning and evening to the
quantity of eight or ten ounces, with ten drops of
fweet fpirit of nitre, had the powerful efteft of bring¬
ing away, in the courfe of about two months, as
much earthy matter in flakes as filled a large tea-cups.
The patient was far advanced in years; and, before he
began this decoftion, had been reduced to great ex¬
tremities by the continuance of pain and other di-
ftreffing fymptoms : he was purged occafionally with
oleum ricini. -
Very lately the alkali in a mild ftate, and in a dif¬
ferent form, has been much ufed by many calculous
patients and with great advantage, under the form
of what is called alkaline aerated water. For the in*
trodudlion of this medicine, or at leaft for its extenfive
ufe, we are chiefly indebted to that ingenious phyfician
Dr William Falconer of Bath. He has lately publifhed
an account of the Aqua Mephitica Alkalina, or Solu¬
tion of fixed alkaline fait, faturated with fixable air, in
calculous diforders ; which contains a number of cafes
ftrongly fupporting the benefit to be derived from it.
But whether the good effedfs obtained in thefe in-
ftances are to be explained from its operating as a
folvent of calculus, feems to be extremely doubtful.
There are indeed cafes in Dr Falconer’s treatife, of
patients in whom, after ufing it for a confiderable
time, no ftone could be detedled by founding, although
it had been difeovered in that way before they began
the employment of it. But in many inftances, the
relief has been fo fudden, that it may be concluded,
that, notwithftanding the eafe obtained, the calculus
ft ill remained. In fuch cafes, it probably removed
from the urine that quality by which it gives to; the
calculus freftr accretions, producing that roughnefs
of its furface by which it is chiefly capable of adling
as a ftimulus. For the diftrefiing fymptoms refulting
from ftone, are more immediately to be attributed ta
the inflammatory and fpafmodic affe&ions which it in¬
duces ; and when its furface is leaft capable of ope¬
rating as a ftimulus, thefe of courfe will be leaft con¬
fiderable It is therefore not improbable, that this
remedy produces relief, by preventing' freftl additions
being made to the calculus.
An infufion of the feeds of daucus fylvejlris fweetened
with honey, is another fimple and much celebrated
remedy \
Pra&ice. M E D I
Epifchefes temedy ;'Jt has been found to give confiderable eafe in
1,1 ^ cafes where the ftomach could not bear any thing of an
acrid nature : the leaves of the uva urfi were ftrongly
recommended by the late very celebrated De Haen ;
and, whatever its way of operating may be, feems to
have been productive of good effedts in fome inftances.
There is no reafon to believe that it has any influence
in diflblving calculus ; and indeed it feems to be chiefly
•ufeful in thefe inftances where ulcerations take place
-in the urinary paflages.
In the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, vol. 3. we
have an account of a method ufed by the inhabitants
of Arabia Petraea for curing the ftone, to which they
are very much fubjeCt, and which the author (an Eng-
lith gentleman of experience and candour) affirms
he has feen frequently performed with never-failing
fuceefs. By means of a catheter they injedt into
the bladder a weak ley of alkali with the purified
fat of a ftieep’s tail, and a proper quantity of opium
all put together. Theii* catheters are made of gold ;
and in performing the operation they introduce them
quite into the bladder; fo that the compofition is fafe-
ly conveyed to the ftone without hurting any other
part. But when a ftone is fituated in the kidney, they
have no method of cure.
If this method of curing by injeCtion could be faTe-
ly praftifed, it would no doubt greatly have the ad¬
vantage over that of taking alkalies by the mouth,
where the medicine is not only much weakened, but
the conftitution of the patient runs the rifle of being
greatly injured. But from fome experiments mention¬
ed in the fecond volume of the Medical Tranfa&ions,
it appears that the human calculi are very different
from one another in their natures. Some, for inftance,
will eafily yield to an alkaline menftruum, and very
little to an acid ; while others are found to refift the
alkali, and yield to,the acid ; and fome are of fuch a
compaft nature, that they yield neither to acids nor
alkalies. An attention, however, to the fragments,
feales, or films, which the ftone may caft off, and
alfo to the contents and fediment of the urine, may
lead to the difeovery of what folvent is proper, or
whether the ftone can be diffolved by any. To ufe
either alkalies or acids improperly may be hurtful;
though there may be fuch kinds of calculi as de¬
mand the alternate ufe of acids and alkalies; nay,
there may be found calculi of oppofite kinds in the
fame fubjeft.
In fuch cafes as will not allow us to think of diffol-
vingthe ffony concretions, and where the only fcheme
is to palliate and procure eafe from time to time,
little more can be done than to keep the bowels open
occafionally by fome gentle cathartic, and wafh off as
much of the loofe gravelly matter and flime as can be
removed by fuch mild diuretic infufions and decoc¬
tions as ftiall be found to pafs freely and fit well on
the ftomach. Perfons aftlifted with the ftone Ihould be
careful in refpeft of their diet, and ftudioufly avoid all
heavy and flatulent food, as well as high fauces that
are apt to turn rancid. For the fame reafon, butter and
acids are to be ftmnned ; for thefe often create heart¬
burning, and eveij thing that offends the ftomach
raifes the nephritic pain ; fuch is the fympathy that
obtains between the digeftive and the uropoietic or¬
gans
Vol. XI. Part I.
CINE.
There have been furgeons bold enough to entertain
an idea of cutting even into the kidney, in order to
extract a ftone : this, however, except in cafes where
an abfeefs has been formed, and nature points out the
Way, is merely chimerical. But cutting into the blad¬
der for the fame purpofe, is an ancient and well-known
operation, and often crowned with fuccefs. A deferip-
tion, however, of this operation belongs to the article
Surgery, to which we refer; and here (hall only make
this remark, that a furgeon ftrould never begin his ope¬
ration, until he and his affiftants are perfeftly fatisfied,
from aftually feeling the ftone, that there is one in the
bladder; becaufe it has fometimes happened, that when
the incifion has been made, no ftone could be found:
and the patient having died in confequence of the ope¬
ration, and the body being opened, it has appeared
that the fymptoms which occafioned the belief of a.
ftone in the bladder arofe from foine other caufe.
Wh en a dyfuria"proceeds from any acrimonious mat¬
ter thrown into the blood, it may be readily cured by
bleeding, emollient clyfters, cooling and diluting drinks
with gum arabic or gum tragacanth, linfeed tea, or
the warm bath. When it arifes from inflammations
of the bladder or parts adjoining to it, we are to re¬
gard it only as a fymptomatic affeftion; and the reme¬
dies ufed to remove the primary difeafe will alfo re¬
move the dyfuria. Sometimes it may arife from an ul¬
cer of the bladder ; in which cafe it is generally incu¬
rable ; a mild nutritious diet will, however, protrafk
the patient’s life.
Genus CXXV. DYSPERMATISMUS.
Difficult Emission o/"Semen.
Dyfpermatifmus, Sauv. gen. 260.
Sterilitas, Lin. 171. Sag. 211.
Agenefia, Vog. 2S3.
This impediment proceeds generally from obftruc-
tions in the urethra, either by tumors in itfelf, or in
the cavernous bodies of the penis ; in which cafe the
treatment is the fame as in the ifehuria urethralis j
fometimes it is owing to a kind of epileptic fit which
feizes The man in the venereal a& j'and fometimes the
femen, when ejected from the proper receptacles, is
again abforbed by them, or flows into the bladder, and
is expelled along with the urine. The laft cafe is very
difficult, or indeed impoffible to cure; as proceeding
from feirrhi, or other indiffoluble tumors of the veru-
montanum, or the neighbouring parts. In fome it
proceeds merely from too violent an ereftion ; in which
cafe emollient and relaxing medicines will be of fer-
vice ; and we have an example of a cure performed by
means of thefe in the firft volume of the Edinburgh
Medical Effays.
Genus CXXVI. AMENHORRHOEA.
Suppression of the Menses.
Amenorrhoea, Vog. 130.
Dyfmenorrhosa, Lin. 168. Sag. 218.
This, with fome other fymptoms, as dyfpepfia,
yellowifh or greenifti colour of the fkin, unufual appe¬
tites, &c. conftitutes the chlorofn already treated of,
and which feldom or never appears without a fuppref-
fion of' the menfes. In Dr Hume’s Clinical Experi-
T t ments
33° M E D I
Bpifchefe* ments we find the virtues of feveral emmeijagogues fet
s,_v 1 ' forth in the following manner. Chalybeates feldom or
never fucceeded : they were always found more ufeful
in diminifhing the evacuation when too violent, than in
reftoring it when deficient. The tindlure of black
hellebore proved fuccefsful only in one of nine or ten
cafes, though given to the length of four tea-fpoonfuls
a-day, which is double the quantity recommended by
Dr Mead. Compreffion of the crural artery, recom¬
mended by Dr Hamilton in the Phyfical and Literary
Effays, Vol II. proved fuccefsful only in one of fix
cafes. From the effefts produced by this comprefiion,
it has the llrongeft appearance of loading the uterus
with blood ; from the fcnfations of the patient it pro¬
duces the fame effects as the approach of the menfes,
and has every appearance in its favour j yet does not
fuqceed. Dr Hume fuppofes that the uterus is more
frequently in too plethoric and inflammatory a ftate ;
in which cafe, this remedy will do more hurt than in a
ftate of inanition ; however, he owns, that in the cafe
in which it did fucceed, the patient was plethoric
and inflammatory. Venefeftion is recommended as
an excellent remedy; the Doftor gives three in-
ftances of its fuccefs, and fays he could give many
more. It afts by removing the plethoric ftate of
the utejus, mlaxing the fibres, and giving the vef-
fels full play ; fo that their a&ion overcomes all re-
fiitance, and the evacuation takes place. It is of
no great moment from whence the blood is taken :
the faphasnic vein will perhaps empty the uterus moft;
but it is difficult to get the proper quantity, from it,
GIN E, Pra-dltce.
and the quantity of the difcharge cannot fee fo well Amenor.
meafured. The powder of favine is a moft power- rf:(Ea-
ful remedy ; and proved fuccefsful in three cafes out * ' ^
of four in which it was tried. It was given to the
quantity of half a drachm twice a-day. It is a
ftrong topical ftimulus, and feems improper in pletho¬
ric habits. Madder-root, according to Dr Hume, is a
very powerful medicine in this difeafe ; and proved fuc¬
cefsful in 14 out of 19 cafes in which it was tried, being
fometimes exhibited in the quantity of two fcruples, or
a drachm, four times a-day. It has fcarce any fenfible
effects; never quickens the pulfe, or excites inflamma¬
tory fymptoms: on the contrary, the heat, thirft, and
other complaints abate; and fometimes thefe fymptoms
are removed, though the difeafe be not cured; but when
it fucceeds, the menfes appear from the third to the
12th day.-—For other methods of curing the amenox-
rhcea, fee Chlorosis.
We have now confidered all thofe difeafes enumera-
ted in Dr Cullen’s Nofology, whole cure is to be at¬
tempted chiefly by internal medicines. The other ge¬
nera either require particular manual operations, or a.
very confiderable ufe of external applications; and
therefore properly fall under the article Surgery. To
this, therefore, we {hall refer the genera which fall-
under the three laft orders of this clafs of locales, viz.
the tumores, ettopia, and dialyfes; and we fhall add,
by way of Appendix, a few obfervations on fome im¬
portant affedtions to which Dr Cullea lias not given
a place in his fyftem.
A P P E
' ANGINA PECTORIS.
R Heberden was the firft who deffiribed this, dif¬
eafe, though it is extremely dangerous, and, by his
account, not very rare. It feizes thofe who are fubjedt
to it when they are walking, and particularly when
they walk foon after eating, with a moft difagreeable
and painful fenfation in the breaft, which feems to
threaten immediate deftrudfion : but the moment they
ftand ftiH, all the uneafinefs vanifhes. In all other re-
fpedts the patients at the beginning of this diforderare
well, and have no fliortnefs of breath ; from which the
angina peSoris is totally different. After it has continu¬
ed fome months, the fits will not ceafe inftantaneoufly
on Handing Hill; and it will come on not only when
the patients are .walking, but when they are lying down,
and oblige them to rife up out of their beds every night
for many months together. In one or two very inve¬
terate cafes, it has been brought on by the motion of
a horfe or carriage, and even by fwallowing, cough-
ing, going to ftool, fpeaking, or by any difturbance
of mind. The perfons affefted were all men, almoft
all of whom were above 50 years ©f age, and moft of
them with a ftiort neck and inclining to be fat. Some¬
thing like it, however, was obferved in one woman,
who was paralytic ; and one or two young men com¬
plained of it in a flight degree. Other pradtitioners
have obferved it in very young perfons.
When a fit pf this iort comes on by walking, its du-
N D I X.
ration is very fhort, as it goes off almoft immediately
upon flopping. If it comes on in the night, it will laft
an hour or two. Dr Heberden met with one in whom
it once continued for feveral days ; during all which
time the patient feemed to be in imminent danger
of death. Moft of thofe attacked with the diftem-
per died fuddenly : though this rule was not with¬
out exceptions; and Dr Heberden obferved one who
funk under a lingering illnefs of a different nature.
The os Jlerni is ufually pointed to as the feat of this
malady; but it feema as if it was under the lower part
of that bone, and at other times under the middle or
upper part, but always inclining more to the left fide;
and in many cafes there is joined with it a pain about
the middle of the left arm, which appears to be feated
in the biceps mufcle.
The appearance of Dr Heberden’s paper in the Me«
dical Traniaftions very foon raifed the attention of the
faculty, and produced other obfervations from phyfi-
cians of eminence ; namely, Dr Fothergill, Dr Wall
of Worcefter, Dr Haygarth of Chefter, and Dr Per-
cival of Manchefter. It alfo induced an unknown
fufferer under the difeafe to write Dr Heberden a very
fcafible letter, deferibing his feelings in the moft na¬
tural manner ; which, unfortunately, in three weeks
after the date of this anonymous epiflle, terminated
in a fudden death, as the writer himfelf had appre¬
hended.
The youngeft fubjefit that Dr Fothergill ever faw
affli&ol
Appendix# M E D I
Ansrina a/Hifted with this diforder was about 30 years of age;
. Peaorig. ancl this perfon was cured. The method that fucceeded
tl1"' with him was a courfe of pills, compofed of the mafs of
gum pill, foap, and native cinnabar; with a light chaly¬
beate bitter i this was continued for fome months, af¬
ter which he went to Bath feveral fucceffive feafons,
and acquired his ufual health : he was ordered to be
very fparing in his diet; to keep the bowels open; and
to ufe moderate exercife on horfeback, but not to take
long or fatiguing walks.
The only fymptom in this patient that is mentioned,
was a ftri&ure about the cheft, which came on if he
was walking up hill or a little fafter than 01 dinary,
or if he was riding a very briik trot; for moderate ex¬
ercife of any kind did not affedf him : and this uneafy
fenfation always obliged him to flop, as he felt himfelf
threatened with immediate death if he had been obli¬
ged to go forward.
It is the (harp conftriftive pain acrofs the cheft, that
(according to Dr Fothergill’s obfervation) particular¬
ly marks this lingular difeafe; and which is apt to fu-
pervene upon a certain degree of mufcular motion, or
whatever agitates the nervous fyftem.
In fuch cafes as fell under the infpe&ion of Dr Fo-
thergill, he very feldom met with one that was not at¬
tended with an irregular and intermitting pulfe ; not
only during the exacerbations# but often when the pa¬
tient was free from pain and at reft : but Dr Heber-
den obferves, that the pulfe is, at leaft fometimes, not
difturbed ; and mentions his having once had an op¬
portunity of being convinced of this circumftance, by
feeling the pulfe during the paroxyfm.
But no doubt thefe varieties, as well as many other
little circumftances, will occur in this difeafe as they
do in every otherpon account of the diverfity of the hu¬
man frame ; and if thofe Which in general are found
• to predominate and give the diftinguilhing chara&er
be prefent, they will always authorife us in giving the
name to the difeafe: thus, when we find the conftric-
tory pain acrofs the cheft, accompanied with a fenfe
of ftrangling or fuffocation; and ftill more, if this pain
fliould ftrike acrofs the breaft into one or both arms;
we (hould not hefitate to pronounce the cafe an angina
peSoris.
As to the nature of this difeafe, it appears to be
purely fpafmodic: and this opinion will readily prefent
itfelf to any one who confiders the fudden manner of
its coming on and going off; the long intervals of per-
fe£I eafe; the relief afforded by wine, and fpirituous
cordials; the influence which pafiionate affeftions of
the mind have over it; the eafe which comes from
varying the pofture of the head and Ihoulders, or from
remaining quite motionlefs; the number of years for
which it will continue, without otherwife difordering
health ; its bearing fo well the motion of a horfe or
carriage, which circumftance often diftinguifties fpaf¬
modic pains from thofe which arife from ulcers; and
laitly, its coming on for the moft part after a full
meal, and in certain patients at night, juft after the
firft fleep, at which time tire incubus, convulfive afthma,
and other ills, juftly attributed to the difordered func¬
tions of the nerves, are peculiarly apt to return or to
be aggravated.
From all thefe circumftances taken together, there
can be little doubt that this affedtion is of a fpafmodic
CINE. 33c
nature : but though it fitould be admitted, that the whole Angina
diftrefs in thefe cafes arife from fpafm, it may not be .
fo eafy to afcertain the particular mufcles which are ’
thus affe&ed.
The violent fenfe of ftrangling or choaking, which
(hows the circulation through the lungs to be inter¬
rupted during the height of the paroxyfm; and the pe¬
culiar conftriAive pain under the fternum, always in¬
clining (according to Dr Heberden’s obfervation) to
the left-fide; together with that moft diftrefling aqd
alarming fenfation, which, if it were to increafe or con¬
tinue, threatens an immediate extin&ion of life; might
authorife us to conclude that the heart itfelf is the
mufcle affefted : the only objeftion to this idea, and,
if it had been conftantly obferved, it would be infur-
mountable, is, that the pulfe is not always interrupted
during the paroxyfm. The appearances in two of the
diffe&ions, favour the opinion that the fpafm affeclj
the heart; as in one fubjeft the left ventricle (and,
though it be not mentioned, we may prefume the
right one alfo) was found as empty of blood as if it
had been waftied ; and in another, the fubftance of the
heart appeared whitifh, not unlike a ligament; as
it {hould feem, in both cafes, from the force of the
fpafm fqueezing the blood out from the veffels and
cav ities.
If this hypothefis be allowed, we muft conclude that
the fpafm can only take place in an inferior degree, as
long as the patient continues to furvive the paroxyfm ;
fince an affeftion of this fort, and in this part, of any
confiderable duration or violence, muft inevitably prove
fatal: and accordingly, as far as could be traced, the
pcrfons who have been known to labour under this dif¬
eafe have in general died fuddenly.
The diffedlions alfo fhow, that whatever may be the
true feat of the fpafm, it is not tieccffary for the bring¬
ing of it on, that the heart, or its immediate appen¬
dages, {hould be in a morbid ftate; for in three out of
the fix that have as yet been made public, thefe parts
were found in a found ftate.
On opening the body ef the poor gentleman who
wrote the letter to Dr Heberden, “ upon the moft
careful examination, no manifeft caufe of his death
could be difcovered ; the heart, in particular, with its
veffels and valves, were all found in a natural condi¬
tion.”
In the cafe communicated by Dr Percival to the pub-
lifners of the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, “ the
heart and aorta defcenderts were found in a found ftate.”
And in Dr Haygarth’s patient, “ on opening the tho¬
rax, the lungs, pericardium, and heart, appeared per-
feftly found.” Not <0 mention Dr Fothergill’s pa¬
tient (R. M.), in whofe body the only morbid ap¬
pearance about the heart was a fimall white fpot
near the apex. So that the caufe, whatever its na¬
ture might have teen, was at too great a diftance, or
of too fubtile a nature, to come under the infpeftion
ofthe anatomift. But there was a circumftance in two
of the fubjedts that is worthy of remembrance; and
which {hows that the crafis of the blood, while they
were Irving, muft have been greatly injured, namely, its
not coagulating, but remaining of a cream-like con-
fiftence, without any feparation into ferum and craffa-
mentum.
From all that we have feeu hitherto publiflied, it
T t 2 does
332 M E D I
Angina not appear that any confiderable advances have
, ^ea°ris- been made towards the a&ual cure of this anomalous
v fpafm.
The very judicious and attentive Dr Heberden (to
whom the public are highly indebted for firfl. making
the diforder known) confeffes, that bleeding, vomits,
and other evacuations, have not appeared to do any
good : wine and cordials, taken at bed-time, will fome-
times prevent or weaken the fits ; but nothing does
this fo effe&ually as opiates : in fiiort, the medicines
ul'ually called nervous or cordial, fuch as relieve and
quiet convulfive motions, and invigorate the languifh-
ing principle of life, are what he recommends.
Dr Wall mentions one patient, out of the 12 or 13
that he had feen, who applied to him early in the dif-
eafe, and was relieved confiderably by the ufe of anti-,
monial medicines joined with the fetid gums : he was
ft ill living at the time the Dodtor wrote his paper,
(November 1772), and going about with tolerable eafe.
Two were carried off by other diforders; aU the red
died fuddenly.
Dr Fothergill’s direftions are chiefly calculated with
the view-to prevent the diforder from gaining ground,
and to alleviate prefent diftrefs. Accordingly he en¬
joins fuch a kind of diet as- may be molt likely to pre¬
vent irritability : in particular, not to eat voracioufly:
to be particularly abftemious in refpedt to every thing
heatingfpicesj fpirits, wines, and all fermented li¬
quors : to guard moil ferupuloufly againft paffion, or
any vehement emotions; and to make ufe of all the
ufual means of eftabliihing and preferving general
health : to mitigate excefi'es of irritability by ano¬
dynes ; or pains, if they quicken the circulation : to
difperfe flatulencies when they dittend the flomach, by
moderate dofes of carminatives; amongft which, per¬
haps, fimple peppermint water may be reckoned one
of the fafeft. But iince obefity is jultly confidered as
a principle predifpofing caufe, he infills llrongly on
the necefiity of preventing an increafe of fat, by a ve¬
getable diet, and ufing every other pradlicable method
of augmenting the thinner fecretions.
Thefe were the only means w-hich occurred to the
Englilh phyficians of oppofing this formidable diieafe;
but Dr Smyth of Ireland has, we are told, difcovered
that it may be certainly cured by iffues, of which Dr
Macbride gives the following inltance.
“ A. B. a tall, well-made man ^ rather large than
ether wife ; of healthy parents, except that thefe had
been a little gout in the family; temperate ; being
very attentive to the bufinefs of his trade (that of a
watch-rpaker), led a life uncommonly fedentary ; had,
from his boyhood upwards, been remarkably fubjett
to alarming inflammations of his throat, which feixed
him, at leaft, once in courfe of the year; in all other
refpe£ts well.
“ In 1767, (then 48 years of age), he was taken,
without any evident caufe. with a fudden and very
difpiriting throbbing under the fternum. It foon
afterwards increafed, and returned upon him every
third or fourth week, accompanied with great anxiety,
very laborious breathing, choaking, a fenfation of
fulnefs and diftenfion in the head, a bloated and
fiufhed countenance, turgid and watery eyes, and a
very irregular and unequal pulfe. The paroxyfm in¬
vaded, almoft conftantly, while he was fitting after
GI N E. Appendix.
dinner; now and, then he was feized with it in the Angina
morning, when walkings little falter than ufual; and t>cClens“1
was then obliged: to dtop, and reft 'on any objedt at "' *
hand. Once or twice it came on in bed ; but did not
oblige him to fit up, as it was then-attended with no
great difficulty in breathing. In the afternoon fits,,
his greateft cafe- was from a fupine pofture ; in which,
he. ufed to continue motionlefs for fome hours, until,
quite fpent and worn out with anguifh, he dropt into
a flumber. In the intervals between thefe attacks,,
which at length grew fo frequent as to return every
fourth or fifth day, he was, .to appearance, in perfect-
health.
“ Thus matters continued for more than two years j
and various antifpafmodics were ineffedtually tried for-
his relief. In 1769, there fupervened a very fharp
conflridtory pain at the upper part of the ilernum,'
ftretching equally on each fide, attended with the
mer fymptoms of anxiety, dyfpnoea, choaking, &c.
and with an excruciating cramp, as he called it, that
could be covered with a crown-piece, in each of his
arms, between the elbow and the wrill, exadkly at the
infertion of the pronator teres ; the reft of the limb
was quite free. The fits were fometimes brought on,
and always exafperated, by any agitation of mind or
body. He once attempted to ride on horfeback du¬
ring the paroxyfm ; but the experiment was near,
proving fatal to him. The difference of feafon or wea-t
ther made no impreffion upon him. Still, in the in¬
tervals, his health was perf'e&ly good ; except that his.
eyes, which before his illnefs were remarkably flrong;
and clear, were now grown extremely tender; and.
that his fight was much impaired. He had no flatu¬
lency of ftomach, and his bowels were regulan
“ In this'fituation, February 22. 1770, he applied
to me for affiftance. I had feen, I believe, eight or
ten of thefe frightful cafes before. Two of the patients
dropt dead fuddenly. They were men between 40 and
50 years of age, and of a make fomewhat fldhy. The
fate of the others I was not informed of; or, at leaft,
cannot now recolleft.
“ Having found the total-inefficaey of blifters and
the whole clafs of nervous medicines in the treatment?
of this anomalous fpafm, I thought it right to attempt
the correfting or draining off of the irritating fluid .
in the cafe now before us. To this purpofe, I ordered-
a mixture of lime-water with a little of the compound ju¬
niper-water, and an alterative proportion of Huxham’s
antimonial wine.: I put the patient on a plain, light,
perfpirable diet; and reftrained him from all vifcid,
flatulent, and acrimonious articles. By purfuing this
courfe, he was foon apparently mended ; but after he
had perfifted regularly in it for at leaft two months,
he kept for fome time at a ftand. I then ordered a
large iffue to be opened on each of his thighs. Only
one was. made. However, as foon as it began to dif-
charge, his amendment manifeflly increafed. 1 he fre¬
quency and feverity of the fits abated confiderably
and he continued improving gradually, until, at the
end of 18 months he was reftored to perfect health *
which he has enjoyed, without the leaft interruption,
till now, except when he has been tempted (perhaps
enee in a twelvemonth) to tranfgrefs rules, by making
a large meal on faked meat, or indulging himfelf in
ale or rum-punch, each of which never failed to dif-
order
Appendix; M E D I
Angina order him from the beginning of his illnefs: and even
Pedons. 6n thefe pccafions. he has felt no more than the flighted:
* ~v motion of his former fufferings ; infomuch that he
would defpife the. attack, if it did not appear to be of
the lame ftock with his old complaint. No other caufe
has had the lead ill effeft on him.
“ Though rum was condantly hurtful, yet punch
made with a maceration of black currants in our vul-
- gar corn-Lirit, is a liquor that agrees remarkably well
with him.
“ He never took any medicine after the iffue began
to difcharge ; and I have diredled that it fhall be
kept open as long as he lives. The inflammations of
his throat have difap:eared for five years pad; he
has recovered the drength and clearnefs of his fight;
and his health feems now to be entirely re-eda-
blifhed ”
Dr Macbride, in a letter to Dr Duncan, publifhed
- in the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, gives the
following additional obfervations on this difeafe.
“ Within thefe few weeks I have, at the defire of
Dr Smyth, vifitedj three or four times, a very inge¬
nious man who keeps an academy in this city, of about
34 years of age, who applied to the Doctor for his ad¬
vice in January lad.
“ I fhall give you his fymptomsas -I had them from
Ins own mouth, which appear to me to mark his cafe
to be an angina pe&oris, and as deplorable as any
that f have read of. It was drongly didinguifhed by
the exquifite conitriftory pain of the dernum, extend¬
ing to each of his arms as far as the infertion of the
deltoid mufcle, extreme anxiety, laborious breathing,
drangling, and violent palpitation of the heart, with
a mod irregular pulfe. The paroxyfms were fo fre¬
quent, that he fcarcely ever efcaped a day, for fix or
feven years, without one. They were ufuaily excited
by any agitation of mind or body, though flight. He
had clear intervals of health between the fits. The
didenq er feems hereditary in him, as he fays his fa¬
ther was affefted in the fame manner fome years pre¬
vious to his death. He has a drong gouty taint,
which never (bowed itfelf in his limbs ; and he has led
,a life of uncommon fedentarinefs, from intenfe appli¬
cation to mathematical dudies, attention of mind,
and paffion, even from his hoyifh years. Thefe cir-
cumftances may, perhaps, account for his having been
taken with this difeafe at fo early an age as i 7.
“ A large iffue was immediately opened in each of
his thighs In a month afterwards he began to mend,
and has gone on improving gradually. He can now
run up dairt briddy, as 1 (aw him do no later than
yederday, without hurt; can hear agitation of mind ;
and has no complaint, excepting a flight oppreffion of
the bread, under the dernum, which.he feels fome—
times in a morning, immediately after dreffing him-
felf, and which he thinks is brought on by the. motion
ufed in putting on his clothes; though for a complete
week preceding the day on which I law him lad, he
told me that he had been entirely free from all un-
eafinefs, and was exulting that he had not had fuch an
interval of eafe for thefe lad feven years.
“ Dodlor Smyth alfo fhowed me, in his adverfaria,
the cafe of a gentleman who had been under his care
in 1760, which he had forgotten when my book,
went to the prefs, and which he was reminded of the
CINE. 333
other day by a vifit from hfs patient. It was a ge- Angina,
nuine angina pe&oris, brought on by a very feden- t*ec>tQrl'-1
tary life, and great vexation of mind, clearly marked '
by the exquifite pain under the dernum, that extend¬
ed acutely to the upper extremities, particularly along
the left arm, together with the other fymptoms of
dyfpnoea, anxiety, palpitation of the heart, &c. re¬
cited in the cafe above. The diforder went off in
1762, by large fpontaneous difeharges from the piles,
but returned upon him feverely in 1765. Ifliies in
his thighs were then recommended to him, but not
made. But, whether it was by the perfuafioh of fome
friend, or of his own accord, he went into a courfe
of James’s powder, in fmall alterative dofes, com¬
bined with a little caftor and afafoetida. This he
perfifted in for about fix weeks; in the meanwhile, he
had large acrimonious gleetings from the ferotum,
and a plentiful difcharge of ichor from the anus.—
From this time he began to find his complaints grow
lefs and lefs diftrefiing, and he has now been totally
free from them for fix years pad.”
The PUERPERAL, or Child-bet> Fever.
This fpecies of fever, as its name imports, is pecu¬
liar to women in child-bed ; and is ufually the mod
fatal of a 1 the diforders to which the fex is liable. But,
notwithdanding the prevalence of it fn all ages, its
real nature has remained, to the prefent time, a fub-
jett of much difpute and uncertainty. The critf’cal pe¬
riod of its invafion, when febrile, commotions are apt
to be excited by various accidents,, and the equivocal
fymptoms which accompany it, .have even afforded
room for quedioning whether it be a primary or a fe-
coirdary difeafe. Some writers have confidered it as
proceeding entirely from an inflammation of the uterus;
Others have imagined it to be the confequence of an
obflruftion to the fecretion .of thd milk ; while the
greater number has been inclined, for reai’ons equally
it not more plaufible, to impute it to a fuppreffion of
the lochia. If we examine this fever attentively, how¬
ever, according to its natural courfe, and independently
of all the accidental concomitant fymptoms with which
it is not effentmlly connedled, we may fafely pronounce
it to be a primary difeafe of a particular charadteridic,
and perhaps not the neceffary confequence of any of
the caufes above-mentioned
1 his fever is mod generally incident to women with¬
in 48 hours after delivery, though it may fupervene on
the fourth or fifth day, and fometimes confiderably •
later. It is preceded, like other fevers, by a rigor,-
which is commonly violent; and, when happening du¬
ring the time of labour, may be confounded with the
pains of parturiency. In its earlier dage it is attended
with the figns of inflammation. A great pain is felt
in the back, hips, and the region of the uterus; which,
in the part lad mentioned, is accompanied with the
fenfe of heat and throbbing. A hidden change in the;
quality or quantity of the lochia now alfo takes place;
the patient is frequently troubled with a tenefmus; and-
the urine, which is very high coloured, is difeharged.
in fmall quantity and with pain. At the fird attack
of the fever, the woman is generally feized with a vo-,
miting of pojrraceous matter, as in the cholera morbus,
to which difeafe it then bears a drong refemblance—.
But indead of this fymptom, there is fometimes only
a -
334 M E D I
fuerpera! a naufea, or loathing at the ftomach, with a difagree-
, !'ever- able tafte In the mouth. The belly fwells to a confi-
' v ’derable bulk, and becomes fufceptible of painful fen-
fations from the fllghteft impreffion. The tongue is
generally dry, though fometimes moift, and covered
with a thick brownifh fur# When the fever has con¬
tinued a few days, the fymptbms of Inflammation
ttfually fubfide, and the difeafe acquires a more putrid
form. At this period, if not at the very beginning of
the diforder, a bilious or putrid diarrhoea, of a danger¬
ous and obftinate nature, fupervenes, and accompanies
it through all its future progrefs ; each motion to ftool
being preceded by a temporary increafe, and followed
by an alleviation of pain. The patient ufually nau-
feates all kind of food and drink, except what is cold
and acidulated. A brown or biackilh fordes, the con-
fequence of putrid exhalations, adheres to the edges of
the teeth ; a troublefome hiccough is at length produ¬
ced, which greatly exafperates the pains of the abdo¬
men ; petechise or vibices alfo appear, with fometimes
a miliary eruption, but which produces no mitigation
of the difeafe. Through the whole courfe of the fe¬
ver, the patient is afledted with great anxiety and de-
jedlion of fpirits.
Such in general is the courfe of the puerperal fever;
the fymptoms of wdrich, however, maybe often varied,
according to the conftitution of the patient, the degree
of the difeafe, and its earlier or later invafion. When
the woman is naturally weak, or her ftrength has been
greatly reduced by immoderate evacuations after de¬
livery ; when the difeafe is violent, and immediately
follows that period ; its progrefs and termination are
proportionably rapid and fatal. In fuch unfortunate
circumftances, many have been known to expire with¬
in 24 hours from tbe firft attack of the difeafe ; nay,
there are fome inftances where the rigor has concluded
the fcene. The catallrophe, however, is moft gene¬
rally fufpended for fome days; and the number of thefe
is variable, though tbe 1 ith from the commencement
of the fever may juflly be fixed as the period which
is ufually decifive. In whatever itage of the difeafe an
unfavourable termination may happen, it would feem
as if the commencement of the patient’s recovery were
not marked by any critical revolution of the fever, as
depending on an alteration ©f the humours; but that
the cure is gradually effe&ed, either by a fpontaneous
vomiting, or a long-continued difcharge by ftool of
that porraceous matter, the exiftence of which in the
ftomach is ufually evinced at the firft attack of the
difeafe. The moft unfavourable prognoftic, therefore,
arifes from fuch a weaknefs of the patient as ren¬
ders her unable to fupport fo tedious an evacuation as
that by which the fever is overcome. When the lo¬
chia return, to their former ftate, when the fwelling and
■tendernefs of the abdomen abate, and there is a moi-
fture on the (kin, we have reafon to hope for a happy
termination of the difeafe.
Though the puerperal fever may generally be afcer-
tained from the defcription which has been given, and
chiefly by that remarkable tendernefs of the abdomen
which particularly diftinguifhes it ; yet, as feme of its
fymptoms may be confounded with thofe arifing from
other difeafes, and which require a different method
of-cure, it will be proper to mention here the circum-
C I N E, Appendix,
ftances whereby it may be known with greater cer- Puerperal
tainty. ^ fever.
The pains of the abdomen, attending the child-bed
fever, may be diftinguifhed from thofe called after-
pains, by their uninterrupted continuance through the
courfe of the difeafe, though fometinjes they fuffer
exacerbations; whereas, in the latter, they often to¬
tally intermit. They are alfo diftinguiftiable by the ab-
fence of fever with concomitant fymptoms in the one,
and their evident exiftence in the other.
Many circumftances evince a diffimilarity between
the puerperal and miliary fevers, notwithftanding the
fymptoms of anxiety and oppreflion are common to
both ; infomuch that the nature of the approaching
difeafe may be afeertained at the very commencement
of its attack. In the puerperal fever the rigor is more
violent, of longer duration, and not interrupted, as in
the other. The pulfe is fuller and ftronger ; the fkin
is more hot; and the tongue, whether moift or dry,
though generally the latter, is not of a white, but
brownilh appearance ; and the urine is alfo higher co¬
loured. Eruptions, which are critical in miliary fevers,
procure no mitigation of the puerperal fever, and
cordials generally increafe it.
When the original attack of the puerperal fever hap¬
pens to coincide with the febrile commotion which
is excited in child-bed women by the milk, the na¬
ture of it may at firft be mifapprehended; but the
concomitant fymptoms, and greater violence of the
difeafe, muft in a fhort time diffipate fuch an error.
From all the moft accurate accounts of this difeafe,
and from the period at which it generally commences,
there feems reafon to conclude, that it owes its rife
more immediately to accidents after delivery. For it
is allowed that it may follow a labour under the beft
and moft favourable circumftances, though endeavours
to dilate the os internum are fuppofed frequently to
produce it. The more immediate caufes generally af-
figned by authoi's are a ftoppage of perfpiration, the
too free ufe of fpices, and the negleft of procuring
ftools after delivery ; fudden frights, too hafty a re¬
paration of the placenta, and binding the abdomen too
tight. The putrid appearance, however, which this
difeafe fo foon aflumes, affords ground to fufpect that
the predifpofing caufe of it is a vitiated ftate of the
humours; for it is generally obferved to be moft pre¬
valent in an unhealthy feafon, and among wemen of a
weakly and fcorbutic conftitution.
Within thefe few years this fever has been treated
of by feveral writers, moft of whom have differed from
each other in their fentiments of the nature of the dif¬
eafe. The firft in the order of publication is Dr
Denman, who feems to be of opinion, that it may de¬
rive its origin either from a redundancy or too great
acrimony of the bile, the fecretion of which appears
to be much interrupted in the time of geftation. In
Dr Manning’s treatife on this fever, he mentions its
being highly probable that fuch a caufe contributes
greatly to produce the difeafe, efpecially where the
putrid tendency of the humours is increafed by ua-
wholefome air and diet.
It has likewife been the fate of the puerperal fever,
that no difeafe has more divided the fentiments of phy-
iicians in regard to the method of cure. The appa¬
rent
Appendix. M E D I
Puerperal rent indications and contra-indications of bleeding,
„ yevcr- and other remedies, arifmg from the complication of
- r *- " inflammatory and putrid fymptoms ; the equivocal ap¬
pearance of the vomiting and purging, as whether
they be critical or fymptomatical; and the different
caufes whence fymptoms fimilar to each other may
arife in pregnant women ; all thefe circumftances con¬
cur to involve the fubjeft in gre^t obfcurity and inde-
cifion. If we carefully attend to the feveral charac-
teriftics of the difeafe, however, fo as to be able to di-
ftinguiih it from every other puerperal complaint, and
obferve at the fame time the ufual manner of its de-
cleniion, our judgment may be guided in the method
of cure by the falutary efforts of nature. But, in
order to obtain a clearer view of the genuine indica¬
tions, it will be proper to eonfider them under the fe¬
veral lights in which they have been generally agita¬
ted by authors.
One of the moft effential points to he afcertained in
the cure of the child-bed fever, refpedls the pro¬
priety of bleeding. A free ufe of the lancet has been
generally regarded as the moft fuccefsful expedient
in praftice; and there are fome inftances of critical
haemorrhagies which would feem to confirm its uti¬
lity. But Dr Denman thinks we may fafely affirm
from experience, that for one who will be benefited by
large bleeding, a much greater number will be inju¬
red, and that even almoft irretrievably. Nor can this
feem furprifing, when we confider the iituation of
child-bed women. In, moft, the evacuations confe-
quent upon delivery are fufficient to diminilh any un¬
due fupcrabundance of the fluids; and if, as frequent¬
ly happens, the difeafe be produced by too hafty a re¬
paration of the placenta, the confequence of which is
generally a very copious difcharge of blood, we can
never fuppofe that nature will be aflifted in overcoming
the febrile commotion, by the farther evacuation of
the vital fluid, through the defied of which fhe is now
rendered unequal even to the ordinary fupport of the
animal oeconomy. We may appeal to every praftical
phyfician, how much he has known the pulfe to fink,
and what a train of nervous fymptoms he has obferved
to fucceed an excefs of the difcharge abovementioned.
Befides, it is an axiom in phyfic, that a remedy which
cures any diforder, will always prove fufficient to pre¬
vent it; and therefore, if bleeding were the proper cure
in the child-bed fever, the difeafe ought to have been
prevented by a large evacuation of blood, when that
happened previous to its feizure. Experience, how¬
ever, in this, as in all other difeafes, is the only uner-
ring guide we can follow ; and whoever regulates his
practice by fad! and obfervation, will be convinced that
bleeding, efpecially in a larger quantity, is, in general,
very far from being attended with fuccefs. Bleeding
is feldom proper, except in women of plethoric confti-
tutions, and in whom the figns of inflammation rife
high. Nor even in fuch patients ought it to be re¬
peated without great caution, and the exiftence of
ftrong indications. Bleeding, when ufed in proper cir¬
cumftances, may unqueftionably palliate the fever; but
v that it often fhortens the duration of it, appears to be
a matter of much doubt. On this account the prac¬
tice becomes ftill more fufpicious and exceptionable,
when we confider that by venefedlion improperly ufed
*he perfon’s ftrength may be fo far reduced as not to
CINE.
fupport the tedious loofenefs by which the difeafe is
generally carried off. Though bleeding, however, ,
ought in general to be ufed with great caution, there
are certainly many cafes in which it is both necelTary
and advantageous.
The genuine nature and effe&s of the loofenefs in
this difeafe, is another controverted point of the high-
eft importance, and which merits the moft attentive in¬
quiry. Phyficians, obferving that women who die of
the puerperal fever are generally molefted with that
evacuation, have been induced to confider this fymp-
tom as of the moft dangerous and fatal tendency; and
what, therefore, we ftiould endeavour by every means
to reftrain. In this opinion, however, they would
feem to have been governed by too partial an obfer¬
vation offafts. For experience certainly authorifes the
aflertion, that more women appear to have recovered
of the child-bed fever, through the intervention of a
diarrhoea, than have been deftroyed by that caufe. If
it alfo be confidered, that purging is ufually almoft the
only fenfible evacuation in the more advanced Hate of
the difeafe, and is that which accompanies it to its la-
teft period, we fhall have the ftrengeft reafon to think
that it is critical rather than fymptomatical, and ought
therefore to be moderately fupported, inftead of being:
unwarily reftrained. Nay, the advantage which is
found to attend vomiting as well as purging, in the
earlier ftage of the difeafe, would feem to evince that
the matter difcharged by thefe evacuations is what
chiefly foments the difeafe. Emetics and purgatives,
therefore, in the opinion of Dr Manning, are the only
medicines on which any rational dependence is to be
placed in this fever ; at leaft, they are certainly fuch
as are found the moft fuccefsful. It is an eftablilhed
rule in practice, to prefcribe a vomit at the beginning
of every fever attended with any naufea or loathing of
the ftomach, and where there is not any reafon to ap¬
prehend an inflammation of that organ. Nor dot s the
ftate of child-bed women afford the ftnalleft ground for
prohibiting our recourfe to the fame expedient in an-
fwering a limilar indication.
It is fo feldom a phyfician is called during the ri¬
gor preceding the puerperal fever, that, he has few op--
portunities of trying the eft'e£ls of remedies in that ear¬
ly ftate of the difeale. When fuch occur, however,
we fhould endeavour as much as poffible to abate and
fliorten that period, as the fucceeding fever is general¬
ly found to bear a. proportion to the violence and du¬
ration of it. For this purpofe, warm diluting drinks-
Ihould be plentifully ufed, with a fmall quantity of vo¬
latile fpirits or brandy. When Dr Manning appre¬
hended fuch an accident,., he fometimes ordered the
nurfe to give immediately a difli or two of. warm fack-
whey;; taking care that it was not too ftrong, which
is a caution that ought always to be remembered: for
though a freer ufe of the more, cordial and fpiritucua
kinds of liquors might perhaps foon abate the rigor,
there is danger to be feared from their influence on the
approaching fever, efpscially.m women of a ftrong and
healthy conftitution. In all cafes,,, warm applicationa
to the extremities, fuch as heated bricks, towels, or
toafted grains in a linen bag, may be.ufed with perfect
fafiety, and fome advantage.
When the hot fit is advanced, the firft thing Dr
Manning orders is fonse-emollient inje&ion,.as chicken-
water,
33^ MEDICINE. Appendix.
Of water and milk, which ought to be frequent- the loofenefs is fometimes fo long protra&ed as in the Puerperal
i E^Lr~ ly repeated through the courfe of the difeafe. Thefe end to prove fatal In this alarming ftate of the dif- Fever,
prove beneficial, not only by promoting the difcharge eafe, when the ftools are very frequent and involun-
from the inteftines, which feeras in faft to.be the fo- tary, and all appearances threaten danger. Dr Dfnman
lution of the difeafe ; but alfo by adding as a kindly fays, that a clyfier of chicken-water injedded every
fomentation to the uterus and adjacent parts. With one, two, or three hours, or as often as poflible with-
this intention they are particularly ferviceable when out fatiguing the patient too much, with the following
the lochia are fupprefled. Great care, however, is re* draught taken every fix hours, has produced better ef-
quilite in adminiftering them, on account of the ten- fedds than could be expended,
dernefs and inflammatory difpofition, which at that R. Pulv. rad. ipecacuan. gr. i.
time render the parts in the pelvis extremely fufceptible Confedd. Damocrat. 9i.
of pain. Aq. alexiter. limp. vel.
The next ftep in the method of cure ought to be Cinnamotn. fimp. ^ife. M. f. Hauftus.
to promote the difcharge of the morbid matter both by While thefe medicines are ufing, we fliould endea-
* the ftomach and inteftines. This intention is beft an* vour to mitigate the pains of the belly by relaxing ap-
fwered by the remedy prefcribed by Dr Denman, of plications. DiSritigthe courfe of the difeafe, the pa-
■which the following is the receipt. tient ought to drink freely of diluting liquors, and ab-
R. Tartar, emetic, gr. ii. ftain from every thing of a heating quality, unlcfs great
Ocul. cancror. prsep. 9i. Iritime mifceantur. faintnefs fhould indicate the ufe of a fmall quantity of
Of a powder thus prepared, Dr Denman gives froih fome cordial medicine,
two to fix grains, and repeats it as circumftances re- Such is the praddice recommended in this difeafe by
quire. If the firld dofe do not procure any fenfible Dr Denman. We {hall now take a curfory view of
operation, he repeats it in an increafed quantity at the the fentiments of fucceeding writers on this fubjedd.
end of two hours, and proceeds in that manner; not According to Dr Hulme, the proximate caufe of
expedding any benefit but from its fenfible evacua- the puerperal fever is an inflammation of the inteftines
tion. and omentum ; for the confirmation of which opinion
Should the difeafe be .abated, but nOt removed, he appeals to difleddions. He fuppofes the chief pre*
(which fometimes happens), by the effedd of the firll difponent caufe of the difeafe to be the preffure of the
dofe, the fame medicine muft be repeated, but in a lefs gravid uterus againft the parts above mentioned. The
quantity, till all danger be over. But if-any alarming omentum, fays he, in the latter ftage of pregnancy,
fymptoms remain, he does not hefitate one moment to muft either be flat, which is its natural fituation, or be
repeat the powder, in the fame-quantity as firft given; rumpled or carried up hy the gravid uterus in folds or
though this be feldommecefiary, if the firft dofe ope- doublings. When the latter is the cafe, which he ob*
rates properly. ferves is probably not feldom, the danger of a ftrangu-
It is to be obferved, fays Dr Denman, that as the lated circulation will be greater,
certaintyof cure depends upon the proper repetition Mr White, who has alfo written on this difeafe, jn-
of the medicine, the method of giving it at {dated dicioufly remarks, that were Dr Hulme’s hypothefis
hours does not appear eligible. If the firft dofe pro- well founded, the diforder ought rather to take place
•duce any confiderable effedd by vomiting, procuring before delivery, and be immediately removed at that
Idools, or plentifully fweating, a repetition of the me- period: That it would likewife moid generally happen
dicine in a lefs quantity will feldom fail to anfwer our to women at their firft labour, when the abdominal
-expqddations ;,but great judgment is required in adapt- mufcles are lefs yielding, and the pains more violent;
ing the quantity firft given to the ftrtngth of the pa- the contrary of which is molt frequently experienced
■tient and other circumftances. We arf not to expedt to be the cafe.
that a difeafe which from the firft formation carries fo It alfo deferves to be remarked, that, upon Dr
evident marks of danger, ft.ould inftantly ceafe, even Hulme’s fuppofition, we cannot account for the dil-
■ though a great part of the caufe be removed. eafe being more common and fatal in large towns and
Frequent dtffes of the faline draughts ought alfo to in hofpitals, than in the country and private praddice,
Fe given, which not only promote the evacuation by while other inflammatory diforders are more endemic
the inteftines, but likewife increafe the falutary dil- among thofe who live in the latter than the former fi-
charges of urine and perfpiration. Theft medicines tuation. Even admitting the fdddion of the iateldines
•are particularly ferviceable in fubduing the remains of and omentum againft the uterus to be as violent as Dr
• the fever, after its violence has been broken by the Hulme fuppofes, is it not highly improbable, that any
more efficacious remedies above mentioned; but when inflammation could be occalloned by the preflure of
•they are ufed even in the decline of the difeafe, gentle fuch foft fubftances upon each other ? Or, were this
laxatives of rhubarb and magnefia, as advifed by Dr effedd really produced, ought not the puerperal fever
Denman, ought to be frequently interpofed, ftnee, to be more common and fatal after the moil laborious
as he juftly obferves, without ftools we can do little deliveries ? •-t this bfe vatum is not iupported by
fervice. experience.
Notwithftanding the difcharge by the inteftines ap- Dr Hulme, in favour of his own hypothefis, alleges
-pears to have the mold falutary effedd in this dileafe, that it gives a fatisfaddory anfwer to the queidion,
yet when the ftomach has not been properly unloaded “ Why •all lying-in women have been, and ever will
of offenfive matter, though a great naufea and lick- be, fubjedd to this difeafe ? ’ In this propefition, how-
•nefs had indicated the expediency of fuch an evacua- ever, the Doddor fuppofes fueh an univerfality of the
,tion ar the beginning of the fever, the continuance of difeafe as is not confirmed by obfervation. It is ad-
Nfi 20.9. 5
Appendix. M E D I
Puerperal firmed upon undoubted authority, that in many parts
Fever. 0f Britain the puerperal fever is hardly known p where-
1' " «s, were it really produced by the caufes he affigns, it
would be equally general and unavoidable.
But how peculiar foever this author’s fentiments
are in refpeft of the proximate caufe of this difeafe,
^ they have not led him to any method of cure different
from the eftablifhed practice. On this fubjedl Dr
Hulme divides his obfervations into two parts, compre¬
hending under the former the more Ample method of
treatment, and under the latter the more complex. He
fet out with remarking, that the patient being gene¬
rally coflive at the beginning of the difeafe, an emol¬
lient opening clyfter will often give immediate relief;
but if this fhould not prove effectual, recourfe mull be
bad to cathartics. THofe which he found anfwer his
purpofe beft, were the fal cdtharticus amarus, the oleum
ricini, emetic tartar, and antimonial wine. When the
bowels have been fufficiently cleared and the pain a-
bates, he advifes encouraging a gentle diaphorefis by
medicines which neither bind the body nor are heat¬
ing ; fuch as fmall dofes of ipecacuan, emetic tartar,
and antimonial wine, combined with an opiate in a
moderate dofe, and given once or twice in the courfe
of 24 kours; adminiftering the faline draughts in the
intermediate fpaces. If, preceding or during this
courfe, a ficknefs at flomach or vomiting attend, he
advifes affifting the efforts of nature, by drinking plen¬
tifully of camomile tea, warm water, or any other di¬
luting liquor. He concludes with recommending a cool-
ing regimen, reft of body, and tranquillity of mind;
prohibiting all kinds of bandage upon the abdomen,
and enjoining particular attention to the ftate of the
bowels, which ought to be kept gently open for fome
time, even after the diforder feems to be gone off, till
the patient be quite out of danger.
So much for the fimple treatment: we now proceed
to the fecond part, where he defcribes the method of
practice when the difeafe is in its more irregular and
complicated ftate.
When a diarrhoea accompanies the difeafe, he ob-
ferves that it ought by no means to be checked, but
fupported, by ordering the patient to drink plentiful-
ly of mild aperient liquors. If the pain of the hypo-
gaftric region be attended with ftitches in the fides or
over the pit of the ftomach, and a pulfe that refifts
the finger pretty ftrongly, he remarks that bleeding
would then be highly neceffary : declaring, however,
his opinion, that, in the puerperal fever, bleeding is
to be confidered only as a fecondary means of relief,
though the firft in point of time ; that it ought to be
advifed with great caution; and that the greateft depen¬
dence is alw ays to be placed upon evacuations by ftool.
Mr White, above mentioned, imputes the puerperal
-fever to a putrefeent difpofition of the humours, con¬
tracted during pregnancy, and fomented by the hot
regimen commonly ufed by women in child-bed. In
conformity to this opinion, -the chief means which he
recommends for preventing the difeafe is a cool regi¬
men and free circulation of air, which he evinces to
be of the greateft importance. In refpedt of bleed¬
ing, he informs us, that, upon the flriCteft inquiry, he
■cannot find that thofe who have bled the moft copiouf.
ly have had the greateft fuccefs, either in private or
hofpital pradtice. He even feems to queftion the pro-
Vat. XI. Part I.
CINE, 33-
priety- of this evacuation in any cafe; but approves of Puerperal
emetics, cathartics, and clyfters, for cleanfing the ^ever~
prim/e vie, and likewife of fuch medicines and diet as ’ ‘
will correCt the putrid humours : adding, that an up¬
right pofture and free ventilation are at all times ufe-
ful, and abfolutely neceffary, both for the prevention
and cure of the difeafe.
Another writer who treats of the child-bed fe¬
ver is Dr Leake, who has publiihed the refult of his
obfervations on this difeafe from April T768 to the au¬
tumn of the year 1770; but chieflyfromDecember 1769
to May 1770, during which period the child-bed fever
prevailed much about London.
Dr Leake tells us that this fever generally commen¬
ced the evening of the fecond or morning of the third
day after delivery, with a rigor or Ihivering fit. Some¬
times it invaded foon after delivery; and at other times,
though rarely, it has feized fo late as the fifth or fixth
day. Now and then it feemed to be occafioned by
catching cold, or by errors in diet; but oftener by an¬
xiety of mind. Sometimes the thirft was great; tho'
the tongue had, in general, a better appearance at the
beginning than is common in other fevers. It was fel-
dom ever black or very foul; but, as the difeafe advan¬
ced, became white and dry, with an increafe of thirft;
and at laft was of a brownifh colour towards the root,
where it was flightly covered with an infpiffated mu¬
cus. The lofs of ftrength was fo great and fudden,
that few of the patients could turn in bed without af-
fiftance, even fo early as the firft or fecond day after
the attack. The lochia, from firft to laft, were not
obftrufted, nor deficient in quantity ; neither did the
quality of this difeharge feem to be in the leaft alter¬
ed from its natural ftate ; a prefumption, fays the au¬
thor, that the uterus was not at all affeCled. Of this
he was convinced by making a confiderable preffurc
above the pubes with the hand, which did not occa-
fion pain ; but when the fame degree of preffure was
applied higher, between the ftomach and umbilical re¬
gion, it became almoft intolerable. A perfedft crifie
feldom if ever happened in this fever, which he im¬
putes to the great opprelfion of the vital powers,
whereby they were rendered unable to produce fuch
an event. When the difeafe proved mortal, the pa¬
tient generally died on the 10th or 1 nh day from the
firft attack. In thofe who died of the fever, the
omentum was found fupperated; an inflammation of
which part, or of the inteftines. Dr Leake concludes
to be the proximate caufe of the difeafe.
In confequenee of this idea of the caufe of the dif¬
eafe, Dr Leake affirms that venefe&ion is the only re¬
medy which can give the patient a chance for life. But,
though it be the principal refource to be depended
upon at the beginning of the fever, he obferVes that
it will feldom prove of fervice after the fecond or third
day ; and, if directed yet later, will only weaken and
exhauft the patient; when, matter having begun to
form in the omentum, the progrefs of the dii'eafe can
no longer be prevented by that evacuation. At this
period the blood begins to be tainted by the abforp-
tion of the purulent fluid; and the fever, from being
inflammatory,, is changed into a putrid nature.
After bleeding in fuch a quantity as the fymptoms
require, he advifes that the corrupted bile be evacua¬
ted and corrected as foon as -poffible; that the diar-
U u rhees.
338 M E D I
Puerperal rficsa, when exceffive, be reftraingd by emollient ano*
Fever- dyne clyfters and gentle fudorifics, or even by opiates
'J'1 • and mild aftringents, when the patient’s ftrength be¬
gins to fink under the difcharge ; and, laflly, that
where the figns of the putrefaction or intermifiion take
place, antifeptics and the Peruvian bark may be ad-
ininiftered.
The great uniformity of the fypptoms in all Dr
Leake’s patients might authorife an opinion, that the
fever which he defcribes was in a great meafure a dif-
eafe fui generis, and depended much upon the confti-
tution of the air preceding and during the period in
which the fever prevailed.
Dr Kirkland has alfo made judicious obfervations on
this fubjeCt. He rejeCts the opinion that the puerpe-
lal fever is a difeafe /i/igeneris, and arifes always from
the fame caufe. The particular fituation of child-bed
women, he acknowledges, occafions a fimilarity in the
appearance of all the febrile fymptoms: but he af¬
firms that the fame kind of fever may be produced by
various caufes; for inftance, by an inflammation of the
uterus or abdomen, by putrid blood or other matter,
and putrid miafms. The fymptoms, he obferves, will
vary according to the time of feizure. If the fever
happens in three or four days after delivery, all the
fymptoms ufual to the fituation of the patient will
make their appearance; but if it do not invade till
the milk has been fecreted, and the lochial difcharge be
nearly finiflred, the fymptoms, if the breafls are proper¬
ly drawn, will, for the moft part, be thofe only which#
are common to that kind of diforder by which the fe¬
ver has been produced.
With refpeCt to the cure of puerperal fevers, Dr
Kirkland advifes the antiphlogiftic method when they
arife from inflammation; but when this method fails
of fuccefs, and a diarrhoea fupervenes, the difeafe has
changed its nature, having become more or lefs pu¬
trid, and requires a very different treatment.
His obfervations relative to the management of
the diarrhoea merit attention. No one, fays he,
would purge and bleed to cure the colliquative fever
arifing from the abforption of matter in large wounds;
and yet the only difference is, that in the puerperal fe¬
ver the matter abforbed from the uterus, &c. aCts
with more violence, becaufe the blood is commonly
thinner and the habit in a more irritable ftate. We
fee, continues he, that abforbed matter purges as ef-
fedtually as if any purging medicine had been given
by the mouth •, and may we not therefore do harm by
additional purging, when there has been a large eva¬
cuation, efpecially as purges in this cafe are incapable
of entirely removing the fames morbi?
He confiders the Peruvian bark as the principal re¬
medy, as foon as the pulfe finks, the heat is leffened,
and the ftomach will bear it. If the bark increafe the
diarrhoea beyond moderation, he joins with it fmall
dofes of laudanum; but if th6 diarrhoea fhould entirely
Hop without the fever going off, in place of lauda¬
num he advifes a proper quantity of rhubarb. Should
the diarrhoea, notwithftanding the ufe of the medi¬
cines propofed, become fo violent as to endanger the
patient, he joins Mr White in recommending the co-
lumbo root, which is a warm cordial, and removes the
irritability of the ftomach and inteftines more power¬
fully than any other bitter he knows..
CINE. Appendix*
Of this difeafe alfo, as ft appeared in Derbyflrire and icrperal
fome of the adjacent provinces, an account has been Fever'
publifhed by Dr Butter. Concerning the caufes and v 4
nature of the difeafe, he obferves, that pregnancy
feems to add much to the natural fenfibility of the fe¬
male conftitution ; becaufe at this period women are
often fubjedt to a train of nervous fymptoms, which ne¬
ver moleft them at other times. During geftation
likewife, the appetite is for the mofl: part keen, while
the digeftion appears to be impaired; and this weak-
nefs is increafed not only by improper food, of which
the woman is frequently delirous, but alfo by the in-
a&ivity attending her fituation. To thefe circumftan-
ces, it is added, that the inteftinal pafiage being inter¬
rupted by the uterine preffure, coftivenefs generally
prevails. From the feveral obfervations here enume¬
rated, Dr Butter concludes, that the proximate caufe
of the puerperal fever is a fpafmodic affe&ion of the
firft paflages, with a morbid accumulation in their ca¬
vity ; and upon this fuppofition he endeavours to ac¬
count for the various fymptoms of the difeafe.
In treating of the method of cure, he lays down
two indications; the former of which is to promote
two, three, or four ftools daily, in a manner fuited.
to the ftrength of the patient, till fuch time as they
refume a natural appearance. The fecond indication is
to relieve all uneafy fymptoms, fuch as heat, thirft,
head-ach, &c.
With refpeft to the opinion entertained by Dr But¬
ter of the caufe of the puerperal fever, it nearly coin¬
cides with that of Mr White. But however plaufible
it may appear, we are not entirely fatisfied that a difi.
eafe attended with fo peculiar fymptoms as the puer¬
peral fever can depend principally upon an irritability*,
which is not reftrifted either to the pregnant or puer.
peral ftate.
The late Dr Thomas Young profeffor of midwifery
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, although he publifhed
nothing on the fubjedl of the puerperal fever, wrote
a very ingenious diflertation relpe&ing it, which was.
read in the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh. In
that diflertation, after giving a very accurate account
of the fymptoms of the difeafe, which coincides very
nearly with the account given by others, he endea¬
vours to fhow, that the puerperal fever, ftriitly fo called,,
is in every inftance the confequence of contagion j
but he contends, that the contagious matter of this
difeafe is capable only of producing its effeft, in con¬
fequence of a peculiar predifpofition given by delivery,
and its confequences. In fupport of this doftrine, he re¬
marks, that for many years the difeafe was altogether
unknown in the lying-in ward of the Royal Infirmary at
Edinburgh; but that after it was once accidentally in¬
troduced into the hofpital, almoft every woman was in a
fliort time after delivery attacked with it; although prior
to her delivery, ftie may have lain even for weeks toge¬
ther, not only in the fame ward with the infecled,.
but even in the very next bed. He remarks, that it was
only eradicated from the hofpital in confequence of
the wards Nbeing entirely emptied, thoroughly venti¬
lated, and new painted. After thefe procefles, puer¬
peral females in the hofpital remained as free, from
this difeafe as formerly. The puerperal fever, accord¬
ing to Dr Young, has very generally a ftrong ten¬
dency to the typhoid typealthough he allows, that
Append^. M E D I
Viurper^l Jn the beg?Fini'ng h !s not infrequently attended with
Fever’ inflammatory fymptqms, and even with topical inflam*
Vr v " mation, particularly in the inteftinal canal. On this
idea, he confiders the puerperal fever as admitting of
* the fame variety of treatment with other affeftions
depending on contagion, in which fometimes an in¬
flammatory, fometimesa putrefcent tendency, prevails;
fuch, for example, as fmall-pox or eryfipelas. But
from the prevailing putrefcent tendency in this affec¬
tion, he confiders the free accefs of cool air, with the
liberal uCe of antifeptics, as being very generally re-
-quifite..
It deferves to be remarked, that though the feveral
• writers who treat of this fubjeft have conduced their
method of cure conformably to their particular idea of
the caufe of the difeafe, refpefting which their fenti-
ments are very different, they feem to have been equal¬
ly fuccefsful in the treatment of their patients. Indeed
the feveral writers differ lefs from each other in their
method of cure than might be expefted, where fo great
an oppofition of theoretical fentiments prevails. For
after endeavouring to eftablifh indications correfpon-
•dent to their particular fyftems, thofe who contend for
the expediency of promoting the inteftinal difcharge,
diffuade not from a recourfe to phlebotomy when the
difeafe is attended with inflammatory fymptoms; while,
on the other hand, the moft ftrenuous advocates for
bleeding admit the utility of the former evacuation. It
appears, therefore, that a due regulation of the alvine
difcharge is neceflary through the whole courfe of the
fever, but venefedtion only fometimes.
CEPHALALGIA.
Head-Ach.
The head-ach is fymptomatic of very many diftem-
pers, but is rarely an original difeafe itfelf. Dr Home
acquaints us that his report-books only furnifh four in-
ftances of it; and of thefe four, three were women.
The difeafe proved fatal to the man ; and after death,
a confiderable effufion of blood was found on the brain,
together with fome hydatids, and water in the ven¬
tricles.
Head-achs appear frequently to be occafioned by ef-
fufions of blood or ferum ; as well as by ulcers, and
abfcefles of the brain, dura and pia mater. Accretions
and offifications of different parts of the dura mater,
falx, and brain, are alfo frequently difcovered. An offi-
fication of the falx, however, does not always produce
head-ach ; for Dr Home mentions a patient who had
the falx ofllfied without head-ach; but he had been ob-
ferved to be very furious when drunk. Congeftions of
blood in the veflels of the brain are alfo difcovered from
difleftions to be a frequent caufe of the head-ach; and
nervous irritation alone will frequently produce it, as
we fee in the claims hyjlericus.
In the cure of this difeafe we have little or no power
over offifications, dfufions, or ulcerations ; and hence
the head-ach is frequently incurable. In congeftions,
and nervous affeftions, medicines may indeed be of
■fome fervice. Congeftion may be relieved by an eva¬
cuation of blood, either general or topical; as venefec-
tion, cupping, or leeches : by errhines ; which, how¬
ever, Dr Home thinks are little to be depended upon:
-by topical evacuations near the head by blifters, iffues,
7
CINE, 339
or fetons5 by purgatives; or by determining the fluids Cephal-
to other parts, by rubefacients applied to the temples,, a '~-13' ,
pediluvia, &c.
Nervous irritation may be diminifhed, r. By a
great quantity of cold water drunk every morning.
This is recommended by Hoffman ; and will wafh off
all acrid particles from the ftomach, while the cold
ftrengthens and diminifties the fenfibility of the part.
This remedy was tried for a confiderable time in one of
Dr Home’s patients without any effeft. 2. Nervous
and tonic medicines; as the bark, valerian, &c. Thefc
were tried in two of Dr Home’s patients, but alfo
without fuccefs. In a third the valerian fucceeded.
3. By cold water applied to the head, immerfion, or
the fhower-bath. 4. Cephalics ; as lavender, rofe-
mary, &c. In flight cafes, the fmell of eau de luce, or
any ftrong volatile alkali, will generally'prove a cure.
A Dangerous Affection of the (ESOPHAGUS. 406
This diftemper has only been treated of by Dr
Munckley, who reckons it one of the moft deplorable
difeafes of the human body. Its beginning is in'ge¬
neral fo flight as to be fcarce worth notice, the pa¬
tients perceiving only a fmall impediment to the fwai-
lowing of folid food: they ufually continue in this ftate
for many months; during which, all liquid foods, and
even folids themfelves, when cut fmall and fwallowed
leifurely, are got down without much difficulty : by
degrees the evil increafes, and the paffage through the
cefophagus becomes fo narrow, that not the fmalleft fo¬
lid whatever can pafs through it ; but, after having
been detained for fome time at the part where the ob-
ftacle is formed, is returned again with a hollow noife
of a very peculiar kind, and with the appearance of
convulfion.
The feat of this malady is fometimes near the top of
the cefophagus, and at other times farther down, nearer
the fuperior orifice of the ftomach. In this laft cafe,
the part of the alimentary tube which Is above the oh-
ftruftion is frequently fo dilated by the food which is
detained in it as to be capable of containing a large
quantity ; and the kind of vomiting, by which it is
again returned through the mouth, comes on fooner or
later after the attempt to fwallow, in proportion to
the nearnefs or remotenefs of the part affe&ed. In the
laft ftage of this difeafe, not even liquids themfelves
can be fwallowed fo as to pafs into the ftomach, and
the patient dies literally ftarved to death.
On the diffeftion of fuch as have died in this man¬
ner, the cefophagus is found to be confiderably thick¬
ened; and in fome fo contra&ed within at the difeafei
part, as fcarcely to admit the palling of a common
probe; in others, to adhere together in fuch a manner
as entirely to clofe op the paffage, and not to be fepa-
rated without great difficulty.
He comes next to ffiow what he has found to be the
moft efficacious method of treating this difeafe, which,
though not uncommon, yet in general has been confi-
dered as incurable.
He claims not the merit of having difcovered the
method of cure, but hopes that fome fervice may arife
from publiffiing what his experience has confirmed to
him ; having firft received the hint from another emi¬
nent phyficiaru
The
U u 2
340 M E D I
Cephal- The only medicine, then, from the ufe of which he
, al>-,13‘ has ever found any fervice, is mercury ; and in cafes
v which are recent, and where the fymptoms have not
rifen to any great height, fmall dofes of mercury gi¬
ven every night, and prevented, bypurgative medicines,
from affedting the mouth, haveaccompliihed the cure.
But where the complaint has been of long Handing,
and the fymptom has come on of the food’s being re¬
turned through the mouth, a more powerful method of
treatment becomes neceflary. In this cafe he has ne¬
ver found any thing of the lead avail in removing any
of the fymptoms, but mercury, ufed in a fuch a man¬
ner as to raife a gentle but conftant fpitting : and this
method he has purfued with the happieft fuccefs. If
this method be commenced before the complaint has
gained too much ground upon the conditution, the
cafe is not to be defpaired of; and of thofe who have
come under his care in this date, by much the greater
part have received confiderable benefit from it, and
many have been entirely cured.
The complaint itfelf, he obferves, is net very un¬
common ; but there is no indance, to his knowledge,
recorded, of fuccefs from any other manner of treating
it, than that he has recommended.
407 WORMS.
Thofe xnfeding the human body are chiefly of three
kinds: the afcar ides, or fmall round and fhort white
worms ; the teres, or round and long worm ; and the
tania, or tape-worm.
The afearides have ufually their feat in the re&um.—
The teretes or lumbrici are about a fpan long, round and
fmooth: they are feated for the mod part in the upper
fmall intedines; but fometimes they are lodged alfointhe
domach, and in any part of the inteftines, even to the
reftum.—The tape-worms are from two to forty feet
long, according to the tedimony of Platerus; they
generally poffefs the whole trail; of the intedines, but
efpecially the ileum : they very much refemble a tape
in their appearance, whence the name of tape-worm :
but another fpecies of this genus, from the refem-
blance of each joint to a gourd feed, has the name of
the gourd-worm.
In the Medical Tranfa&ions, Vol. I. Dr Heberden
gives a very accurate account of the fymptoms produ¬
ced by the afearides, from an eminent phyfician who
was troubled with them all his life. They brought on
an uneafinefs in the reftum, and an almod intolerable
itching in the anus ; which fenfations mod ufually
came on in the evening, and prevented deep for federal
hours. They were attended with heat, fometimes fo
confiderable as to produce a dwelling in the re&um
both internally and externally; and if thefe fymptoms
were not foon relieved, a tenefmus was brought on,
with a mucous deje&ion. Sometimes there was a gri¬
ping pain in the lower part of the abdomen, a little
above the os pubis. If this pain was very fevere, a
bloody mucus followed, in which there were often found
afearides alive. They were alfo fometimes fufpe&ed
of occafioning didurbed deep, and fome degree of
head-ach.
On this cafe Dr Heberden obferves, that the gene¬
ral health of the patient did not feem to have fuffered
from the long continuance of the difeafe, nor the im¬
mediate inconveniences of the diforder itfelf to have
CINE, Appendix.
increafed. “ It is (fays he) perhaps um'verfally true, Worms:
that this kind of worms, though as difficult to be cu- - » ""'-1
red as any, yet is the lead dangerous of all. They
have been known to accompany a perfon through {he
whole of a long life, without any reafon to fufpetls
that they had hadened its end. As in this cafe there
was no remarkable ficknefs, indigedion, giddinefs, pain
of the domach, nor itching of the nofe, poflibly thefe
fymptoms, where they have happened to be joined with
the afparides, did not properly belong to them, but
arofe from fome other caufes. There is indeed no one
fign of thefe worms, but what in fome patients will
be wanting.”
The abovementioned patient ufed purging and irri¬
tating clyders with very little fuccefs.- One drachm
and an half of tobacco was infufed in fix ounces of
boiling water ; and the drained liquor being given as
a clyder, occafioned a violent pain in the lower part
of the abdomen, with faintnefs and a cold fweat :
this inje&ion, though retained only one minute, added
as a fmart purge, but did little or no good. Lime-
water was alfo ufed as a clyder; which brought on a
codivenefs, but had no good effedt. Six grains ot
fait of deel were diflblved in fix ounces of’water, and
injedxed. This clyder in a few minutes occafioned an
aching in the reftum, griped a little without purging,
and excited a tenefmus. Some few afearides were
brought off with it; but all of them were alive. The
uneafy fenfation in the redlum did not abate till fome
warm milk was thrown up. Whenever the tenefmus
or mucus dools were thought worth the taking no¬
tice of, warm milk and oil generally gave immediate
relief. If purging was necefiary, the lenient purges*
fuch as manna with oil,- were, in this particular cafe,
made ufe of: rhubarb- was found too dimulating.—.
But, in general, the molt ufeful purge, and which
therefore was mod ufually taken, was cinnabar and
rhubarb, of each half a drachm : this powder feldom
failed to bring away a mucus as tranfparent as the
white of an egg, and in this many afearides were
moving about. The cinnabar frequently adhered to
this mucus, which did not come off in large quanti¬
ties, when a purge was taken without cinnabar.
Calomel did no more than any other purge which
operates briikly would have done ; that is, it brought
away afearides, with a great deal of mucus. Oil
given as a clyder fometimes brought off thefe ani¬
malcules : the oil fwam on the furface of the mucus,
and the afearides were alive and moving in the mucus
itlelf, which probably hindered the oil from coming
in contadl with them and killing them.
The Doftor alfo obferves, that mucus or flime is
the proper ned of the afearides, in which they live,
and is perhaps the food by which they are nourifhed •,
and it is this mucus which preferves them unhurt,
though furrounded with many other liquors, the im¬
mediate touch of which would be fatal. It is hard to
fatisfy ourfelves by what indindt they find it out in
the human body, and by what means they get at it j
but it is obfervable in many other parts of nature, as
well as here, that where there is a fit foil for the
hatching and growth of animals and vegetables, na¬
ture has taken fufficient care that their feeds diould
find the way thither. Worms are faid to have been
found in the intedines of infants born dead. Purges,
by
Appendix. MEDICINE.
Worms, by lefTemng this flime, never fail to relieve the pa- curable. At laft he was advifed by a neighbour to
'’—'v*’'’ tient: and it is not unlikely, that the worms which drink fait and water, as he faid he knew one cured
are not forced away by this quickened motion of the by it who had for many years been affli&ed with the
intellines, may, for want .of a proper quantity of it, fame kind of pains in the belly and ftomach. As his
languiih, and at laft die ; for if the afearides are taken diftemper was now almoft infupportable, he willingly
out of their mucus, and expofed to the open air, they tried the experiment. Two pounds of common fait
become motionlefs, and apparently die in a very fhort were diffolved in as little water as pofiible, all which
time. Dr Heberden fuppofes that the kind of purge he drank in lefs than an hour. Soon afterwards he
made ufe of is of fome confequence in the cure of all found himfelf greatly opprefled at the ftomach, grew
other worms as well as afearides; the animals being extremely fick, and vomited violently ; on the fourth
always defended by the mucus from the immediate ftraining he brought up about half a pint of fmall
aftion of medicines; and that therefore thofe purges worms, part afearides, and the relt refeinbling thofe
are the heft which a£i brifkly, and of which a repe- worms which are called the bolts, and frequently met
tition can be moft eafily borne. Purging waters ^re with in the ftomach of horfes, but much fmaller, and
of this fort, and jalap efpecially for children; two or about the fize of a grain of wheat. The ialt foon
more grains of which, mixed with fugar, are moft ea- began to operate downwards, and he had five or fix
fily taken, and may be repeated daily. very copious fetid ftools, tinged with blood ; and in
From the cafe above-mentioned, and from Dr He- them difeharged near an equal quantity of the fame
berden’s obfervatipns, we may eafily fee why it is fo kind of worm* he had vomited. Being greatly fa-
difficult to deftroy thefe animals; and why anthelmin- tigned with the violence of the operations, he fell into
tics, greatly celebrated for fome cures, are yet fo far a calm fleep, which lafted two hours, during which
from being fpecifics in the difeafe. As the worms he fweated profufely, and awoke much refreffied.
which refide in the cavities of the human body are Inftead of his ufual pains, he now only complained of
never expofed to the air, by which all living creatures a rawnefs and forenefs of his gullet, ftomach, and
are invigorated, it is evident, that in themfelves they bowels* with an almoft unquenchable thirft ; to allay
muft be the moft tender and eafily deftruftible crea- which, he drank large quantities of cold water, whey,
tures imaginable, and much lefs will be requifite to butter-milk, or whatever he could get. The urine he
kill them than any of our common infefts. The now paffed was fmall in quantity, and rendered with
moft pernicious fubftances to any of the common in- very great difficulty, being highly faturated with the
fefts are oil, cauftic fixed alkali, lime, and lime-water, fait, from whence arofe a moft troublefome dyfuria
The oil operates upon them by {hutting up the pores and ftrangury. However, thefe fymptoms gradually
of their bodies ; the lime-water, lime, and cauftic al- abated by a free ufe of the liquors above-mentioned ;
kali, by diflblving their very fubftance. In the cafe and on the third morning he was fo well recovered,
of inteftinal worms, however, the oil can have very that he took two pounds more of fait, diffolved in the
little effe& upon them, as they are defended from it like quantity of water. The effefts were nearly fimi-
by the moifture and mucus of the inteftines ; the like lar to the former; only that moft of the worms were
happens with lime-water : and therefore it is neceffary now burft, and came away with a confiderable quan-
that the medicine ffiould be of fuch a nature as to tity of flime and mucus. The drought, ftrangury, &c.
deftroy-both mucus and infefts together; for which returned with their former violence, but foon yielded
pufpofe the cauftic fixed alkali is at once fafe and ef- to the old treatment. He fweated very copioufly for
ficacious; nor is it probable that any cafe of worms three days, flept eafily, and by that time could ex-
whatever could refill the proper ufe of this medicine, tend his body freely : on the filth day he left his bed,
A very large dofe of any fait indeed will alfo deftroy and, though very weak, could walk upright; his
the mucus and deftroy the worms; but it is apt to ftrength and appetite foon. returned, and he became
inflame and excoriate the ftomach and inteftines, and robuft and well.
thus to produce worfe diftempers than that which it The anthelmintic medicines which have been recom-
was intended to cure. Dr Heherden gives the fol- mended by one perfon or other, are in a manner innu-
lowing remarkable cafe of a patient cured of worms merable ; but the principal are,
by enormous dofes of common fait, after trying many I. Shnchfilver. This is very efficacious againft all
other remedies in vain. In February 1757, the pa- kinds of worms, either taken in the form of calomel
tient was fejzed with uncommon pains in his ftomach, or corrofive fublimate. Even the crude metal boiled in
attended with naufea, vomiting, and conftipation of water and the water drunk, has been recommended as
bowels, and an almoft total lofs of fteep and appetite : an almoft certain cure. But this, it is evident, can
He foon became much emaciated, and could neither receive no impregnation from the mercury. If, there-
ftand nor walk upright; his belly grew fmall and fore, it have any effedl, k muft be from fome foreign
hard, and clofely retrafted, infomuch that the fternuth and accidental impregnation. In moft inftances there
covered the navel, and the latter could fearce be dif- can be no objeftion to mercury, but only that it is
covered or felt by the finger: his urine was always not endowed with any attenuating quality whereby'
milky, and foon depofited a thick white fediment; his the mucus in which thefe infefls refides can be dif-
excremehts were very hard and lumpy, refembling folved. It therefore fails in many cafes, though it
thofe of flieep, only of a brown colour ; nor had he . will moft* certainly deftroy worms where it can get
ever a ftool without fome medicine or other to pro- at them.
cure it. In this fituation he continued four years; 2. Powder qf tin. This was for fome time cele-
during which time he had been in an infirmary, at- brated as a fpecific, and indeed we may reafonably
tended by eminent phyficians, but was diftniffed as in- expect good effedts from it; as by its weight and
7 grittinefs
MEDICINE. Append!*.
gnttineft It nibs off the mucus an4 worms it con* be given 5 and, in general, Mr Anderfon gave 15 Worms,
tains from the coats of the inteftinal canal, in which or 20 drops of the fpirit of lavender with each dofe, ——y——*
cafe they are eafdy evacuated by purgatives. In In a letter from Dr Rufh, profefTor of chemiflry
order to produce any confiderable effe£ts, it muft be at Philadelphia, to Dr Duncan of iiciinburgh, the
given in a largfe dofe. following account is given of another preparation of
3. Geojfrtea inermis, or cabbage barb. This reme- this medicine. “ It has long (fays he) been a com-
dy is ufed by the inhabitants of Jamaica. The plaint among phyficians, that we have no vermifuge
firfl account of it which appeared in this country medicine which can be depended upon. Even calomel
was publifhed in the Phyfical and Literary Effays, fails in many cafes where there are the mod pathog-
vol ii. by Mr Duguid furgeon in that ifland. He nomonic figns of worms in the bowels. But this com*
acquaints us, that the inhabitants of Jamaica, young plaint, it is hoped, is now at an end. The i hyfician®
and old, white and black, are much infefted with of Jamaica have lately found, that the cabbage-barbt
worms, efpecially the long round fort; the reafon as it is called in the Weft Indies, made into a fyrup
of which, he thinks, is the quantity of fweet vif- with brown fugar, is an infallible antidote to them,
cid vegetables which they eat. On diffefting a child I have ufed above 30 pounds of it, and have never found
•of feven months old, who died of vomiting and it fail in one inftance. The fyrup is pleafant; it
convulfions; twelve large worms were found ; one of fometimes pukes, and always purges, the firft or fe*
them filled the appendix vermiformis, and three of cond time it is given.”
them were entvvifted in fuch a manner as to block up Notwithftanding thefe encomiums, however, the
the valvula Tulpii, fo that nothing could pafs from the cabbage-bark (a) hath not come into general ufe in
fmall to the great guts.—The cabbage-bark, how- Britain. But difeafes from the teietes, or lumbrici
-ever, he tells us, is a fafe and effedtual remedy, and as they are often called, the fpecies of worm againft
the moft powerful vermifuge yet known ; and that . which this bark is employed, much lefs frequently
it frequently brings away as many worms by ftool as occur than in fome other countries. When they do
would fill a large hat. He owns that it has fometimes occur, in almoft every inftance they readily yield to
■violent effefts ; but this he aferibes to the negroes who more gentle and fafe anthelmintics ; and the worms
make the decoction (in which form the bark is fifed), may not only be expelled by calomel, but by the ve-
■and not to the remedy itfelf. getable bitters ; as the powder of the femen fantoni*
Mr Anderfon, furgeon in Edinburgh, has alfo given cum, or the like,
an account of this bark and its operation, in a letter 4. Couhage, or cow-itch. This is the Dolichos urens
to Dr Duncan, publilhed in the Edinburgh Medi- orof Linnaeus; and the principles on which
cal Commentaries, volume iv. p. 84. From this ac- it adts have been already explained under the ar-
count it appears, that there are two different kinds tide Dolichos. It is fomevvhat fimibr to the pow*
of bark ; the one much paler than the other : the der of tin, but bids fair for being more efficacious,
pale kind operates much more violently than the other. It might at firft appear to occur as objedlions to this
It often occafions loofe ftools, great naufea, and medicine, that by the hairs of it entangling them*
fuch like fymptoms, attended with great uneafinefs felves with one another, calculi might be formed in
in the belly : in one or two inftances it was fuf- the inteftines, or obftrudfions equally bad ; or if the
pedted of inducing fyncope. The darker coloured fharp points and hooks with which it abounds were
kind refembles the caffia lignea, though it is of a to adhere to the nervous coats of the inteftines them-
much coarfer texture. This kind, Mr Anderfon felves, they might occafion a fatal irritation, which
thinks, may be exhibited in any cafe where an an- could not be removed by any means whatever. But
thelmintic is neceffary; the dangerous fymptoms might from the experience of thofe who have employed it
■have followed either from the ufe of the firft kind, or extenfively in pradtice, it would appear, that thefe ob-
from an over-d«fe of the fecond. The ufual method of jedtions are entirely theoretical; and that it may be
preparing the medicine is by boiling two ounces and a employed with perfedt fafety. The fpiculae, gently
half of the bark in two quarts of water to a pint and a feraped off from a fingle pod, and mixed with fyrup
half. Of this a tea-fpoonful may be given at firft in the or melafles, are taken for a dofe in the morning falling,
morning, gradually increafing the quantity till we It is repeated in this manner for two or three days
come to four or five table-fpoonfuls in a day. When without any fenfible operation ; but even a very flight
exhibited in this manner, Mr Anderfon informs us, purgative taken afterwards has been found to dif-
that he never faw it produce any violent fymptoms, charge an almoft incredible quantity of worms. And
and has experienced the beft effedls from it as an an- according to Dr Bancroft, who has given a very par-
thelmintic. After the ufe of this decodtion for eight ticular account of its ufe in his Natural Hiftory of
or nine mornings fucceffively, a dofe of jalap with Guaiana, it is one of the fafeft and moft certain an-
■calomtl muft be given, which feldom fails to bring thelmintics yet difeovered; but, as well as the bark
away the worms, fome dead, fome alive. If at any of the it has hitherto been very little ufed
time the decoction produce more than one or two in Britain, probably from its not being neceflary.
loofe ftools, a few drops of liquid laudanum may 5. Indian pink. This plant, which in the Spigelia
marilandica
(a) The moft accurate account of this vegetable, and its effedls, has been given by Dr Wright in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadtions, of which the reader will find a fhort view under the article Geojfrxa^ in the order ef
the alphabet.
Appendix. M E D I
Wnrm=. marilaydica of Linnaeus, la alfo an American plant,
‘-'-•'v—' and was firfl. recommended In the Edinburgh Phyfical
and Literary ElTays by Dr Gardeirof Charleftown in
South Carolina. He is of opinion that a vomit ought
always to precede the ufe of it; and informs us, that
half a drachm of it purges as brifkly as the fame
quantity of rhubarb. At other times he has known
it produce no effeft on the belly though given in
very large quantity : In fuch cafes it becomes ne-
ceffary to add a grain or two of fweet mercury, or
fome grains of rhubarb ; but then it is lefs effica¬
cious than when it proves purgative without addition.
The ufe of it, however, in fmall dofes, is by no means
fefe ; as it frequently produces giddinefs, dimnefs of
fight, convulfions, &c. The addition of a purgative,
indeed, prevents thefe effedts ; but at the fame time,
as already obferved, it diminiffies the virtue of the
medicine. The Dodtor therefore recommends large
dofes, as from them he never knew any other effedt
than the medicine’s proving emetic or violently ca¬
thartic. The dofe is from 12 to 60 or 70 grains of
the root in fubftance, or two, three, or four drachms
©f the infufion, twice a-day.
This medicine has alfo had its day, and is now
very far from being confidered as a fpecific. From
what has been already obferved, it muft pretty clear¬
ly appear, that powder of tin, cow-itch, or fixed
alkaline falts, bid faireft for deitroying worms in all
the variety of cafes in which they can occur. Alka¬
lies indeed have been but little tried. We have
known one cafe in which all the complaints have
been removed by a fingle dofe: we have alfo an in-
ftance of their efficacy, in an extraordinary cafe
of a worm bred in the liver, mentioned in the 2d
volume of the Medical Obfervations. The patient
had a violent pain in the fide, and fometimes in the
ihoulder, as the worm ffiifted its place ; but, on the
application of a lixivial poultice, the pain went out of
the fide entirely, and kept in the ffioulder for fome
weeks.
The long round worms feem to be the moll dan¬
gerous which infeft the human body, as they often
pierce through the ftomach and intellines, and thus
bring on a miferable death. The common fymptoms of
them are naufea, vomiting, loofenefs, fainting, (lender
intermitting pulfe, itching of the nofe, and epileptic
fits. By the confumption of the chyle they produce
hunger, palenefs, weaknefs, coftivenefs, tumor of the
abdomen, eradiations, and rumbling of the inteftines ^
but it is from the perforation of the inteftines that
the difeafe proves fo frequently fatal. A child may
be known to have worms from his cold tempera¬
ment, palenefs of the countenance, livid eye-lids,
hollow eyes, itching of the nofe, voracity, ftartings,
and grinding of the teeth in fleep ; and more Special¬
ly by a very fetid breath. Very frequently, how¬
ever, they are voided by the mouth and anus, in which
cafe there is no room for doubt. In the Medical
Commentaries, vol. II. we have an account of the in¬
teftines being perforated by a worm, and yet the pa¬
tient recovered. The patient was a woman troubled
with an inflammation in the lower part of the abdo¬
men. The pain was fo violent, that for fix days ffie
flept none at all ; the tumor then broke, difeharged’
upwards of a pound of thin watery fanies, immediately
CINE.
after which the excrements foflowecT. The next day
ffie was extremely low; her pulfe could fcarcely be,
felt; the extremities were cold ; and there was a con-
fiderable difeharge from the wound, which had alrea¬
dy begun to mortify. She got a decodlion of the bark
with wine, which alleviated the fymptorns; but in
removing the mortified parts a worm was found among
them nine inches long, and as thick as an eagle’s quill.
By proper applications, the difeharge of excrements
. e'eafed, and (he recovered perfedb health. She was
fenfible of no accident giving rife to the inflammation;
fo that in all probability it arofe entirely from the
worm itfelf.
The tania, or tape-worm, as it is called, is one of
thofe moft difficult to be removed from the human bo-
dy. It is of two kinds, teenia folium and tenia lata ;■
for a defeription of which fee the article Tjenia.—
The reafon of its being fo difficult to cure, is, that,
though portions of it are apt to break off and be dif¬
eharged, it is endowed with a power of reprodu&ion,
fo that the patient is little or nothing better. The-
fymptoms occafioned by it are not different from thofe
above deferibed. A fpecific againft the tenia lata hath,
been lately fo much celebrated in France, that the king
thought proper to purchafe it from the proprietor
(Madam Nouffer), and the account of it has been,
tranflated into Engliffi by Dr Simmons. The patients
are required to obferve no particular regimen till the
day before they take the fpecific. That day they are
to take nothing after dinner till about 7 o’clock ; after
wdiich, they are to take the following foup : “ Take
a pint and an half of water, two or three ounces of
good freffi-butter, and two ounces of bread cut into
thin dices: add to this fait enough to feafon it, and
then boil it to the confiftenee of panada.” About a
quarter of an hour after this, they take a bifeuit and a
glafs of white-wine, either pure or mixed with water;
or even water alone, if they have not been accuftomed
to wine. If the patient has not been to ftbol that day,
(which, however, is not ufual with patients in this
way), the following clyfter is to be inje&ed. “ Take
a fmall quantity of the leaves of mallows, and boil them
in a fufficient quantity of water, mixing with it a little
fait, and when ftrained off add two ounces of oil
olive.” Next morning, about eight or nine hours after
the fupper above mentioned, the fpecific is to be taken.
This is no other than two or three drachms of the root.
of male fern, polypcdium Jillx mas of Linnssus, ga¬
thered in autumn, and reduced to fine powder. It is
to be taken in any diftilled water, or in common wa¬
ter. This medicine is apt to occafion a naufea: to
avoid which, Madam Nouffer allows her. patients to
chew any thing that is agreeable, but forbids any
thing to be fwallowed ; or they may fmell to vinegar,
to check the licknefs: but if, notwithftanding this,,
the fptcific be thrown up, a freffi dofe muft be fwal¬
lowed as foon as the ficknefs is gpne off, and then
they muft try to fleep. About two hours after this
the following bolus is to be taken. “ Take of the pa¬
nacea of mercury 14 times fublimed, and feledl refm
of fcammony, each ten grains ; of frefh and good gam¬
boge, fix or feven grains: reduce each of thefe fub-
ftances feparately into powder, and then mix them with.
fome conferve into a bolus.” This cbmpofition is to
be fwallowed at two different times,,, walking it down*.
with*
Worms..
|4 M E D I
rorm?, With otic or two dlfhes of weak green-tea, after which
the patient muft walk about his chamber. When the
bolus begins to operate, he is to take a dilh of the
fame tea occafionally, until the worm be expelled ;
then, and not before, Madame Nouffer gives him broth
or foup, and he is dire&ed to dine as is ufual after ta¬
king phyfic. After dinner he may either lie down or
walk out, taking care to conduft himfelf difcreetly,
to eat but little fupper, and to avoid everything that
is not of eafy digeltion.
The cure then is complete ; but it is not always ef-
fefted with the fame quicknefs in every fubjeft. He
who has not kept down the whole bolus, or who is not
fufficiently purged by it, ought to take, four hours af¬
ter it, from two to eight drachms of Epfom fait dif-
folved in boiling water. The dofe of this fait may be
varied according to the temperament and other cir-
Cumftances of the patient.
If the worm fhould not come away in a bundle, but
in the form of a thread (which particularly happens
when the w'orm is involved in much tenacious mucus),
the patient muft continue to fit upon the clofe ftool
without attempting to draw it away, drinking at the
fame time warm weak tea : fometimes this alone is not
fufficient, and the patient is obliged to take another
-dofe of purging fait, but without varying his pofition
till the worm be wholly expelled.
It is unufual for patients who have kept down both
the fpecific and purging dofe, not to difcharge the
worm before dinner-time. This, however, fometimes
happens when the dead worm remains in large bundles
in the inteftines, fo that the faeces becoming more
limpid towards the end of the purging, pafs by it
without drawing it with them. The patient may in
this cafe eat his dinner ; and it has been obferved, that
the food, joined to the ufe of a clyfter, has brought
about the expulfion of the worm.
Sometimes the worm is brought away by the aftion
of the fpecific alone, before the patient has taken the
purging bolus: when this happens, Madame Nouf-
fer gives only two-thirds of it, or fubftitutes the fait
in its ftead.
Patients muft not be alarmed by any fenfation of
heat or uneafinefs they may feel during the aftion of
the remedy, either before or after a copious evacua¬
tion, or juft as they are about- to void the worm.
Thefe fenfations are tranfitory, and go off of their own
accord, or by the afliftance of the vapour of vinegar
drawn in at the nofe.
They who have vomited both the fpecific and bolus,
or who have kept down only a part of them, fome¬
times do not void the worm that day. Madame Nouf¬
fer therefore directs them to take again that night the
foup, the wine and bifcuit; and if circumftances re¬
quire it, the clyfter. If the worm do not come away
during the night, (he gives them early the next mov¬
ing another dofe of the fpecidc, and, two hours after¬
wards, -fix drachms or an ounce of purging fait, re¬
peating the whole procefs of the preceding day ; ex¬
cepting the bolus, . hich ihe fuppreffes.
She obferves, that very hot weather diminifhes in
fome degree the aftion of her remedy ; (he therefore
prefers the month of September for adminiftering it;
.but as Ihe has not been always able to choofe the fea-
fon, and has been fometimes obliged to undertake the
N0 209.
CINE, Appendix.
cure of patients in the hotteft days of fummer, fire Worm*,
then gave her fpecific very early in the morning; "“v—
and with this ^precaution fhe faw no difference in its
effefts.
On the day appointed for the trial of this medicine
before the commiffioners nominated by the king of
France, it was exhibited to five different perfons; but
only one of them was certainly known to have the ttenia
lata by having difeharged parts of it before. That
perfon was cured ; the fecond voided a portion of the
ttzma folium ; the third fome afcarides> with a part of
the tania folium ; the fourth and fifth voided no worms ;
but the laft confidered much of the vifeid dime he
voided to be worms in a diffolved ftate.
This trial was thought fufficient to afeertain the ef¬
ficacy of the medicine, and further trials were made
by thofe to whom the fecret was communicated. The
firft voided two tamia, after much vomiting and 18 or
2Q ftools; the fecond had no vomiting, but was as
violently purged, and difeharged two worms ; the third
had 20 copious ftools during the night, and difeharged
the worm in the morning ; and the fifth was effe&ed
in much the fame manner. Some others who were
not relieved, were fuppofed not to have a taenia.
This fpecific, however, is not to be confidered as a
new difeovery ; the efficacy of fern in cafes of tenia
having been known long ago. Theophraftus prefcribes
its root, in dofes of four drams, given in water fweet-
ened with honey, as ufeful in expelling flat worms.—
Diofcorides orders it in the fame dofe, and adds, that
its effedts are more certain when it is mixed with four
oboli (40 grains) of fcammony or black hellebore ; he
particularly requires that garlic fhould be taken be¬
fore hand. Pliny, Galen, Oribafius, and Ae'tius, a-
feribe this fame virtue to fern ; and are followed in this
by Avicenna, and the other Arabian phyficians. Dor-
ftenius, Valerius Cordus, Dodonseus, Mathiolus, Da-
lechampius, who commented on Diofcorides, or co¬
pied him in many things, all mention the fern-raot
as a fpecific againft the taenia. Sennertus, and Burnet
after him, recommended in fimilar cafes an infufion of
this plant, or a dram of its powder for young perfons,
and three drams for adults. Simon Paulus, quoted by
Ray and Geoffrey, confiders it as the moft efficacious
of all poifons againft the flat worm, and as being the
bafis of all the fecret remedies extolled by empirics in
that difeafe. Andry (genfr. des Vers, p. 246, 249)
prefers diftilled fern-water to the root in powder, or
he employs it only in the form of an opiate, or mixed
with other fubftances.
Thefe are not the only authors who have mention¬
ed the taenia; many others have deferibed this worm,
the fymptoms it excites, and the treatment proper to
expel it- Almoft all of them mention the fern-root,
but at the fame time they point out other remedies as
poffeffing equal efficacy. Amongft thefe we find the
bark of the root of the mulberry-tree, the juice of the
auricula murus, the roots of chamaleon niger, ginger,
zedoary ; deco&ions of mugwort, fouthernwood,
wormwood, penny-royal, origanum, hyffop, and in ge¬
neral of all bitter and aromatic plants, &c. Some of
them direft the fpepific to be (imply mixed and taken
in wine or honey and water ; others join to it the ufe
of fome purgative remedy, which they fay adds to its
efficacy. Oribafius, Sylvius, &c. diftinguifh the fpe.
Appendix. MED
Worms, cific that kills the worm, from the purgative that eva-
v—v—-' cuates it, and direft them to be given at different
times. Sennertus gives a very fatisfadlory reafon for
adopting this method. If we give, fays he, the pur¬
gative medicine and the fpecific at the fame time, the
latter will be haflily carried off before it can have ex¬
erted its powers on the worm : whereas, if we give
the fpecific firil, and thus weaken the worm, it will
colledl itfelf into a bundle, and, being brought away
by means of the purge, the patient will be cured. The
cure will be more fpeedy if the prima via have been
previoufly lubricated. Thefe precautions are all of
them effential to the fuccefs of the remedy, nor are
they negle&ed by Madame Nouffer in her method of
treatment. The panada and inje&ion fhe prefcribes
the night before, to lubricate the inteftines, and pre¬
pare the prima via. The fern-root, taken in the
morning, kills and detaches the worm : of this the
patients are fenfible by the ceflation of the pain in the
ftomach, and by the weight that is felt in the lower
belly. The purgative bolus adminiftered two hours
after this, procures a complete evacuation ; it is com-
pofed of fubftances that are at once purgative and ver¬
mifuge, and which, even when adminiflered alone, by
different phyficians, fometimes fucceeded in expelling
the worm. If this purgative appear to be too ftrong,
the reader is defired to recoiled, that it produced no
ill effefts in either of the cafes that came under the
obfervation of the phyficians appointed to make the
trials; and that in one of thofe cafes, by diminifhing
the dofe, they evidently retarded the evacuations.—
Regard however, they obferve, is to be had both to the
age and the temperament of the patient, and the
treatment fhould always be direded by a prudent and
experienced phyfieian, who may know how to vary
the proportions of the dofe as circumftances may re¬
quire. If the purgative be not of fufficient ftrength,
the worm, after being detached by the fpecific, re¬
mains too long a time in the inteftines, and becoming
foon corrupted is brought away only in detached por¬
tions : on the other hand, if the purgative be too
ftrong, it occafions too much irritation, and evacua¬
tions that cannot fail to be inconvenient.
Madame Nouffer’s long experience has taught her
to diftinguifh all thefe circumftances with Angular
adroitnefs.
This method of cure is, as we have feen, copied in
a great meafure from the ancients: it may be poffible
to produce the fame effeds by varying the remedies;
but the manner of applying them is by no means in¬
different : we fhall be always more certain of fuccefs,
if the inteftines be previoufly evacuated, and if the
fpecific be given fome time before the purgative bolus.
It is to this method that Madame Nouffer’s conftant
fuccefs is attributed.
Her remedy has likewife fome power over the tania
folium ; but as the rings of this worm feparate from
each other more eafily than thofe of the tania lata, it
is almoft impoffible for it to be expelled entire. It
will be neceffary therefore to repeat the treatment fe-
veral times, till the patient ceafe to void any portions
of worms. It muft likewife be repeated, if, after the
expulfion of one tania folium, another fhould be gene*
rated in the inteftinal canal. This laft cafe is fo rare,
that it has been fuppofed that no perfon can have
Voi. Xi. Fait L
I C I N E. 345
more than one of thefe worms; and for this reafon .it Worms,
has been named fi lit ary ‘worm, which, being once re- '“""V ""■J
moved, could never be renewed or replaced by a fe-
cond : but exj erience has proved, that this notion is
an ill-founded prejudice, and we know that fometimes
thefe worms f’ucceed each other, and that fometimes
many of them exift together. Two living taeniae have
frequently ueen expelled from the fame patient. Dr
de Haen / Rat. Med. tom. viii. p. 157.) relates an in-
ftance of a woman who voided 1 8 taeniae at once. In
thefe cafes the fymptoms are ufually more alarming ; *
and the appetite becomes exceffive, becaufe thefe
worms derive all their nourifhment from the chyle. If
too auftere and ill judged a regimen deprives them of
this, they may be expedted to attack even the mem¬
branes of the inteftines themfelves. This evil is to be
avoided by eating frequently.
Such are the precautions indicated in this difeafe.
The ordinary vermifuge remedies commonly procured
only a palliative cure, perhaps becaufe they were too
often improperly adminiftered. But the efficacy of
the prefent remedy, in the opinion of the French
phyficians, feem to be fufficiently confirmed by expe¬
rience. To the above account, however, it feems
proper to fubjoin the following obfervations by Dr
Simmons.
“ A Swifs phyfician, of the name of Herrenfchwand,
more than 20 years ago, acquired no little celebrity
by diftributing a compofition of which he ftyled him-
felf the inventor, and which was probably of the fame
nature as Madame Nouffer’s. Several very eminent
men, as Tronchin, Hovius, Bonnet, Cramer, and o-
thers, have written concerning the effedts of this re¬
medy. It feems that Dr Herrenfehwand ufed to give
a powder by way of preparation, the night before he
adminiftered his fpecific. Nothing could be faid with
certainty concerning the compofition either of one or
the other. The treatment was faid fometimes to pro¬
duce moft violent effedts, and to leave the patients in
a valetudinary ftate. Dr De Haen was diffuaded by
his friends from uling it, becaufe it difordered the pa¬
tients too much. It will be readily conceived, now
that we are acquainted with Madame Nouffer’s method,
that thefe effedfs were occafioned wholly by the pur¬
gative bolus. It is not ftrange, that refin of fcam-
mony or jalap, combined with mercurius dulcis and
gamboge, all of them in ftrong doles, fhould in many
fubjedts occafion the greateft diforders. It feems like¬
ly, however, that much of the fuccefs of the remedy
depends on the ufe of a draftic purge. Some of the
ancients who were acquainted with the virtues of the
fern-root, obferved that its efficacy was increafed by
fcammony. Refinous purges, efpecially when com¬
bined with mercury, have often been' given with fuc¬
cefs in cafes of tania. Dr De Haen faw a worm of
this fort five ells long expelled by the refin of jalap
alone. Dr Gaubius knew a woman who had taken a
•variety of anthelmintic remedies without any effedt,
though fhe had voided a portion of tania an ell and a
half long previous to the ufe of thefe medicines: but
at length, after taking a purge oi Angular ftrength,
fhe voided the worm entire. Many other inftances of
the fame kind are to be met with in authors. Other
remedies have occafionally been given with fuccefs.
lu Sweden, it has been a pradlice to. drink feveral
X X gallons
34*
Worms.
408
M E D I
gallons of cold water, and then to take fome draftic
purge. Boerhaave fays, that he himfelf faw a tania
meafuring 300 ells expelled from a Ruffian by means of
the vitrlolum martis. All thefe methods, however, have
been too often ineffeftual.”
From fome late accounts, there is reafon to believe
that Dr Herrenfchwand’s remedy for tania does not fo
exa&ly agree with that of Madame Nouffer as Dr Sim¬
mons feems to imagine. According to the account
given us by a gentleman who had his information from
Dr Herrenfchwand himfelf, it confifts entirely of gam¬
boge and fixed vegetable alkali.
Of POISONS.
These have all been treated of already, except the
bites and ftings .of ferpents, fcorpions, &c. Accord¬
ing to Dr Mead, the fymptoms which follow the bite
of a viper are, an acute pain in the place wounded,
with a fwelling, at firft red, but afterwards livid, which
by degrees fpreads farther to the neighbouring parts ;
with great faintnefs, and a quick, low, and fometimes
interrupted pulfe ; great ficknefs at ftomach, with bi¬
lious convulfive vomitings, cold fweats, and fometimes
pains about the navel. Frequently a fanious liquor
runs from the fmall wound, and little pnftules are
raifed about it: the colour of the whole ikin in lefs
CINE.
Appendix.
this cannot be done, to change its deftru&ive nature
by fome powerful and penetrating application to the
wound: And, 3. To counteraft the effefts of that
portion already received into the fyftem.
The poifonous matter can only be removed from
the body by fucking the wound either by the mouth,
or by means of a cupping-glafs ; but the former is
probably the more efficacious, as the faliva will in
fome meafure dilute and perhaps obtund the poifon.
Mead directs the perfon who fucks the wound to hold
warm oil in his mouth, to prevent inflammation of the
lips and tongue : but as bites of this kind are moft
likely to happen in the fields, and at a dittance from
houfes, the want of oil ought by no means to retard
the operation, as the delay of a few minutes might
prove of the moil fatal confequence ; and it appears
from Dr Mead’s experiments, that the taking the
poifon of a viper into the mouth undiluted, is attended
with no worfe confequences than that of raifing a flight
inflammation. A quick excifion of the part might alfo
be of very great fervice.
The only way of anfwering the fecond indication
is, by deftroying the poifoned part by a red-hot iron,
or the application of alkaline falts, which have the
power of immediately altering the texture of all ani-
mal-fubftanees to which they are applied, provided
than an hour is changed yellow, as if the patient had they are not covered by the flein ; and as long as the
the jaundice. Thefe fymptoms are very frequently poifon is not totally abforbed into the fyitem, thefe
followed by death, efpecially if the climate be hot, mutt, certainly be of ufe.
and the animal of a large fize. This is not, however, To anfwer the third indication, Dr Mead recom-
the cafe with all kinds of ferpents. Some, we are af- mends a vomit of ipecacuanha, encouraged in the
fured, kill by a fatal fleep; others are faid to produce working with oil and warm water. The good _ef-
an univerfal hemorrhagy and diflblution of the blood; fedts of this, he fays, are owing to the (hake which
and others an unquenchable thirft. But of all the it gives to the nerves, whereby the irregular fpafms
fpecies of ferpents hitherto known, there is none whofe into which their whole fyftem might be drawn are
bite is more expeditioufly fatal than that of the rattle- prevented. After this the patient mutt go to bed,
fnake. Dr Mead tells us, that the bite of a large and a fweat mutt be procured by cordial medicines ;
ferpent of this kind killed a dog in a quarter of a mi- by which the remaining effeds of the poifon will be
nute; and to the human fpecies they are almoft equally carried off.
fatal. Of this ferpent it is faid, that the bite makes It has been confidently afferted by many, that the
the perfon’s Ikin become fpotted all over like the Ikin American Indians are poffeffed of fome fpecific remedy
of the ferpent; and that it has fuch a motion as if by which they can ealily cure the bite of a rattle-fnake.
there were innumerable living ferpents below it. But Tut Mr Catelby, who muft have had many opportu-
this is probably nothing more than a diffolution of the nities of knowing this, pofitively denies that they have
blood, by which the flein becomes fpotted as in pe- any fuch medicine. They make applications indeed,
techial fevers, at the fame time that the mufcles may and fometimes the patient recovers ; but thefe reco-
be convulfed as in the diftemper called hieranofos, which veries he aferibes to the ftrength of nature overcoming
was formerly thought to be the effeft of evil fpirits: the poifon, more than to the remedies made ufe of.
but it is even not improbable that obfervers have been He fays, they are very acute in their prognoftics whe-
fomewhat aided by fancy and fuperftition when they ther a perfon that is bit will die or not; and when
thought that they delefted fuch appearances. they happen to receive a bite in certain parts of the
It has juftly appeared furprifing to philofophers, body, when the teeth of the animal enter a large vein,
how fuch an inconfiderable quantity .of matter as the for inftance, they quietly refign themfelves to their
poifon emitted by a viper at the time of biting rtiould fate, without attempting any thing for their own re¬
produce fuch violent effedts. But all inquiries into this lief. Indeed, fo violent and quick is the operation of
matter mutt neceffarily be uncertain ; neither can they this poifon, that unlefs the antidote be inftantly ap-
contribute any thing towards the cure. It is certain plied, the perfon will die before he can get to a houfe.
that the poifon produces a gangrenous difpofition of the It would feem therefore eligible for thofe who are in
part itfelf, and likewife feemingly of the reft of the danger of fuch bites, to carry along with them fome
body ; and that the original quantity of poifon con- ftrong alkaline ley, or dry alkaline fait, or both,
tinues fome time before it exerts all its power on the which could be inftantly clapt on the wound, and by
patient, as it is known that removing part of the poi- its diffolving power would deftroy both the poifon
fonous matter by fuftion will alleviate the fymptoms. and the infected parts. Strong cordials alfo, fuch as
The indications of cure then are three. 1. To re- ardent fpirits, volatile alkali, &c. might poffibly ex-
move the poifonous matter from the body : Or, a. If cite the languid powers of nature, and enable her to
Appendix. MED
Poifons. expel the enemy, which would otherwife prove too
t—"“v  powerful. This feems to be fomewhat confirmed from
the account we have in the Philofophical Tranfadlions
of a gentleman bit by a rattle-fnake, who was more
relieved by a poultice of vinegar and vine-afhes put to
his wound than any thing elfe. The vine-afhes being
of an alkaline nature, mutt have faturated the vinegar,
fo that no part of the cure could be attributed to
it: on the other hand, the afhes themfelves could not
have been faturated by the fmall quantity of acid ne-
ceffary to form them into a poultice ; of confequence
they mutt have operated by their alkaline quality.—
Soap-ley, therefore, or very ftrong fait of tartar, may
reafonably be thought to be the beft external applica¬
tion, not only for the bites of vipers, but of every
venomous creature ; and in fa£t we find dry fait uni-
verfally recommended both in the bites of ferpents and
of mad dogs. Dr Mead recommends the fat of vipers
prefently rubbed into the wound ; but owns that it is
not fafe to truft to this remedy alone.
Some years ago the volatile alkali was ftrongly re¬
commended by M. Sage of the French academy, as a
powerful remedy againft the bite of the viper: and,
by a letter from a gentleman in Bengal to Dr Wright,
it would appear that this article, under the form of the
eau de luce, which is very little if any thing different
from the fpiritus ammonite fuccinatus of the London
Pharmacopoeia, has been employed with very great
fuccefs againft this affection in the Eaft Indies : but
from the trials made with it by the Abbe Fontana,
publilhed in his Treatife on the Poifon of the Viper,
it would appear that it by no means anfwered his ex
peftation ; and the efficacy of this, as well as of the
fnake pills mentioned under the article Hydrophobia,
ft ill requires to be confirmed by further experience.
4o9 M E L fE N E.
This is a diftemper not very common, but it has
been obferved by the ancient phyficians, and is de-
fcribed by Hippocrates under the name of morlus
niger. It ftiows itfelf by a vomiting and purging of
black tar-like matter; which Hippocrates, Boer-
haave, and Van Swieten, fuppofed to be occafioned by
atra bills. But Dr Home, in his Clinical Experi¬
ments, ftiows that it is owing to an effufion of blood
from the meferaic veffels, which by its ftagnation and
corruption affumes that ftrange appearance. The
difeafe, he fays, frequently follows hasmorrhagy ; and
thofe of a fcorbutic habit are moft fubjeft to it. It
is an acute difeafe, and terminates foon ; yet is not
attended with any great degree of fever. In one of
Dr Home’s patients the crifis happened on the eighth
day by diarrhoea ; in another, on the 14th, by fweat
and urine ; and a third had no evident critical evacua¬
tion.
As to the cure, Dr Home obferves, that bleeding
is always neceffary where the pulfe can bear it; nor
are we to be deterred from it by a little weaknefs of
the pulfe, more than in the enteritis. Emetics are hurt¬
ful, but purgatives are ufeful. But the moft power¬
ful medicine for checking this haemorrhagy is the
vitriolic acid : and, that this might be given in greater
quantity, he mixed it with mucilage of gum arable ;
by which means he was enabled to give double the
quantity he could otherwife have done. The cold
I C I N E. 347
bath was tried in one inftance, but he could not de- nifeafi-; of
termine whether it was of any fervice or not. The
cure was completed by exercife and the bark. v—'
Of the DISEASES of CHILDREN. 4x0
Dr Buchan obferves, that from the annual regifters
of the dead it appears, that about one half of the
children born in Great Britain die under twelve years
of age; and this very great mortality.he attributes
in a great meafure to wrong management. The par¬
ticulars of this wrong management enumerated by
him are,
1. Mothers not fuckling their own children. This,
he owns, it is fometimes impoffible for them to do ;
but where it can be done, he affirms that it ought
never to be omitted. This, he fays, would prevent the
unnatural cuftom of mothers leaving their own children
to fuckle thofe of others ; on which he paffes a moft
fevere cenfure, and indeed fcarce any cenfure can be
fevere enough upon fuch inhumanity. Dr Buchan in¬
forms us, “ He is fure he fpeaks within bounds,
when he fays not one in a hundred of thefe children
live who are thus abandoned by their mothers.” For
this reafon he adds, that no mother ftiould be allowed
to luckle another’s child till her own be fit to be
weaned. A regulation of this kind would fave many
lives among the poorer fort, and would do no harm
to the rich ; as moft women who make good nurfes
are able to fuckle two children in fucceffion upon the
fame milk.
2. Another fource of the difeafes of children is the
unhealthinefs of parents : and our author infifts that
no perfon who labours under an incurable malady ought
to marry.
3. The manner of clothing children tends to pro¬
duce difeafes. All that is neceffary here, he fays, is
to wrap the child in a foft loofe covering ; and the
foftnefs of every part of the infant’s body fufficiently
ftiows the injury which mutt neceiiarily enfue by pur-
fuing a contrary method.
4. A new-born infant, inftead of being treated with
fyrups, oils, &c. ought t® be allowed to fuck the mo¬
ther’s milk almoft as foon as it comes into the world.
He condemns the pradtice of giving wines and fpiri-
tuous liquors along with the food foon after birth ;
and fays, that if the mother or nurfe has a fufficient
quantity of milk, the child will need little or no other
food before the third or fourth month. But to this it
may reafonably be objected, not only that the nurfing
would thus be very fevere on the mother; but if the
child be left thus long without food, it will not eafily
relifti it for fome time, and its ftsmach is apt to be
eafily hurt by a flight change of diet after it has been
long accuftomed to one thing. Neither can it be
fliown, that the ftrongeft and moft healthy infants are
thofe which get no other food but the mother’s milk
during the firft months of their life. In fadt, children
are evidently of a weak and lax habit of. body, fo
that many of their difeafes muft arife from that caufe;
all directions which indiferiminately advife an antiphlo-
giftic regimen f©r infants' as foon as they come into
the world, muft of neceffity be wrong. Many inftances
in fad might be brought to fhow, that by the prepo-
fterous method of ftarving infants, and at the fame
time treating them with vomits and purges, they are
X x a often
348 M E D I <
ilifeafes of often hurried out of the world. Animal-food indeed
. Chikiren. js excefflvely agreeable to children, and they ought to
* ' be indulged with it in moderation ; and this will prove
a much better remedy for thofe acidities with which
children are often troubled, than magnefia alba, crab’s
eyes, or other abforbents, which have the moll perni¬
cious effe&s on the ftomachs of thefe tender creatures,
and pall the appetite to a furprifing degree The na¬
tural appetites of children are indeed the bell rule by
which we can judge of what is proper or improper for
them. They mull no doubt be regulated as to the
quantity; but we may be allured that what a child is
very fond of will not hurt it if taken in moderation.
When children ate fick, they refufe every thing but
the breaft ; and if their dillemper be very fevere, they
will refufe it alfo ; and in this cafe they ought not to
be preffed to take food of any kind: but when the
iicknefs goes off, their appetite alfo returns, apd they
will require the ufual quantity of food.
According to Dr Armftrong, inward Jits, as they
are called, are in general the firlt complaint that ap¬
pears in children; and as far as he has obferved, moil,
if not all infants, during the firft months, are more or
lefs liable to them. The fymptoms are thefe. The
child appears as if it was afleep, only the eyelids are
not quite clofed ; and if you obferve them narrowly,
you will fee the eyes frequently twinkle, with the white
( of them turned up. There is a kind of tremulous mo¬
tion in the mufcles of the face and lips, which produces
fomething like a fimpef or a fmile, and fometimes al-
moll the appearance of a laugh. As the diforder in-
creafes, the infant’s breath feems now and then to Hop
for a little ; the nofe becomes pinched ; there is a pale
circle about the eyes and mouth, which fometimes
changes to livid, - and comes and goes by turns ; the
child darts, efpecially if you go to ftir it though ever
fo gently, or if you make any noife near it. Thus di-
fturbed, it fighs, or breaks wind, which gives relief for
a little, but prefently it relapfes into the dozing. Some¬
times it druggies hard before it can break wind, and
feems as if falling into convulfions; but a violent burft
of wind from the domach, or vomiting, or a loud fit of
crying, fets all to rights again. As the child increafes
in drength, thefe fits are the more apt to go off fponta-
neoufly and by degrees; but in cafe they do not, and
if there is nothing done to remove them, they either
degenerate into an almod condant drowfinefs, (which
is fucceeded by a fever and the thrufh), or elfe they
terminate in vomitings; four, curdled, or green dools,
the watery-gripes, and convulfions. The thrufh indeed
very often terminates in thefe lad fymptoms. Where¬
fore, as thefe complaints naturally run into one ano¬
ther, or fucceed one another, they may be confidered,
in a manner, as only different dages of the fame dif-
cafe, and which derive their origin from the fame caufe.
Thus, the inward, fits may be looked upon as the fird
dage of the diforder; the fever, and thrufh (when it
happens), as the fecond; the vomitings, four, curdled,
green or watery dools, as the third ; and convulfions,
as the lad.
As to the caufe of thefe complaints, he obferves,
that jn infants the glandular fecretions, which are all
more or lefs glutinous, are much more copious than in
adults. During the time of fucking, the glands of the
mouth and .fauces being fqueezed by the contradlion.
uf the mufcles, fpue out their contents plentifully;
CINE. Appendix,
which afterwards mixing with the mucus of the gullet tWeufes of
and domach, render the milk of a flimy confidence, by Chduren.^
which means it is not fo readily abforbed into the lac-
teals ; and as in mod infants there is too great an aci¬
dity in the domach, the milk is thereby curdled, which
adds to the load ; hence ficknefs and fpafms, which,
being communicated by fympathy to the nerves of the
gullet and fauces, produce the convulfive motions above
defcribed, which go commonly by the name of inward
jits. The air, likewife, which is drawn in during dic¬
tion, mixing with the milk, &c. in the domach, per¬
haps contributes towards increafing the fpafms above-
mentioned. Dr Armdrong is the more induced to
attribute thefe fits to the caufes now' afligned, that they
always appear immediately after fucking or feeding ;
efpecially if the child has been long at the bread, or
fed heartily, and has been laid down to deep without
having fird broken wind, which ought never to be
done. Another reafon is, that nothing relieves them
fo foon as belching or vomiting ; and the milk or food
they throw up is generally either curdled, or mixed with
a large quantity of heavy phlegm In cafe they are not
relieved by belching or vomiting, the fits fometimes con¬
tinue a good while, and gradually abate, according as
the contents of the domach are pufhed into the rntef-
tines ; and as foon as the former is pretty well emptied,
the child is waked by hunger, cries, and wants the
bread ; he fucks, and the fame procefs is repeated.—
Thus, fome children for the fird weeks are kept almod
always in a dofe, or feemingly fo ; efpecially if the
nurfes, either through lazinefs or want of Ikill, do not
take care to roufe them when they perceive that it is
not a right fleep, and keep them awake at proper in¬
tervals. This dozing is reckoned a bad fign amongd
experienced nurfes ; who look upon it as a forerunner
of the thrufh, as indeed it often is ; and therefore,
when it happens, we ought to be upon our guard to ufe
the neceffary precautions for preventing that diforder.
For thefe diforders, the only remedy recommended
by Dr Armdrong is pntimonial wine, given in a few*
drops, according to the age of the infant. By this
means the fuperabundant mucus will no doubt be eva¬
cuated ; but at the fame time we mud remember, that
this evacuation can only palliate, and not cure the dif-
eafe. This can only be effected by tonics ; and a de- .
coftion of the Peruvian bark, made into a fyrup, will
readily be taken by infants, and may be fafely exhi¬
bited from the very day they come into the world, or
as foon as their bowels are emptied of the meconium
by the mother’s milk or any other means.
Dr Clarke obferves, that fraSures oi tht. limbs, and
compreflions of the brain, often happen in difficult la¬
bours; and that the latter are often-followed by con¬
vulfions foon after delivery. In thefe cafes, he fays, it.
will be advifable to let the navel-dring bleed two or
three fpoonfuls before it be tied. Thus the oppreffion .
of the brain will be relieved, and the difagreeable con-
fequences jud mentioned will be prevented. But if
this has been negle&ed, and fits have adtually come t
on, we mud endeavour to make a revulfion by all the
means in our power ; as by opening the jugular vein,
procuring an immediate difcharge of the urine and me¬
conium, and applying fmall bliders to the back, legs, .
or behind the ears. The femicupium, too, would feem
to be ufeful in this cafe, by driving the oppreffivc load
of fluids from the head and upper parts.
It
Appendix. MED
DifeafcsoF It fometlmes happens after a tedious labour, that
Children. (.jie child i8 f0 faint and weak as to difcover little or no
fjgns of life. In fuch a cafe, after the ufual cleanfing,
the body Ihould be immediately wrapped in warm flan¬
nel, and brilkly tofled about in the nurfe's arms, in
order, if poflible, to excite the languid circulation.
If this fail, the breafl: and temples may be rubbed with
brandy or other fpirits; or the child may be provoked
to cry, by whipping, or other ftimulating methods, as
the application pf onion, or fait and fpirit of hartfhorn,
to the mouth and noftrils. But after all thefe expe¬
dients have been tried in vain, and the recovery of the
child abfolutely defpaired of, it has fometimes been
happily revived by introducing a fliort catheter or
blow-pipe into the mouth, and gently blowing into
the lungs at different.intervals. Such children, how¬
ever, are apt to remain weak for a conflderable time,
fo that it is often ne» eafy matter to rear them ; and
therefore particular care and tendernefs will be required
in their management, that nothing may be omitted
which can contribute either to their prefervation or
the improvement of their ftrength and vigour.
All the diforders which arife from a retention of the
meconium, fuch as the red gum, may eafily be removed
by the ufe of gentle laxatives ; but the great fource of
mortality among children is the breeding of their teeth.
The ufual fymptoms produced by this are fretting ;
reftleflhefs ; frequent and fudden flartings, efpecially in
fleep ; coftivenefs ; and fometimes a violent diarrhoea,
fever, or convulfxons. In general, thofe children breed
their teeth with the greateft eafe, who have a moderate
laxity of the bowels, or a plentiful flow of faliva during;
that time.
In mild cafes, we need only, when neceflary, endea¬
vour to promote the means by which nature is obferved
to carry on the bufinefs of dentition in the eafieft man¬
ner. For this purpofe, if a coftivenefs be threatened,
it muft be prevented, and the body kept always gently
open ; and the gums flrould be relaxed by rubbing
them frequently with fweet oils, or other foftening
remedies of that kind, which will greatly diminiftr the
tenfion and pain. At the fame time, as children
about this period are generally difpofed to chew what¬
ever they get into their hands, they ought never to be
without fomething that whll yield a little to the pref-
fure of their gums, as a cruft of bread, a w ax-candle,
a bit of liquorice-root, or fuch like ; for the repeated
mufcular a&ion, occafioned by the conftant biting and
gnawing at fuch a fubftance, .will increafe the difcharge
from the falivary glands,, while the gums will be fo
forcibly prefled againft the advancing teeth, as to make
them break out much fooner, and with lefs uneafmefs,
than would otherwife happen. Some likew'ife recom¬
mend a flice of the rind of frefli bacon, as a proper
mafticatory for the child, in order to bring moifture
into its mouth, and facilitate the eruption of the teeth
by exercifing the gums. If thefe means, however,
prove ineffe&ual, and bad fymptoms begin to appear^
the patient will often be relieved immediately by cut¬
ting the inflamed gum down to the tooth, where a
fmall white point' (hows the latter to be coming for¬
ward. When the pulfe is. quick, the Ikin hot and
dry, and the child of a fufficient age and ftrength,
emptying the vefiels by bleeding, efpecialiy at the ju¬
gular, will frequently be neceflary here, as well as in
I C I N E. 349
all other inflammatory cafes ; and the belly flrould be Djfeafes of
opened from time to time by emollient oily or muci- ^hddren.^
laginous glyfters. But, on the contrary, if the child v
be low, funk, and much weakened, repeated dofes of
the fpirit of hartftiorn, and the like reviving medicines,
ought to be preferibed. Blifters applied to the back,
or behind the ears, will often be proper in both cafes.
A prudent adminiftration of opiates, when their ufe
is not forbid by coftivenefs or otherwife, is fometimes .
of great fervice in difficult teething, as, by mitigating
pain, they have a tendency to prevent its bad effefts,
as a fever, convulfions, or other violent fymptoms;
and often they are abfolutely neceflary, along with the
teftaceous powders, for checking an immoderate diar¬
rhoea.
When cathartics are neceflary, but the child feems
too tender and weak to bear their immediate opera¬
tion, they Ihould be given to the nurfe ; in which
cafe they will communicate fo much' of their vir¬
tues to the milk as will be fufficient to purge the in¬
fant. This at leaft certainly holds with regard to
fome cathartics; fuch, for example, as the infufion of
fenna, particularly if a very weak infufion be employ¬
ed, and not ufed to fuch an extent as to operate as a
purgative to the nurfe.
As moft young children, if in health, naturally fleep
much, and pretty foundly, we may always be apt to
fufpe&.that fomething is amifs when they begin to be
fubjedl to watching and frights ; fymptoms which fel-
dom or never occur but either in confequence of fome
prefent diforder not yet taken notice of, or as the cer¬
tain forerunners of an approaching indifpofition. We
fliould immediately, therefore, endeavour to find out
their caufe, that we may ufe .every poffible means to
remove or prevent it ; otherwife the want of natural
reft, which is fo very prejudicial to perfons of all ages,
will foon reduce the infant to a low and emaciated
ftate, which may be followed by an he&ic fever, diar¬
rhoea, and all the other confequences of weaknefs and
debility. Thefe fymptoms, being always the effedfs
of irritation'and pain, may proceed, in very young
infants, from crudities or other affeftions of the prima
via producing flatulencies or gripes; about the fixth
or feventh month, they may be owing to that uneafi-
nefs which commonly accompanies the breeding of the
teeth ; and after a child is weaned, and begins to ufe a
different kind of food, worms become frequently an
additional caufe of watchings and difturbed fleep.
Hence, to give the neceffary relief on thefe occafions,
the original complaint muft firft be afeertained from
the child’s age and other concomitant circumftances,
and.afterwards treated according to the nature of the
cafe. Women and nurfes are too apt to have recourfe
to opiates in the watchings of children, efpecially when
their own reft happens to be much difturbed by their
continual noife and clamour. But this practice is often
prejudicial, and never ought to have place when the
belly is in the leaft obftrudfed.
There is no complaint more frequent among chil¬
dren than that of worms, the general fymptoms of
which have been already .enumerated ; but it muft be
obferved, that all the fymptoms commonly attributed
to worms alone, may be produced by a foulnefs of the
bowels. Hence praditioners ought never to reft fa-
tified with adminiftering ,to their patients fuch medi¬
cine*.
35° MEDICINE. Appendix,
DifeafVs of cJnes as are pofleffed only of an anthelmintic quality,
.Children. ^ut t0 j0jn tj,em wJth thofe which are particularly ad-
"' v apted for cleanfing the prima via ; as it is uncertain
whether a foulnefs of the bowels may not be the caufe
of all the complaints. This pra&ice is ftill the more
advifable, on account of vifcid humours in the inte-
ftines affording lodgment to the ova of worms; which,
without the convenience of fuch a receptacle, would
be more fpeedily difcharged from the body.
The difficulty of curing what is called a worm fever,
arifes, according to Dr Mufgrave, from its being fre¬
quently attributed to worms, when the caufe of the
diforder is of a quite different nature. He does not
mean to deny that worms do fometimes abound in the
human body, nor that the irritation caufed by them
does fometimes produce a fever; but he apprehends
thefe cafes to be much more uncommon than is gene¬
rally imagined, and that great mifchief is done by treat¬
ing fome of the diforders of children as worm cafes,
which really are not fo. Dr Hunter, it is obferved, is
of the fame opinion on this point; and he has, we are
told, differed great numbers of children who have
been fuppofed to die of worm-fevers, and whofe com-
plaintswere of courfe treated as proceeding from worms,
in whom, however, there appeared, upon diffeftion, to
be not only no worms, but evident proofs of the dif-
order’s having been of a very different nature.
The fpurious worm-fever, as Dr Mufgrave terms it,
has, in all the inftances he has feen of it, arifen evi¬
dently from the children having been indulged with
too great quantities of fruit; though a poor cold diet
may, he thinks, occafionally give birth to it. Every
fort of fruit eaten in excefs will probably produce it;
but an immoderate ufe of cherries feems to be the moft
common caufe of it. The approach of this diforder has
a different appearance, according as it arifes from a ha¬
bit of eating fruit in rather too large quantities, or
from an exceffive quantity eaten at one time. In the
former cafe, the patient gradually grows weak and
languid ; his colour becomes pale and livid ; his belly
fwells and grows hard ; his appetite and digeftisn are
deftroyed ; his nights grow reftlefs, or at leaf!; his fleep
is much difturbed with ftartings, and then the fever
foon follows, in the progrefs of which, the patient
grows comatofe, and at times convulfed; in which ftate,
when it takes place to a high degree, he often dies. The
pulfe at the wrift, though quick,is never ftrong or hard;
the carotids, however, beat with great violence,and elevate
the fkin fo as to be diftin&lyfeen at a diftance. The heat
is at times confiderable, efpecially in the trunk; though
at other times, wherrthe brain is much oppreffed, it is
little more than natural. It is fometimes accompanied
by a violent pain of the epigaftric region, though more
commonly the pain is flight, and terminates in a coma;
fome degree of pain, however, feems to be infeparable
from it, fo as clearly to diitinguifh this diforder from
other comatofe affections.
When a large quantity of fruit has been eaten at
once, the attack of the diforder is inftantaneous, and
its progrefs rapid ; the patient often paffing, in the
fpace of a few hours, from apparently perfeft health,
to a ftupid, comatofe, and almoft dying ftate. The
fymptoms of the fever, when formed, are in both cafes
nearly the fame; except that, in this latter fort, a little
purulent matter is fometimes difcharged, both by vo¬
mit and ftool, from the very firft day. The ftools, in Difeafesof
both cafes, exhibit fometimes a kind of curd refembling Chilcheii,
curdled milk, at other times a floating fubftance is ob- ~v
ferved in them; and fometimes a number of little threads
and pellicles, and now and then a Angle worm.
Strong purgatives, or purges frequently repeated, in
this diforder, are greatly condemned by Dr Armftrong,
as they in general not only aggravate the fymptoms
already prefent, but are fometimes the origin of con-
vulflons. Bloodletting is not to be thought of in any
ftage of the diforder.
Although frequent purging, however, be not recom¬
mended, yet a Angle vomit and purge ate advifed in
the beginning of the diforder, with a view to evacuate
fuch indigefted matter and mucus as happens to remain
in the ftomach and bowels. ■ Thefe having operated
properly, there is feldom occaflon for repeating them;
and it is fufficient, if the body be coftive, to throw up,
every fecond or third day, a clyfter, compofed of fome
grains of aloes, diflblved in Ave ounces of infuAon of
chamomile.
The principal part of the cure, however, depends
upon external applications to the bowels and ftomach;
and as the caiife of the diforder is of a cold nature,
the applications muft be warm, cordial, and invigora¬
ting ; and their action muft be promoted by conftant
adtual heat.
The following is the form recommended.
“ Take of leaves of wormwood and rue, each equal
parts: make a faturated decoftion in a fufficient quan¬
tity of water, with which foment the region of the
ftomach and abdomen for a quarter of an hour, repeat¬
ing the fomentation every three or four hours. A
poultice of the boiled herbs is to be applied after the
fomentation, and conftantly renewed as it cools.” For
internal ufe, the following is all that has been found
neceflary. “ Take of fpirituous and Ample cinnamon-
water, each half an ounce ; oil of almonds, an ounce
and an half; balfamic fyrup, three drachms. Mix, and
ftiake the vial when ufed.” From two to flx drachms
are given every third hour.
When any nervous fymptoms come on, or remain
after the diforder is abated, they are eaAly removed by
giving a pill with a grain or two of afafeetida once or
twice a-day.
The diagnoftics of worms are very uncertain ; but,
even in real worm cafes, the treatment above recom¬
mended would, it is imagined, be much more effica¬
cious than the practice commonly had recourfe to. As
worms either And the conftitution weakly, or very foon
make it fo, the frequent repetition of purges, parti¬
cularly mercurials, cannot but have a pernicious effe&.
Bares-foot is ftill more exceptionable, being in truth
to be ranked rather among poifons than medicines.
Worm-feed and bitters are too offenAve to the palate
and ftomach to be long perAfted in, though fometimes
very ufeful; The powder of coralline creates difguft
by its quantity ; and the infuAon of pink-root is well
known to occaAon now-and then vertiginous com¬
plaints and Ats.
Fomenting the belly night and morning with a
ftrong deco&ion of rue and wormwood, is much re¬
commended. It is a perfe&ly fafe remedy, and, by
invigorating the bowels, may thereby have fome in¬
fluence in rendering them capable of expelling fuch
worms
Appendix. M E D I
D fVa'esof worms as they happen to contain. After the fomen-
Children. Nation, it is advifed to anoint the belly with a lini-
* ment, compofed of one part of eflential oil of rue, and
two parts of a deco&ion of rue in fweet oil. It is,
however, a matter of great doubt whether thefe ex¬
ternal applications, in confequence of the articles with
which they are impregnated, exert any influence on the
worms themfelves.
The diet of children difpofed to worms, fhould be
warm and nourifhing, confifting in part at leaft of ani¬
mal food, which is not the worfe for being a little fea-
foned. Their drink may be any kind of beer that is
well hopped, with now and then a fmall draught of
porter or negus. A total abftinence from butter is
not fo neceffary, perhaps, as . is generally imagined.
Poor cheefe muft by all means be avoided; but fuch
as is rich and pungent, in a moderate quantity, is
particularly ferviceable. In the fpurious worm-fever,
the patient fhould be fupported occafionally by fmall
quantities of broth ; and, at the clofe of it, when the
appetite returns, the firft food given fhould be of the
kinds above recommended.
The diet here recommended will, perhaps, be
thought extraordinary, as the general idea is at pre-
fent, that, in the management of children, nothing
is fo much to be avoided as repletion and rich food. It
is no doubt an error to feed children too well, or to
indulge them with wine and rich fauces ; but it is
equally an error to confine them to too ftrift or too
poor a diet, which weakens their digeftion, and ren¬
ders them much more fubjeft to diforders of every
kind, but particularly to diforders of the bowels. In
regard to the fpurious worm-fever, if it be true that
acid fruits too plentifully eaten are the general caufe
of it, it follows as a confequence, that a warm nutri¬
tious diet, moderately ufed, will moft effedtually coun-
tera& the mifchief, and fooneft reftore the natural
powers of the ftomach. Befides, if the diforder does
not readily yield to the methods here direfted, as there
are many examples ofits terminating byan inflammation
and fuppuration of the navel, it is highly advifable to
keep this probability in view, and, by a moderate al¬
lowance of animal-food, to fupport thofe powers of
nature, from which only fuch a happy crifis is to be
expefted.
41I 0/MEDICAL ELECTRICITY.
The application of this fubtile fluid to medicinal
purpofes was thought of foon after the difcovery of the
eleftric fhock ; and after various turns of reputation,
its medical virtues feem now to be pretty well efta-
bliflied. After giving fo particular a defcription of the
ele&rical apparatus under the proper article, it would
here be fuperfluous to fay any thing farther on that
head. We {hall only obferve, that Mr Cavallo, who
has publifhed the lateft and the Left treatife on Me¬
dical Eleftricity, entirely difapproves of giving violent
Ihocks, and finds it moft efficacious to expofe the pa¬
tient to the electrical aura difcharged from an iron or
a wooden point; or if {hocks are given, they fhould
be very flight, and not exceed 12 or 14 at a time. In
this way he recommends it as effectual in a great num¬
ber of diforders. The patient may be eleCtrified from
three to ten minutes j but if fparks are drawn, they
CINE. 351
Ihould not exceed the number of {hocks above men- Medical
tioned. Eleftricky.
Rheumatic diforders, even of long Handing, are re- v
lieved, and generally quite cured, by only drawing the
eleCtric fluid with a wooden point from the part, or by
drawing fparks through flannel. The operation {hould
be continued for about four or five minutes, repeating
it once or twice every day.
Deafnefs, except when it is occafioned by oblitera¬
tion or other improper configuration of the parts, is
either entirely or partly cured by drawing the fparks
from the ear with the glafs-tube dire&or, or by draw¬
ing the fluid with a wooden point. Sometimes it is
not improper to fend exceedingly fmall {hocks (for in-
ftance, of one-thirteenth of an inch) from one ear to
the other.—It has been conftantly obferved, that when¬
ever the ear is eleftrified, the difcharge of the wax is
confiderably promoted.
The toothach, occafioned by cold, rheumatifm, or
inflammation, is generally relieved by drawing the e-
leftric fluid with a point, immediately from the part,
and alfo externally from the face. But when the body
of the tooth is affeCIed, eleftrifation is of no ufe ; for
it feldom or never relieves the diforder, and fometimes
increafes the pain to a prodigious degree.
Swellings in general, which do not contain any mat~
ter, are frequently cured by drawing the eleCtric fluid
with a wooden point. The operation fhould be con¬
tinued for three or four minutes every day.—It is very
remarkable, that in fome cafes of white fwellings, quite
cured by means of eleCiricity, the bones and cartilages
were in fome meafure disfigured.
Inflammations of every fort are generally relieved by
a very gentle electrization.
In inflammations of the eyes, the throwing of the elec¬
tric fluid by means of a wooden point is often at¬
tended with great benefit; the pain being quickly
abated, and the inflammation being generally diflipated
in a few days. In thefe cafes, the eye of the patient
muft be kept open ; and care ftiould be taken not to
bring the wooden point very near it, for fear of cau-
fing any fpark. Sometimes it is fufficient to throw
the fluid with a metal point; for in thefe cafes, too
great an irritation fliould be always avoided. It is not
neceflary to continue this operation for three or four
minutes without intermiffion ; but after throwing the
fluid for about half a minute, a ftiort time may be al¬
lowed to the patient to reft and to wipe his tears,
which generally flow very copioufly; then the opera¬
tion may be continued again for another half minute,
and fo on for four or five times every day.
The gutta ferena has been fometimes cured by elec¬
trization ; but at the fame time it muft be confeATed,
it has proved ineffe&ual in many fuch cafes, in which
it was adminiftered for a long time and with all pof-
fible attention. However, it has never been known
that any body was made worfe by it. The beft me¬
thod of adminiftering eleCiricity in fuch cafes, is firft
to draw the eleCtric fluid with a wooden point for a Ihort
time, and then to fend about half a dozen of {hocks of
one-twentieth of an inch from the back and lower part
of the head to the fore head, very little above the eye.
A remarkable difeafe of the eye was fome time ago
perfectly cured by electrization; it was an opacity of
the vitreous humour of the eyes.
All
352 M E D I
Medical All the cafes oiffliiJa lacrymalis which Mr Cavailo
Ekftricky. hath known
to have been ele&rified by perfons of
v " ability for a fufficient time, have been entirely cured.
The method generally praftifed has been that of
drawing the fluid with a wooden point, and to take
very fmall fparks from the part. The operation may
be continued for about three or four minutes every day.
It is remarkable, that in thofe cafes, after curing the
fiftula lacrymalis, no other difeafe was occafioned by it,
as blindnefs, inflammations, &c. by fuppreffing that
difcharge.
Palfies are feldom perfectly cured by means of elec¬
tricity, efpecially when they are of long {landing; but
they are generally relieved to a certain degree. The
method of eleftrifying in thofe cafes, is to draw the
. fluid with the wooden point, and to draw fparks thro’
flannel, or through the ufual coverings of the part if
they are not too thick. The operation may be conti¬
nued for about five minutes per day.
Ulcers, or open fores of every kind, even of a long
Handing, are generally difpofed to heal by electriza¬
tion. The general effeCts are a diminution of the in¬
flammation, and at firft a promotion of the difcharge
of properly formed matter; which difcharge gradually
leffens, according as the limits of the fore contraCl,
till it be quite cured. In thefe cafes the gentleft elec¬
trization mull be ufed, in order to avoid too great an
irritation, which is generally hurtful. To draw or
throw the fluid with a wooden or even with a metal
point, for three or four minutes per day, is fully
fufficient.
Cutaneous eruptions have been fuccefsfully treated
with eletlrization : but in thefe cafes it mull be pb-
ferved, that if the wooden point be kept too near the
{kin, fo as to caufe any confiderable irritation, the
eruption will be caufed to fpread more ; but if the
point be kept at about fix inches diftance, or farther,
if the eleftrical machine be very powerful, the erup¬
tions will be gradually diminifhed, till they are quite
cured. In this kind of difeafe, the immediate and ge¬
neral effeft of the wooden point is to occafion a
warmth about the ele&rified part, which is always a
fign that the eleftrization is rightly adminiftered.
The application of ele&ricity has perfeftly cured
various cafes of St Vitus’s dance, or of that difeafe
which is commonly called fo; for it is the opinion of
fome very learned phyficians, that the real difeafe call¬
ed St Vitus’s dance, which formerly was more frequent
than it is at prefent, is different from that which now
goes under that name. In this difeafe {hocks of about
one-tenth of an inch may be fent through the body in
various direftions, and alfo fparks may be taken. But
if this treatment prove very difagreeable to the patient,
then the {hocks muft be leffened, and even omitted; in-
flead of which, fome other more gentle applications
muft be fubftituted.
Scrophulous tumors, when they are juft beginning,
are generally cured by drawing the eleftric fluid with
a wooden or metal point from the part. This is one
of thofe kinds of difeafes in which the aftion of elec¬
tricity requires particularly the aid of other medicines
in order to effedt a cure more eafily; for fcrophulous
affe&ions commonly accompany a great laxity of the
habit, and a general cachexy, which muft be obviated
by proper remedies.
N° 209. 2
CINE. Appendix,’
In cancers, the pains only are commonly alleviated by Medical
drawing the ele&ric fluid with a wooden or metal point, ^kdlncity.
Mr Cavailo, however, mentions one cafe in which a moft
confirmed cancer of very long Handing, on the breaft
of a woman, had been much reduced in fize. It is re¬
markable, that this patient was fo far relieved by draw¬
ing the fluid with a metal point from the part, that
the excruciating pains. Ihe had fuffered for many years
did almoft entirely difappear; and alfo, that when the
ele&ric fluid was drawn by means of a wooden point,
the pains did rather increafe.
Abfcejfes, when they are in their beginning, and in
general whenever there is any tendency«to form mat¬
ter, are difperfed by eleftrization. Lately, in a cafe
in which matter was formed upon the hip, called the
lumbar abfcefs, the difeafe was perfe&ly cured by
means of eleftricity. The fciatica has alfo been often
cured by it. In all fuch cafes, the electric fluid muft
be fent through the part by means of two directors
applied to oppofite parts, and in immediate contaft
either with the flan, or with the coverings, when thefe
are very thin. It is very remarkable, that the mere
paffage of the eleftric fluid in this manner is general¬
ly felt by the patients afflifted with thofe diforders,
nearly as much as a fmall ftiock is felt by a perfon in
good health. Sometimes a few {hocks have been alfo
given, but it feems more proper to omit them; be-
caufe fometimes, inftead of difperfing, they rather ac¬
celerate the formation of matter.
In cafes of pulmonary inflammations, when they are
in the beginning, ele&rization has been fometimes be¬
neficial ; but in confirmed difeafes of the lungs, it does
not feem to have ever afforded any unqueftionable be¬
nefit ; however, it feems that in fuch cafes the power
of eleftricity has been but feldom tried.
Nervous headachs, even of a long {landing, are ge¬
nerally cured by ele&rization. For this difeafe, the
ele6tric fluid muft be thrown with a wooden, and fome¬
times even with a metal point, all round the head fuc-
ceffively. Sometimes exceedingly fmall ftiocks have
been adminiftered ; but thefe can feldom be ufed, be-
caufe the nerves of perfons fubjedt to this difeafe are fo
very irritable, that the {hocks, the fparks, and fome¬
times even the throwing the ele&ric fluid with a wood¬
en point kept very near the head, throw them into
convulfions.
The application of eleftricity has often been found
beneficial in the dropfy when juft beginning, or ra¬
ther in the tendency to a dropfy; but it has never
been of any ufe in advanced dropfies. In fuch cafes,
the eleftric fluid is fent through the part, in various
dire£lions, by means of two directors, and fparks are
alfo drawn acrofs the flannel or the cloaths ; keeping
the metal rod in contact with them, and fhifting it con¬
tinually from place to place. This operation fhould
be continued at leaft ten minutes, and Ihould be re¬
peated once or twice a-day.—Perhaps in thofe cafes, a
Ample ele&rization (viz. to infulate the patient, and
to connect him with the prime condu&or whilft the
-machine is an a&ion), continued for a confiderable time,
-as an hour or two, would he more beneficial.
The gout, extraordinary as it may appear, has cer¬
tainly been cured by means of eleftricity, in various
•inftances. The pain has been generally mitigated, and
fometimes the difeafe has been removed fo well as not
to
Appendix. MED!
- Medical to return again. In thofe cafes, the eleftric fluid has
Slfc6tnc,ty. ^een thrown by .means of a wooden point, although
tonictimes, when the pain was too great, a metal point
’ only has been ufed.
Agues have not uhfreqnently been cured by eleftrici-
ty, fo that fometimes one ele&rization or two have
been fufficient. The moft effeftual and fure method
has been that of drawing fparks through flannel, or
the cloaths, for about ten minutes or a quarter of an
hour. The patients may be electrified either at the
: time of the fit, or a Ihort while before the time in
which it is expedted.
The fupprejjion of the menfcs, which is a difeafe of
the female fex that often occafions the moft difa-
greeable and alarming fymptoms, is often fuccefsfully
and fpeedily cured by means of eleCtricity, even when
the difeafe is of long Handing, and after the moft
powerful medicines ufed for it have proved ineffectual.
The cafes of this fort in which electrization has pro¬
ved ufelefs are fo few, and the fuccefsful ones fo nume¬
rous, that the application of eleCtricity for this difeafe
may be juftly confidered as an efficacious and certain re¬
medy. Great attention and knowledge is required, in
order to diftinguifh the arreft of the menfes from a
flate of ptegnancy. In the former, the application of
eleCtricity, as we obferved above, is very beneficial ;
whereas, in the latter, it may be attended with very
difagrecable effeCts : it is therefore a matter of great
importance to afcertain the real caufe of the difeafe,
before the eleCtricity be applied in thofe cafes. Preg-
naat women may be eleCtrified for other difeafes, but
always ufing very gentle means, and directing the e-
leCtric fluid through other parts of the body diftant
from thofe fubfervient to generation. In the real fup-
preffion of the menfes, fmall ffiocks, i. e. of about
one-twentieth of an inch, may be fent through the pel¬
vis ; fparks may be taken through the cloaths from
the parts adjacent to the feat of the difeafe ; and alfo
the eleCtric fluid may be tranfmitted by applying the
metallic or wooden extremities of two directors to the
hips, in contaCt with the clothes; part of which may
be removed in cafe they be too thick. Thofe various
applications of eleClric'ity fhould be regulated accord¬
ing to the conftitution of the patients The number of
fhocks may be about 12 or 14. The other applica¬
tions may be continued for two or three minutes ; re¬
peating the operation every day. But either ftrong
ffiocks, or a ftronger application of eleCtricity than the
patient can conveniently bear, (hould be carefully
avoided ; for by thofe means, fometimes more than a
fufficient difcharge is occafioned, which is not eafiiy
cured. In cafes of uterine■ haemorrhagies, it is not
known that the application of eleCtricity w^as ever be¬
neficial. Perhaps a very gentle electrization, fo as to
keep the patient infulated and connected with the
prime conductor, whilft the eleCtrical machine is in ac¬
tion, may be of fome benefit.
In refpeCt to unnatural difcharges and fluxus in ge¬
neral, it may be obferved, that fome difcharges are
. quite unnatural or adventitious, as the fiftula lacryma-
lis, and fome fpecies of the venereal difeafe ; but o-
thers are only increafed natural difcharges, fuch as the
■menfes, perfpiration, &c. .Now the power of eleCtrici¬
ty in general has been found more beneficial for the
Vol. XL Part I.
CINE. 353
firft than for the fecond fort of difcharges, which are Medical
moftly increafed by it. _ _ Ekdt^
In the venere.il difafe, eleCtrization has been general*
ly forbidden; having commonly increafed the pains, and
other fymptoms, rather than diminifhed them. Indeed,
confidering that any fort of ftimulus has been found
hurtful to perfons afflicted with that diforder, it is no
wonder that eleCtricity has produced fome bad effeCts,
efpecially in the manner it was adminiftered fome time
ago, viz. by giving ftrong {hocks. However, it has
been lately obferved, that a very gentle application of
eleCtricity, as drawing the fluid by means of a wooden
or metal point, is peculiarly beneficial in various cafes
of this kind, even when the difeafe has been, of long
Handing. Having remarked above, that tumors*
when juft beginning, are difperfed, tind that unnatu¬
ral difcharges are gradually fuppreffed by a judicious
eleCtrization, it is luperfluous to defcribe particularly
thofe ftates of the venereal difeafe in which eleCtri¬
city may be applied ; it is only neceffary to remind
the operator to avoid any confiderable ftimulus in cafes
of this fort.
The application of eleCtricity has been found alfo
beneficial in other difeafes befides thofe mentioned a-
bove ; but as the faCls are not fufficiently numerous, fo
as to afford the deduction of any general rules, we have
not thought proper to take any particular notice of'
them.
We maylaftly obferve, that, in many cafes, the help
of other remedies to be prefcribed by the • medical
praCtitioner will be required to affift the aCtion of
eleCtricity, which by itfelf would perhaps be ufelefs}
and, on the other hand, eleCtrization may often be ap¬
plied to affift the aCtion of other remedies, as of fudo-
rifics, ftrengthening medicines, &c.
Of FIXED AIR as a Medicine. 412
The antifeptic qualities of fixed air, or as it is now
more generally called of the aerial or carbonic acid,
have of late introduced it as a medicine in cafes of
putrid diforderg, and various other complaints.—
Dr Percival obferves, that though fatal if infpired in
a very large quantity, it may in fmaller quantities be
breathed without danger or uneafinefs. And it is a
confirmation of this conclufion, that at Bath, where
the waters copioufly exhale this mineral fpirit, the ba¬
thers infpire it with impunity. At Buxton alfo, where
the bath is in a clofe vault, the effeCts of fuch effluvia,
if noxious, muft certainly be perceived.
Encouraged by thefe and fome other confiderations,
he has adminiftered fixed air in more than 30 cafes of
the phthifis pulmonalis, by directing his patients to in¬
fpire the fleams of an effervefeing mixture of chalk and
vinegar through the fpout of a coffee-pot. The hec¬
tic fever has in feveral inftances been confiderably a-
bated, and the matter expeCtorated has become lefs of-
fenfive and better digefted. He has not, however,
been fo fortunate in any one cafe as to effeCt a cure ;
although the ufe of mephitic air has been accompanied
with proper internal medicines. But Dr Withering
has been more fuccefsful. One phthifical patient un¬
der his care, by a fimilar courfe, entirely recovered ; an¬
other was rendered much better; and a third, whofe
cafe was truly deplorable, feemed to be kept alive by
M E D I
A‘r* it more than two months. It may be proper to ob-
ferve, that fixed air can only be employed with any
profpeft of fuccefs in the latter ftages of the phth'ifis
pulmonalis, when a purulent expeftoration takes place.
After the rupture and difcharge of a vomica alfo, fuch
a remedy promifes to be a powerful palliative. Anti-
feptic fumigations and vapours have been long em¬
ployed, and much extolled, in cafes of this kind. The
following experiment was made to determine whether
their efficacy in any degree depends on the feparation
of fixed air from their fubfiance.
One end of a bent tube was fixed in a phial full of
lime-water; the other end in a bottle of the tin&ure
of myrrh. The junctures were carefully luted ; and
the phial containing the tincture of myrrh was placed
in water, heated almoft to the boiling point, by the
lamp of a tea kettle. A number of air-bubbles were
fepa'rated, but probably not of the mephitic kind ; for
no precipitation enfued in the lime-water. This ex¬
periment was repeated with the tin >3. Taint an a Ph Ed.
and with fp. vinof. camph. and the refult was entirely
the fame. The medicinal aftion therefore of the va¬
pours raifed from fuch tin&ures, cannot be afcribed
to the extrication of fixed air ; of which it is pro¬
bable bodies are deprived by chemical folution as well
as by mixture.
If mephitic air be thus capable of correcting pu¬
rulent matter in the lungs, we may reafonably infer it
will be equally ufeful when applied externally to foul
ulcers ; and experience confirms the conclufion. Even
the fanies of a cancer, when the carrot-poultice failed,
has been fweetened by it, the pain mitigated, and a
better digeftion produced. But though the progrefs
of the cancer feems to be checked by the fixed air,
it is to be feared that a cure will not be effedtei. A
palliative remedy, however, in a difeafe fo defperate
and loathfome, may be confidered as a very valuable
acquifition. Perhaps nitrous air might be flill more
efficacious. This fpecies of factitious air is obtained
from all the metals, except zinc, by means of the ni¬
trous acid ; as a fweetener and antifeptic, it far fur-
palfes fixed air.
In the ulcerous fore throaty much advantage has
been experienced from the vapours of effervefeing
mixtures drawn into the fauces. But this remedy
fhould not fuperfede the ufe of other antifeptic appli¬
cations.
In ma’ignant fevers, wines abounding with fixed
air may be adminiftered to check the feptic ferment,
and fweeten the putrid colluvies in the prima via. If
the laxative quality of fuch liquors be thought an
ebjeCUon to the ufe of them, wines of a greater
age may be given, impregnated with aerial acid 
The patient’s common drink might alfo be medi¬
cated in the fame way. A putrid diarrhoea fre¬
quently occurs in the latter ftage of fuch diforders;
and it is a moft alarming and dangerous fymptom.
If the difcharge be flopped by aftringents, a putrid
fames is retained in the body, which aggravates the
delirium, and increafes the fever. On the contrary,
if it be fuffered to take its courfe, the ftrength of the
patient muft foon be exhaufted, and death unavoid¬
ably enfue. The injedion of mephitic air into the
inteftines, under thefe circumftances, bids fair to be
iighly ferviceable. And in fame cafe* of this kind*
CINE. Appendix.
the gas emitted from a mixture of chalk and oil of Fixed Air.
vitriol conveyed into the body by the machine em- ™—v 11 "i
ployed for tobacco-clyfters, quickly reftrained the
diarrhoea, corrected the heat and fetor of the ftools,
and in a fhort time removed every fymptom of
danger.
As a folvent of the calculus, its virtues have been
already mentioned ; but the experiments made on that
fubjeCt do not determine the matter with fufficient ac¬
curacy.
Obfervations on the Means of Preferring Health.
!• Rules/orAfanuo-emen/o/" Valetudinarians.
That part of the medical fyftem which lays down
rules for the prefervation of health, and prevention of
diftafes, termed Hygeine, is not to be ftriCiiy underflood
as if it refpe&ed only thofe people who enjoy perfect
health, and who are under no apprehenfions of difeafe,
for fuch feldom either defire or attend to medical ad¬
vice; but ffiould rather be confidered as relating to va¬
letudinarians, or to fuch as, though not actually fick,
may yet have fufficient reafon to fear that they will
foon become fo: hence it is that the rules muft be ap¬
plied to correCt morbific difpofitions, and to obviate
the various things that were fliown to be the remote
or poffible caufes of difeafes.
From the way in which the feveral temperaments
are ufually mentioned by fyftematic writers, it- fliould
feem as if they meant that every particular conftitution
muft be referred to one’ or other of the four ; but this
is far from being reducible to praClice, fince by much
the greater number of people have conftitutions fo in-
diftinCtly marked, that it is hard to fay to which of
the temperaments they belong.
When we a dually meet with particular perfons win*
have evidently either,
1. Too much ftrength and rigidity of fibre, and too
much fenfibility ;
2. Too little ftrength, and yet too much fenfibi¬
lity ;
3. Too much ftrength, and but little fenfibility;
or,
4. But little fenfibility joined to weaknefs ;
we fliould look on fuch perfons as more or lefs in the
valetudinary ftate, who require that thefe morbific dif¬
pofitions be particularly watched, left they fall into
thofe difeafes which are allied to the different tempe¬
raments.
People of the firft-mentioned temperament being
liable to fuffer from continued fevers, efpecially of the
inflammatory fpecies, their fcheme of preferving health
fliould confxft in temperate living, with refpeCt both to
diet and exercife ; they fliould fludioufly avoid immo¬
derate drinking, and be remarkably cautious left any
of the natural difeharges be checked. People of this
habit bear evacuations well, efpecially bleeding : they
ought not, however, to lofe blood but when they really
require to have the quantity leffened ; becaufe too
much of this evacuation would be apt to reduce the
conflitution to the fecond-mcntioned temperament,
wherein ftrength is deficient, but fenfibility redundant.
Perfons of the fecond temperament are remarkably
prone to fuffer from painful and fpafmodic difeafes, and
are eafily ruffled j and thofe of the fofter fex who have
this-
Appendix, M EDI
Means of this delicacy of habit, are very much difpofed to hyfte-
r^ca^ comP^a*nts- The fcheme here ihould be, to
^ firengthen the folids by moderate exercife, cold bath¬
ing, the Peruvian bark, and chalybeate waters; particu¬
lar attention fhould conftantly be had to the ftate of the
tligeftive organs, to prevent them from being overloaded
with any fpecies of faburra which might engender fla¬
tus, or irritate the fenfible membranes of the itomach
and inteftines, from whence the diforder would foon
b.' communicated to the whole nervous fyftem. Per-
fons of this conftitution (hould never take any of the
draftic purges, nor ftrong emetics ; neither fhould they^
lofe blood but in cafes of urgent neceflity. But a
principal {hare of management, in thefe extremely ir¬
ritable conftitutions, confifts in avoiding all fudden
changes of every fort, efpecially thofe with refpect to
diet and clothing, and in keeping ^the mind as much
as pofiible in a ftate of tranquillity: hence the great
advantages which people of this frame derive from the
ufe of medicinal waters drunk on the fpot, becaufe of
that freedem from care and ferious bufinefs of every
kind, which generally obtains in all the places laid out
for the reception of valetudinarians.
The third-mentioned temperament, where there is
an excefs of ftrength and but little fenfibility, does not
feem remarkably prone to any diftrefling or dangerous
fpecies of difeafe ; and therefore it can hardly be fup-
pofed that perfons fo circumftanced will either of them-
felves think of any particular fcheme of management,
or have recourfe to the faculty for their inftruifions:
fuch conftitutions, however, we may obferve, bear
all kinds of evacuations well, and fometimes require
them to prevent an over-fulnefs, which might end in
an oppreffion of the brain or fame other organ of
importance.
But the fourth temperament, where we have weak-
refs joined to want of fenfibility, is exceedingly apt to
fall into tedious and dangerous difeafes, arifing from a
defeft of abforhent power in the proper fets of vefiels,
and from remiflhefs of the circulation in general:
whence corpulency, dropfy, jaundice, and different
degrees of fcorbutic affe&ion. In order to prevent
thefe, or any other fpecies of accumulation and depra¬
vation of the animal fluids, the people of this confti¬
tution fhould ufe a generous courfe of diet, with briflt
exercife, and be careful that none of the fecretions be
interrupted, nor any of the natural difeharges fup-
prefled. Thefe conftitutions bear purging well, and of¬
ten require it ; as alfo the ufe of emetics, which are
frequently found neceflary to fupply the place of ex-
treife, by agitating the abdominal vifeera, and are of
fervice to prevent the ftagnation of bile, or the accu¬
mulation of mucous humours, which hinder digeftion,
and clog the firft paflages. The free ufe of muftard,
horfe-radifh, and the like fort of ftimulating dietetics,
is ferviceable in thefe torpid habits
Wlien the general mafs of fluids is accumulated be¬
yond what is conducive to the perfection of health,
there arifes what the writers term a plethora^ which may
prove the fouree of different difeafes; and therefore,
when this overfulnefs begins to produce languor and
opprePon, care fhould be taken in time to reduce the
\ body '■ a proper ftandard, by abridging the food and
inct r i ng the natural difeharges, ufing more exercife,
surd indulging lefs in fleep.
GIN E.;
But in oppofite circumflanccs, where the fluids have Means of
been exhaufted, we are to attempt the prevention of ^r^ear^rt®
further warte by the ufe of ttrengthening ftomachics, ‘ ,
nourifhing diet, and indulgence from fatigue of body ‘
or mind.
Vitiated fluids are to be confidered as affeCted either
with the different kinds of general acrimony, or as be^
traying figns of fome of the fpecies of morbific matter
which give rife to particular difeafes, fuch as gout,
rheumatifm, calculus, feurvy, &c.
During the ftate of infancy, we may fometimes ob¬
ferve a remarkable acidity, which not only {hows itfelf
in the firft paflages, but alfo feems to contaminate the
general mafs of fluids. As it takes its rife, however,
from weak bowels, our views, when we mean to pre¬
vent the ill confequences, muft be chiefly dire&ed to
ftrengthen the digeftive organs, as on their foundnefa
the preparation of good chyle depends ; and hence
fmall dofes of rhubarb and chalybeates (either the na¬
tural chalybeate waters mixed with milk, or the Jlores
martiales in dofes of a few grains, according to the age
of the child), are to be adminiftered; and the diet
is to be fo regulated as not to add to this acid
tendency : brifk exercife is likewife to be enjoined,
with fri&ions on’the ftomach, belly, and lower ex¬
tremities.
Where the fluids tend to the putrefeent ftate,
which fhows itfelf by fetid breath, fponginefs, and
bleeding of the gums, a bloated look and livid caft,
the diet then fhould be chiefly of frefh vegetables and
ripe fruits, with >’ ine in moderation, brifk exercife,
and ftrengthening bitters.
Where acrimony fliows itfelf by itching eruptions,
uncommon thirft, and flufhing heats, nothing will an-
fwer better than fuch fulphureous waters as the Har-
rowgate and Moffat in Britain, or the Lucan and Swad-
linbar in Ireland ; at the fame time ufing a courfe of
diet that fhall be neither acrid nor heating.
So far with refpeft to thofe kinds of morbific mat¬
ter which do not invariably produce a particular fpe¬
cies of difeafe: but there are others of a fpecific nature,
fome of which are generated in the body fpontaneouf-
ly, and feem to arife from errors hi diet, or other cir-
cumftances of ill management with refpedl to the ani¬
mal economy ; and hence it is fometimes poflible, in
foaie degree if not altogether, to prevent the ill con¬
fequences. Thus, there are inftances where returns of
the gout have been prevented by adhering ftridtly to a
milk diet.
The rheumatifm has alfo been fometimes warded off
by wearing a flannel fhirt, or by ufing the cold bath
without interruption.
Calculus may be retarded in its progrefs, and pre¬
vented from creating much diftrefs, by the internal ufe
of foap and lime-water, by foap-lees taken in milk or
in veal-brotb, or by the ufe of aerated alkaline wa¬
ter, which may perhaps be confidered as being both
more fafe and more efficacious, and at the fame time
more pleafant, than any of the other pradices,
The feurvy may be prevented by warm clothing
and perfeverance in brifk exercife, by drinking wine
or cyder, and eating freely of fuch vegetable fub-
ftances as can be had in thole fituations where this
difeafe is moft apt to {how itfelf.
la eonftitutions where there is an hereditary difpo-
Y y 2 frtioB
356 M E D X
Means of fition to the fcrofula, if early precautions be taken to
yrefeiving ftrengthen the folids by cold bathing, a nourifhing
. Health, courfe Gf d;et, and moderate ufe of wine, the acri-
"1 tnony which gives rife to the difeafe will probably
be prevented from producing any very bad effefts. *
The other kinds of morbific matter, which are of
the fpecifit: nature, are received into the body by in*
feftion or contagion..
The infection of a putrid fever or dyfentery is bell
prevented by immediately taking an emetic on the firll
attack of the ficknefs or Ihivering ; and if that do not
completely anfwer, let a . large blifter be applied be¬
tween the {lioalders : by this method the nurfes and
other attendants on the lick in'the naval hofpitals have
often been pi-eferved. As to other infectious morbific
matter, we mull refer to what has already been faid
when treating of hydrophobia, poifons, &c.
The ill effcCts.which may arife from the different
fpecies of faburra, are to be obviated, in general,
by the prudent adminiftration of emetics, and care¬
fully abitaining from fueh kinds of food as are known-
to caufe the accumulation of noxious matters in the
firll paffages;
Crude vegetables, milk, butter, and other oily fub-
flances, are to be avoided by perfons troubled with a
ieurnefs in the ftomach ; brilk exercife, efpeeially ri¬
ding, is to be ufed, and they are to refrain from fer¬
mented liquors; the common drink Ihould be pure wa¬
ter ; or water with a very little of fome ardent fpirit,
fuch as rum or brandy. Seltzer and Vahls water are to
be drunk medicinally ; and aromatic bitters, infufions,
or tinftures, with the acid elixir of vitriol, from 10 to
so drops, will be found ferviceable, in order to
llrengthen the fibres of the ftomach, and promote the-
expulfion of its contents, thereby preventing the too
hafty fermentation of the alimentary mixture. In or-,
der to procure immediate relief, magnefia alba, or
creta prteparata, will feldom fail; the magnefia, as well
as the chalk, may be made into lozenges, with a little
fugar and mucilage ;. and in that form may be carried
about and taken occafionally by people affiidled with
the acid faburra.
In conftitutions where there is an exuberance or flag-
nation of bile, and a troublefome bitternefa in the
mouth, it is neceffary to keep the bowels always free,
by taking occafionally fmall dofes of pure aloes, oleum
ricini, cream-of tartar, fome of the common purging
falts, or the natural purging waters.
When there is a tendency to the empyreumatic and
rancid faburra, people fhould carefully avoid all the va¬
rious kinds of thofe- oily and high-feafoned things ge¬
nerally termed made-di/hes, and eat fparingly of plain
meat, without rich fauces or much gravy ; and in thefe
cafes the moft proper drink, is pure water.
II. Rules for thnfe who enjoy perfeft Health.
There can be no doubt, that, in general, tempe¬
rance is the true foundation of health; and yet the
ancient phyficians, as we may fee in the rules laid
down by Celftts, did not fcruple to recommend in¬
dulgence now and then, and allowed people to ex¬
ceed both in eating and drinking: but it is fafer to
proceed to excefs in drink than in meat; and if the
debauch fhould create arty extraordinary or diftreffing
degree of pain or ficknefs, and a temporary fever
CINE. Appendix,..
fhould enfue, there are two ways of fhaking it off, Means of
either to lie in bed and encourage perfpiration, or to preserving-
get on horfe-back and by brifk exercife reftore the ^tealth‘ ,
body to its natural ftate. The choice of thefe two. ^ -
methods mull always, be determined by the peculiar
circumftances of the parties concerned, and from the;
experience which they may before have had which.-
agrees bell, with them.
If a perfon fhould commit exetfs in eating, efpe--
cially of high-feafoned things, with rich fauces, ;i
draught of cold water, acidulated with vitriolic acid,,
will take off the fenfe of weight at the llomach,.
and afliit digeftion, by moderating and keeping with--
in bounds the alimentary/ermentation, and thus pre¬
venting the generation of too much flatus. The lux¬
ury of ices may be here of real fervice at the tables of .
the great, as producing limilar effects with the cold,
water acidulated. Perfons in thefe circumftances ought,
not to lay themfelves down to fleep, but fhould keep _
up and exercife until they are fenfible that the ftomach
is unloaded, and that they no longer feel any oppreffive -
weight about the prsecordia.
If a man be obliged to fail, he ought, if poffible,
during that time, to avoid laborious work: after,
fuffering. fevere hunger, people ought not at once to
gorge and fill themfelves; nor is it proper, after being
overfilled, to enjoin an abfolute fall; neither is it fate
to reft totally immediately after exceflive labour, nor
fuddenly. fall hard to , work after having been long,
without motion: in a word, all changes fhould be.
made by .gentle degrees ; for though the.conftitutioa
of the human body be fuch,that it can bear many,
alterations and irregularities without much danger,
yet, when the tranlitions are extremely fudden, they
cannot fail of producing fome kind or degree of dii-
order.
It is alfo the advice of Celfus to vary the feenes of.
life, and not confine ourfelves to any fettled rules ;
but as inadtion renders the body weak and liftlefs, and.
exercife gives vigour and ftrength, people fhould ne¬
ver long omit riding, walking, or going abroad in a
carriage ; fencing, playing at tennis, dancing, or other
fimilar engagements, which afford both exercife and
amufement, as each fhall be found moft agreeable
or convenient, are to be ufed in their turns, ac¬
cording to the circumftances and tendency to any.
particular fpecies of difeafe. But when the weak-,
nefs of old age fhall have rendered the body inca¬
pable of all thefe, then dry frictions with the fiefti-
brufir will, be , extremely requifite to preferve health,-
by accelerating the flow of humours through the
fmalleft orders of veffels, and preventing the fluids
from ftagnating too long in the cellular interftices of
the flefhy parts-
Sleep is the great reftorer of ftrength ; for, during
this time, the nutritious particles appear to be chiefly-
applied to repair the wafle,,and replace thofe that
have been abraded and wafhed off by the labour and
exercile of the day ; but too much indulgence in fieep
has many inconveniencies,. both with refpeft to body
and mind, as it blunts the fenfes, and encourages the
fluids to ftagnate in the cellular membrane; whence
corpulency, and its neceilary confequences languor and
weak nefs.
The proper time for fleep is the night feafon, whe®
2 darknefs,
appendix. MEDICINE. 357
Means of darknefs and filence naturally bring it' on : therefore W;|»i regard to the general regimen of ditt, it has Means of
preferving day-fleep in general is not fo refrefhing ; and to fome always been held as a rule, that the fofter and milder '
. people is really diftrefsful, as creating an unufual gid- kinds of aliment are moft proper for children and ' f
dinefs and languor, efpecially in perfons addifted to younger fubje&s; that grown perfons Ihould eat ^
literary purfuits. Cuftom, however, frequently ren- what is more fubftantial; and old people leflen their
* ders fleep in the day neceflary ; and in thofe conftitu- quantity of, folid food, and increafc that of their
tions where it is found to give real refreftiment, it ought drink,
to be indulged.
I N D E X.
JjBORTJJS, n° 247:
Abfcefs of the lungs, l 86.
Acute Kheumatifm, 205.
Acrimony of the blood, XOj.
Adynamia, 271.
Adipfta, 376.
jEgyptian Phyficians, 2.
Mfculapius, 4.
ALtius, 43.
Ageujlia, 366.
Alexander, 44.
Amentia, 326.
Amaurofu, 360-
Amenorrhcea, 402.
Amphimerina cardiaca, 151.
Amphimerina paludofa, 152.
Anafarea, 339.
Anajlhejia, 367.
Anaphrodifia, 377.
Angina peSoris, 403;
Animal fat, 72.
Anorexia, 37c.
Anofmia, 365.
Anxiety, 76.
Aphtha, 233.
Aphonia, 379.
Appcenofes, 385.
Apoplexia, 255.
Apoplexy, fanguineous, 256.-
Serous, 257. Hydrocepha^
lie, 25 SJ From atrabilis,
259.. From external vio¬
lence, 260. From poifons, ,
261.. Fronr paffions of the
mind, 262. From catalepfis,
* 263. From fuffocation, 264.
Appearance of the venereal difr
cafe, 53.
Appendix, 403.
Arabians, 46.
Arthrodynia, 209.
Arthropu fu, 216.
A/cites, 343.
Afclepiades, 3^
AJlhma, 291.
Atonic gout, 213.
Atrophia, 333.-
B.
Baflardple'urify, 208.
JBleedlhg at the nofe, 233.
Bloody flux, 254.
the
Branls, n° 182.
Buff-coloured cruft
blood, 99.
Bulimia, 369.
Burning fever, 140.
c.
Cachexia, 330.'
Caligo, 259-
Canine appetite, 369.
Canine madnefs, 322.
Cardiac fyncope, 273 *
Carditis, 188.
Catalepfts, *63.
CataraB, 359.
Catarrhus, 251.
Catarrh, from cold, 252. From
contagion, 253.
Caufes of affections of the fo-
lids, 70.
Caufus, 140.
Celfus, 40.
Cellular texture, 71.
Cephalalgia, 40‘5’.
Chemical analyfis of the animal
folid, 68.
Chicken pox, 226.
Child-bed fever, 404.
Children, difeafes of, 410.
Chincougb, 299.
Chlorofis, 277.
Cholera, 114.
Cholera, 308. Spontaneous,
309. Accidental, 3 (o.
Chorea, 284.
Chronic rheumatifm, 209.
Circulation, 95.
Coeliac paffton, 315.
College of Salernum, 48.
Colica, 301. PiCtonum, 303,
Stercoria, 304. Meeonialis.
305. Cailofa, 396. Calcu-
lefa, 307.'
Confirmed phthifis, 239.
Continued fevers, 164.
ContraElura, 384.
Confiantine, 49-
Confumption, pulmonary, 237.
Convulfio, 283.
Convufive tertian, 133.
Corpulency, 335.
Cojlivenefs, Ic8, 393..
Cough, n° 105.
Croup, 180;
Cynanche, 177. Tbnfillaris,
178. Maligna, 179. Tra-
chealis, 180. Pharyngea,
18 f. Parotidea, 182.
Cyflitis, 201. From internal
caufes, 202. From external
caufes, 203.
D.
Beafnefs, 363.
Debility, 91.
Delirium, 84;
Diabetes, 3 i,8v With fweet u*
rine, 319. With infipid u-
rine,;320.
Diarrhoea, 311. Feculent, 312.
Bilious, 313. Mucous, 314.
Diffioulty of difeharging urine,
.399-
Digefiion, 107. Depraved, 275.
Difcovery of the circulation,
55-
Difeafes from accident, 65.
From paffions of the mind,
66. From age and fex, 63.
From climate, 64. In the
mufcular power, 87.
Difiinction of difeafes, 37.:
Divifeon of the functions, 56.
Double quartan, 156.
Double tertian, 128. •
Bropfy, 339. Of the brain,
238. Of the breaft, 342.
Of the abdomen-, 343.* Of-
the . uterus, 344. Of the-
ferotum, 3 13.
Dumbnefs, 380.
Duplicated quartan, 154. '
Duplicated tertian, ■ 129. ■
Dyfajlhefia, 358.
Dyfcinefite, 378.
Dyfeccea, 363.
Dyfenteria, 254.
Dyfentery, no.-
Dyfopid, 361.
iDyforeCue, 368.
Byfpepfia, 275.
Dyfpermatifmus, 401.
Dyjpncea, 292. Catarrhal, 293.
Dry, 294; From changes of
weather, 293. From earthy
fubftances, 296. Watery*
297. From corpulency*
298.
Dyfuria, 118, 399. Calcu*
lofa, 400.
E.
Elephantiafes, 352.
Emphyfema, 336.
Empirics. 33.
Empyema, 187.
Enteritis, 195. Phlegmonodjea<, -
196. Eryfipelatofa, 197.'
Enurefis, 390.
Ephidrofis, 387.
Epilspfia, 286. Cerebalis, 287.
Sympathica, 288. Occ^-
fionalis, 289.
Epiphora, 388.
Epifchefes, 392.
Epifiaxis, 235.
Erififiratus, 31.
Eruptive tertian, 134.
Erythema, X 74.
Eryfipelas, 218. With blifters*-
219. With phlyCtenas, 220.
Exanthemata; 217.
Excejfive perfpiration, 116.
ExceJJive thirfi, 370.
Exciting caufe of difeafes, 6c*-
F.
Falfe appetite, 371.
Fainting, 272.
Febres, 125 , -
Feeling, 74. -
Feeling, depraved, 367.
Fever, continued, 164. Remi;>
tent, 138. Intermittent, 126=,
Scarlet, 230. Child-bed,.
4°4‘ .
Fixed air, 412.
Flooding, 243.
Fluor albus, 250.
Frambcefia, 354.
Fdror uterinus, 373.
G.
Galen, 41.
Gafiritis, 192. Phlegmonodaeffif
193. Eryfipelatofa, 194.
General arrangement of dif¬
eafes, 123.
Goner*--
358
Gonorrhea, n® j}!*
Gout, 21 r
Greeh phyficians, 3.
Green iicknefs, 277*
Gutta ferena, 3 60.
H.
Hitmoptyfis, 236.
Htcmorrhagle, 234*
H&morrhois ■ 240.
Jtheadach, 405, and p. 352.
Hearing, 80. Depraved, 364.
Heart-burnt 300.
He8ic fever, I'jo.
Hemiplegia, 267.
Hepatitis, 198.
Hepatic fax, 317.
Hereditary difeafes, 62.
Herophilus, 32.
Hippocrates, 5. His writings, 6.
His idea of nature, 7. Of
the caufesof difeafe, 8. His
divifion of difeafes, 9. His
opinion of a criiis, 10. His
accuracy in prognofis, 11.
His maxims for the prefer-
vation of health, 12. His
maxims refpe&ing the cure
of difeafe, 13. Diet, 14.
Bathing, 17. Exercife, 18,
Purgation, 19 Bloodlet¬
ting, 20. Diuretics, 21.
Specifics, 22. External ap¬
plications, 23. Fomenta¬
tions, 24. Fumigation, 2j.
Gargles, 26. Ointments,
27. Cataplafms, 28. Colly-
ria, 29.
Hooping-cough, 299.
Hydrocele, 345.
Hydrocephalus, 340.
Hydrocephalic apoplexy, 258,
Hydrometra, 344.
Hydrophobia, 322. Rabiofa,
323. Spontanea, 324.
Hydrorachitis, 341.
Hydrothorax, 342.
Hypochondriacs, 276.
Hyjhria, 3:1.
Hyfteritis, 204.
I.
1 Bents, 356.
Idiotifm, 8$, 326.
Iliac pajfion, 11 3.
Impetigines, 348.
Incipient phlhifis, 238.
Incontinence of urine, 120.
Incubus, 329.
Irflammation of the bladder,
201. Of the brain, 176.
Of the heart, 188 Of the
inteftines, 195. Of the kid¬
ney, 200. Of the liver, 198.
Of the lungs, 183. Of the
mefentery, 191. Of the o-
mentum, 190. Of the peri-
I N D
toneum, 189. Of thefpleen,
199- Of the ftomach, 192.
Of the uterus, 204.
Inflammatory tertian, 137.—
Quinfy, 178.
Inoculation, 225.
Intermittentes, 127.
Intumefcentice, 334.
Irregular tertian, 1 27.
Ifchuria, 394. Renalis, 395.
Ureterica, 396. Veficalis,
397. Urethralis, 398.
Itching, 77.
Jaundice, 356.
Jewifh phyjicians, r.
King's evil, 349.
Lepra, 3:3.
Leucorrhcea, 2^0,
Lientery, 316.
Locales, 357.
Lochial difeharge immoderate,
248.
Locked janu, 280.
Loofenefs, 109.
Lofs of voice, 379.
Lues venerea, 370.
Lumbago, Z06.
M.
Madnefs, melancholy, 327,—
furious, 328.
Malignant fore throat, 179.
Mania, 328.
Marcorts, 331.
Meajles, 227.
Medical cleBricily, 411,
Melancholy and mania, 87.
Melancholia, 327.
Melane, 409.
Memory, 83.
Menorrhagia, 243, Vitiorum,
249.
Menfes, immoderate flow of,
246.
Methodical feB, 36.
Miliaria, 229.
Mifplaced gout, 215.
Mobility, 88.
Moderns, 54.
Morbid thinnefs of the blood,
101. Thicknefs of the
blood, 102.
Mumps, 182.
Mutilas, 380.
N.
Haufea, 112.
Nephritis, 200.
Nettle rajh, 231.
Nervous confumption, 333.
Nervous Fever, 166.
Night-mare, 329.
Nirles, 228.
Nojlalgia, 374.
Nymphomania, 373=
E X.
Objiipatio, n° 393.
ObJlruBed perforation, 1! 5.
Occafional fyncope, 274.
Odontalgia, 210
Oefophagus, dangerous affe&ion
of, 406.
Oneirodynia, 329.
Opthalmia, 175.
Oribaftus, 42.
Origin of difeafes, 62.
P.
Pain, 73.
Palpitatio, 290.
Palpitation, 97.
Palfy, 92, 263. — From poi-
fons, 269.
Paracelfus, 32.
Paracufis, 364.
Par aphonia, 381.
Paralyfis, 263.
Paraplegia, 268.
Partial palfy, 2 66.
Paulus, 43.
Pemphigus, 232.
Peritonitis, 189.
Peripneumonia, 184.
Pertuffis, 299.
Pejlis, 221.
Phlegmafue, 171.
Phlegmone, 1 73.
Phlogojis, 172.
Phrenitis, 176.
Phthfis, 237.
Phyfconia, 346.
Phyfometra, 338.
Pica, 371.
Piles, 240. External,241. From
a procidentia ani, 5542. Run¬
ning, 243. Blind, 244.
Plague, 221.
Plethora, 100.
Plica polonies, 3 33.
Pleuritic, 183.
Pneumatofis, 336.
Pneumonia, 183.
Pdagra, 2 ■ 1.
Poifons, 408.
Poly far da, 333.
Polydipfic, 370.
Praxagoras, 30.
Predifponcnt caufe, 39.
Profufto, 386.
Proximate caufe, 61.
Pfellfnms, 382.
Pfeudobiejjis, 362.
Ptyalifmui, 389,
Puerperal fever, 404.
Pulmonary confumption, 237.
Pul fad on of the arteries, 96.
Putrid fever. <67.
Putrid fore-threat, 179.
Pyrexid, I 24.
Ryrofss, 300.
Qualifies cf the animal folids, n*
69
Quartana, 133.
Quartan with ly mptomsof other
difeafes, 138. Complicated
with other dtfeafes, 179.
Quotidian genuine, 161. Par-
tial, 162. Remitting, 163,
Quotidiana deceptiva, 130.
R.
Rachitis, 347.
Raphania, 283.
Regular gout, 212.
Remittent tertian, 138.
Remitting quartan, 160.
Rfpiradon, 104.
Retrocedent gout, 214.
Rheumadfmus, 203.
Rheumatifm in the loins, 20&,
In the hip-joint, 207. In
the thorax, 208*
Rhafes, 47.
Rickets, 347.
Rubeola, 227.
Rules for preferving health, 414.
Valetudinarians, 413.
S.
St Anthony's fre, 2 18.
St Vitus's dance, 284.
Sanguineous apoplexy, 236.
Salivation, 389.
Satyriafis, 372.
Scarlatina, 230.
Sciatica, 207.
Scirrhus, 122.
Scorbutus, 351.
Scurvy, 351.
Scrofula, 349.
Sea fcurvy, 331.
Semen, difficult emifiion of, 4©!,
Semi-tertian, 131.
Serapion, 34.
Serous apoplexy, 237.
Sight, 81.
Sleep, 94.
Sleepy tertian, 132.
Small-pox, 222. Diftimff, 223.
Confluent, 224. Inoculated,
223.
Smell, 79.
Smelling, depraved, 363.
Sneesdng, ;c6.
Soranus, 39.
Spafm, 93.
Spafmi, 278.
Spajmodic colic, 302. TertiaSj,
*33- .
Spina inf da, 341.
Spitting »f blood, 236.
Splenitis, 199.
Spurious tertian, 1 27.
Stone in the bladder, 409.
Strabijmus, 383.
Strangury, 119.
359
Stale of medicine in the 15th
and 16th centuries, 50. In
the I 'th and 18th centuries,
n° 54.
Sup] ■ ejjim of menfes, 402. Of
urine, 117,394.
SweatingJichnefs, : T.
Symptoms of difeafe, 58.
Syncope, 272.
Synocha, 1 64.
Synochus, 169.
Syphilis, 350. ^
Tabes, 332.
Tafte, 78.
Tajling, depraved, $66.
Tenefmus, in.
Tertian complicated with other
T N D
difovders, 136. Varied from
its origin, 137.
Terfiana, 126. Sub continua,
>49»
Tetanus, 279.
Themifcn, 37.
Thejfalus,^.
Thrujh, 233.
Toothach, 210.
Torpor, 90.
Tremor, 270.
Trichoma, 355'.
Triple quartan, 157.
Triplicated quartan, 155.
Triple tertian, 130.
Trif nuts, 280. Of new born
infants, 281. From wounds,
ib.
E X.
TrytanphyaAmericanc, 14$. A-
podes, 144. Carotica, 145.
Deceptiva, 147. Elodes, 143.
Leipyria, 146. Syncopalis,
139 Typhodesj 142. Vra-
tiflavieniis, 141.
Tympanites, 337.
Typhus,165. Mitior, 166. Gra-
vior, 167. Cum flavedine cu¬
tis, 168.
U.
Urinary calculi, I 2 I.
Urticaria, 231.
' V.
Varicella, 226.
Variola, 222.
Variolades, 228.
Venereal difeafe, 35°‘
Vertigo, n’ 82.
Vefanice, 325.
Vigour, 89.
Vis medicatrix naturae, 67.
Vifion depraved, 361.
Vital finds, 73.
Vomica, 186.
W.
Want of appetite, 375. Of
thirft, 376.
Wajiing of the body, 332.
Water brafh, 300.
Water in the head, 340.
Whites, 250.
Worms, 407.
Y.
Taws, 354.
Yellow fever, 268.
MED
MEDICINES, whatever fubftances ferve to reftore
health —Medicines are either fimple or compound; the
former being prepared by nature alone ; and the latter
owing to the induftry of man, by varioufly mixing the
fimple together. See Pharmacy
Medicines are likewife diftinguifhed from the man¬
ner of ufing them, into external and internal; and with
regard to their effe&s, they are faid to be emetic, ca¬
thartic, aflringent, &c. See Materia Medica.
Pocket Medicises, in furgery, thofe which a fur-
geon ought always to carry about with him, in a box
or convenient cafe.
Thofe, according to Heifter, are the common di-
geftive ointment, and fome detergent ointment, for
cleanfing and digrlling foul ulcers ; to which mull
alfo he added a plafter or two fitted for defence
or adhefion, fince one or other of thefe is almoll
conllantly wanted. Neither Ihould there be want¬
ing a piece of blue vitriol for the taking down
luxuriant flelh, and to flop hemorrhagies: but if
vitriol is wanting, burnt alum, red precipitate, the
infernal ftone, or any other corrofive medicine, will
fupply its place in corrofive intentions ; and the laft
will alfo ferve to open abfcefles, to make ilfues, and
perform many other operations of that kind.
With thefe there Ihould always be kept in readinefs
alfo a quantity of fcraped lint, that the furgeon may
be able to give immediate affillance to wounded per-
fons ; fince, if he is unprepared for this, they may ea-
fily be taken off by an hemorrhagy; a circvimftance
which ought alfo to prevail with him to be always
provided with fuitable bandages.
MEDICIS (Cofmo de), called the Elder, fort of John
deMedicis, was born at Florence Sept.1389. Altho’in
a private ftation, he appeared with the fplendor of the
mod powerful fovereign ; and his fortune, accumula¬
ted by fuccefsful commerce, was furpafled by the re¬
venue of few princes. He was partial to the fciences,
and liberal to men of genius. His library confifted of
a vaft number of books of his own cdlledling, and he
enriched it with many fcarce and valuable manufcripts.
Sanilhed from his native country by the envy which
MED
his riches infpired, he went to Venice, where he was Meiidu
received with the honours due to a fovereign prince. V'”"
His countrymen foon perceived their error, and re¬
called him from banilhment. For 34 years he was
fupreme judge of the republic; and his advice was fo¬
lic ited by the greater part of the cities and fovereign-
ties of Italy. This great man died Auguft 1464, in
the 75th year of his age, full of happinefs and glory.
On his tombflone he is ftyled, “ Father of the people,
and deliverer of his country.”
Medicis (Laurence de), ftyled the Great and the
Father of learning, was born A. D. 1448. He was
the fon of Peter, the grandfon of Cofmo, and the
brother of Julian de Medicis. Thefe two brothers,
who were in poffeffion of abfolute power at Florence,
excited the jealoufy oT Ferdinand of Naples and Pope
Sixtus IV. The firft hated them, becaufe they had
ruined his influence in Florence; and the fecond, be¬
caufe they oppofed the advancement of his nephew,
it was at their inftigation that the Pazzi confpired
again ft them. Julian was murdered while he heard
mafs April 26th 1478; and Laurence, who was only
wounded, was carried back to his houfe in the midlt
of the (bouts and acclamations of the people. Heir tO‘
the greater part of his grandfather’s virtues, he was,
like him, the Maecenas of his age. It was equally a-
ftonifhing (fays an hiftorian of that country) and fo¬
reign to our manners, to fee the fame man engaged in
commerce, and fupporting the burden of the public
affairs; converfing with faftors, and receiving anibaf-
fadors ; giving (hows to the people ; affording an afy-
lum to the unfortunate; and adorning his country with
many magnificent buildings. He was fo much be¬
loved by the Florentines, that they appointed him chief
magiftrate of the republic. By his unbounded libe¬
rality, he drew to his court a great number of learned
men. He fent John Lafcaris into Greece to recover
manufcripts, with which he enriched his library . He
cultivated, learning himfelf, and was the author of the
following works: i.Det Poeftes Italier.nes, Venice, 1554,
!2mo. 2. Cansconne d hallo, 1568, 410. 3. La Com-
pagnia del Mantellaccio Beoni, with the fonnets of
4 Burcbiellc3.
MED I 360 ] M E D
-Metlicis. fiurchistlof 155$ or 1568, 8vo. Laurence, de Medicis
i,.. " - y—'■ was j-0 un;verfally admired, that the princes of Europe
did him the honour to appeal their differences to his
- decifion. It is even reported, that Bajazet emperor
-of the Turks, to fhow him a mark of efteem and re¬
gard, caufed fearch for the murderers of his brother
Julian in Conftantinople, and fent back one of them
who had concealed himfelf in that city. Pope Six
tus IV. was the laft of his enemies; but he oppofed
him with fo much ability, that he brought him to
terms of accommodation. This illuftrious man died
April 9th 1492, aged 44. His reputation was fullied
. by his paffion for women and by his infidelity. Hrs
two fons, Peter who fucceeded him aad who was ex¬
pelled from Florence in 1494, and John who went
by the name of Pope Leo X. were like their father
remarkable for their generofity and their leve of learn¬
ing. Peter died in 1594, leaving Laurence, the laft
male iffue of this branch. Laurence was the father of
Catharine de Medicis, who married Henry II. king of
France.
Medicis (John de), on account of his bravery and
‘ knowledge in military affairs was fumamed the Invin¬
cible. He was the fon of John, otherwife called Jour-
dain, de Medicis. His only fon Cofmo I. ftyled the
■ Great, was chofen duke of Florence after the murder
•of Alexander de Medicis, A. D. 1537. He firfl car¬
ried arms under Laurence de Medicis againft the duke
of Urbino, afterwards under Pope Leo X. Upon the
death of Leo, he entered into the fervice of Francis I.
.whichhe quitted to follow the fortunesof Francis Sforza
duke of Milan. When Francis I. formed an alliance
with the pope and the Venetians againft the emperor,
die returned to his fervice. He was wounded in the
rknee at Governola, a fmall town in the Mantuan ter¬
ritory, by a mufket-ball; and being carried to Mantua,
he died the 29th of November 1526, aged 28. Bran-
tome relates, that when his le^f was to be cut off, and
when he was informed that he needed fome perfon to
Jupport him, “ Proceed without fear (faid he), I need
nobody!" and he held the candle himfelf during the
operation. This anecdote is alfo mentioned by Varchi.
John de Medicis was above the middle ftature, ftrong,
and nervous. His foldiers, to exprefs their affection for
him and their; concern forhislofs, affumed a mourning
idrefs and ftandards, which gave the name of the black
land to the Tufcan troops whom he commanded.
Medicis, (Laurence, or Laurencin de), was de-
.fcended from a brother of Cofmo the Great,, and af-
fedted the name of popular. In xys1/* he killed
Alexander de Medicis, whom Charles V. had made
duke of Florence, and who was believed to be the
natural fon of Laurence de Medicis duke of Urbino.
He was jealous of Alexander’s power, and difguifed
.this jealoufy under the fpecious pretext of love to his
country. He loved men of learning, and cultivated
literature. His works are, 1. Azme/z/i, Modena, 12 mo.
2. Acidofio Commedia, Florence 1595, 12 mo. He
• died without iffue.
Medicis, (Hypolitus de), natural fon of Julian de
Medicis and a lady of Urbiqo, was early remarkable
.for the brilliancy of his wit and the graces of his per-
fon. Pope1 Clement VII. his coufin, made him car¬
dinal in 1529, and foil him as legate, into Germany
299.
to the court of Charles V. When that • prince went KTedids.
into Italy, Medicis, yielding to his warlike difpofition,  
appeared in the drefs of an officer, and advanced be¬
fore the emperor, followed by feveral refpecftable gen¬
tlemen « f the court. Charles, naturally fufpicious, and
afraid that the legate intended to do him fome ill
offices with the pope, fent after him and caufed him
to be apprehended. But when he underftood that it
was a mere fally -of humour in the young cardinal, he
fet him at liberty in a few days. The charafter which
Medicis obtained by the happy fuccefs of this ap¬
pointment, was of effential fervice to him. He was
confidered as one of the fupports of the Holy See ;
and a little before Clement’s death, when the corfair
Barbaroffa made a defcent ihto Italy to the great
terror of Rome, which was only defended by 200
of the pope’s guards, Medicis was difpatched to pro-
tedft the coafts from the fury of the barbarians. On
his arrival at the place of deftination, he was fortunatfe
enough to hnd that Barbaroffa had withdrawn him¬
felf at that critical moment; which allowed him to
claim the honour of the retreat without expofing his
perfon or his army. When he returned to Rome, he
was of great fervice in the eleftion of Paul III. who
neverthelefs refufed to make him legate to Ancona,
though that office had been promifed to him in the
conclave. Enraged aHb that the pope had beftowed
•the principality of Florence on Alexander de Medicis,
fuppofed to be the natural fon of Laurence duke of
Urbino, he was prompted by his ambition to believe
that he might fucceed to that dignity by the deftruo-
tion of Alexander. He entered into a confpiracy
againft him, and determined to carry him off by a
mine ; but the plot was difcovered before he had ac-
compliffied his pufpofe. Oflavian Zanga, one of
his guards, was arrefted as his chief accomplice. Hy¬
politus de Medicis, apprehenfive for his own fafety,
retired to a caftle near Trivoli. On his road to
Naples, he fell fick at Itri in the territory of Fon-
di, and died Auguft 13th I535,.in his 24th year,
not without fufpicion of being poifoned. His Koufe
was an afylum for the unfortunate, and frequently for
thofe who were guilty of the blackeft crimes. It was
open to men of all nations; and he was frequently ad-
dreffed in 20 different languages. He had a natural
fon named Afdrubal de Medicis, who was a knight of
Malta. This anecdote proves that his manners were
more military than eccleliaftic. • He wore a fword,
and never put on the habit of cardinal except on oc-
cafions of public ceremony. He was wholly devoted
to the theatre, hunting, and poetry.
Medicis., (Alexander de), firft duke of Florence
in 1530, was natural fon of Laurence de Medicis fur-
named the Tounger, and nephew of pope Clement VII.
He owed his elevation to the intrigues of his uncle
and to the arms of Charles V. This prince having
made himfelf mafter of Florence after an obftinate
iiege, conferred the fovereignty of this city on Alex¬
ander, and afterwards-gave him in marriage Margaret
of Auftria his natural daughter. According to the
terms of capitulation granted to the Florentines, the
new duke was to be only hereditary doge, and his
authority was tempered by councils ; which left
them at leaft a ffiadow of their ancient liberty. But
, Alexander,
MED [ 361 ] MED
Alexander, who felt himfelf fupported by the empe¬
ror and th£ pope, was no fooner in poffefiion of his
new dignity, than he began to govern like a tyrant;
being guided by no law but his own caprice, indul¬
ging the moft brutal pafiions, and making light of dif-
htjnouring families, and of violating even the afylum
of the cloifters to gratify his lull. Among the confi¬
dants of his debauchery was a relation of his own,
.Laurence de Medicis. This young man, who was
only 22 years of age, at the inftigation of Philip
Strozzi, a zealous republican, conceived the defign of
afiaffinating Alexander, and thereby of delivering his
country from oppreffion. From the moment when
be firft became attached to him, he tried to gain his
confidence, for no other reafon but that he might the
better have it in his power to take away his life. A
eonfiderable time elapfed before he found fuch an op¬
portunity ss he defired. At length, under pretence
of procuring the duke a the a tele with a lady of whom
he was deeply enamoured, he brought him alone and
unattended into his chamber, and put him under his
bed. He went out, under pretence of introducing
the obje& of his paffion ; and returned along with an
■affaffin by profefixon, to whom alone he had entrufte.d
his defign, only to ftab him. This cruel fcene hap¬
pened on the night betwixt the 5th and 6th of Janu-
ary 1537. Alexander was only 26 years of age. The
Florentines derived no advantage from this crime of
Laurence, for they failed in their attempt to recover
their liberty. The party of the Medicis prevailed,
and Alexander was fucceeded by Cofmo ; whofe go¬
vernment, it mull be confeffed, was as juft and mode¬
rate, as that of his predeceftbr had been violent and
tyrannical. Laurence de Medicis fled to Venice, to
fome of the leaders of the malcontents at Florence,
who had taken refuge there ; but not thinking him¬
felf in fufficient fecurity, he went to Conftantinople,
whence he returned fome time after to Venice. He
was there affafiinated in 1547, ten years after the
duke’s murder, by two foldiera, one of whom had for¬
merly been in Alexander’s guards ; And thefe foldiers
were generous enough to refufe a confiderable fum of
money, which was the price put upon his head.
Medicis (Cofmo de), grand duke of Tufcany,
joined Charles V. againft the French, after trying in
vain to continue neutral. As a reward for his fer-
vices, the emperor added to the duchy of Tufcany
Piombino the ifle of Elba and other ftates. Cofmo
foon after received from pope Pius IV. the title of
grand duke ; and had it not been oppofed by all the
princes of Italy, this pontiff, who was entirely devoted
tovCofmo, becaufe he had thought proper to acknow¬
ledge him to be of his houfe, would have conferred
on him the title of king. There never was a more
zealous patron of learning. Ambitious of imitating
the fecond Caefar, he, like him, was fond of learned
men, kept them near his perfon, and founded for
them the univerfity of Pifa. He died in 1574, at the
age of 55, after governing with equal wifdom and
glory. In 1562 he inftituted the military order of St
Stephen. His fon, Francis Mary, who died in 1587,
was the father of Mary of Medicis the wife of
Henry the Great, and of Ferdinand I. who died in
1608.
Vox.. XL Part I.
MEDIETAS linguae, in law, fignifies a jury, or
inqueft impanelled, of which the one half are natives
of this land and the other foreigners. This jury is
never ufed except where one of the parties in a plea is
a ftranger and the other a denizen. In petit-tieafon,
murder, and felony, foreigners are aftowed this privi¬
lege ; but not in high-treafon, becaufe an alien ip that
cafe ftiall be tried according to the rules of the com¬
mon law, and not by a medietas linguae. A grand
jury ought not in any cafe to be of a medietas linguae ;
and the perfon that would have the advantage of a
trial in this way, is to pray the fame, otherwife it foil
not be permitted on a challenge of the jurors.
MEDIMNUS, in Grecian antiquity, a meafure
of Capacity. See Measure.
MEDINA-talnari, a famous town of Arabia
Petraea, between Arabia Deferta and Arabia the
Happy ; celebrated for being the burial-place of Ma¬
homet. It Hands at a day’s journey from the port of
lambo. It is of moderate fize, furrounded by wretch¬
ed walls, and fituated in the midft of a fandy plain. It
belongs to the Scherif of Mecca, although it had of
late times a particular fovereign of the family of Da-
cii Barkad. At prefent, the government is confided
by the Scherif to a vizir, who muft be taken from the
family of the fovereign. Before Mahomet, this city
was called lathreb; but it got the name of Medinet
en Nebbi, “ the City of the Prophet,” after Maho¬
met, being driven from Mecca by the Koreifchites,
had taken refuge there, and palled in it the reft of
his days. The tomb of Mahomet at Medina is re-
fpefted by Muffulmans, but they are under no obli¬
gation to vifit it for the puipofes of devotion. The
caravans of Syria and Egypt alone, which on their
return from Mecca pafs near Medina, go a little out
of their way to fee the tomb. It Hands in a corner
of the great fquare, whereas the Kaba is fituated in
the middle of that at Mecca. That the people may
not perform fome fuperftitious worlhip to the relics of
the prophet, they are prevented from, approaching the
tomb by grates, through which they may look at it.
It confifts of a piece of plain mafon-work in the form
of a cheft, without any other monument. The tomb
is placed between two others, where the allies of the
two firft caliphs repofe. Although it is not more
magnificent than the tombs of the greater part of the
founders of mofques, the building that covers it is de¬
corated with a piece of green filk Huff embroidered
with gold, which the pacha of Damafcus renews every
feven years. It is guarded by 40 eunuchs, who watch
the treafure faid to be depofited there. It is feated in a
plain abounding with palm-trees, in E. Long. 39. 53.
N. Lat. 25. See (Hijlory of) sIraeia.
Medina-CcH, an ancient town of Spain, in Old
Caftile, and capital of a confiderable duchy of the
fame name ; feated near the river Xalon, in W. Long.
2. 9. N. Lat. 41. 15.
717£diNA-de-las-Torres, a very' ancient town of
Spain, in Eftramadura, with an old caftle, and the
title of a duchy. It is feated on the confines of An-
dalufia, at the foot of a mountain near Bajadoz.
MedjnA-del-CampOy a large rich, and ancient town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon. The great fquare
is very fine, and adorned with a fuperb fountain. It
, • Z z is
Medietas
II
Medina;
Medina
I!
MED r 362 ] MED
is a trading place, enjoys great privileges, and is feated
in a country abounding with cgrn and wine. W. Long.
4. 20. Nat. Lat. 41. 22.
Mun in a-del- rio-Secco, an ancient and rich town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with the title of a
duchy: feated on a plain, where there are fine paftures.
E. Long. 4 33. N. Lat. 42. 8.
MEDINA (Sir John), a very eminent painter,
was fon of Medina de L’Afturias, a Spaniih captain
who had fettled at Bmflels, where the fon was born
in 1660. He was inftrufted in painting by du Cha-
tel; under whole dire&ion he made good progrefs ;
and applying himfelf to the fludy of Rubens, made
that eminent mailer his principal model. He painted
both hiftory and portrait ; and was held in extraor¬
dinary efleem by mold of the princes of Germany,
who diftinguiihed his merit by feveral marks of ho¬
nour. He married young, and came into England
in 1686, where'he drew portraits for feveral years with
great reputation ; as he painted thofe fubje&s with
remarkable freedom of touch, a delicate management
of tints, and ftrong refemblance of the perfons. The
earl of Leven encouraged him to go to Scotland, and
procured him a fubfeription of 5001. worth of bufi-
nefs. He went, carrying a large number of bodies
and poftures, to which he painted heads. He re¬
turned to England for a. fiiort time; but went
back to Scotland, where he died, and was buried in
the church-yard of the Greyfricrs at Edinburgh in
1711, aged 52. He painted moft of the Scotch no¬
bility ; but was not rich, having 20 children. The
portraits of the profeffors in the furgeon’s-hall at E-
dinhurgh were painted by him, and are commended.
At Wentworth-caftle is a large piece containing the
firft duke of Argyle and his fons, the two late dukes-
John and Archibald, in Roman habits ; the ftyle Ita¬
lian, and fuperior to moft modern performers. In
furgeon’s-hall are two fmall hiftories by him. The
duke of Gordon prefented Sir John Medina’s head to
the great duke of Tufcany for his eolledlion of por-
traits done by the painters themfelves; the duke of
Gordon too was drawn by him, with his fon the mar¬
quis of Huntley and his daughter Lady Jane, in one
piece. Medina was knighted by the duke of Queenf-
berry, loid high commiflioner ; and was the laft knight
made in Scotland before the union. The prints in
the odlavo. edition of Milton were defigned by him;
and he compofed another fet for Ovid’s Metamorpho-
fis, but they were never engraved.
MEDINE, an Egyptiait piece of money, of iron
fjlveredmyer, and about the fize of a filver threepence.
MEDIOLANUM, an ancient city, the capital of
the Infubres, built by the Gauls on their fettlement in
that part-of Italy. A munlcipium, a.place of great
iferength. The feat of the liberal arts ; whence it had
the name of Nova Athena. Now Milan, capital of
the Milanefe, fituated on the rivers Olana and Lombro,
E. Long. 9.30. N. Lat. 45. 25.
Mediolanum Aulercorum (anc. geog.), a town of
Gallia Celtica, which afterwards took the name of the
Eburovicum Ci-vhas (Antonine) ; corrupted to Civitas
Ebroicorum, and this lail io Jibrolca ; whence the mo¬
dern appellation Evreux, a city of Normandy.. E.
Long, i, 12. N. Lat. 49. 21.
Mediolanum Gugemorum (anc. geog.), a town of Medi»ma»
Gallia Belgiea ; now the village Moyland, not far from trc*
Cologne. ^ A
Mediolanum Ordovicum (anc. geog.), a town of J ’
Britain, now Man Vethlin, a market-town in Mont-. - yl—
gomerylhire in Wales.
Mediolanum Santonum (anc. geog.), which after¬
wards taking the name of the people, was called San-
tonic a Urbs; alfo Santones and Santoni: A town of A-
quitain. Now Saintes, capital of Saintonge in Guienne,
on the river Charente.
MEDIOMATRICI, anciently a territory of Bel-
gica. Now the diocefe of Meta.
MEDITATION, an add by which we confider
any thing clofely, or wherein the foul is employed in
the fearch or confideration of any truth. In our re¬
ligion, it is ufed to fignify.a conlideration of the ob*
jedls and grand truths of the Chriftian faith.
Myftic divines make a great difference between me¬
ditation and contemplation: the former confifts in dif-
curfive adfts of the foul, confidering methodically and
with attention the myfteries of faitb and the precepts,
of morality ; and is performed by refle&ions and rea-
fonings, which leave behind them manifelt impreffions
on the brain. The pure contemplative have no need
of meditation, as feeing all things in God at a glance,
and without any refiedlion. When a man, therefore,
has once quitted meditation, and is arrived at con¬
templation, he returns no more ; and, according to
Alvarez, never refumes the oar of meditation, except
when the wind of contemplation is too weak to fill his
fails.
MEDITERRANEAN, fomething inclofed withr
in land ; or that is remote from the ocean.
Mediterranean is more particularly ufed to fignify
that large fea which flows between the continents of
Europe and Africa, entering by the ftraits of Gibral¬
tar,. and reaching into Alia, as far as the Euxine Sea.
and the Palus Masotis.
The Mediterranean was anciently called the Grecian
Sea and the Great Sea. It is now cantoned out in¬
to feveral divifions, which bear feveral names. To>
the weft of Italy it is called the Ligujlic or Tufcan Sea;
near Venice, the Adriatic ; towards Greece, the Ionic
and Mgean; between the Hellefpont and the Bofpho*
rus, the White Sea, as' being very fafe ; and beyond,
the Black Sea, its navigation being dangerous.
The Britifh trade carried on by means of the Me¬
diterranean Sea is of the laft confequence to Great
Britain ; and the permanent prefervation thereof de¬
pends on the poffeffion of the town and fortification^
of Gibraltar. 4
The counterfeiting of Mediterranean paffes for Ihips-
to the coaft of Barbary, &c. or the feal of the admi¬
ralty office to fuch paffes, is felony without benefit:
of clergy. Stat..4 Geo. II. c. 18.
MEDITRINALIA, a Roman feftival in honour
of the goddefS Meditrina, kept on the 30th of Sep¬
tember. Both the deity and the feftival were fo call¬
ed a medendo, becaufe on this day they began to drink
new wine mixed with old by way of medicine. The
mixture of wines, on this feftival, was drank with much
form and folemn ceremony.
MEJDIT.ULLIUM, is ufed by anatomifts for that.
fpungy-
MED [
JMf4ium fpungy fubftance between the two plates of the
II nium, and in the interftices of all laminated bones
^Medufa. gee Anatomy. n° r, n.
V' ' MEDIUM, in logic, the mean or middle term of
a fyllogifm, being an argument, reafon, or confidera-
tion, for which we affirm or deny any thing ; or, it is
the caufe why the greater extreme is affirmed or dc*
nied of the lefs in the conclufion.
Medium, in arithmetic, or arithmetical medium or
mean, called in the fchools medium ret; that which is
equally diftant from each extreme, or which exceeds
the leffer extreme as much as it is exceeded by the
greater, iq refpeft of quantity, not of proportion}
thus 9 is a medium betwixt 6 and 12.
Geometrical Medium, called in the fchools medium
363 1 MED
I- is celebrated for her perfonal charms and the beauty Medufa,
of her locks. Neptune became enamoured of her,
and obtained her favours in the temple of Minerva.
This violation of the fan&ity of the temple provoked
Minerva ; and ffie changed the beautiful locks of Me¬
dufa, which had infpired Neptune's love, into ferpents,
the fight of which turned the beholders into Hones;
but Perfeus, armed with Mercury’s ax with which he
killed Argus, cut off Medufa’s head, from whole
blood fprang Pegafus and Chryfaor, together with
the innumerable ferpents that infeft Africa. ’I’he con¬
queror placed Medufa’s head on the aegis of Minerva,
which he had ufed in his expedition ; and the head
ft ill retained the fame petrifying powers as before.
Medusa, in zoology, a genus of vermes, belonging
perfonee, is that where the fame ratio is preferved be- to the order of mollufca. The body is gelatinous.
tween the firft and fecond as between the fecond and
third terms ; or that which exceeds in the fame ratio
or quota of itfelf, as it is exceeded : thus 6 is a geo¬
metrical medium between 4 and 9.
Medium, in philofophy, that fpace or region thro’
which a body in motion paffes to any point: thus
sether is fuppofed to be the medium through which
the heavenly bodies move ; air, the medium wherein
bodies move near our earth ; water, the medium where-
roundiih, and depreffed; and the mouth is in the
centre of the under part of the body. Many fpecies,
on being handled, affeft with a nettle-like burning,
and excite a rednefs. The ancients, and fome of the
moderns, add that they have an aphrodiiiac property,
and in feveral languages they are called by an obfeene
name. They were known to the Greeks and Romans
by the names of nvit^a ©axatro-,©-, and/>«/«o marinus,
fea-lungs. They attributed medicinal virtues to
in fiffies live and move ; and glafs is alfo a medium of them. DiofcorideS informs us, that, if rubbed
light, as it affords it a free paffage. That denfity or freffi on the difeafed pert, they cured the gout in
confiftency in the parts of the medium, whereby the the feet, and kibed heels. iElian fays, that they
motion of bodies in it is retarded, is called the rejijl- were depilatory; and, if macerated in vinegar, would
ance of the medium ; which, together with the force of take away the beard. Their phofphoric quality is
gravity, is the caufe of the cefiation of the motion of well known ; nor was it overlooked by the ancients.
projectiles.
Subtile or Mtherial Medium. Sir Ifaac Newtoti con-
fiders it probable, that, befide the particular aereal
medium, wherein we live and breathe, there is another
more univerfal one, which he calls an cetherial medium;
vaftly more rare, fubtile, elaitic, and aftive, than air;
and by that means freely permeating the pores and
interftices of all other mediums, and diffufing itfelf jelly. It is of a whitiffi colour, with a caff of bluiffi
Pliny obferves, that if rubbed with a ftick it will ap¬
pear to burn, and the wood to ftine all over. The fame
naturalift obferves, that when they fink to the bottom
of th'e fea, they portend a continuance of bad weather.
On Plate CCXCIV, are figured feveral fpecimens,
viz. 1. The aurita, or aurited medufa; which appears,
as floating on the water, to be a mere lifelefs lump of pjo. ^ n°l
through the whole creation ; and by the intervention
hereof he thinks it is that moft of the great pheno¬
mena of nature are effe&ed. See -iEther, Electri¬
city, Fire, &c.
Medium, in optics, any fubftance through which
light is tranfmitted.
MEDLAR, in botany. See Mespilus.
MEDULLA ossium, or Mjreow of the Bones.
See Anatomy, n° 5.
Medulla cerebri and cerebeUi, denotes the white foft
part of the brain and cerebellum, covered on the out-
fide with the cortical fubftance, which is of a more
dark or afhy colour. See Anatomy, n0 131—133.
Medulla oblongata, is the medullary part of the
grey, and is of an orbiculated figure, elevated into a
convexity in the middle on the upper fide, flat on the
under, and furnilhed with a fringe of fine and fome-
what rigid filaments round the edge, refembling white
hairs: on the under furface there are four cavities near
the centre, each of an arcuated figure, and furrounded
with an opaque line, formed of about 24 parallel points
or dots : from the-very centre of the under .fide there
arife four crooked appendages, which have each a row
of hairy filaments on the exterior edge ; and on the
upper furface there is an appearance of fine veffels of
a pale colour. This fpecies is frequent, floating on
the furface of the fea, or adhering to rocks about our
own coafts; and when the fun ihines on them, they have
brain and cerebellum, joined in one; the fore-part of a very beautiful lucid appearance. It is called by fome the
it coming from the brain, and the hind-part from the fea nettle, it being one of thofe animals that when touch-
r’° T"’' ed occafions a very difagreeable tingling in the hands.
cerebellum. See Anatomy, n" 134.
It lies on the bafis of the ikull, and is continued thro’
the great perforation thereof into the hollow of the
vertebras of the neck, back, and loins ; though only
■fo much of it retains the name oblongata as is included
within the flfull. After its exit thence, it is diftinguilh-
ed by the name of medulla fpinalis. Ibid. n° 135.
MEDUSA (fab. hift.), one of the three Gorgons,
daughter of Phorcys and Ceto. She was the only
cne of the Gorgons who was fubjeft to mortality. She
2. The capillata, or capillated medufa, is a very
Angular and odd animal: it feetns a mere lump of
whitiffi femi-pellucid jelly ; and is as eafily broken and
deftroyed by a touch as the common jellies brought
to our tables: its ffiape is rounded, rifing into a con¬
vexity in the middle, where it is therefore thickeft,
and whence it becomes gradually thinner to the fides:
on the under fide it is plain, and on this there is vilible
a rough, or as it were echinated circle, within which
Z z 2 there
MED [ 364 ] 1 M E E’
Zv’te-’.ufa, there run eight pairs of fays from the centre toward
Medway. tjie circumference • and from the centre there arife
nlfo a number of curled appendages, which are fome-
times reddilh, but more ufually whitilh, and a vail
number of flender filaments: the edge or the circum¬
ference of the body is regularly divided into eight por¬
tions, and each of them is emarginated, fo that on the
whole verge there are 16 finufes. This fpecies is to be
met with in vaft abundance floating on the furface
of the water about Sheppey ifland in Kent, and elfe-
where on that coaft: great quantities of it are de-
llroyed by being thrown on fhore with the waves,
whence it has no power of getting off again ; and in
the open feas, many fifh fldm near the furface, and
prey on them. This is the fpecies called by many
rig-3* na 3,authorspulmo marinus, or the fea lungs. 3. The mar-
fupialis, or purfe medufa, is femi-oval, with four ten-
tacula on the edge. It inhabits the Mediterranean.
Ibid. n°4. 4. The waved medufa has the edges waved, with
fangs on the projecting parts ; four orifices beneath*
between which riles a item divided into eight large
ragged tentacula. *>
Thefe animals fwim in large companies in fearch of
food, with their tentacula in continual motion, with
which they feize their prey, and convey it to their
mouths: they vary in fize, the largeft being generally
about eight inches in diameter. They vary Ifkewife
in the number of their tentacula; fome having only
two, others four, fix* and fome eight, but they rarely
exceed that number. So powerful is their embrace,
that whatever prey comes within their reach never,
efcapes. They fubfift on infefts, fmali fifh, &c.
Mr Banks, in his paffage^from Madeira to Rio de
Janeiro, dilcovered a new fpecies, which, when brought
aboard by the calling net; had the appearance of metal
violently heated, and emitted a white light. With
thefe animals were taken fmall crabs of three different
fpecies, altogether new, each, of which gave as much
light as the glow-worm, though the creature was not
fo l^rge by nine-tenths. Thele luminous animals are
one of the caufes of that appearance to the fea which
has been mentioned by many navigators, and of which
various reafons have been affigned. It appeared to
emit fiafhes of light exaftly refembling thofe of light¬
ning, only not fo confiderable, but fo frequent, that
fometimes eight or ten were vifible at the fame mo¬
ment.
MEDWAY, a river of England, rifesinr the Weald
of Suffex, and entering Kent near Afhurft, runs by
Tunbridge, and thence continues its courfe towards
Maidftone. It is navigable for large fhips to Rochef-
ter bridge, and thence for veffels and barges to Maid¬
ftone, the tide flowing up to that town. The diftance
between the mouth of this river, where the fort at
Sheernefs is erefted, and Rochefter bridge, is between
16 and 18 miles. In this part of the river, the chan¬
nel is fo deep, the banks fo £oft, and the reaches fo
fhort, that it is one of the beft and fafeft harbours in
the world 5 and fhips of 80 guns ride a-float at low-
water, within mufket-lhot of Rochefler-bridge. Nor
is there a Angle inftance upon record, that any of the
royal navy ever fuffered here by ftorms, except in that
dreadful tempeft which happened in November 1703,
when the Royal Catharine was driven on fhore, where
flic funk and was loft. On the fliore of this river axe
two caftles, one at Upnor, which guards two reaches Meererr
of the river, and is fuppofed to defend all the fhips
which ride above, between-that’and the bridge ; on Magaletia»I
the other fide of the river*is-Gillingham caftle, built
for the fame purpofe, and well fumilhed with cannon
which commands the river: Befidcs thefe, there is a
platform of guns-at a place called the Swam, and ano*
ther at Cockham-wood. But the principal fortification
an this river is the caflle at Sheernefs:
MEEREN, or Meer, (John Vander,) called the
Old, an efteemed painter, was born in 162-7 ; but the
mailer, under whom he learned the art of painting, is
not mentioned. His genius dire&ed him to, choofe for
his fubjefts fea-pieces, landfcapes, and views of the fea
and its fhores ; which he painted with great truth, as
he had accuftomed himfelf to fketeh' every feene after
nature. The fituations of his landfcapes are agreeably
chofen, frequently they are folemn, and generally
pleaiing. The forms of his trees are eafy and natural,
his diftances well obferved, and the whole feenery has
a ftriking effedl, by a happy oppofition of his lights
and fhadows. He alfo very often painted battles
in fuch a ftyle as met with- approbation ; as they
fhowed good compofition, were touched with fpirit,
and had a great deal of tranfparence in the colouring.
But the fault imputable to Vander Meer is, that in
fome of his pi&ures the back-grounds are a little too
blue, and that fome of his landfcapes have a tint which
appears rather too yellowifli. He-died in 1690.
Meeren, or Mper., (John Vandsr), called De Jongbe,
an eminent landfcape-painter, is fuppofed to have been
the fon of the old John Vander h. eer, and of whom
he learned the firft rudiments of the art; hut being
in his youth deprived of his inftru&or before he had
made any great progrefs, he became a difcipl? of Nic¬
holas Berghem, and was accounted the beft of thofe
who were educated in the fchool of that admired ma¬
iler. In the manner of his mailer; he painted land¬
fcapes and cattle ; and his ufual fubjefiks are cottages;
with peafants at their rural occupations and diverfions;
It is obferved of him, that he very rarely introduced
cows, horfes, or any other fpecies of animals, except
goats and Iheep ; the latter of which are fo highly fi-
nifhed, that one would imagine the wool might be felt
by the foftnefs of its appearance. His touch is fcarce
perceptible, and yet the colours are admirably united.
He died in 1688. The genume works of this Vander
Meer bear a very high price, and are efteemed even ia
Italy, where they are admitted irtto the bell collec¬
tions ; but the fcarcity of them has occafioned many
moderate copies after his works to be paffed on the
undifeerning for real originals.
MEGAL.E poLis, (anc. geog.) dividedly (Ptole¬
my, Paufanius-) ; or conjunftly Megalopolis, (Strabo) :
A town of Arcadia, built under the aufpices of Epa-
minondas, after the battle of Leu&ra ; many, incon-
fiderable towns being joined together in one great city,
the better to withlland the Spartans. It was the
greatell city of Arcadia, according-to Strabo.
MAGALESIA, and- Megalenses Lum, feait*.
and games in honour of Cybele or Rhea the mother
of the gods, kept on the 12th of April by the Ro¬
mans, and famous for great rejoicings and diverfions
of various forts. The Galli carried the image of the
goddefs along the city, with found of drums and other
i’late CCXC1V.
MEG C 365 ] MEG
Megara. mufic, m imitation of the noife they made to prevent
*" * Saturn from’hearing the cries of his infant fon Jupi¬
ter, when he was difpofed to devour him.
MEGARA (anc. geog.), a noble city, and the
capital of the territory of Megaris, which for many
years carried on war with the Corinthians and Athe¬
nians.- It had for fome time a fchool of philofophers,
called the Megarici, fucceffors of Euclid the Socratic,
a native of Megara. Their dialed!; was the' Doric ;
changed from the Attic, which it formerly had been,
becaufe of Pelepom.Tian colonifts who fettled there.
Megara was fituated at a dittance from the fea. Its
port was called Nifaa, from Nifus fon of Pandion the
fecond, who obtained the Megaris for his portion,
when the kingdom of Athens was divided into four
lots by his father. He founded the town, which was
eighteen ftadia or two miles and a quarter from the
city, but united with it, as the Piraeus with Athens,
by long walls. It had a temple of Ceres. “ The
roof (fays Paufanias) may be fuppofed to have fallen
through aged’ The fite (as Dr Chandler informs
Trawls in yg- -j-) fs now covered with rubbifh, among which are
landing fome ruinous churches. The pl&ce has been
named from them Doele Ecclejiais, “ The Twelve
Churchesbut the number is reduced to feven. The
acropolis or citadel, called alfo Nifaa, was on a rock
by the fea-fide Some pieces of the wall remain, and
a modern fortrefs has been ere&ed on it, and alfo on
a leffer rock near it.
The village Megara (continues the Do&or) confifts
of low mean cottages, pleafantly fituated on the Hope
of a brow or eminence indented in the middle. On
each fide of this vale was an acropolis or1 citadel; one
named Caria; the other from Alcathous, the builder
of the wall They related, that he was affifted by A-
polloj who laid his harp afide on a Hone, which, as
Paufanias teftifies, if ftruck with a pebble returned a
mufical found. An angle of the wall of one citadel is
feen by a wind-mill. The mafonry is of the fpecies
called Incertum. In 1676 the city-wall was not en¬
tirely demolilhed, but comprehended the two fum-
mits, on which are fome churches, with a portion of
the plain toward the fouth. The whole fite, except
the hills, was now green with corn, and marked by
many heaps of {tones, the collefted rubbifh of build¬
ings. A few infcriptions are found, with pedcftals fix¬
ed in the walls and inverted ; and alfo fome maimed or
mutilated ftatues. One of the former relates to Atti-
cus Herodes, and is on a pedeflal which fupported a
itatue ere&ed to him when conful, A. D. 143. by the
council and people of Megara, in return for his bene¬
factions and good-will toward the city. In the plain
behind the fummits, on one of which was a temple of
Minerva, is a large bafin of water, with fcattered
fragments.of marble, the remains of a bath or of a
fountain, which is recorded as in the city, and remark¬
able for its fize and ornaments, and for the number of
its columns. The fpring was named from the local
nymphs called Sithnides.
The Hone of Megara was of a kind not difcovered
any where elfe in Hellas; vety white, uncommonly
foft, and confifting entirely of cockle-{hells. This was
chiefly ufed; and, not being durable, may be reckoned
among the caufes of the defolation at Megara, which
is fo complete, that one i’earches in vain for veltiges of
the many public edifices, temples, and fepulchres, Megara
which once adorned the city. II_
Megara was engaged in various wars with Athens Meg1(tdo,>
and Corinth, and experienced many viciflitudes of for- *
tune. It was the only one of the Greek cities which
did not re-fiourifti under their common benefaftor Ha¬
drian ; and the reafon afligned is, that the avenging
anger of the gods purfued the people for their impiety
in killing Anthemocritus, a herald, who had been Tent
to them in the time of Pericles. The 'Athenian ge¬
nerals were fwoyn on his account to invade them twice
a-year. Hadrian and Atticus were followed by ano¬
ther friend, whofe memory is preferved by an inferip-
tion on a ildne lying near a church in the village : —
“ This too is the work of the moft magnificent count
Diogenes fon of Archdaus, who regarding the Gre¬
cian cities as his own family, has bellowed on that of
the Megarenfians one hundred pieces of gold toward
the building of their towers, aifcl alfo one hundred
and fifty more with two thoufand-two hundred feet of'
marble toward re-edifying the bath ; deeming nothing
more honourable than to do good to the Greeks, and
to rellore their cities.” This perfon is not quite unno¬
ticed in hiitory. He was one of the generals employ¬
ed by the emperor Anaftafius on a rebellion in Ifauria.
He furprifed the capital Claudiopolis, and fuftained
a fiege with great bravery, A. D. 494.
Megara retains its original name. It has been much -
infeiled by corfairs ; and in idyd the inhabitants were
accuilomed, on feeing a boat approach in the day time
or hearing their dogs bark at night, immediately to fe*
crete their effedls and run away. The Vaiwode or
Turkifh governor, who refided in a forfaken tower a-
bove the village, was once carried off. It is no won¬
der, therefore, that Nifaea has been long abandoned.
The place was burned by the Venetians in 1687.
Megara (anc. geog.) formerly called//yi/a, a town
towards the eaft coaff of. Sicily;; extintt in Strabo’s
time, though the name Hybla remained on account of
the excellence of its honey. It was. a colony of Me-
gareans from Greece. Rtjus Megaricus denotes a hoarfe- -
laugh.
MEGARIS (anc. geog.), the country of the Me—
gareans, is deferibed as a rough region, like Attica ;
die mountain called Oneian or the Afinine, now Mac-
riplayi ox “ the long Mountain,” extending through
it toward Bceotia and mount Cithaeron. It belonged
to Ionia or Attica, until it was taken by the Pelopon-
nefians in the reign of Codrus, when a colony of Do¬
rians fettled in it- This territory had Attica to the
call, Bceotia to the north and weft, and the Ifthmus
of Corinth to the fouth.
Megaris, a fmali ifland in the Tufcan fea, joined
to Naples by a bridge. Now called C«/Mo dell’Ovo.
MEGAS THEIMES, a Greek hiftorian in the age
of Seleucus Nicanor, about 300 years before Chrift;
He wrote about the oriental nations, and particularly
the Indians. His. hiftory is often quoted by the an¬
cients. What now paffes as his compofition is fpuri-
ous.
MEGIDDO (anc. geog.), a town of Galilee, re¬
cited (Jofltua xvii. 11.) among the cities of Manaffeh,
in the tribe of Iffachar or Affer, on the weft fide of
Jordan. Famous for the defeat of Ahaziah and Jofiah,
who periihed there (2 Kings xxiii. 29.) 1 near it was
MEL
MeiVmvus an open plain,•‘fit for drawing up an army in battle ar-
JYlelaleuea raT was ^ltuate^ to t^ie north, contrary to its po-
^, - t - -1' ' fition in the common maps. The Canaanites, being
tributary to the Ifraelites, dwelt in it, Jofiiua xvii.—
It was rebuilt by Solomon, I Kings ix.
MEIBOMIUS, the name of feveral learned Ger¬
mans.—John Henry Meibomius was profeflbr of phyfic
at Helmftadt, where he was born, and at Lubec;
he wrote the Life of Macenas^ published at Leyden
in 410, 1653, with feveral other learned works.. Henry,
his fon, was born at Lubec in 1638 ; became profeffor
of phyfic at Helmftadt; and, befides works in his own
profeffion, publilhed Scriptores rerum Germanic arum,
3 vol. folio, 1688 ; a very ufeful colle&ion, firft be-
gun by his father.—Marcus Meibomius, of the fame
family, publifhed a colleftion of feven Greek authors
who had written upon ancient mufic, with a Latin
verfion by himfelf; dedicated to Queen Chriftina of
Sweden, who invited him to her court. But fire en¬
gaging him one day to fing an air of ancient mufic,
while fomebody was ordered to dance to it, the im¬
moderate mirth which this occafioned in the fpeftators
fo difgufted him, that he immediately left the court
of Sweden. His edition of the Greek mythologifts,
nnd notes upon Diogenes Laertius in Menage’s edi¬
tion, fhow him to have been a man of learning ; but
he fuffered no little raillery for his attempt to correft
the Hebrew text of the Bible, by a kind of metre he
fancied he had found out in thofe ancient writings,
MEISSEN, a coniiderable town of Germany, in
the ele&orate of Saxony, and in the rnargravate of
Mifnia, with a caftle. It formerly belonged to the
bifhop, but is now’ fecularized, and the inhabitants are
Lutherans. In this place is a famous manufadlory of
porcelain. E. Long. 13. 33. N. Lat. 51. 1,5.
MEL, honey, in the materia medica. See Ho-
MELA (Pomponius), an ancient Latin writer, was
born in the province of Bastica in Spain, and flourifh-
ed in the reign of the" emperor Claudius. His three
books of Cofmography, or De Jitu orbis, are written
in a concife, perfpicuous, and elegant mannei ; and
have been thought worthy of the attention and la¬
bours of the ableft critics. Ifaac Voffius gave an
edition of them in 1658, 4to, with very large and
copious notes. To this edition is added, Ju!ii Honorii
oratoris excerptum cofmograph'ue, firft publiftied from the
manufeript, and JEthtci cofmographia. Gronovius af¬
terwards publifhed another edition with illuftrations
by medals. In his laft edition are added five books,
De Geographies, written by fome later author; by Jor-
jnandes, as Fabricius conje&ures.
MELiENE, or black flux, in medicine. See
Medicine, nJ 409.
MELALEUCA, in botany; a genus of the po-
lyandria order, belonging to the polydelphia clafs of
plants. The calyx is quinquepartite, fuperior; the
corolla pentapetalqus; the filaments are very nume¬
rous, and colledled in fuch a manner as to form five
pencils; there is one ftyle; the capfule is half-covered
with the calyx, formed like a berry, and is trivalved
and trilocular.—This plant has already been noticed
under the article (mifpelt) Malaleuca; where alfo,
by miftake, it was faid that there is only one fpecies.
—The fpecies are five, natives of India and the South
M E L
Sea iilands. The tnoft remarkable fpecics is the Ltv- Melampo-
cadendron, from a variety of which (the latifolia, or dium,
broad-leaved leucadendron) the Cajeput oil is obtain- MelamPua,1
ed: a medicine in very high efteem among the eaftern ’ ~
nations, particularly in India. It is faid to be ob¬
tained by diftillation from the fruit of the tree. When
brought into this country, it is a liquid of a greenilh
colour, of a fragrant but at the fame time a very pe¬
culiar odour, and of a warm pungent tafte. Some
authors, however, reprefent this oil as being, when of
the belt quality, a white or colourlefs fluid; and it has
been faid by the authors of the Difpenfatorium Brunf-
’vicenfe, when prepared in Europe from the feeds fent
from India, to be entirely of this appearance. Hi¬
therto the oleum cajeput has been but little employed
either in Britain or on the continent of Europe ; but
in India it is ufed both internally and externally, and
is highly extolled for its medical properties. It is ap¬
plied externally where a warm and peculiar Itirnulus k
requifite; it is employed for reftoring vigour after
luxations and fprains, and for ealing a violent pain in
gouty and rheumatic cafes, in tooth-ach, and fimilar
affe&ions ; but it has been chiefly celebrated as taken
internally, and it is- particularly faid to operate as a
very powerful remedy again!! tympanitic affedtions.
MELAMPODIUM, a name given to black hel¬
lebore. See Helleborus.
Melampodium, in botany: A genus of the poly-
gamia neceflaria order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is pa-
Iseaceous and conical; the pappus is monophyllous and
valve-like; the Calyx pentaphyilous.,
MELAMPUS (fab. hilt.), a celebrated foothfayer
and phyiician of Argos, fon of Amythaon and Idome-
nea or Dorippe. He lived at Pylos in Peloponnefus.
His fervants once killed two large ferpents wdio had
made their nefts at the bottom of a large oak; and
Melampus paid fo much regard to their remains, that
he raifed a burning pile and burned them upon it. He
alfo took particular care of their young ones, and fed
them with milk. Some time after this, the young fer¬
pents crept to Melampus as he flept on the giafs near
the oak ; and, as if fenfible of the favours of their be-
nefadlor, they wantonly played around him, and foftly
licked his ears. This awoke Melampus, who was
aftonifhed at the fudden change which his fenfes had
undergone. He found himfelf acquainted with the
chirping of the birds, and with all their rude notes, as
they flew around him. He took advantage of this
fupernatijral gift, and foon made himfelf perfedl in the
knowledge of futurity, and Apollo alfo in ft ru (fled him
in the art of medicine. He had foon after the hap-
pinefs of curing the daughters of Proetus, by giving
them hellebore, which from that circumftance has been
called melampodium; and as a .-reward for his troubles,
he married the eldeft of thefe princefles. The tyranny
of his uncle Neleus, king of Pylos, obliged him to
leave his native country; and Prcetus, to fhow himfelf
more fenfible of his fervices, gave him part of his king¬
dom. About this time the perfonal charms of Pero, the
daughter of Neleus, had gained many admirers ; but the
father promifed his daughter only to him who brought
into his hands the oxen of Iphiclus. This condition
difplealed many; but Bias, who was alfo one of her ad¬
mit eis.
[ 366 1
MEL [ 367 1 ME L
Melimpy* hirers, engaged his brother Melampu* to ftea’ the oxen
ru||n and deliver them to him. Melampus was caught in the
Melinc- attempt, and imprifoned; and nothing but his fervices
thou, as a foothfayer and phyhcian to Iphiclus would have
v— faved him from death. All this pleaded in the favour
of Melampus; but when he had taught the childlefs
Iphiclus how to become a father, he not only obtained
his liberty, but alfo the oxen; and with them he com¬
pelled Neleus to give Pero in marriage to Bias. A
fevere diftemper, which had rendered the women of
Argos infane, was totally removed by Melampus; and
Anaxagoras, who then fat on the throne, rewarded his
merit by giving him part of his kingdom, where he
ettablifhed himfelf, and'where his pollerity reigned du¬
ring fix fuccefiive generations. He received divine
honours after death, and temples were raifed to his
memory.
MELAMPYRUM, cow-wheat: A genus of the
angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 40th order, Perfonatne. The calyx is quadvifid ;
the upper lip of the corolla is comprefled, with the
edges folded back ; the capfule is bilocular and ob¬
lique, opening at one fide; there are two gibbous
feeds. There are four fpecies, all of them natives of
Britain, and growing fpontaneoufly among corn-fields-.
They are excellent food for cattle ; and Linnaeus tells
ns, that where they abound the yelloweft and bed;
butter is made- Their feeds, when mixed with bread,
give it a dulky colour; and, according to fome au¬
thors, prodnee a vertigo, and other diforders of the
head; but this is denied by Mr Withering, though he
allows that they give it a bitter tafte.
MELANCHOLY, a kind of delirium attended
with gloomy thoughts, heavinefs, and forrow. See
Medicine, n’ 85, 327.
MEEANCTHON (Philip), born at Bretten in
the Palatinate in 1495, was one of the wifeft and moft
able men of his age among the Reformers, though of a
mild temper, and difpofed to accommodate rather than
to inflame difputes. In h{s youth he made an admirable
progrefs in learning, and was made Greek profeflbr at
Wirtemberg in 1509. Here his leisures upon Ho¬
mer, and the Greek text of St Paul’s Epiftle to Titus,
drew to him a great number of auditors, and entirely
effaced the contempt to which his low ffature and
mean appearance had expofed hirm Melanfthon re¬
duced the fciences to fyllems; and acquired fuch repu¬
tation, that he had fometimes 2500 auditors^ He
foon entered into an intimate friendlhip with Luther,
who taught divinity in the fame univerfity; and in
1519 they went together to Leipfic, to difpute with
Eccius. The following years he was continually en¬
gaged in various employments ; he compoftd feveral
books ; he taught divinity ; took feveral journeys, in
order to found colleges and vilit churches ; and in
1530 drew up a confeffion of fyith, which goes by the
name of the Confejfion of Aupjburg, becaufe it was pre¬
sented to the emperor at the diet held in that city.
All Europe was convinced, that he was not, like Lu¬
ther, backward to accommodate the differences be¬
tween the various-fe£ts; of Chriflians. He hated reli¬
gious difputes, and was drawn into them only through
the neceffity of the part he was called to aft in the
world; and therefore would have facrificed many
things to have produced an union among the Prote-
ftants. For this reafon, Francis I. the French king,
wrote to defire him to come and confer with the doc¬
tors of the Sorbonne, in order to agree with them
about putting-an end to all controverfies; but though
Luther endeavoured to perfuade the eleftor of Saxony
to confent to that journey, and though Melanftho i
himfelf defired it, that prince, whether he diftrufted
Melanfthon’s moderation, or was afraid of quarrelling
with the emperor Charles V. would never grant his
permiffion. The king of England alfo in vain de¬
fired to fee him. Melanfthon, in 1^29, affided at
the conferences of Spires. In 1541, he was at the
famous conferences at Ratifboh. In 1543, went
to meet the archbifhop of Cologn to afiill him in in¬
troducing the reformation into his diocefe ; but that
projeft came to nothing : and in 1548, he afii'led at
feven conferences on the fubject of the interim of
Charles V. and wrote a cenfure on that interim, and
all the writings prefented at thefe conferences. He
was extremely affefted at the diflenfions raifed by
Flaccus lllyricua. His lail conference with thofe of
the Roman communion was at Worms, in 1557'. He
died at Wittembmg in 1560, and was interred
near Luther. Swne days before he died, he wrote
upon a piece of paper the reafons which made him;
look upon death as a happinefs ; and the chief of
them was, that it “ delivered him from theological
perfecutions.” Nature had given Mehnfthbn a peace¬
able temper, which was but ill fuited to the time be
was to live in. His moderation ferved only to be hia-
crofs. He was like a lamb in the midlt of wolves. No¬
body liked his mildnefs ; it looked as if he was luke¬
warm ; and even Lather himfelf was fometimes angry
at it.
Melanfthon was a man in whom many good as
well as great qualities weie wonderfully united. He
had great parts, great learning, great fweetnefs of
temper, moderation, contentednefs, and the like, which
would have made him very happy in anyother times but
thofe in which.be lived. He never affefted dignities,,
or honours, or riches, but was rather negligent of all
thefe things; too much fo in the opinion, of fome,,
confidering he had a family ; and his fon-in-law Sa-
binus, who was of a more ambitious make, was ac¬
tually at variance with him upon this very article.
Learning was infinitely obliged to him on many ac¬
counts ; on none more than this, that, as already ob---
ferved, he reduced almoll all the feiences which had
been taught before in a vague irregular manner, into
fyftems, Confidering the diftraftions of his life, and
the infinity of difputes and tumults in which.he was
engaged, it is aftonilhing how he could find leifure-
to write fo many books. Their number is prodigious,-
infomuch that it was thought neoefiary to publifh a
chronological catalogue of them in the year 1582. His
works indeed are not correft, and he himfelf owned it: •
but as he found them ufcful, he chofe rather to print
a great number, than to finifh only a few; “ which--
however (as Bayle fays) was poftponing. his own
glory to the advantage of others,” His cenftitution-
was very weak, and required great tendernefs and ma¬
nagement ; which made Luther, as hot* and zealous as-,
he was, blame him for labouring too earneflly in the
yineyard.
MV
MELANIPPIDES,
MEL | 36$
l«<rpi. MELANIPP1DES, (fab. a Greek poet
^ about 520 years before Chrift. His grandfon of the
'hites. fame name flourillied about 6b years after at the court
y——' of Perdiccas the Second, of Macedonia. Some frag¬
ments of their poetry are ftill extant.
MELANTERIA, in natural hiftory, a very beau¬
tiful foilil, of a denfe, compact, and regular texture,
and of an extremely bright pale yellow, refembling no¬
thing fo much as the purefl: gold. It is remarkably
heavy ; and is fometimes found in little irregular maffes
of the bignefs of a pigeon’s egg, which are broken with
a flight blow : but it is ufually met with in the form
of a fine gold-coloured efflorefcence on vitriolic and py-
ritical bodies; or in loofe, (battery, and friable maffes
of a more dufky yellow; in -which latter ftate it fo
much refembles a native fulphur, that it is frequent¬
ly miftaken for one ; however, it is not inflam¬
mable; but calcines in the fire to a greyilh powder,
which by burning longer changes to a deep and fine
purple.
The Greeks ufed it externally as a gentle efeharotre
and a (lyptic: they made it an ingredient in their
ointments for old ulcers, and ufed to fprinkle the
powder of it on frefh wounds in order to flop the
hasmorrrhagy.
MELASSES. See Molasses.
MELASTOMA, the American Gooseberrw-
tree, in botany : A genus of the monogynia prder,
belonging*fo the decandria clafs of plants; and in the
natural method ranking under the 17th order, Galy~
canthemte. The calyx is quinquefid and campanula-
ted; the petals are five, Jnferted into the calyx; the
berry is quinquelocular, and wrapped in-the calyx.—
There are a great many fpecies, all of them natives of
the warm parts of America, and very beautiful on
account of the variegation of their leaves. Moft of
the leaves are of two different colours on their fur-
faces ; the under fide being either white, gold-co¬
loured, or ruffet, and their upper parts of different
ihades of green ; fo that they make a fine appear¬
ance in the hot-houfe all the year round. There
are but few of thefe plants in the European gar¬
dens ; which may perhaps have been occafioned by
the difficulty of bringing over growing plants from
the Weft Indies; and the feeds being fmall 'when
taken out from the pulp of their fruits, rarely fuc-
ceed. The beft way is to have the entire fruits
put up in dry fand as foon as they are ripe, and
forwarded by the quickeft contrivance to England.
They fliould be. immediately taken out when they ar-
.rive, and the feeds fown in pots of light earth, and
plunged into a moderate hot-bed of tanner’s bark.
When the plants come up, and are fit to be removed,
they mull each be planted in a fmall pot, and plunged
into the tan-bed; and afterwards treated as other exo-
• «tic plants.
MELCHA, a fmall village of Barbary, fituated
about 30 miles from the city of Tunis, built on the
ruins of Carthage, fome of which are ftill vifible.-
MELCHITES, in church-hiftory, the name given
to the Syriac, Egyptian', and other Chriftians of the
Levant. The Melchites, excepting fame few points
pf little or no impprtance, which relate only to cere-
monies and ecclefiaftical difeipline, are in every refpeft
profeffed Greeks; but they are governed by a parti-
^ N02IQ.
T MEL
cular patriarch, who refides at Hamas, and affu-mes the Melchife-
title of patriarch of 'Antioch. They celebrate mafs in ^ec-
the Arabian language. The religious among the Mel-- 1 l
chites follow the rule of St Bafil, the common rule of
all the Greek monks. They'have four fine convents
diftant aboht a day’s journey from Hamas, and never
go out of the cloifter.
MELCHISEBEC, or Melchizedek, king of
Salem, and prieft of the Moft High. The feripture
tells ds nothing either of his father, or of his mother,
or of his genealogy, or of his birth, or of his death.
And in this fiyife he was a figure of Jefus Chrift, as
St Paul affirms, who is a prieft for ever, according to
the order of Melchifedec, and not according to the or¬
der of Aaron, whofe original, life, and death, are
known. When Abraham returned from purfuingthe
four confederate kings, who had defeated the kings
of Sodom and Gomorrah, and had taken away Lot
Abraham’s nephew along with them (Gem xiv.
• 17, 18, rp, &c.), Melchifedek came to meet Abra¬
ham as far as the valley of Shaveh, which was after¬
wards named the king’s valley, prefented him with
the refreftmtent of bread and wine (or he offered bread
and wine in Sacrifice to the Lord, for he was a pried
df the moft high God), and blefled him. Abraham,
being defirous,.to acknowledge in him the quality of
prieft of the Lord, offered him the tythes of all he
had taken -from the enemy. After this time, there is
no mention made of the perfon of Melchifedec ; only
tile Pfalmift (cx. 4.) fpeaking of the Meffiah, fays,
“ Thou art a prieft for ever after the order of Melcht-
fedec.” St Paul, in his epiftle to the Hebrews, un¬
folds the myftery which is concealed in what is faid of
Melchifedec in the Old Tellament. See Heb. v.
6—-1 o. An infinite number of difficulties -and fcruples
have been darted upon the fubjedt of Melchifedec.—
St Jerom thought that Salem, of which Melchifedec
was king, was not Jerufalem, but the city of Salem
near Scythopolis, where they. ftill pretended to (how
the ruins of the palace of this prince. The greatnefs
and extent of thefe ruins are a fufficient .proof of the
magnificence' of this ancient building. He thinks it
was at this city of Salem or Shalem, that Jacob ar¬
rived after his.paffage over Jordan, at his return from
Mefopotamia (Gen xxxiii. 18.) Some believe that
Salem, where Melchifedec reigned, is the fame as Sa¬
lim fpoken of in the gofpel of St John, chap, iii 23.
From the time of Epiphanes there were names in¬
vented for the father and mother of Melchifedec. To
his father'was given the name of Heraclas or Hera¬
cles, and to his mother that of Afhtaroth or Aftaria.
It is generally agreed on by the learned, that when the
apoftle fays, he was “ without father and without mo¬
ther,” no more is meant, than that he is introduced
into the hiftory of Abraham without acquainting us
who lie was, or whence he came, where he lived, or
when he died. Neverthelefs, fome have taken St
Paul’s word’s literally, and contended that he was not
df human but divine nature. Origen and Bidymus
took him to be an angel; and the author of the S>ue-.
jlions upon the Old and Neau Tejlament prerends, that he
was the Holy Ghoft, who appeared to Abraham in a
human form. The Arabic Catena, upon the ninth
chapter of Genefis, makes Melchifedec to be defend¬
ed from Shem-by his father, and from Japheth by his
5 mother.
MEL [ 369 ] MEL
■Mekhi. mother. Heraclas or Heraclim his father, was, they
f diC‘ fay, fon or grandfon of Phaleg, and fon of Heber ; and
v his mother named Salathiel, was daughter of Corner
fon of Japheth. Cedrenus and others derive Melchi-
fedec from an Egyptian ftock. They fay his father
was called Sidon or Sida, and was the founder of the
city of Sidon the capital of Phoenicia. Suidas fays
he was of the curfed race of Canaan; for which rea-
'« fon the fcripture does not mention his genealogy. The
Jews and Samaritans believed Melchifedec to be the
fame with the patriarch Shem ; which opinion has been
followed by a great number of modern writers. M.
Jurieu has undertaken to prove that he is the fame as
Cham or Ham. It would be endlefs to fet down all
the opinions upon this matter : therefore we fhall
only add, that Peter Cunseus and Peter du Moulin
have aflerted, that Melchifedec who appeared to Abra¬
ham was the Son of God, and that the patriarch wor-
ihipped him and acknowledged him for the Meffiah.
About the beginning of the third century arofe the
herefy of the Melchifedeciahs, ■ who affirmed that
Melchifedec was not a man, but a heavenly power,
fuperior to Jefus Chrift : for Melchifedec, they faid,
was the interceffor and mediator of the angels, but Je¬
fus Chrift was fo only for men, and his priefthood on¬
ly a copy of that of Me1chifedec, who was the Holy
Ghoft.
We ffiall only beg leave to add here one opinion
more concerning Melchifedec, which is that of the
learned Heidegger, who, as the author of the H'iji.
Patriar. thinks, has taken the right method of ex¬
plaining the accounts of Mofes and the apoftle Paul
relating to this extraordinary perfon. He fuppofes a
twofold Melchifedec ; the one hiftorical, whereof
Mofes gives an account in the xivth chapter of Gene-
lis, as that he was king as well as high-prieft of Jeru-
falem ; the other allegorical, whom St Paul defcribes,
and this allegorical perfon is Jefus Chrift.
As the hiftory of this prince and prieft is fo little
known, it is no wonder, as Selden obferves, that many
fabulous accounts have been invented of him; of which
the following may fuffice as a fpecimen. Eutychus
patriarch of Alexandria relates, that the body of
Adam having been embalmed according to his order,
was depofited in a cave under a mountain of the chil¬
dren of Seth; but that Adam before his death had
commanded that they ftrould take away his remains
from that place, and tranfport them to the middle of
the earth : that Noah, to follow the orders of his an-
ceftors, had preferved the bodies of Adam and all the
patriarchs with him in the ark : that finding himfelf
near his death, he ordered his fon Shem to take the
body of Adam, to furnifh himfelf with bread and wine
for his journey, to take with him Melchifedec the fon
of Phaleg, and to go to the place in which an angel
would fhow them where to bury the firft man: that
Noah added this ordtr, “ Command Melchifedec to
fix his refidencefin that place, and to live unmarried all
his lifetime, becaufe God has chofen him to do fervice
in his prefence ; command him, that he build no tem¬
ple, nor fhed the blood of birds, nor four-footed
beafts, or any other animal; and that he offer no o-
ther oblations to God but bread and wine.” This is
the reafon, according to this author, why Melchifedec,
Vol. XI. Part I.
wdien he met Abraham, brought forth only bread and Melcht-
wine. fedic,
A Greek author, under the name of Athanafius,
relates, that Melchifedec was the fon of an idolatrous —y—*
king called Melchi and of a queen called Salem.—
Melchi, having refolved to offer a facrifice to the gods,
fent his fon Melchifedec to fetch him feven calves. In
the way the young prince was enlightened by God,
and immediately returned to his father, to demonftrate
to him the vanity of his idols. Melchi, in wrath, fent
him back to fetch the victims. While he was abfent,
the king facrificed his eldeft fon, and a great many o-
ther children, to his gods. Melchifedec returning,
and conceiving great horror at this butchery, retired
to mount Tabor, where he lived feven years, without
clothes, and fed only on wild fruits. At the end of
feven years, God appeared to Abraham, bid him go
up to mount Tabor, where he ftiould find Melchife¬
dec. He ordered him to cloath him, and to alk his
bleffing; which Abraham having done, Melchifedec
anointed him with oil, and they came down together
from the mountain.
MELCOMB-regis, a town of Dorfetfiiire, in
England, *30 miles from London, is fituated at the
mouth of the river Wey, by which it is parted from
Weymouth. It appears from the name to have been
anciently the king’s demefne, and from the records to
have paid quit-rent to the crown all along after king
Edward I. till it was bought off by the inhabitants
before they were united to Weymouth. It lies on the
north fide of the haven, on a peninfula furrounded by
the fea on all fides except on the north. The ftreets
are broad and well paved, and many of the houfes
large and high. It fent members to parliament in the
reign of king Edward I. before Weymouth had that
privilege. It was by parliament appointed a ftaple in
the reign of Edward III. In the next reign the
French burnt it; and it was thereby rendered fo de¬
folate, that the remaining inhabitants prayed and ob¬
tained a difcharge from cuftoms. On account of its
quarrels with Weymouth, in the reign of Henry VI.
its privileges as a port were removed to Pool: but in
that of queen Elizabeth they were reftored to it by a6t
of parliament, which was confirmed-in the next reign,
on condition that Melcomb and Weymouth fliould
make but one corporation, and enjoy their privileges
in common ; and to this was owing the flourifhing
ftate of bath. In the two reigns laft mentioned, a
wooden bridge with feventeen arches was built from
hence to Weymouth; to which, as well as its church,
the chief contributors were certain citizens of Lon¬
don ; and upon its decay it was rebuilt in 1770. Here
is a good market-place and town-hall, to which the
members of the corporation of Weymouth come to
attend public bufinefs, as the inhabitants do to its
church for public worfhip. For feveral years paft the
fea has retired from it on the eaft, the priory former¬
ly being bounded by the fea ; but there is now a ftreet
beyond it, from which it is feveral paces to the high-
water mark. The priory was fituated in the eaft part
of the town, in Maiden-ftreet, whofe fite occupied a-
bout an acre, now covered with tenements. On the
fouth fide are the remains of the chapel, now convert¬
ed into a malt-houfe. Near it are the remains of an
3 A ancient:
MEL [ 370
Me’i.a:, ancient building, formerly a nunnery. Here are three
. e esger- meetir,g-houfe& and a work-houfe for the poor. The
church, which is in the middle of the town, has a
wooden turret for a bell, and had been an old chapel.
It was rebuilt in 1605, and made parochial, and is a
handfome fabric, with a beautiful altar-piece painted
and given by Sir James Thornhill. The port, which
generally goes by the name of Weymouth, is faid to
be the belt frequented in the county, and is defended
by Sandford and Portland caftles. The markets for
both towns are Tuefdays and Fridays, but there are no
fairs. Mclcomb-regis is reckoned bigger, more thriving,
and populous than Weymouth. They are both but one
corporation and borough, confiding of a mayor, re¬
corder, two bailiffs, an uncertain number of aldermen,
and twenty-four capital burgeffes. Whoever has been
a mayor is ever after an alderman. They fend four
burgeffes to parliament, who are elected by fuch as
have freeholds, whether they inhabit here or not; and
the number of voters is near 700, Every eleftor, as in
London, has the privilege of voting for four perfons,
who when chofen are returned, in two diftinft inden¬
tures, as the burgeffes of Weymouth and the burgef¬
fes of Melcomb-Regis.
MELDffE (anc. geog.), a town of Gallia Celtica,
(called Meldorum Civil as in the Notitia), on the Ma-
trona. Now Meaux, a city in Champaign on the
Marne.
MELEAGER (fab. hill.) a celebrated hero, fon
of Gineus king of Calydonia, by Althaea daughter of
Theftius. The Parcas were prefent at the moment of
his birth, and predifted his future greatnefs. Clotho
faid that he would fee brave and courageous ; Lache-
fis foretold his uncommon ftrength and valour; and
Atropos faid that he fhould live as long as that fire¬
brand which was on the fire remained entire and un-
confumed. Althaea no fooner heard this, than fhe
fnatched the ftick from the fire, and kept it with the
moft jealous care, as the life of her fon totally depend¬
ed upon its prefervation. The fame of Meleager in-
creafed with his years; he fignalized himfelf in the
Argonautic expedition, and afterwards delivered his
country from the neighbouring inhabitants^ who made
war againft his father at the inftigation of Diana,
whofe altars CEneus had negle&ed. But Diana pu-
nifhed the negligence of CEneus by a greater calamity.
She fent a huge wild boar, which laid wafte all the
country, and feemed invincible on account of its im-
menfe fize. It became foon a public concern : all
the neighbouring princes affembled to defiroy this
terrible animal; and nothing is more famous in my¬
thological hiftory, than the hunting of the Calydonian
boar. The sprinces and chiefs that affembled, and
which are mentioned by mythologifts, were Meleager
fon of CEneus, Idas and Lynceus fons of Apharcus,
Dryas fon of Mars, Caftor and Pollux fons of Jupi¬
ter and Leda, Pirithous fon of Ixion, Thefeus fon of
ALgeus, Anceus and Cepheus fons of Lycurgus, Ad-
metus fon of Pheres, Jafon fon of iEfon, Peleus and
Telamon fons of Aiacus, Iphiclesfon of Amphitryon,
] MEL
Eurytrion fon of After, Atalanta daughter of Schce-Meleager,
neus, lolas the friend of Hercules, the fons of The- Melcanris-<
ftius, Amphiaraus fon of Oileus, Protheus, Cometes, '—■"V—
the brothers of Altaea, Hippothous fon of Cercyon,
Leucippus, Adraftus, Ceneus, Phileus, Echion, Lelex,
Phcerix fon of Amyntor, Panopeus, Hyleus, Hippa-
fus, Neftor, Menoetius the father of Patroclus, Am-
phicides, Laertes the father of Ulyffes, and the four
fons of Hippocoon. This troop of armed men attack¬
ed the boar, and it was at laft killed by Meleager 
The conqueror 'gave the Ikin and the head to Atalanta,
who had firft wounded the animal. This irritated the
reft, and particularly Toxeus and Plexippus the bro¬
thers of Althaea, and they endeavoured to rob Ata¬
lanta of the honourable prefent. Meleager defended
her, and killed his uncles in the attempt. Mean time
the news of this celebrated conqueft had already reach¬
ed Calydon, and Althsea weat to the temple of the
gods to return thanks for the viftory which her foa
had gained : But being informed that her brothers
had been killed by Meleager, fne in the moment of re-
fentment threw into the fire the fatal ftick on which
her fan’s life depended, and Meleager died as foon as
it was confumed. Homer does not mention the fire¬
brand; whence fome have imagined that this fable is
pofterior to that poet’s age. But he fays, that the
death of Toxeus and Plexippus fo irritated Althaea*
that fhe uttered the moft. horrible curfes and impreca¬
tions upon her fon’s head.
Meleager, a Greek poet, the fon of Eucrates*
was born at Seleucia in Syria, and flourifhed under
the reign of Seleucus VI. the laft king of Syria. He
was educated at Tyre ; and died in the ifland of Coos,
anciently called Merope. He there compofed the
Greek epigrams called by us the Anthologia. The dif-
pofition of the epigrams in this colleftion was oftea
changed afterwards, and many additions have been
made to them. The monk Planudes put them into,
the order they are in at prefent, in the year 1380.
MELEAGRIS, in ornithology, theTuRKY; a ge¬
nus of birds belonging to the order of gallinae. The
head is covered with fpongy caruncles ; and there is
likewife a membranaceous longitudinal caruncle on the
throat.
There is but one (a) fpecies, -viz. the gallopavo*
or North American turky of Ray. It has a caruncle
both on the head and throat; and the breaft of the
male is bearded or tufted. He lives upon grain and
infefts: when the cock ftruts, he blows up his breaft,
fpreads and erefts his feathers, relaxes the caruncle on
the forehead, and the naked parts of the face and neck
become intenfely red. Barbot informs us that very
few turkies are to be met with in Guinea, and thofe
only in the hands of the chiefs of the European forts t
the negroes declining to breed any on account of their
tendernefs, which fufficiently proves them not to be
natives of that climate. He alfo remarks, that neither
the common poultry nor ducks are natural to Guineai
any more than the turky. Neither is that bird a na¬
tive of Afia: the firft that were feen in Perfia were
brought
(a) Two others were formerly enumerated ; but in the late edition of the Syji. Nat. by Gmelifl, they have
been transferred to a new genius. See Penelope,
MEL [ 37' ] MEL
Meleagris, brought from Venice by fome Armenian merchants. Hamer is faid to have written his poems. And from
';~‘c ’ They are bred in Ceylon, but not found wild. In it Homer takes his original name Melafigents, given
'' v fatl, the turky, properly fo called, was unknown to him by his mother Critheis, as being born on its banka,
the ancient naturalifts, and even to the old world, be- (Herodotus.)
fore the difcovery of America. It was a bird peculiar MELETIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name
• to the new continent; and is novr the commoneft of a confiderable party who adhered to the caufe of
wild-fowl in the northern parts of that country, where Meletius biihop of Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, after
they are frequently met with by hundreds in a flock : he was depofed, about the year 300, by Peter bithop
in the day-time they frequent the woods, where they of Alexandria, under the charge of his having facri-
feed on acorns; and return at night to the fwamps to ficed to the gods, and having been guilty of other hei-
rooft, which they do on the trees. They are frequent- nous crimes ; though Epiphanius makes his only fail-
ly taken by means of dogs, though they run fafter for ing to have been an exceffive feverity againft the lapfed.
a time ; but the dogs perfifting in the purfuit, the This difpute, which was at firft a perfonal difference
birds foon grow fatigued, and take to the higheft between Meletius and Peter, became a religious con-
trees, where they will fuffer themfelves to be fhot one troverfy ; and the Meletian party fubfifted in the fifth
after another if within reach of the markfman. This century, but was condemned by the firft council of
fowl was firft feen in France in the reign of Francis 1. Nice.
and in England in that of Henry VIII. By the date MELIA, Azaderach, or the Bead tree, in ho¬
of the reign of thefe monarchs, the firft turkies mult tany : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to
have been brought from Mexico, the conqueft of the decandria clafs of plants; and in the natural me-
which was completed A. D. 1521. iElian mentions a thod ranking under the 23d order Trihilatee. The
bird found in India, which fome writers have fufpeft- calyx is quinquedentated ; the petals five ; the nefta-
cd to be the turky ; but Mr Pennant concludes with rium cylindrical, as long as the corolla, with its mouth
Gefner, that it was either the peacock, or fome bird ten-toothed : the fruit is a plum with a quinquelocu-
of that genus. lar kernel. There are three fpecies, all of them exotic
The turky-hen begins to lay early in the fpring, trees of the Indies, riling near 20 feet high ; adorned
and will often produce a great number of eggs, with large pinnated or WTnged leaves, and clufters of
which ■ are white, marked with reddilh or yellow pentapetalous flowers. They are all propagated by
fpots, or rather freckles. She fits well, and is care- feeds town on hot-beds.
ful of her young; of which in this climate Ihe will MELIANTHUS, Honey-flower, in botany; A
-often have from fourteen to feventeen for one brood: genus of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didy-
but Ihe fcarce ever fits more than once in a feafon, except namia clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
allured thereto by putting frelh eggs under her as foon under the 24th order Corydales. The calyx is penta-
as the firft fet are hatched ; for as Ihe is a clofe fitter, phyllous, with the lowermoft leaf gibbous ; there are
fhe will willingly remain two months on the neft, tho’ four petals, with the ne&arium under the loweft ones,
this conduct, as may be fuppofed, is faid greatly to in- The capfule is quadrilocular. There are two fpecies.
jure the bird. Turkies are bred in quantities in fome l.Themajorhath athick,ligneous,fpreading root; many
of the northern counties of England, and are driven upright, ligneous, durable ftalks, riling fix or eight feet
up to London towards autumn for fale in flocks of fe- high ; garnilhed with large pinnated leaves, of four or
veral hundreds, which are collefted from the feveral five pair of ferrated lobes terminated by an odd one*
cottages about Norfolk, Suffolk, and neighbouring and, from the fides and tops of the ftalks, long fpikes
counties, the inhabitants of which think it well worth of chocolate-coloured flowers. 2. The minor hath a
their while to attend carefully to them, by making root like the former ; upright, ligneous, foft, durable
thefe birds a part of their family during the breeding ftalks, rifing four or five feet high ; garnilhed with
feafon. It is pleafing to fee with what facility the fmaller pinnated leaves; and from the fides and ends
drivers manage them, by means of a bit of redrag faf- of the branches, long, loofe, pendulous bunches of
tened to the end of a flick, which, from their antipa- flowers tinged with green, faffron colour, and red.—
thy to it as a colour, ads with the fame effed as a Both the fpecies flower about June: but rarely pro-
fcourge to a quadruped. duce feeds in this country. They are very ornamental.
Of the turky there are feveral varieties, which have both in foliage and flower, and merit admittance in e-
arifen from domeftication. The moft common is dark very colledion. They are eafily propagated by fuckers
grey inclining to black, or barred dulky white and and cuttings. They thrive belt in a dry foil, and in a
black. There is alfo a beautiful variety of a fine deep flickered warm expofure.
copper colour, with the greater quills pure white, and MELIBOEA (anc. geog.), an ifland of Syria, at
the tail of a dirty white ; it is when old a moft beauti- the mouth of the Orontes; which, before it falls into
ful bird. A variety with ^ pure white plumage is alfo the fea, forms a fpreading lake round it. This ifland
now not unfrequent, and appears very beautiful. It was famous for its purple dye. Thought to be a co-
was once efteemed as a great rarity, and the breed lony of Theflalians; and hence Lucretius's epithet,
fuppofed originally to have arifen in Holland. In the Thejfalicus.
Leverian Mufeum is alfo a common turky, with a large MELICA, ropegrass: A genus of the digynia
tuft of feathers on its head, much refembling one li- order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants; and
gured by Albin. in the natural method ranking under the 4th order
MELES, in zoology. See Ursus. Gramina. The calyx is bivalved, biflorous, with an
Meles (anc. geog.), a fine river running by the embryo of a flower betwixt the two florets. There
walls of Smyrna in Ionia, with a cave at its head, where are three fpecies; of which the moft remarkable is
3 A z the
Mel “Sian*
MEL ' [ 372 ] MEL
Melicercs the nutans. It is a native of feveral parts of Britain,
II and the adjacent iflands ; and the inhabitants of fame
^Melinam, 0£ wej[tern iflands make ropes of it for fiihing-nets,
' y ‘^ as it will bear the water for a long time without tot¬
ting.
MELICERES, in furgery, a kind of encyfted tu¬
mors, fo called when their contents are of the con-
fiftence of honey..
MEL1CERTA, Melicertes, or Mellcerlus (fab.
hift.), a fon of Athamas and Ino. He was fared by
his mother from the fury of his father, who prepared
to da(h him againft a wqjl as he had done his brother
Learchus. The mother was fo terrified that (he threw
herfelf into the fea with Melicerta in her arms. Nep¬
tune had compafRon on the misfortunes of Ino and
her fon. He changed them both into fea deities.
Ino was called Leucothoe ox Matuta; and Melicerta was
known among the Greeks by the name of Palamort,
and among the'Latins by that of Portumnus. Some
fuppofe that the Ethmian games were infiituted in
honour of Melicerta.
MELILLA, an ancient town of Africa in the king¬
dom of Fez, and in the province of Caret. It was ta¬
ken by the Spaniards in 1469, but returned back to
the Moors. W. Long. 2 9. N. Lat. 35. 20.
MELILOT. See Trifolium.
MELINDA, a kingdom on the eaft eoaft of Africa,
fituated, according to fome, between the third and
fourth degree of fouth latitude; though there is great
difagreement among geographers as to its extent. It
is allowed by all, however, that the coafts are very
dangerous; being full of rocks and (helves, and the
fea at fome feafons very liable to tempetts. The king¬
dom of Melinda is for the mod part rich and fertile;
producing almoft all the neceffaries of life except wheat
and rice, both which are brought thither from Cam-
baya and other parts; and thofe who cannot purchafe
them make ufe of potatoes in their (lead, which are
here fine, large, and in great plenty. They likewife
abound with great variety of fruit-trees, roots, plants,
and other efculents, and with melons of exquilite tafle.
They have alfo great plenty of venifon, game, oxen,
Iheep, hens, geefe, and other poultry, &c. and one breed
of (heep whofe tails weigh between 30 and 40 pounds.
The capital city is alfo called Melinda.
MELINUM, in natural hiftory, the name of an
earth famous in the earlieft ages of painting, being
the' only white of the great painters of antiquity; and,
according to Pliny’s account, one of the three colours
with which alone they performed all, their works. It
is a fine, white, marly earth, of a very compaft tex¬
ture, yet remarkably light; a fort of texture which
muft render any earth fit for the painter’s ufe that is
of a proper colour. It is frequently found forming a
ilratum in the earth, lying immediately under the ve¬
getable mould. It is of a very fmooth but not glofiy
furface’; is very foft to the touch; adheres firmly to
the tongue; is eafily broken between the fingers; and
Rains the (kin in handling. It melts readily in the
mouth, and is perfe&ly fine; leaving not the leaft grit-
tinefs between the teeth: thrown into water, it makes
a loud bubbling and hiding noife, and moulders away
into a fine powder. It does not ferment with acids;
and fuffers no'change in .the fire. Thefe are the cha-
rafters by which the melinum of the ancients is diftin- Mel ffu
guilhed from ail other white earths. It is dill found ' v 
in the fame place from which the painters of old had
it, viz. the ifle of Milo or Melos, from whence it had
its name; and is common in mod of the adjacent
iflands. It has of late been tried here ; but is found
not to make fuch a bright paint as the other fub-
dances now employed. It is not, however,” liable,
like them, to turn yellow: hence it would feem to be
worth the conlideration of perfons in the colour-trade ;
efpecially as it might be had in any quantities for the
carriage.
MELISSA (fab. hid.), a daughter of MelifTus
king of Crete, who with her fider Amalthaea fed Ju¬
piter with the milk of goats. She fird found out the
means of collefting honey; whence it has been fabled
that (he was changed into a bee, as her name is the
Greek word for that infeft.
MELISSA, Baum: A genus of the gymnofper-
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 4zd or¬
der Verticillata. The calyx is arid, a little plane
above, with the upper lip having its dents nearly of
equal height: the upper lip of the corolla is arched and
bifid; the under one, with the middle lobe, cordated.
There are feveral fpecies; but the mod remarkable are
the following. 1. The officinalis, or common baum,
has fibrous perennial roots; many upright, fquare,
branchy, annual dalks, riling two or three feet high:
garnilhed with oblong, indented, oppofite leaves, by
pairs, two or three inches long, and half as broad;
and from the upper axillas verticillate cluders of finall
white flowers upon fingle footdalks. There is alfo a
kind with variegated leaves. 2. The grandiflora, or
Hetrurian calamint, hath fibrous perennial roots and
annual (talks, riling about a foot high, garnidied with
oblong, oval, indented, hairy, oppoiite leaves; and from
the upper axillas verticillate ciuders of large purple
flowers on forked footdalks. 3. The calarnintha, or
common calamint of the (hops, has fibrous perennial,
roots; upright, fquare, branchy hairy (talks, rifing a
foot high ; roundifli, indented, oppofite leaves ; and
verticillate cluders of fmall bluifh flowers, on forked
footdalks as long as the flowers. All thefe fpecies are
eafily propagated by offsets.
Medicinal ufes. The fird fpecies, when in perfec¬
tion, has a pleafant fmell, fome what of the lemon kind;
and a weak, roughifli, aromatic tade. The young (hoots
have the drongelt flavour; the flowers, and the herb
itfelf when old or produced in very rich moid foils or
rainy feafons, are much weaker both in.fmell and tade;
Baum is appropriated, by the writers on the materia
medica, to the head, domach, and uterus; and in all
diforders of thefe parts is faid to do extraordinary fer-
vice. So high an opinion have fome chemids entertain¬
ed of this plant, that they have expedted to find in it
a. medicine which (hould prolong life beyond the ufual
period. The prefent praitice, however, holds it in no
great edeem; and ranks it (where it certainly deferves
to-be) among the weaker corroborants. Infufions of
the leaves in water fmell .agreeably of the herb, but
have not much tade, though on being infpiffated they
leave a coniiderable quantity of a bitterhh audere ex-
tradl. Infufions of baum do not, like other aromatics,
2 offend'
MEL [ 373 ] MEL
Meliffus offend the head, as is complained of from fage, &c.
II Cold infufions in water or fpirit are far better than
Melitus. tjie Cohobated diftilled water, and are the beft prepa-
v rations from the plant. On diftilling the frefh herb
•with water, it impregnates the firft running pretty
Itrongly with its grateful flavour. When large quan¬
tities are fubje&ed to the operation at once, there fe-
parates and rifes to the furface of the aqueous fluid a
fmall portion of effential oil, which fome call ol. Syr Ice,
and others ol. Germanis. It is of a yellowifh cokmr,
and of a very fragrant fmell.
MELISSUS of Samos, a Greek phifofopher, was
the fon of Imagines and the difciple of Parmenides;
and lived about 440 B. C. He pretended that the
univcrfe is infinite, immoveable, and without a vacuum.
Themiflocles was among his pupils.
MELITE (anc. geog.),an ifland referred to Africa
by Scylax and Ptolemy; but nearer Sicily, and allot¬
ted to it by the Romans: commended for its commo¬
dious harbours; for a city well built, with artificers of
every kind, efpecially weavers' of fine linen ; all owing
to the Phoenicians the firfl colonifts. Novt Malta;
remarkable for St Paul’s fhipwreck. See Malta.
Melite, Melitay or Melitina Infula; an ifland on the
coaft of Illyricum in the Adriatic. The Catuli Me-
liltfi (Pliny) were famous. Now Meltcle, the name of
the ifland Samos. See Samos.
Melite (anc. geog.), a town of Ionia, ftruck out
of the number of Ionian towns on account of the ar¬
rogance of the people, and Smyrna admitted in lieu of
it. The fituation not faid.
MELITENSIS terra, the Earth of Malta: an
earth of which there are two very different kinds; the
one of the genus of boles, the other of the marks. The
latter is that known by medicinal authors under this
name; the former is the Malta earth now in ufe : but
both being brought from the fame place, are confu-
fedly called by the fame name. The Maltefe mark,
which is the terra Melitenfis of medicinal authors, is a
loofe, crumbly, and very light earth, of an unequal and
irregular texture; and, when expofed to the weather,
foon falls into fine foft powder: but when preferved
and dried, it becomes a’ loofe, light mafs, of a dirty
white colour, with a greyifli caff : it is rough to the
touch, adheres firmly to the tongue, is very eafily crum¬
bled to powder between the fingers, and Itains the
bands. Thrown into the water, it fwells, and after¬
wards moulders awfay into a fine powder. It ferments
very violently with acid menftruums. Both kinds are
found in great abundance in the ifland of Malta, and
the latter has been much efleemed as a remedy againlt
the bites of venomous animals. The other has fupplied
its place in the German fhdps; and is ufed there as a
cordial, fudorific, and aftringent.
MEI.1TO (canonized), bifhop of Sardis in Lydih,
in the fecond century; remarkable for the apology
he prefented to the emperor Aurelius, in favour of the
Chriftians; on which Eufebius and the other ancient
ecclefiaftical writers beftow-great praifes: but that apo¬
logy and all Melito’s other works are-loft.
MELITUS, a Greek orator and poet, the accufer of
"“Socrates. The Athenians, after the death of Socrates,
difeovering the iniquity of the fentence they had paf-
fed againft that great philofopher, put Melitus to death,
400 B- C.
MELLAN (Claude), an engraver of confiderable M lhm
note, was a native of Abbeville in Picardy, and born H I
in 1601. His father was the receiver of the cuftoms '' .
in that town; and he took great care of the educa¬
tion of his fon. His genius for drawing difeovering
itfelf very early in life, he was fent to Paris, and placed
under the diredtion of Simon Vouet in order to per-
feft himfelf in that art, and his ftudies promifed fuc-
cefs; but he was diverted from his application to them
by the defire he had of learning the management of
the graver, which he acquired with much facility. From
Paris, at the age of fixteen,,he went to Rome, where'
he engraved a confiderable number of plates, many of
which are held in great dftimation ; particularly thofe
for the Juftinian Gallery, the portrait of the Marquis
Juftinian, and that of Pope Urban VIII. Returning
to France, he married at Paris, and fettled there in
1654. The king of France being made acquainted
with his merit, affigned him apartments in the Louvre,
in the double quality of a painter and an engraver.
He acquired a competent fortune, and was greatly
efteemed by all who knew him. He died in 1688,
aged 87.
Florent le Comte tells us, “ That Charles II. was
fo much pleafed with his performances, that he in¬
vited him to come into England, making him at the
fame time very advantageous offers. But the love of
hii country (continues that author) prevented his ac¬
cepting of them.”
It is remarked, thatmoft of the plates.which he en¬
graved at Rome, and before he went thither, are ex¬
ecuted in the ufual manner; that is, wdth parallel
ftrokes, crofted with feebnd and third ftrokes, as the
depth of the lhadows might require. But afterwards
he adopted a new mode of working with Angle ftrokes
only, without any fecond ftrokes laid upon them; and
the (hadows are exprefftd by the fame ftrokes being
madeftronger and brought nearer to each other. The
effect which he produced by this method of engraving
is foft and clear. In fingle figures and fmall lubjedfs
he fucceeded very happily; but in large compofitions,
where great depth of fliadow was required, he has
failed. His neateft plates in this ftyle have an unfi-
niftied appearance, by no means fuitable to large en¬
gravings; but at the fame time a lightnefs exceeding¬
ly agreeable when confined to fmall ones; According
to Le Gomt-e, the works of this mafter amount to
342-
MELLER, a lake of Sweden, So miles long, and
•30 brohd; on which ftands the city of Stockholm.
MELLI, with the country of the Mundingoes, in
Africa. The country formerly called Melli, now chief¬
ly inhabited by the Mundingoes, who ftill retain pretty
much of the charadler aferibed to the people of Melli,
lies to the fouth of the river Gambia ; on the weft it
borders on the kingdom of Kabo; ..on the fouth it has
Melli, properly fcf called, and- the mountains that part
it from Guinea; and on the eaftit extends to the king¬
dom of Ga^o. A great -part of this country we are
little acquainted with; as is the cafe with regard to
molt of the inland territories of Africa,, but towards
the fea-coaft this country is a little better known.
The firft place -of note we meet with is Kachao, a
Portuguefe colony, fituated on the river of St Do¬
mingo, which falls into the Tea about 26 leagues belo w •
thii
MEL [ 374 J ME Lv
Well!, this town —-About 26 leagues above Kaehao, on the
Melmoth fame flcJe of the river, is another trading town called
J" “"V-™"" par\ni^ where, in the months of Odtober and Novem¬
ber, one may trade for about half the quantity of wax
and ivory which is traded for at Kachao. Here are
alfo fome Haves to be bought.—Bot is a village near
the mouth of the river Gefves, where moft of the tra¬
ders buy rice; which is in great plenty there, and very
good.—Gefves is a village on a liver of the fame name,
on which the Portuguefe have a factory. At Gefvea
one may trade yearly for 250 Haves, 8c or 100 quin-
tals of wax, and as many of ivory. Near the mouth
of the river of Gefves is a village called Kurbali,
■where there is a confiderable trade for fait; here are
alfo fome Haves and ivory. Rio Grande, or the Great
River, runs about 10 or 12 leagues to the fouth of
the river of Gefves. About 80 leagues from the mouth
of it is a nation of Negroes, who are good traders in
ivory, rice, millet, and -fome Haves. . They are called
AnalonOver-againfl; the mouth of Rio Grande is
a duller of iflands called B'ljfago IJlts; the moft con¬
fiderable of which is Caflagut, being about fix leagues
long and two broad ; its foil is very good, and produ-
fces millet, rice, and all kinds of pulfe, befides orange
' and palm-trees, and many others. This ifiand, with
thofe of Carache, Canabac, and La Gallina, are the
only ones where the Europeans may trade with fome
fecurity. They trade, however, fometimes at the other
ifiands, but they mull be extremely cautious; and yet
after all their precautions, they will be robbed and
murdered if they venture to go alhore. The river
Nunho runs 16 leagues to the fouth of Rio Grande 5
it is very confiderable, and comes from a vaft diftance
in-land. One may buy here 300 quintals of ivory and
100 Haves a-year. Rice grows here admirably well,
and is very cheap. There are every-where fugar-canes
which grow naturally; and plants of indigo, which
might turn to good account. The trade is carried on
here from March till Auguft. In the river of Sierra
Leone, the late Royal African company of England
had, in the year 1728, two ifiands; the one, called
Tajfof a large flat ifland, near three leagues in circum¬
ference, in which the company’s Haves had a good plan¬
tation ; the reft of the ifland is covered with wood,
among which are filk-cbtton trees of an unaccountable
fize. The other ifland is Benfe, whereon ftood a re¬
gular fort. It was formerly the refidence of one of
the Englifh chiefs.
MELMOTH (William, Efq;), a learned and wor¬
thy bencher of Lincoln’s Inn, was born in 1666. In
conjunftion with Mr Peere Williams, Mr Melmoth was
the publilher of Vernon’s Reports, under an order of
the court of chancery. He had once an intention of
printing his own Reports; and a ftrort time before his
death advertifed them at the end of thofe of his coad¬
jutor Peere Williams, as then actually preparing for
the prefs. They have, however, not yet made their
appearance. But the performance for which he juftly
deferves to be held in perpetual remembrance is, “ The
Great Importance of a Religious Lifeconcerning
which it may be mentioned, to the credit of the age,
that notwithftanding many large editions had before
been circulated, 42,000 copies of this ufeful treatife
have been fold in the laft 18 years. It is a fomewhat
fingular circumftance, that the real author of this moft
admirable treatife (hould never before have been pub- M el-uoffi,
licly known (it having been commonly attributed to Melochia.
the firft earl of Egmont, and particularly by Mr Wal-
pole in his Catalogue); which is the more furprifing,
as the author is plainly pointed out in the following
flrort character prefixed to the book itfelf: “ It may
add weight, perhaps, to the refledtions contained in
the following pages, to inform the reader, that the au¬
thor’s life was one uniform exemplar of thofe precepts
which, with fo generous a zeal, and fuch an elegant
and affecting fimplicity of ftyle, he endeavours to re¬
commend to general practice. He left others to con¬
tend for modes of faith, and inflame themfelves and the
world with endlefs controverfy: it was the wifer pur-
pofe of his more ennobled aim, to adt up to thofe clear
rules of condudt which revelation hath gracioufly pre-
feribed. He poffeffed by temper every moral virtue ;
by religion every Chriftian grace. He had a humani¬
ty that melted at every diftrefs; a charity which not
only thought no evil, but fufpedted none. He exer-
cifed his profefiion with a ikill and integrity which no¬
thing could equal but the difinterefted motive that ani¬
mated his labours, or the amiable modefty which ac¬
companied all his virtues. He employed his induftry,
not to gratify his own defires; no man indulged him-
felf lefs: not to accumulate ufelefs wealth ; no man
more difdained fo unworthy a purfuit: it was for the
decent advancement of his family, for the generous af-
fiftanee of his friends, for the ready relief of the indi¬
gent. How often did he exert his diftinguilhed abi¬
lities, yet refufe the reward of them, in defence of the
widow, the fatherlefs, and him that had none to help
him ! In a word, few have ever paffed a more ufeful,
not one a more blamelefs life; and his whole time was
employed either in doing good or in meditating it.
He died on the 6th day of April 1743, and lies buried
under the cloifter of Lincoln’s Inn Chapel, mem. pat.
opt. mer. fil. me.” The fon, by whom this charac¬
ter is drawn, is William Melmoth, Efq; the celebrated
tranflator of Pliny and of Cicero’s Letters; and au¬
thor of thofe which pafs under the name of Sir Thomas
Fitzojborne.
MELOCHIA, Jews mallow, in botany: A ge¬
nus of the pentandria order, belonging to the mono-
delphia clafs-of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 37th order, Columnifera. The cap-
fule is quinquelocular and monofpermous. There
are feveral fpecies; but the only remarkable one is
the olitorius, or common Jews-mallow, which is a
native of the warm parts of Afia and America.—
It is an annual plant, which rifes about two feet
high, dividing into feveral branches, garniflied with
leaves of different fizes and forms :, fome are fpear-
ftiaped, others are oval, and fome almoft heart-
ffiaped : they are of a deep green, and flightly in¬
dented on their edges, having near their bale two
briftly reflexed fegments. They have very long flen-
der footftalks, efpecially thofe which grow on the
lower part of the branches. The flowers fit clofe on
the oppofite fide of the branches to the leaves, coming
out fingly ; they are compofed of five fmall yel¬
low petals, and a great number of ftamina furround¬
ing the oblong germen, which is fituated in the cen¬
tre of the flower, and afterwards turns to a rough
fwelling capfule two inches long, ending in a-point,
and
MEL r 375 ] MEL
and having four cells filled with angular greenifh feeds.
This fpecits is cultivated about the city of Aleppo in
Syria, and in the Eaft Indies, as a pot-herb ; the
Jews boiling the leaves, and eating them with their
meat. It is fuppofed by Rauwolf to be the ohts Ju-
daicvm of Avicenna, and the corchorum of Pliny.
MELODUNUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the Ce-
nones in Gallia Celtica above Lutetia j now Melun,
in the ille of France, on the Seine.
MELODY, in mufic, a fucceffion of founds ran¬
ged in fuch a manner, according to the laws of rhyth-
mus and modulation, that it may form a fentiment
agreeable to the ear. Vocal melody is called fmging ;
and that which is performed upon inftruments may
be termed fymphonic melody.
The idea of rhythmus neceffarily enters into that of
melody. An air is not an air but in proportion as the
laws of meafure and quantity are obferved. The fame
fuccefiion of founds is fufceptible of as many different
chara&ers, as many different kinds of melody, as the
various ways by which its emphatic notes, and the
quantities of thofe which intervene, may be diverfified;
and the change in duration of the notes alone, may
difguife that very fucceffion in fuch a manner that it
cannot be known. Thus, melody in itfelf is nothing;
it is the rhythmus or meafure which determines it, and
there can be no air without time. If then weabftradl
meafure from both, we cannot compare melody with
harmony; for to the former it is effential, but not at all
to the latter.
Melody, according to the manner in which it is
confidered, has a relation to two different principles.
When regarded only as agreeable to the proportions of
found and the rules of modulation, it has its principle
in harmony ; fince it is a harmonical analyfis, which
exhibits the different gradations of the fcale, the chords
peculiar to each mode, and the laws of modulation,
which are the foie elements that compofe an air. Ac¬
cording to this principle, the whole power of melody
is limited to that of pleafing the ear by agreeable
founds, as the eye may be pleafed with an agreeable
affemblage of fuitable colours. But when confidered as
an imitative art, by which we may affeft the mind
with various images, excite different emotions in the
heart, inflame or foothe the paffions ; by which, in a
word, we produce different effedfs upon our moral fa¬
culties, which are not to be effeftuated by the in¬
fluence of external fenfe alone, we muff explore ano¬
ther principle for melody : for in our whole internal
frame there appears to be no power upon which either
harmony alone, or its neceflary refults, can feize, to
affeft us in fuch a manner.
What then is the fecond principle ? It is as much
founded on nature as the firft ; but, in order to difco-
ver its foundation in nature, it will require a more ac¬
curate though Ampler obfervation, and a more exqui-
fite degree of fenfibility in the obferver. This prin¬
ciple is the fame which varies the tone of the voice,
when we fpeak, according as we are interefted in
what we fay, and according to the different emo¬
tions which we feel in expreffing it. It is the accent
of languages which determines the melody of every
nation ; it is the accent which determines us to em¬
ploy the emphafis of fpeaking while we fing, and to
fpeak with more or kfs energy according as the lan¬
guage which we ufe is more or iefs accented. That Melody,
language whofe accents are the moft fenfible, ought to
produce a more paffionate and more lively melody;
that which has little accentuation, or none at all, can
only produce a cold and languid melody, without cha-
rafter and without expreffion. Thefe are the true
principles: in proportion as we depart from them,
when we fpeak of the power of mufic upon the
human heart, we fhall become unintelligible to our-
felves and others ; our words will be without mean-
ins-
If mufic does not imprefs the foul with images but
by melody, if from thence it obtains its whole power,
it muff follow, that all mufical founds which are not
pleafing by themfelves alone, however agreeable to
harmony they may be, is not an imitative mufic; and,
being incapable, even with its moft beautiful chords,
either to prefent the images of things, or to excite the
finer feelings, very foon cloys the ear, and leaves al¬
ways the heart in cold indifference. It.follows like-
wife, that notwithftanding the parts which harmony
has introduced, and which the prefent tafte of mufic
fo wantonly abufes, wherever two different melodies
are heard at the fame time, they counteradl each o-
ther, and deftroy the effefts of both, however beauti¬
ful each may be when performed alone : from whence
it may be judged with what degree of tafte the French
compofers have introduced in their operas the mifer-
able pra&ice of accompanying one air with another, as
well in finging, which is the native expreffion of pa¬
thos and fentiment, as in inftrumental performances j
which is the fame thing as if whimfical orators fhould
take it in their heads to recite two orations at the fame
time, that the elegance of each might derive more
force from the other.
So much for Rouffeau The tranflator, however,
has reafon to fear, that the caufes by which national
melody is diverfified and charafterifed, are more pro¬
found and permanent than the mere accentuation of
language. This indeed may have great influence in
determining the nature of the rhythmus, and the place
of emphatic notes; but very little in regulating the
nature of the emphafis and expreffion themfelves. If
Rouffeau’s principle be true in its full extent, he muft
of neceffity acknowledge, that an air which was never
fet or intended for words, however melodious, cannot
be imitative : he muft likewife confefs, that what is
imitative in one nation cannot be fuch in another: nor
can it be denied upon his hypothefis, that the recita¬
tive, which is formed upon the mode of fpeaking, is
the moft forcible of all melodies; which is abfurd..
His other obfervations are at once judicious and pro¬
found. Though it is impoffible to exhibit the beauty
and variety of harmony by playing the fame melody
at the fame time upon different keys, admitting thofe
keys to form among themfelvss a perfeft chord, which
will of confequence preferve all the fubfequent notes in
the fame intervals; yet this perfect harmony would by
no means be uniformly pleafing to the ear. We muft
therefore of neceffity introduce lefs perfeft chords to
vary and increafe the pleafure, and thefe chords in any
complex fyftem of mufic muft of neceffity produce
diffonances. It then becomes the bufinefs of the com-
pofer to be careful that thefe difcords may arife as-na-
turally from, and return as naturally to, perfeft har-
* mony.
MEL [ 376 ] MEL
mony as poflible. All thefe caufes mull inevitably
vary the melody of the different parts ; but Hill, amidft
all thefe difficulties, the artift ought to be zealous in
preferving the melody of each as homogeneous with
the others as poffible, that the refult of the whole may
be in fome meafure uniform. Otherwife, by counter-
afting each other, the parts will reciprocally deftroy
the effe&s one of another.
MELOE, in zoology; a genus of infefts of the
order of coleoptera. The antennaj are jointed, the lall
joint being oval; the breaft is roundilh ; the elytra are
foft and flexible ; and the head is inflected, and gib¬
bous. The infedls of this genus are divided into two
families ; one without wings, and having the elytra
fliorter than the abdomen ; the other winged, with
elytra fliorter than the body and wholly covering the
wings.—The moll remarkable fpecies are,
1. The profcarabaeus; the colour of which is black,
but without brightnefs, though intermixed with a
fmall degree of purple, efpecially towards the under
part of the body. Its head, which is large, is dotted;
as is the thorax, which is narrower, round, and with¬
out a margin. The elytra are as foft.as leather, flia-
greened, and cover but part of the abdomen. They
are, as it were, cut off obliquely from the inner to
the outer part, being fliorter towards the future, long¬
er on the fides. There are no wings under the elytra.
The abdomen is large, efpecially that of the female,
in which it far exceeds the elytra.—This infeft makes
its abode on the fide of wet roads and in woods. Its
food are infefts, violet leaves, and delicate herbs.
There oozes from its body a fat un&uous matter of
an agreeable fmell. The males are lefs than the fe¬
males.
2. The veficatorius, or blillering meloe, is nine or
ten lines in length, of a ftiining green colour mixed
with azure. It multiplies greatly. They are fome-
times feen flying in fwarms. A ftaufeous fmell, not
unlike that of mice, befpeaks their approach ; which
fcent leads to the difcovery of them when they are
fought for in order to make a provifion. When
dried, they are fo light, that 50 fcarce weigh one
dram. They prey upon the leaves of trees and flrrubs,
and in preference take to thofe of the afli-tree. The
odorous particles exhaled by thefe infedls, are extreme¬
ly corrofive. Great caution ffiould be ufed in picking
them up. People have been known to be feizedwith
violent heat of urine, voiding of blood, for having
gathered a quantity of them during the heat of the
fun with their hands bare, or for having fallen afleep
under trees where fwarms of them had fettled. The
copulation of thefe infedts is performed during the
moll intenfe heat of the day.
There are many other fpecies, differing in fize, fi¬
gure, and colour. Nature has apparelled almoit all of
them in a fplendid manner. Green, azure, and gold,
render them dazzling to the eyes. They are moll
common in the fouthern parts of the continent. In
this genus, as well as in fome others, the females court,
and in the *61 take the place of the males. The fe¬
males depofit their eggs in the ground, whence pro¬
ceed larvae, which pafs through the Hate of chryfa-
lids in order to attain to that of meloes.
Ujes. Oil in which infe&s of theJirJl fpecies have been
jnfufed is laid to be an excellent topical for wounds and
N°2IO.
the fcorpion’s fling. It enters alfo into the compofi- Me'oe.
tion of falve for plague fores. The infedls bruifedu——v“"“
and mixed with oil or honey, Linnaeus fays, are com¬
mended as a remedy in the rabies canina.
The fecond fpecies is the cantharis of the Ihops ;
which, when bruifed, is univerfally ufed as a blifter-
ing plafter. The largell and moll efteemed of this
fort come from Italy. Cantharides are extremely acri¬
monious : applied to the Hein, they firft inflame, and
afterwards excoriate the part, railing a more perfe£l
blifter than any of the vegetable acrids, and occafion-
ing a more plentiful difcharge of ferum. All the
bliftering compofitions have cantharides for their ba-
fis. The external application of cantharides is often
followed by a ftrangury, accompanied with thirft and
feverilh heat: this inconvenience may be remedied by
foft un<ftuous or mucilaginous liquors liberally drank.
Cantharides taken internally often occafion a dif-
eharge of blood by urine, with exquifite pain. If the
dofe is confiderable, they feem to inflame and exul-
cerate the whole inteftinal canal; the ftools become
mucous and purulent; the breath fetid and cadaver¬
ous ; intenfe pains are felt in the lower belly; the pa¬
tient faints, grows giddy, raving mad, and dies. All
thefe terrible confequences have fometimes happened
from a few grains. Herman relates, that he has known
a quarter of a grain inflame the kidneys, and occafion
bloody urine with violent pain. There are neverthe-
lefs cafes in which this ftimulating fly, given in larger
dofes, proves not only fafe, but of Angular efficacy
for the cure of difeafes that yield little to medicines
of a milder clafs. In cold phlegmatic fluggilh habits,
where the vifcera are overloaded, and the kidneys and
ureters obftrudled with thick vifcid mucous matter,
cantharides have excellent effedls: here the abounding
mucus defends the folids from the acrimony of the fly,
till it is itfelf expelled; when the medicine ought to
be difcontinued. Groenvelt employed cantharides
with great fuccefs in dropfies, obftinate fuppreffions of
urine, and ulcerations of the bladder; giving very
confiderable dofes made into bolufes with camphor;
and interpofing large draughts of emulfions, milk, or
other emollent liquids : by this means, the exceffive
irritation, which they would otherwife have occafioned,
was in great meafure prevented. The camphor did
not perhaps contribute fo much to this effeft as is
generally imagined, fince it has no fenfible quality
that promifes any confiderable abatement of the acri¬
mony of cantharides: nitre would anfwer all that the
camphor is fuppofed to perform ; this, with milk, or
emollient mucilaginous liquors, drank in large quan¬
tity, are the heft corredlors. Cantharides, in very
fmall dofes, may be. given with fafety alfo in other
cafes. Dr Mead obferves, that the obftinate gleet-
ings which frequently remain after the cure of venereal
maladies, and which rarely yield to balfamic medi¬
cines, are effe£lually remedied by cantharides; and
that no one remedy is more efficacious in leprous dif-
orders; in which laft, proper purgatives are to be
occafionally taken during the ufe of the cantharides.
The beft and fafeil preparation of cantharides for
thefe purpofes, is a fpirituous tin&ure; and indeed,
in all cafes, the tinfture is far preferable, for internal
ufe, to the fly in fubftance.
The virtues of cantharides are extracted by re&ified
fpirit
M E L [ s77 ] MEL
Melon, fpirit of wine, proof fpirit, and water ; but do not fit for ufe ; when tlie trench muft be dug to receive McUo,
  arife in diftillation. The watery and fpirituous ex- the dung where the bed is defigned to be made, which
trails blifter as freely as the fly in fubftance ; whilil in a.dry ground (tumid not be lefs than a foot or a
the fly remaining after the feveral menftrua have per- foot and a half deep. The frames (hould then be
formed their office, is to the tafte infipid, and does placed over the bed to keep out the wet; but no
not in the leaft blifter or inflame the Ikin. earth fhould be laid upon it for . three or four days,
* See Cucu- MELON, in botany, a fpecies of cucumis *, in till it is found of a proper temperature of heat. When
vw' the Linnaean fyftem. The female flowers have noila- this is the cafe, the earth may be laid upon it, about
mina or fummits, but have a very large .oval germen, two inches thick, except in the middle of each light,
fituated below the flower, which turns to an oval where the plants are to be placed, which muft be
fruit with feveral cells, filled with oval, acute-pointed, raifed into a hill 15 inches high or more, terminating
eomprefled feeds, inclofed in a foft pulp. There is in a flat cone : in two or three days after the e: rth is
a great variety of this fruit cultivated in different parts put on the bed, it will be of a proper temper to re¬
ef the world, many of them of no value, fize being ceive the plants; which (hould be carefully taken up
regarded too much in the markets. The Cantakupe with a trowel, fo as to preferve all the fibres of their
melon, fo called from a place in the neighbourhood of roots; or if the beds cannot be ready for them in
Rome, where this fruit has been long cultivated, and time, foon after the third or rough leaf is put out,
whither it was brought from Armenia, is in the great- it will be a good method to put each plant into a
eft efteem among the curious in every part of Europe, fmall pot while they are young, and thefe may be
Befidesthis, there are alfo the romana, the fuccadti, the plunged into the hot bed where they were raifed, or
Zatte, the fmall Portugal or dormer, and the black Galloway in a cucumber-bed, where there is room; and when
melons, moft of which are cultivated for an early crop. the bed is ready, the plants may be turned out of the
The proper management and culture of melons are pots, with the whole ball of earth to their roots;
as follow : the feeds flrould be procured from good and this is the beft method for the Cantaleupe melon.
' melons, of the founded fort and higheft flavour, pro- When the plants are placed on the tops of the hills,
duced, as fome have advifed, in a diftaut garden ; for they (hould be gently watered once or twice, till they
if fown on the place where it was raifed and ripened, have taken good root; and when they are well fixed
it is very apt to degenerate. This feed (hould be kept in the new beds, a greater quantity of earth (hould
three years before it is fown, but not more than be laid on the beds, preffed down as clofe as poffible,
fix ; and it (hould be fowrn at two feafons, or if at and raifed at leaft a foot and a half thick upon the dung
three it will be ftill better: the firft for the early all over the bed ; obferving alfo to raife the frames,
crop, to be raifed under frames, (hould be fown about that the glaffes may not be too near the plants, left
the middle of February; the fecond, to be raifed in the fun (hould fcorch them. When the plants have
the fame manner, is to be fown about the middle of four leaves, the top of the plants (hould be pinched
March ; and thofe which are defigned for hand or off with the finger and thumb, that they may put
bell-glaffes, or to be covered with oil-papers, (hould out lateral branches for producing the fruit; and when
not be fown till about a week in April. two or more of thefe lateral (hoots are produced, they
For thofe of the firft feafon, the feeds may be fown muft alfo be pinched to force out more. The manage-
on the upper fide of a cucumber-bed, if there be any; ment of thefe beds is much the fame as that of cucum-
or, a proper quantity of new loofe dung muft be pro- bers, except that melons require more air and very
vided, and thrown on a heap to ferment; and turned little water. In five or fix weeks the plants will fpread
over, that it may acquire an equal heat; and the plants over the bed, and reach to the frames, when the alleys
muft be raifed and managed like cucumbers, until they between the beds flrould be dug out; or in cafe of
are planted where they are to remain. The beds or one bed, a trench (hould be made on each fide about
ridges, where the plants are to remain, (hould be placed four feet wide, as low as the bottom of the bed ;
in a warm fituation, fo that they may be defended and hot dung wheeled in for a lining, to the fame
from all cold and ftrong winds, and inclofed in a good height as the dung of the bed ; this (hould be trodden
reed fence. In preparing the earth for thefe plants, down clofe, and covered with the fame earth that was
the Dutch and German gardeners form a mixture of laid on the bed, to the thicknefs of a foot and a half
a third part of hazel loam, a third part of the fcour- or more, treading it down as clofe as poffible. In
ing of ditches and ponds, and the fame quantity of this way the bed will be extended to the width of 12
very rotten dung; which they mix up at leaft one, feet, that the roots of the plants may fpread quite
and often two years, before they make ufe of it, fre- through it; and the beds will alfo require a frefti
quently turning it over, fo that the parts may be well warmth, which will be of great fervice in fetting of
incorporated ; but the compoft in which Mr Miller the fruit. When the vines have extended fo as to fill
has found melon plants to fucceed beft in England is the frames, and want more room, the frames (hould
two-thirds of frefti gentle loam, and one-third of rot- be raifed up with bricks about three inches high, ta
ten neat’s dung : if thefe are mixed together one admit the (hoots of the vines to run out under them,
year before it is wanted, fo as to have the benefit of When the fruit appears, the vines (hould be carefully
a winter’s froft and fummer’s heat, obferving to turn looked over three times a week ; and one (hould be
it over often, and never fuffering w'eeds to grow upon chofen upon each runner that is fituated neareft the
it, this will be found equal to ^ny compoft whatever. Item, having the largeft foot-ftalk, and appearing to
Before the plants appear, there (hould be a quantity be the ftrongeft fruit ; then pinch off all the other fruit
of new dung thrown in a heap, allowing about 15 wftiich may appear upon the fame runner, and pinch
•wheelbarrows full to each light; which muft be turned off the end of the runner at the third joint above the
•over two or three times, and in a fortnight it will be fruit; and if the runner is gently pinched at the next
Vol.XI. Part I. 3B joint
M E I, [ 3;
j01'nt above tbe fruit,it will ftop the fap and fet the fruit.
»—■v There is alfol nother method pracftifed by fome gar¬
deners to fet this fruit, which is the taking off fome
of the male flowers, whofe farina is juft ripe and fit
for the purpofe, laying them over the female fruit,
and gently ftriking with the nails the male flowers, to
flrake the farina into the female flowers; whereby they
are impregnated, and the fruit will foon after fwell,
and manifeft vifible figns of being perfeftly fet; fo
that where the plants are under frames, and the wind
excluded from them, which is wanted to convey the
farina from the male to the female flowers, this prac¬
tice may be very neceffary. The glaffes of the hot¬
bed (hould alfo be raifed high, to admit a large ftiare
of air to the plants, otherwife the fruit will not fet;
and if the feafon Ihould’prove very warm, the glaffes
may be frequently drawn off, efpecially in an evening,
to receive the dews, provided there is little wind ftir-
ring : but they fhould not remain off the whole night,
left the cold ftiould prove too great. When the plants
have extended themfelves from under the frames, in
cold weather their extremities ftiould be covered every
night with mats, and the plants fliould be watered
once in a week in dry warm weather, in the alleys be¬
tween the beds.
For thofe melons that are raifed under bell or hand-
glaffes, the plants ftiould be raifed in the manner al¬
ready direfled, and about the latter end of April, in a
forward feafon, the beds may be made. For this pur¬
pofe, a fufficient quantity of hot-dung fliould be pro¬
vided, allowing eight or nine good wheel-barrows of
dung to each glafs. For one bed extended in length,
tlie trench fhould be cut out three-one-half feet wide,
and of fuch a length, that the glaffes may not be placed
nearer than four feet to each other: in digging the
trench, it fliould be fo fituated, as to allow for the
widening of the bed three or four feet on each fide; the
depth muft depend on the nature of the foil; and when
there is no danger of the beds being injured by the
wet, the lower it is made the better. When the
dung, prepared as before, is laid on the bed, there
ftiould be a hill for each plant, one foot and a half
high, and the other part need not be covered more
than four inches thick ; the glaffes (hould then be pla¬
ced over the hills, and in two or three days after the
beds are made they will be fit for receiving the
plants, which fhould be removed in the manner alrea¬
dy direfted. Thefe plants muft be watered at firft,
to fettle the earth to their roots, and (haded every
day, till they have taken new root; and if the nights
prove cold, it will be proper to cover the glaffes with
mats, in order to preferve the warmth of the bed. If
ftveral beds are made, they fhould be placed at eight
feet diftance from each other. When the plants have
taken good root, their tops muft be pinched off, and
the pruning muft be the fame as for thofe under frames.
In the day-time, when the weather is warm, the
glaffes fhculd be raifed on the eppofite fide to the
wind, to admit frefh air to the plants; and when
they reach the fides of the glaffes, in favourable
•weather the glaffes muft be fet up on three bricks,
that the vines may have room to run out under them;
but when this is done, the beds fhould be covered all
over with earth to the depth of one foot and an half,
and trod dottn as clofe as pofiible ; and in cold nights,
$ ] M E I.
the beds fliould be covered with mats. And as the Melon,
vines of the Cantaleupe melons cannot bear wet with- '-—'V—
out injury, it will be neceffary to arch the beds over
with props to- fupport the mats, that they may be
ready for covering at all times when they require it.
If the weather fLould prove cold, hot dung may he
laid to thefe beds in the manner direfted for thofe un¬
der frames. Some have lately raifed their melon*
with confiderable fuccefs under oiled paper ; but great
care muft be taken not to keep thefe coverings too
clofe over them. And Miller advifes to bring'up the
plants under hand or bell glaffes, till they begin to
extend themfelves under the glaffes, and then, inftead
of the covering of mats, to put over them the paper-
done over with linfeed oil.
The farther management of melons, after their fruit
is fet, is to keep pulling off all the fuperfluous fruit,
and to pinch off all weak runners ; and alfo to turn
the fruit gently twice a-week, that each fide may have
equal benefit of the fun and air. When the fruit is
fully grown, care fhould be taken to cut it at a pro¬
per time 5 for if it is left a few hours upon the vines,
it will lofe much of its delicacy ; therefore the vines
fhould be looked over at lead twice in a day : and if
the fruit intended for the table is cut early in the
morning? before the fun has warmed it, it will be
much better flavoured ; but if it fliould be neceffary to
cut any aftenvards, it fliould be put into cold fpring
water or ice to cool it, before it is brought to table ;
and that cut in the morning ihould be kept in the cool-
eft place till it is ufed. The figns of this fruit’s ma¬
turity is, its beginning to crack near the'foot-ftalk,
and its beginning to fmell, which never fail: but
the Cantaleupe melons feldom change their colour
till they are too ripe.
Mr Reynolds has communicated to the Society of
Arts the following method of raifing melons without
earth, dung, or water. About a month before the
feeds are fown, lit prepares a bed of caft-off tanner’s
bark, four feet deep, fix feet wide, and twelve feet in
length : this he covers with four lights, fo as not to
admit rain or water. March (he fays) is a proper
feafon for this purpofe. When the bed becomes
warm, which generally happens in about 20 days, a
few melon feeds are put into warm milk in an earthen
veffel, which is preffed down into the bark-bed, where
it remains 36 hours, in order to promote the vegeta¬
tion of the feeds. Then, at equal diftances, he di-
refts to open four holes in the bed, each xine inches
in diameter, and five inches deep ; having in readinefs
about a peck of pounded bark, like faw-duft, fome of
it to be put at the bottom of the holes, to the thick-
nefs of three inches : on this bark fome of the feeds
are to be placed, and preffed down with the .fingers;
then the feeds are to be covered with two inches more
of the powdered bark, prefling the whole down with
the hand. When the plants are advanced to a pro¬
per fize, the heft are chofen and the others call away;,
thofe that are referved are ordered to be properly
pruned, and to have as much warm air as poffible du¬
ring the fummer. In this way (he fays) he has rair
fed as good melons as can be defired.
When a melon is perfectly fine, it is full, without
any vacuity : this is known by knocking upon it; and
when cut, the flefh muft be dry, no water running
4 ' ' OUta
MEL [ 379 1 MEL
^Me!on. out, only a little dew, which is to be of a fine red co-
■—■'V"— lour. Large melons are not to be coveted, but firm and
well-flavoured ones. Our gardeners wdio raife melons
for fale, fow the feeds of the larger rather than the
good kinds, and they increafe the fize of thefe by
much watering the roots ; but this fpoils the tafle.
Some of the French raife at this time particularly fine
melons, by a method kept as a fecret, but which we
find, on a ltri£t inquiry, is no other than the ingeni¬
ous Mr Quintiny’s of that nation, publifhed near 80
years ago in our Philofophlcal Tramaftions
The melons particularly proper to be treated in this
manner, are thofe which have a thin and fomewhat em¬
broidered fkin, not divided by ribs, and have a red pul£,
dry and melting on the tongue, not mealy, and of a
high flavour. Thefe are what fucceed in the follow¬
ing method, and are greatly improved in fize and fla¬
vour by it.
When the feeds of this melon are placed in the
ground, the firft thing that appears is a pair of femi-
nal leaves, or ears, as the gardeners call them. Be¬
tween thefe two leaves there fhoots, fome days after,
a leaf called the JirJi leaf or knot; and out of the fame
place, after fome days more, there fhoots another leaf,
called the feccnd knot. Out of the midif of this ftalk
of the fecond knot, there fhoots a third knot; this
third knot muft be cut off at its infertion, without
hurting the branch of the fecond knot from whence
it grows. Out of this place there will grow, after
this cutting, a branch, which will be what the garden¬
ers call the JirJi arm ; and this arm will, in the fame
manner as the firft plant, fhoot out, firft one, then a fe¬
cond, and then a third knot; this third knot muft be
cut again as before, and thus the third knots are all
along to be cut off, and arms or branches will grow
up in the places of them all the way in the fame
manner as the firft 5 and it is at thofe arms that the
melons will be produced, and they will be always
good, if the foot or root be well nourifhed in good
earth, and cherifhed by a good hot-bed and the fun.
The foot of the melon mufl never be fuffered to pafs
into the dung, and the earth muft not be watered but
moderately, when it is feen to grow too dry ; but in
this cafe, it muft be moderately moiftened in time,
left the fhoot fuffer by it. Twice or thrice a-week
is often enough to water in the drieft weather, and
this muft always be done about funfet; and when the
heat of the fun is too violent, the melons muft be co¬
vered with ftraw mats from 11 in the mor ung to a-
bout two in the afternoon. When it rains much, the
melons muft alio be covered, left it hurt them
by too much moifture. (Philofoph. Tranf. n= 45.)—
If the root produce too many branches, the weak-
cft are to be cut off, and only three or four left; and
thofe which are left are to be luch as have their knots
clofeft to one another. When the plants are remo¬
ved from the feed-bed to the places where they are to
ftand, if they are very ftrong, they fhould be planted
fingle; but if otherwife, two are to be fet in each
hole.
When they are planted fingle, the two branches,
which always grow on each fide from the bafe of the
feed-leaves, are to be left on ; but when two plants are
fet together, thefe branches are to be cut off, other-
wife all the branches will be too numerous, and they Melon
will entangle and fpoil one another. II
When the melons are knit, two of them only arc , Melro‘e-
to be left upon each foot, choofing thofe which are
belt placed, and next to the firft and principal ftalk,
that is, to the heart of the foot. None but fair fruits
are to be left, and fueh as have a thick and (hort tail;
and the,foot of the melon muft be fliort, well truffed,
and not far diftant from the ground. Melons of a
long ftem, and having the ftalk of the leaf too long
and /lender, are never vigorous. All the fnperfluous
branches muft be cut off from time to time, as they
flioot out. There fometimes fhoot out a branch more
than is here mentioned, between the two feed-leaves
or ears. If this is ftrong and vigorous, it is to be kept
on, but if weakly, it is beft to take it off, for it will
never bear good fruit.
Water-Meicn. See Anguria.
MELOS, (anc. geog.), an ifland between Crete
and Peloponnefus, about 24 miles from Scyllaeum. It is
about fio miles in circumference, and of an oblong
figure. It enjoyed its independence for above 700 years
before the time of the Peloponnefian war. This ifland
was originally peopled by a Lacedemonian colony,
1116 years before the Chriftian era. For this rea-
fon the inhabitants refufed to join the reft of the
iflands and the Athenians againft the Peloponnefians.
This refufal was feverely punifhed. The Athenians
took Melos, and put to the fword all fuch as were able
to bear arms. The women and children were made
Haves, and the ifland left defolate. An Athenian co¬
lony repeopled it, till Lyfander reconquered it and
re-eftablifhed the original inhabitants in their poffef-
fions.
MELOTHRIA, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 34th
order. Cucurbit aceee. The calyx is quinquefid; the co¬
rolla campanulated and monopetalous ; the berry tri-
locular and monofpermous. There is only one fpe-
cies, viz. the pendula, a native of Carolina, Virgi¬
nia, and aifo many of the American iflands. The
plants ftrike out roots at every joint, which faften
themfelves into the ground, by which means their
ftalks extend to a great diftance each way. The
flowers are very fmall, in fhape like thofe of the
melon, of a pale fulphur colour. The fruit in the
Weft Indies grows to the fize of a pea, is of an oval
figure, and changes to black when ripe : thefe are by
the inhabitants fometimes pickled when they are green.
In Britain the fruit are much fmaller, and are fo hid¬
den by the leaves that it is difficult to find them.
The plants are too tender to be reared in this country
without artificial heat.
MELPOMENE (fab. hift.), one of the mufes,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemofyne. She prefided
over tragedy. Horace has addreffed the find! of his
odes to her, as to the patronefs of lyric poetry. She
was generally reprefented as a young woman with a
ferious countenance Her garments were fplendid;
/he wore a buflrin, and held a dagger in one hand and
in the other a feeptre and crown.
MELROSE, a town of Scotland, in the coun»
ty of Selkirk, and on the confines of Tweeddale,
3 B 2 fcated
MEL [ 380 1 MEM
Me't feated on the fouth fide of the river Tweed ; with an
II ancient abbey now in ruins. W. Long. 2. 32. N.
Me:viL Lat. 55*. 32.
v This abbey was founded by king David I in
1136. He peopled it with Ciftertians brought from
Rivale abbey in Yorkfhire, and dedicated it to the
Virgin Mary. At the reformation James Douglas was
appointed commendator, who took down much of the
building, in order to furnifh materials for a large houfe
to himfelf, which ftill remains, and is dated 1590.
Nothing is left of the abbey excepting a part of the
cloifter walls elegantly carved; but the ruins of the
church are of moft; uncommon beauty. Part is at
prefent ufed for divine fervice, the reft uncovered ;
but every part does great honour to the architeft.—
Alexander II. was buried beneath the great altar, and
it is alfo the place of interment of the Douglafes
and other potent families.—Its fttuatisn is extremely
pleafant.
MELT of fishes. In the melt of a living cod
there are fuch numbers of thofe animalcules faid to be
found in the femen of all male animals, that in a drop
of its juice no larger than a grain of fand, there are
contained more than 10,000 of them; and confidering
how many fuch quantities there are in the whole melt
of one fuch fi(h, it is not incredible, that there are
more animals in one melt of it than there are
living men at one time upon the face of the earth.
However ftrange and romantic fuch a conjedfure
muft appear, a ferious confideration and calculation
will make it appear very plain. An hundred fuch
grains of fand as thofe juft mentioned will make
about an inch in length ; therefore in a cubic inch
there will be a million of fuch fands; and if there
be 10,000 animals in each of thofe quantities, there
muft be. in the whole 150,000 millions, which is
a number vaftly exceeding that of mankind, even fup-
poling the whole as populous as Holland.
MELTING cone, in efikying, an hollow cone of
brafs or call iron, into which melted metalline fub-
ftances are thrown,, in order to free them from their
fqorias. When a fmall quantity of matter is melted,
it will be fufficient to rub the infide of the cone with
greafe ; but when the quantity is very large,, efpe-
cially if it contains any thing fulphureous, this caution
of tallowing the moulds is not fufficient.. In this cafe
the efiayer has recourfe to a lute reduced to thin pap
with water, which. effeftually prevents any injury to
the cone.
MELTON-Moubray, a town- of Leicefterftiire,
108 miles from London. It is a large built place,
in a fertile, foil; with a market on Tuefday,.the moft
confiderable for cattle of any in this part of the iiland.
It is almoft encompafled with a little river called the
Eye, over which it has two fine bridges ; and has a
large handfome church, with a free fchool. Here are
frequent horfe-races, and three fairs in the year.
MELVIL (Sir James), defeended from an honour¬
able Scots family, being the third fon of the laird of
Kaeth, was born about the middle of the. 16th century.
He went to France very young, in the capacity of
page to Queen Mary, then married to the dauphin ;
and on the death of her hufband, followed her to
Scotland, where he was made gentleman of her cham¬
ber, and admitted a privy-counfellor. She employed Members
him in her moft important concerns, till her unhappy II
confinement in Lochleven, all which he difeharged Memilon’,
with the utmoft-fidelity ; and, from his own accounts, " '
there is reafon to conclude, that, had fhe taken his
advice, fhe might have avoided many of her misfor¬
tunes. When file was prifoner in England, fhe re¬
commended him ftrongly to her fon James; with
whom he'continued in favour and emphiyment until
the death of Queen Elizabeth : James would then have
taken him to England ; but Melvil, now grown old,
was defirous of retiring from bufinefs, and in his re¬
tirement he drew up the memoirs of his paft life for
the ufe of his fon. Thefe Memoirs were accidentally
found in Edinburgh caftle in the year 1660, though
nobody knew how they came to be depolited therej.
and were publifiied in folio in 1683,
MEMBERS, in anatomy, the exterior parts, ari*
fing from the trunk or body of an animal, like the
boughs from the trunk of a tree.
Member, in architecture, denotes any part of a.
building ; as a frieze, cornice, or the like.
Member is fometimes alfo ufed for moulding..
Member, in grammar,, is applied to the parts of a
period or fentence.
Member, is alfo .ufed ta denote fome particular or¬
der or rank in a ftate or government: thus we fay,,
“member of a corporation,, member of parliament,
member of the council,” &c.
MEMBRANE, Membrana, in anatomy, a fimilar
part of an animal body ; being a thin, white, flexible,.
expanded (kin, formed of feveral forts of fibres inter¬
woven together, and ferving to cover or wrap up
certain parts of the body. See Anatomy
MEMEL, or Memmel; a.town of Pruffia, fitua-.
ted on the northern extremity of the Curifche Haf,
an inlet of the fea about 70 miles in length, which,
is here joined to the Baltic by a narrow ftrait.—It is
an ill-built town, with narrow, dirty, ftreets; but re¬
markable for its extenfive commerce, being provided
with the fineft harbour in the Baltic. In 1784, 996
ftiips, amongft which were 500 Englifii, arrived here.
The imports chiefty are, fait, iron, and faked herrings;
the exports, which greatly exceed the imports, are am¬
ber,corn, hemp, flax, and particularly timber. An Eng-
lifh conful relides here. The trade is daily increafing,
on account of the high duties which the court of Ruf-
fia has laid on the imports of Riga.
MEMNON (fab. hilt.), a king of Ethiopia, fon-
of J'ithonus and Aurora. He came with a body of.
10,000 men to affift his uncle Priam, during the Tro¬
jan war. He behaved with great courage, and killed
Antilochus, Neftor’s fon. The aged father challen¬
ged the Ethiopian monarch ; but Memnon refufed it,
on account of the venerable age of Neftor, and ac¬
cepted that of Achilles. He was killed in the com¬
bat, in the fight of the Grecian and Trojan armies.-
Aurora prayed Jupiter to grant her fon fuch honours,
as might diftinguhh him from other mortals. The
god confented ; and immediately a numerous flight of.
birds iflued from the burning pile on which the body
was laid, anddividingfhemfelves into two feparatebodies,
fought with fuch fury, that above half of them fell down
in the fire as victims to appeafe the manes of Memnon.
Thefe
MEM [ 381 ] MEM
Kfemnon Thefe birds were called Memnon’uhs ; and it has been
' Menlnr 0^erved by fome of the ancients, that they never
u failed to return yearly to the tomb of Memnon in
Troas, and repeat the fame bloody engagement in ho¬
nour of the hero from whom they received their name.
The Ethiopians or Egyptians, over whom Memnon
reigned, erefted a celebrated ftatue to the honour of
their monarch. This ftatue had the wonderful pro¬
perty of uttering a melodious found every day at fun-
riling like that which was heard at the breaking of
the firing of a harp when it is wound up. This was
effected by the rays of the fun when they fell upon
it. At the fetcing of the fun, and in the night, the
found was lugubrious. This is fupported by the tefti-
mony of the geographer Strabo, who confefles him-
felf ignorant whether it proceeded from the bafts of
the ftatue, or the people that were then around it.
This celebrated ftatue was difmantled by order of
Gambyfes when he conquered Egypt; and its ruins
flill altonifh modern travellers by their grandeur and
beauty.
Mfmnon o/ Rhodes, one of the generals of Darius
king of Periia, advifed that prince to lay wafte the
country, in order to deprive Alexander the Great’s
army of fupporj:, and afterwards to attack Macedon;
hut this eounfel was difapproved by Darius’s other
generals. Memnon behaved at the paftage of the
Granicus like an experienced general. He after¬
wards defended the cjy of Miletum with great cou¬
rage ; feized the. iflands of Chio-and Lelbos-; fpread
terror throughout all Greece ; and would have put a
flop to the conquefts of Alexander, if he had not been
prevented by death. Barfina, Memnon’s widow, was
taken prifoner with Darius’s wife, and Alexander had
a fon by her named Hercules.
MEMOIRS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of
hiftory, written by perfons who had fome fhare in the
tranfadlions they relate; anfwering to what the Romans
called Commentarii.—The journals of the proceedings
of a literary fociety, or a colleftion of matters tranf-
acled therein, are likewife called Memoirs.
MEMORY, a faculty of the mind, which prefents to
us ideas or notions of what is paft, accompanied with
a perfuafton that the things themfelves were formerly
real and prefent. What, we diftindlly remember to
have perceived, we as firmly believe to have happened,
as what is now prefent to our fenfes..
The opinions of philofophers concerning the means
by which the mind retains the ideas of. paft objedls,
and how thofe ideas carry with them evidence of their
objefts having, been adlually perceived, (hall be laid be¬
fore our readers in.anothe-r place: (fee.Metaphysics,
Part I. chap, ii.) At prefent we fhall ithrow toge,
ther fome obfervations on the Memory, which# being
of a pra&ical-rather than of a fppculative nature, can.
not be admitted .into .the article where the nature of
the faculty itfelf is difcufled.
“ When we remember with little or no effort, it is
called remembrance limply, or memory, and fometimes
* Beattie's pajftve memory *. When we endeavour to remember
Elements 1 what does not immediately and (as it were) of itfelf
Science a occur, it is called aHive memory, ox.recolledlon. A rea¬
dy recolleftion of our knowledge, at the moment
when we have occafton for it, is a talent of the great-
eft importance. The man ppffeffed of it feldom fails
to diftinguifh himfelf in whatever fort of bufinefs he Memory,
may be engaged.” It is indeed evident, that when the » ’
power of retention is weak, all attempts at eminence
of knowledge muft be vain ; for memory is the pri¬
mary and fundamental power f, without which there f Idler*
could be no other intelledlual operation. Judgment
and ratiocination fuppofe fomething already known,
and draw their decifions only from experience. Ima¬
gination feledls ideas from the treafures of remem¬
brance, and produces novelty only by varied combina¬
tions. We do not even form conjedlures of diftant,
or anticipations of future, events, but by concluding
what is poflible from what is paft.”
Of a faculty fo important, many rules have been
given for the regulation and improvement; of which
the firft is, that he who wifhes to have a clear and di-
ftindt remembrance, fhould be temperate with refpedb
to eating, drinking, and fieep. The memory depends
very much upon the ftate of the brain ; and therefore
whatever is hurtful to the latter, muft be prejudicial
to the former. Too much fleep clouds the brain, and
too little overheats it; therefore either of thefe extremes
muft of courfe hurt the memory, and ought carefully
to be avoided. Intemperance of all kinds, and excefs
of pafiion, have the fame ill effe&s ; fo that we rarely
meet with an intemperate perfon whole memory is at
once clear and tenacious.
“ The livelieft remembrance is not fo vivid as the
fenfation that produced it J ; and ideas of memory do l Beattie'* r
often, but not always, decay more and more, as the
original fenfation becomes more and more remote
time. Thofe fenfations and thofe thoughts have a
chance to be long remembered which are lively at
firft ; and thofe are likely to be moft lively which are
moft attended to, or which are accompanied with
pleafure or pain, with wonder, furprife, curiofity, mer¬
riment, and other lively pafftons. The art of memo¬
ry, therefore, is little more than the art of attention.
What we wife to remember we feould attend to, fo
as to underftand it perfedlly, fixing our view particu¬
larly upon its importance or Angular nature, that it
may raife within us fome of the paftions above-men¬
tioned. We feould alfo difengage our minds from all
other things, that we may attend more effe&ually to
the.objedl which we wife to remember. No man will
read with much advantage who is not able at plea¬
fure to evacuate his mind, or who brings not to his
author an intelledl defecated and pure, neither turbid
with care, nor agitated with pleafure- If the repofi-
tories of thought are already full, what can they re¬
ceive ? If the mind is employed on the paft or the fu¬
ture, the book will be held before the eyes in vain.
“ It is the praflice of many readers, to note in the
margin of their books the moft important paffages *,* Elements
the ilrongeft arguments, or- the brighteft fentiments. of Moral
Thus they load their minds with fuperfluous atten-
turn, reprefs. the vehemence of curiofity by ufelefs de¬
liberation, and by frequent interruption break the cur¬
rent of narration or the chain of reafon, and at laft
clofe the volume and forget the-paffages and the
marks together. Others are firmly perfuaded, that
nothing, is certainly remembered but what is tran-
foribed ; and they, therefore, pafs weeks, and months
in transferring large quotations to a common place-
book. Yet, why any part of a book which can be
3 confulted..
lv£ tfKvry.
* Idhr.
M E M L 3S2
confulted at pkafure Aotild be copred, we are not
able to difcover. The hand has no clofer correfpond-
ence with the memory than the eye. The aft of wri¬
ting itfelf diftrafts the thoughts ; and what is read
twice, is commonly better remembered than what is
tranfcribed. This method, therefore, confumes time,
without affiding the memory, diut to write an a-
bridgement of a good book may fometimes be a very
profitable exercife. In general, when we would pre-
i'erve the doftrines, fentiments, or fafts, that occur in
reading, it will be prudent to lay the kook afide, and
put them in writing in our own words. This prac¬
tice will give accuracy to Our knowledge, accultofn us
to recolleftion, improve us in the ufe of language, and
enable us fo thoroughly to comprehend the thoughts
of other men, as to make them in fome meafure our
own.”
‘‘ Our thoughts have for the moll part a connec¬
tion * ; fo that the thought which is juft now* in tire
mind, depends partly upon that which went before,
and partly ferves to introduce that which follows.—
Hence w e remember bell thofe things of which the
parts are methodically difpofed and mutually con-
nefted. A regular difcourfe makes a more lading im-
prelfion upon the hearer than a parcel of detached
fentences, and gives to his rational powers a more fa-
lutary exercife -: and this may Ihow us the propriety
of condufting our ftudies, and all our affairs, accord¬
ing to a regular plan or method. When this is not
done, our thoughts and our bufinefs, efpecially if in
any degree complex, foon run into confufton.”
As the mind is not at all times equally difpofed for
the exercife of this faculty, fuch feafons Ihould be
made choice of as are moll proper for it. The mind
is feldom fit for attention prefently after meals ; and
to call off the fpirits at fuch times from thehr pro¬
per employment in digeftion, is apt to cloud the
brain, and prejudice the health. Both the mind and
body ftiould be eafy and undifturbed when we engage
in this exercife, and therefore retirement is moil fit
for it: and the evening, juft before we go to reft, is
generally recommended as a very convenient feafon,
both for the ftillnefs of the night, and becaufe the
impreffions will then have a longer time to fettle be¬
fore they come to be difturbed by the accelfion of
others proceeding from external objefts ; and to call
over in the morning what has been committed to the
memory over-night, muft, for the fame reafon, be
very ferviceable. For, to review thofe ideas while
they continue frefh upon the mind, and unmixed
with any others, muft neceffarily imprint them more
deeply. _
Some ancient writers fpeak of an artificial me¬
mory, and lay down rules for attaining it. Simonides
the poet is faid firft to have difcovered this, or at leaft
to have given the occafion for it. The ftory they
tell of him is this : Being once at a feaft, he recited
a poem which he had made in honour of the perfon
who gave the entertainment. But having (as is ufual
in poetry) made a large digreffion in praife of Caftor
and Pollux ; when he had repeated the whole poem,
his patron would give him but half the fum he had
promifed, telling him he muft get the other part from
thofe deities who had an equal ihare in the honour of
] MEM
his performance. Immediately after, Simonides was M«n(
told that two young men were without, and muft
needs fpeak with him. He had fcarce got out of the
houfe, when the room where the company was fell
down, killed all the perfons in it, and fo marfhed the
bodies, that, when the rubbiftr was thrown off, they
could not be known one from another : upon which
Simonides recollefting the place where every one had
fat, by that means diftinguifhed them. Hence it
came to be obferved, that to fix a number of places
in the mind in a certain order, was a help" to the
memory: As we find by experience, that, upon re-
turning to places once familiar to us, we not only re¬
member them, but likevvife many things we both faid
and did in them. This aftion therefore of Simonides
was afterwards improved into an art; and the nature •
of it is this: They bid youTorm in your mind the
idea of fome large place or building, which you may
divide into a great number of diftinft parts, ranged
and difpofed in a certain order. Thefe you are fre¬
quently to revolve in your thoughts, till you are able
to run them over one after another without hefitation,
beginning at any part. Then you are to imprefs
upon your mind as many images of living creatures*
or any other fenfible objefts which are moil likely to
affeft you, and be foonell revived in your memory.
Thefe, like charafters in ftiort-hand, or hieroglyphics,
muft Hand to denote an equal number of other words,
which cannot fo eafily be rem inhered. When there¬
fore you have a number of things to commit to me¬
mory in a certain order, all that you have to do is, to
place thefe images regularly in the feveral parts of
your building. And thus they tell you, that, by go¬
ing over feveral parts of the building, the images
placed in them will be revived in the mind ; which of
courfe will give you the things or words themfelves
in the order you defire to remember them. The ad¬
vantage of the images feems to be this; that, as they
are more like to afteft the imagination than the words
for which they Hand, they wiil for that re tfon be more
eafily remembered. Thus, for inftance, if the image
of a lion be made to fignify Jlrength, and this word
Jlrength be one of thofe I am to remember, and is
placed in the porch ; when, in going over the feveral
parts of the building, I come to the porch, I Ihall fooner
be reminded of that image than of the word Jlrength.
Of this artificial memory, both Cicero and Quintilian
fpeak ; but we know not of any modern orator that
has ever made ufe of it. It feems indeed to have been a
laborious way of improving the memory, if it ferves
that end at all, and fitter for affifting us to remember
any number of unconnefted words than a continual
difcourfe, unlefs fo far as the remembrance of one
word may enable us to recolleft more It is, how¬
ever, in allufion to it, that we ftill call the pa$ts of a
difcourfe places or topics, and fay, in the Jirjl place, in
the fecond place, &c.
But, doubtlefs, the moft effeftual way to gain 'a
good memory, is by conftant and moderate exercife of
it; for the memory, like other habits, is ftrengthened
and improved by daily ufe. It is indeed hardly cre¬
dible, to what a degree both aftive and paffive re*
membrance may be improved by long praftice. Sca-
ligtr reports of himfelf, that in his youth he could re-
M EM r 3
Memory, p»at above ido verfes, havmg once read them; aad
^Metnj hi-, declares, that he wrote his Comment upon
Claudian without confulting the text. To hope, how¬
ever, for fuch degrees of memory as thefe, would be
equally vain as to hope for the ftrength of Her add, or
the fwiftnefs of Hchides. “ But there are clergymen
§ Idler. who can get a fermon by heart § in two hours, though
their memory, when they began to exercife it, was
rather weak than ftrong : And pleaders^ with other
orators who fpeak in public and extempore, often dif-
cover, in calling inftantly to mind all the knowledge
necef&.ry on tire prefent occaiion, and every thing of
importance that may have been advanced in the courfe
of a long debate, fuch powers of retention and recol-
leftion as, to the man who has never been obliged to
exert himfelf in the fame manner, are altogether
hftonilhing. As habits, in order to be ftrong, muft
be formed in early life, the memories of children Ihould
therefore be conftantly exercifed ; but to ©bilge them
to commit to memory what they do not underftand,
perverts their faculties, and gives them a diflike to
learning/* In a word, thofe who have moft occaiion for
memory, as orators and public fpeakers, fhould not
fuller it to lie idle, but conftantly employ it in trea-
furing up and frequently reviving fuch things as may
be of moft importance to them ; for by thefe means,
it will be more at their command, and they may
place greater confidehde in it upon any emergency/'
“ Men complain, of-nothing more frequently than
, p!emcntj of deficient memory' J : and indeed every one finds,
*/■ Moral after hie efforts many of the ideas which he
Science. defired to retain have Hipped irretrievably away ; that
acquifitions of the mind are fometimes equally fugU
tive with the gifts of fortune ; and that a fhort inter-
miflion of attention move certainly leffens knowledge
than impairs an eftate. To aflift this weaknefs of our
nature, many methods befides thofe w’hich we have
mentioned have been propofed ; all of which may be
juftly fufpe&ed of being ineffeclual: for no art of
memory, however its effefts may have been boafted or
admired, has been ever adopted into general ufe; nor
have thofe who poffeffed it appeared to excel others in
readinefs of recolledtion or multiplicity of attain¬
ments.” The reader who is defirous to try the effedt
of thofe helps, may have recourfe to a treatife entitled
sl new Method of Slrtificial Memory ; but the true me¬
thod of memory is attention and exercife.
MEMPHIS, an ancient city, and the royal refi-
dence of the kings in the Higher Egypt; diftant from
the Delta to the fouth 15 miles, according to Pliny.
Called alfo Moph and Noph, in, feripture.
Though this city is now fo completely ruined, that
authors greatly difagree concerning its fituationyet
Strabo informs that in his time it was the mofl: mag¬
nificent in Egypt, next to Alexandria. It was called
the capital of the country; and there was an entire
temple of Ofiris, where the Apis or facred ox was
kept and worftiipped. In the fame place was an apart¬
ment of the mother of the ox ; a very magnificent
temple of Vulcan ; a large Circus or {pace for fight¬
ing bulls; and a great Coloffus in the middle of the
city, which was thrown down. There was likewife a
temple of Venus, and a Serapium in a very fandy
place, where the wind heaps up hills of fand very, dan-
‘j 1 ME M
gerous to travellers ; together with a number of
Sphinxes, the heads of fome of them only being vi- " * 1
fible, the others covered up to the middle of their
body. 1 he fame author likewife informs us, that in the
front of the city there were many lakes; and that it
contained a number of palaces, at that time in ruins.
Thefe buildings, he faid, formerly fteod upon an emi¬
nence : they lay along the fide of the hill, ftrctching
down to the lakes and groves, 40 ftadia from the city.
1 here was hkewife a mountain in the neighbourhood,
on which were a great number of pyramids, with the
fepulchres of the kings, among which were three re¬
markable, and two of them accounted wonders of the
world.. From this defeription, Mr Bruce concludes
that the celebrated capital of Egypt flood in the place
where the villages of Metrahenny arc now fituated; in
oppofition to Dr Shaw’s opinion, who thinks it was
luuated at Geeza or Gifa.
M. Savary has alfo ftrown, that Gifa was not the fi-
tnation of the ancient Memphis. This flood, he fays,
on the wefttrn bank of the Nile, on the fpot where
the village or Memph now Hands, which ftill preferves
the name. Large heaps of rubbifir are ftill to be feen.
there; but the ^vrabs have tranfported to Cairo the
columns and remarkable ftones, which they have dif-
pofed, without tafte and without order, in their
mofques and public buildings. This city extended as
far as baccara; and was almoft wholly encormaffed by
lakes, part of which are ftill fubfilling. It was ne-
ceffary to crofs them to convey the dead to the fe-
pulchrc of their fathers. The tombs, hewn out of
the rock, were clofed up with ftmres of a proportion¬
al e fize, and covered with fand. Thefe bodies, em¬
balmed with fo much care, preferved with fo much
rclpedt, are torn from the monuments they repofe in,
and fold without decency to {Dangers by the inhabi¬
tants of Saccara. This place is called the plain of mun -
m,es. There too we find the well of the birds, into-
wbrch one defeends by means of a rope. It leads to-
rubterraneous galleries, filled with earthen vafes, con¬
taining the facred birds. They are rarely met with en¬
tire, becaufe the Arabs break them in hopes of find¬
ing idols of gold. They do not conduit travellers in¬
to the places where they have found more precious ar¬
ticles. They even clofc them up carefully, rcfeiving
to themfelves fome fecret paffages by which they de-
feend. In a journey into Egypt made by the duke
de Chaulnes, he advanced very far into thefe wind in t
labyrinths, fometinres crawling, and fometimes feramb-
Lng, on his knees. Informed by Mr Edward Wort-
ley Montague, who has carefully vifited Egypt, he ar-
rived at one of thofe paffages which had an opening
fhut up from without by branches of the date-tree in¬
terwoven, and covered with fand. He remarked there
fome hieroglyphics in relievo, executed in the higheft.
perfection. But the Arabs refifted every offer he made ,
them to permit him to take drawings of them, or to
mold them, in order to preferve their form. The duke
de Chaulnes is of opinion that thefe hieroglyphics,
fculptured with fo much art that the obje&s they re-
prefent may be difcovered at the firft fight, might poi-
fibly furniffi the key of the others, whole contours are
fimply expreffed, and form a fort of alphabet of thiV
uniiitelligible language. Several pyramids are diftin-
guifhabla
M E N I 384- J MEN
Jlenige guifhable along the mountains which bound Saccara on
H the weft, the greateft part of which appear as lofty as
Menander. t’nofe 0f Q;fa- gce Pyramids.
MENAGE (Fr.), denotes a cplleftion of animals j
whence we have derived the word menagery.
MENAGE (Giles), in'L.atm JEgidius, a celebiated
French writer, born at Angers in 1613. He iiniftied
his ftudies in that city, was made advocate, and plead¬
ed for fome time at Angers, Paris, and Poidliers ; but,
becoming at length difgufted with the bar, turned ec-
clefiaftic, and gave himfelf up entirely to the ftudy of
polite literature. He at length entered into the fa¬
mily of the cardinal de Retz ; but difagreeing with
fome perfons belonging to his Eminence, went to live
in the cloyfter of Notre Dame, where he held an af-
Fembly of learned men every Wednefday. He read a
great deal; had a prodigious memory ; and was iucef-
fantly quoting in his converfation verfes in Greek, La¬
tin, Italian, French, &c. on which account he w^as of¬
ten, turned into ridicule by the wits, efpecially towards
the end of his days. His great memory he retained
even in his old age ; and what is very rare, it returned
to him after fome interruption. The reputation of his
works procured him a place in the academy della Cruf-
ca at Florence He might have been a member of the
French academy at its firft inftkution, if it had not
been for his Requejle des Dl5lionnaires : but when that
was forgot, he w'as propofed in 1684 to fill up a va¬
cant place in that academy, and was excluded only by
the fuperior intereft of his competitor Mr Bergent;
for there was not one member of all thofe who gave
their votes againft them, but owned that he deferved
the place. He wmuld not fuffer his friends to propofe
him again. He died at Paris in 1692, aged 79. He
wrote a great number of books in profe and verfe ; the
principal of which are, 1. Mifcellaneous works. 2. The
Origin of the French Language. 3. The Origin of
.the Italian Tongue ; the bell edition of which is that
of Geneva, in 1685, folio. 4. An edition of Mal¬
herbe’s Poems-, with Notes. 5. An edition of Dio¬
genes Laertius, with Obfervations. 6 Remarks on
the French Tongue. 7. Greek, Latin, Italian, and
French Poems.
MENANDER, an ancient Greek poet, was born
at Athens in the fame year with Epicurus, which was
the third of the 109th Olympiad. His happinefs in in¬
troducing the new comedy, and refining an art which
had been fo grofs and licentious in former times, quick¬
ly fpread his name over the world. Pliny informs us,
that the kings of Egypt and Macedon gave a noble
teftimony of his merit, by fending ambalfadors to in¬
vite him to their courts, and even fleets to bring him
over ; but that Menander was fo much of a philofo-
pher, as to prefer the free enjoyment of his ftudies to
the promifed favours of the great. Of his works,
which amounted to above 100 comedies, we have had
a double lofs, the originals being not only vanifhed,
but the greateft part of them, when copied by Terence,
having unfortunately perilhed by ftiipwreck before they
faw Rome. Yet the four plays which Terence bor¬
rowed from him before that accident happened, are
ftill preferved in the Roman habit; and it is chiefly
From Terence that moll people form their judgment
of Menander, the fragments that remain of him not
N° 210.
being fufficient to enable them to do it. The ancients Menander.,
have faid high things of Menander ; and we find the Menan-
old mailers of rhetoric recommending his works as , a
the true patterns of every beauty and every grace of "
public fpeaking. -Quintilian declares, that a careful
imitation of Menander only, will fatisfy all the rules he
has laid down in his Inftitutions. It is in Menander
that he would have his orator fearch for a eopioufnefs
of invention, for a happy elegance of expreflion, and
efpecially for that univerfal genius which is able to ac¬
commodate itfelf to perfons, things, and affeclions.—-
But Julius Cefar has left the loftieft as well as the
juftell pra;fe of Menander’s works, when he calls Te¬
rence only a Half-Menander. For while the virtues of
the Latin poet are fo defervedly admired, it is impof-.
fible we fhould raife a higher notion of excellency.than
to conceive the great original ftill Alining with half its
lullre unrefleefted, and preferving an equal part of its
graces, above the power-of the belt copier in the
world. Menander died in the 3d year of the 12 2d
Olympiad, as we are taught by the fame old infeription
from which we learn the time of his birth. His tomb,
in Paufanias’s age, was to be feen at Athens, in the
way from the Pirteus to the city, clofe by the hono¬
rary monument of Euripides. Quintilian, in hisjudge-
ment of Afranius the Roman comedian, who imitated
him, cenfures Menander’s morals as much as he com¬
mends his writings; and his character, according to
Suidas, is, that he was a very “ mad fellow after wo¬
men.” Phasdrus has given him the gait and drefs of
a moll affedted fop :
Unguento delibutus, veftitu adfluens,
“ Veniebat greflu delicatulo & languido.”
Lib. v. fab. 2.
MENANDR1ANS, the moll ancient branch of
Gnoftics ; thus called from Menander their chief, faid
by fome, without fuflicient foundation, to have been
a difciple of Simon Magus, and himfelf a reputed ma¬
gician.
He taught, that no perfon could, be faved, unlefs
he were baptifed in his name : and he conferred a pe¬
culiar fort of baptifm, which would render thofe who
received it immortal in the next world r exhibiting him-,
felf to the world, with the phrenfy of a lunatic more
than the founder of a fedl, as a promifed faviour. For
it appears by the teftimonies of Irenaeus, Juftin, and
Tertullian, that he pretended to be one of the vEons
lent from the pleroma, or ecclefiaftical regions, to fuc-
cour the fouls that lay groaning under bodily oppref- •
fion and fervitude ; and to maintain them againll the
violence and ftratagems of the dsemons that hold the
reins of empire in this fublunary world. As this doc-,
trine was built upon the fame foundation with that of
Simon Magus, .the ancient writers looked upon him
as the inftru&or of Menander. See Simonians.
MENASSEH (Ben Ifrael), a celebrated rabbi,
born in Portugal about the year 1604, was the fon
of Jofeph Ben Ifrael, and followed his father into Hol¬
land. Here he was educated by rabbi Ifaac Uziel,"
under whom he in a fliort time made fuch progrefs in
the Hebrew tongue, that at 18 years of age he fuo.
ceeded him in the fynagogue of Amfterdam. In this,
poll he continued feveral years, and married Rachel of
MEN [ 385 ] M F. N
Mentkf, the family of tlie Abarbanels, whom the Jews Imagine
ridel- t0 j-jg dei'cended from king David. He afterwards
i 1”t’' went to his brother Ephraim, a rich merchant, who
had fettled at Bafil; by whofe advice he entered into
trade. Some time after, the hopes of a more agree¬
able fettlement induced him to come into England,
under the proteftorfhip of Cromwell; who gave him a
very favourable reception, and one day entertained him
at his table with feveral other learned divines How¬
ever, he foon after paffed into Zealand ; and died at
Middleburg about the year 1657. The Jews at Am-
fterdam obtained his body, and interred it at their ex-
pence. He was of the fe6t of the Pharifees; had
a lively wit, a folid judgement, great learning, and all
the virtues that can adorn private life. He wrote
many works in Hebrew, Latin, Spanifh, and Eng-
liih. The principal of thofe publiihed in Latin, are,
I. His Conciliator ; a learned and curious work, in
which he reconciles thofe paffages of Scripture which
feem to con trad each other. 2. De refurreQione mor-
tuorum. De termino vita. 4. DiJJ'erlatio defragilitate
humana, ex lapfu Aclami, deque Divino in lono opere au-
xilio. 5. Spes Ifrael. Dr Thomas Pococke has writ¬
ten his life in Englifh.
MENCKE (Lewis Otto), in Latin a
learned profeflbr of morality at Leipfic, was born at
Oldenburg in Weftphalia in 1644. ^-e Hudied in fe¬
veral univerfities of Germany ; and became an able phi-
lofopher, civilian, and divine. He was made profeffor
of morality at Leiplic in 1668 ; and enjoyed that poll
to his death. He was five times redtor of the univer-
fity of that city, and feven times dean of the faculty of
philofophy. He publifired feveral works ; but his moll
-confiderable, and what alone is fufficient to perpetuate
his memory, is the Afta Eruditorum of Leipfic, of
which he was the firft author, and in which he was en¬
gaged till his death. The firft volume was publiihed
at Leipfic, in 4to, in 1682.
Mencke (John Burchard), fon to the preceding.
After his fludies he travelled into England and Hol¬
land ; and upon his return was appointed profeflbr of
biftory at Leipfic in 1699 He gained great reputation
by his ledlures as well as his writings. He died in 1732,
aged 58. He wrote many pieces. His De Charlataneria
eruditorum declamationes dua, is an excellent fatire, de-
figned to expofe the artifices ufed by falfe fcholars to
raife themfelves a name. As he named and pointed
at certain perfons, it exafperated them, and they pro¬
cured his book to be feized; but it fpread, and edi¬
tions of it were multiplied. He likewife publifhed
Methode pour etudier P Hifloire, avec un catalogue des
principaux hiflorinu, &c. Pie made a great many ad¬
ditions to Mr Lenglet’s book, efpecially with regard
to the German hiftorians.
MENDELSHON (Mofes), that is, Mofes the fan
of Mendel, a Jew of Berlin, and one of the moft cele¬
brated writers in Germany, died there in the year 1785
at the age of 57.* His firft attempt as an author was
in 175^, by a work intitled Jerufalem; in which, be-
fides other bold and Unjuftifiable opinions, he main¬
tains, that the Jews have a revealed law but not a re-^
vealed religion ; that opinions are not fubjedls of re¬
velation; and that the only religion of the Jewifh na¬
tion is that of nature. He acquired great honour by
his Phedon, or “ Difcourfe on the Immateriality and
Vol.XI. Part i.
Immortality of the Soul,” tranflated into Vjench 1773,
8vo; in which he unfolds this important truth, the
great foundation of all morality, with the wifdom of
an enlightened philofopher and the charms of an ele¬
gant writer. In confequence of this excellent work,
he was ftyled the jfewijh Socrates by fome of the pe¬
riodical writers; but he wanted the firmnefs and cou¬
rage of the Grecian philofopher. His timidity, and
even pufillanimity, defeats too common in fpeculative
men, prevented him from being of any effential fervice
to his nation; of which he might have become the be-
nefaftor by being the reformer. The pliancy of his
character, his foft, modeft, and obliging difpofttion,
gained him the efteem alike of the fuperftitious and of
the incredulous. After all, he could never procure
admiffion to the Berlin fociety, or to the converfation
of the king of Pruffia. At his death he received from
his nation thofe honours which are commonly paid to
their firft rabbins. Contrary to an imprudnt cuftorrr
prevalent among the Jews of burying their dead be¬
fore funfec, his interment was delayed till 24 hours af¬
ter he expired. Though Mendelfhon was defcended
from a refpedtable family, he was very poor. In early
life he entered into a counting-houfe of. his own na-
. tion, wherein he greatly recommended himfelf by his
capacity and integrity in bufinefs : But philofophy
and literature foon became his principal occupation ;
and to the famous Lefiing he was indebted for coun-
fels which, without diverting his attention from thofe
purfuits that were neceffary to his fubfirtence, accele¬
rated his progrefs in his literary career. Even after
the death of his benefactor, Mendelihon retained for
him the fincereft regard and the moft lively gratitude.
Notwithftanding the very ftridt regimen which he ob-
ferved, he furvived him only a few years; for his feeBle
frame and weak, conftitution were gradually and in-
fenfibly undermined by intenfe application to ftudy.
MENDEZ Pinto (Ferdinand), was born at Monte-
mor-o-velho in Portugal, and was at firft fervant to a
PortUguefe gentleman. In expectation of making a
fortune, he embarked for India in 1537. His vellel
being taken by the Turks on his paftage, he was car¬
ried to Mocka, and fold to a Greek renegado, and
afterwards to a Jew, in whofe poficffion he continued
till he was redeemed by the governor of Ormus, a Por-
tuguefe fort. The governor procured him an oppor¬
tunity of going out to India, agreeable to his firft de-
fign. During a refidence of twenty-one years in that
country, he was witnefs to very important tranfactions,
and experienced many lingular adventures. He re¬
turned to Portugal in 1558, where he enjoyed the re¬
ward of his labours, after having been thirteen times
a Have and fixteen times fold. A very curious ac¬
count of his travels was written by himfelf, and pu-.
blilhed at Lilbon, A. D. 1614, in folio. This work
was tranllated into French by Bernard Figuier, a Por-
tuguefe gentleman, and printed at Paris 1645, in qtd.
It is written in a very interefting manner, and in a
ftyle more elegant than might have'been expedited
from a man whofe whole life was fpent in the camp
and in llavery. It elucidates a great variety of parti¬
culars relating to the geography, hiftory, and man¬
ners of the inhabitants of China, Japan, Pegu,
Siam, Achem, Java, &c. Many of his fads appear¬
ed fabulous, but their truth has been fince afcertained,
3 C M.
Mendi-
MEN L 386 ] MEN
M. de Surgi compiled an interelling hillory from the
moft Angular fa£U in Mendez Pinto’s relation, which
he publilhed iii the Vic'ijfitudes de la Fortune, Paris,
2 vols, 8vo.
MENDICANTS, or begging friars, feveral or¬
ders of religious in Popifh countries, who having no
fettled revenues, are fupported by the charitable con¬
tributions they receive from others.
This fort of fociety began in the 13th century ; and
the members of it, by the tenor of their inllitution,
were to remain entirely deftitute of all fixed revenues
and poffefiions ; though in procefs of time their num¬
ber became a heavy tax upon the people. Innocent
Ilf. was the firft of the popes who perceived the ne-
ceffity of infiituting fuch an order ; and accordingly
he gave fuch monallic focieties, as made a profeffion
of poverty, the moft diftinguifhing marks of his pro-
tedlion and favour. They were alfo encouraged and
pationized by the fucceeding pontiffs, when experi¬
ence had demonftrated their public and extenfive ufe-
fulnefs. But when it became generally known, that
they had fuch a peculiar place in the efteem and pro-
te&ion of the rulers of the church, their number grew
to fuch an enormous and unwieldy multitude, and
fwarmed fo prodigioufly in all the European provinces,
that they became a burden, not only to the people,
but to the church itfelf. The great inconvenience
that arofe from the exceffive multiplication of the
mendicant orders was remedied by Gregory X. in a
general council, which he affemblcd at Lyons in 1272.
For here all the religious orders that had fprung up
rfter the council held at Rome in 1215, under the
potificate of Innocent III. were fuppreffed ; and the
extravagant multitude of mendicants, as Gregory cal¬
led them, were reduced to a fmaller number, and con¬
fined to the four following focieties or denominations,
viz. the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Car¬
melites, and the Augustins or hermits of St Au-
guftin.
As the pontiffs allowed thefe four mendicant orders
the liberty of travelling wherever they thought proper,
of converfing with perfons of every rank, of inftrudf-
ing the youth and multitude wherever they went; and
as thofe monks exhibited, in their outward appearance
and manner of life, more ftriking marks of gravity and
holinefs than were obfcrvable in the other monaftic
focieties, they arofe all at once to the very fummit of
fame, and were regarded with the utmoft eftetm and
veneration through all the countries of Europe. The
enthufiaftic attachment to thefe fandlimonious beggars
went fo far, that, as we learn from the moft authentic
records, feveral cities were divided or cantoned out
into four parts, with a view to thefe four orders ; the
firft part being afiigned to the Dominicans, the fecond
to the Francifcans, the third to the Carmelites, and
tlie fourth to the Auguftinians. The people were un¬
willing to receive the facrament from any other hands
than thofe of the mendicants, to whofe churches they
crowded to perform their devotions, while living, and
were extremely defirous to depofit there alfo their re¬
mains after death : nor did the influence and credit
of the mendicants end here; fop we find in the hiflory
of this and of the fucceeding ages, that they were
employed, not only in fpiritual matters, but alfo in
temporal and political affairs of the greateft confe-
tjflence, in compofing the differences of princes, con- Mendl-
eluding treaties of peace, concerting alliances, prefi- CJIIts'
ding in cabinet councils, governing courts, levying " ^
taxes, and other occupations, not only remote from,
but abfolutely ineonfiftent with, the monaftic charac¬
ter and profeffion. However the power of the do-
minicans and Francifcans greatly furpaffed that of the
other two orders: infomuch that thefe two orders
were, before the reformation, what the Jefuits have f
been fince that happy and glorious period, the very
foul of the hierarchy, the engines of the ftate, the fe-
cretfprings of all the motions of the one and the other,
and the authors and direftors of every great and im¬
portant event, both in the religious and political world.
By very quick progrefiion their pride and confidence
arrived at fuch a pitch, that they had the prefumptiou
to declare publicly, that they had a divine impulfe
and commiffion to illuftrate and maintain the religion
of Jefus; they treated with the utmoft infolence and
contempt all the different orders of the priefthood ;
they affirmed without a blufh, that the true method
of obtainingfalvation was revealed to them alone; pro¬
claimed, with oftentation, the fuperior efficacy and
virtue of their indulgencies ; and vaunted beyond mea-
fure their intereft at the court of heaven, and their
familiar connexions with the Supreme Being, the Vir¬
gin Mary, and the faints in glory. By thefe im¬
pious wiles, they fo deluded and captivated the mi-
ferable, and blinded the multitude, that they would
not intruft any other but the mendicants with the care
of their fouls. They retained their credit and influence
to fuch a degree, towards the clofe of the 14th cen¬
tury, that great numbers of both fexes, fome in health,,
others in a ftate of infirmity, and others at the point
of death, earneftly defired to be admitted into the
Mendicant order, which they looked upon as a fure
and infallible method of rendering heaven propitious.
Many made it an effential part of their laft wills, that
their bodies after death ftrould be wrapped in old rag¬
ged Dominican or Francifcan habits, and interred
among the Mendicants. For fuch was the barbarous,
fuperftition and wretched ignorance of this age, that
people univerfally believed they Ihould readily obtain
mercy from Chrrft, at the day of judgment, if they
appeared before his tribunal affociated with the Men¬
dicant friars.
About this time, however, they fell under an uni-
verfal odium ; but being refolutely proteXed againft
all oppofition, whether open or fecret, by the popes,
■who regarded them as their bell friends and moft ef-
feXual fupports, they fuffered little or nothing from
the efforts of their numerous adverfaries. In the 15th
century, befides their arrogance, which was exceffive,
a quarrelfome and litigious fpirit prevailed among
them, and drew upon them jultly the difpkafure and
indignation of many. By affording refuge at this
time to the Beguins in their order, they became of-
fenfive to the bifhops, and were hereby involved in
difficulties and perplexities of various kinds. They
loft their credit in the 16th century by their ruftic
impudence, their ridiculous fuperftitions, their igno¬
rance, cruelty, and brutilh manners. They difeover-
ed the moft barbarous averfion to the arts and fciences,
and expreffed a like abhorrence of certain eminent and
learned men, who endeavoured to open the paths of
(3 feisnee
MEN [ 387 ] MEN
Mendoza fcience to the purfuits of the ftudious youth, reeom-
Men de ment^ t^ie cuhure of the mind, and attacked the
mus.6 barbarifm of the age in their writings and difcourfe.
■ Their general character, together with other circum-
ftances, concurred to render a reformation definable,
and to accomplifh this happy event.
Among the number of Mendicants are alfo ranked
the Capuchins, Recollects, Minims, and others, who
are branches or derivations from the former.
Buchannan tells us, the Mendicants in Scotland, un¬
der an appearance of beggary, lived a very luxurious
life ; whence one wittily called them, not Mendicant,
but Manducant friars.
MENDOZA (Juan Gonzales de), an Auguftan
friar, of the province of Caftile, was made ambaffador
from the king of Spain to the emperor of China. In
1593, he was made biftiop of Liperi in Italy. In
1607 he was made bifliop of Chiapa in New Spain,
and the next year was removed to the fee of Papaian
in the Weft Indies. He wrote a hiftory of China in
Spanifh, which has been tranllated into feveral lan¬
guages.
MENE, a Chaldsean word, which fignifies “hehas
numbered or counted;” being one of the three words
that was w'ritten upon the wall by the hand that ap¬
peared to Belihazzar, the laft king of Babylon, the
night that he was put to death. See Belshazzar.
MENECRATES, a phyfician of Syracufe, who
fiouriftied about 360 B. C. is famous for his fkill in
his profeflion, but much more for his vanity. He
would always be followed by fome of the patients he
had cured, and with whom he previoufly ftipulated
that they fhould follow him wherever he went. One
appeared with the attributes of Hercules, another with
thofe of Apollo, and others again with thofe of Mer¬
cury or .ZEfculapius; while he, clad in a purple robe,
with a golden crown on his head, and a fceptre in his
hand, prefented himfelf, to the admiration of the pub¬
lic, under the name of Jupiter, and travelled through
different countries efcorted by thefe counterfeit dei¬
ties. He once wrote the following letter to the king
ofMacedon: Menecrates-Jupiter to Philip, greeting.
Thou reigneft in Macedonia, and I in medicine; thou
giveft death to thofe who are in good health, I reftore
life to the fick; thy guard is compofed of Macedo¬
nians; the gods themfelves conftitute mine.” Philip
anfwered him in a word, that he wifhed him reftored
to reafop. Learning fome time after that he was in
Macedon, Philip fent for him, and invited him to an
entertainment. Menecrates and his companions were
placed on rich and lofty couches; before which was
an altar, covered with the firft fruits of the harveft;
and whilft an excellent repaft was ferved up to the
other guefts, perfumes and libations only were offered
to thefe new gods, who, unable to endure the affront,
haftily left the palace, in which they never more made
their appearance.
MENEDEMUS, a Greek philofopher, born at
Erythreum, was the fon of Califthenes, and one of
Phedo’s followers. He was in greateft efteem, and en¬
joyed feveral important polls, in his own country. He
feveral times defended Erythreum with great bravery,
and died of grief when Antigonus became mailer of
it. A perfon one day faying to him, “ It is a great
frappinefs to have what we defire,” he replied, “ It is
a much greater to defire nothing but what we have.” Mcndaus
He flounlhed about 300 B. C. II
MENELAUS, the fon of Atreus, and the brother Ming” ^
of Agamemnon, reigned at Sparta, when Paris de- ^ *
prived him of his wife Helen. This rape occafioned
the famous war of Troy. See Helen.
Menelaus, a mathematician in the reign of the
emperor Trajan, wrote three books on the Sphere,
which have been publilhed by father Marfenne.
MENES, born at This, a town of Thebais in Up¬
per Egypt, was the founder of the Egyptian empire.
He had three fons, viz. Athotis, who ruled after him
at This and Thebes; Curudes, who in Lower Egypt
founded the kingdom of Heliopoli, which afterward
was the kingdom of Diofpoli; and Necherophes, who
reigned at Memphis. It is thought this Menes reign¬
ed 117 years after the birth of Phaleg, fon of Heber,
which was the very year of the difperlion of the people
throughout the whole earth. In building Memphis,
he Hopped the Nile near it, by the invention of a
caufeway 100 furlongs broad, and caufed it to run
through the mountains.
MENESTRIER (John Baptift le), a native of
Dijon, and one of the moll learned and curious French
antiquaries of his time, wrote, 1. ATreatife on the
Medals, Money, and Ancient Monuments, of the Ro¬
man Empreffes, in folio. 2. The moll famous Medals
of the Ancient Roman Emperors and Empreffes, in
quarto. He died in 1634, aged 70.
MENGS (Anthony Raphael), firft painter to the
king of Spain, was born at Auflig in Bohemia, A. D.
1728. His father, painter to Augullus III. king of
Poland, perceiving his fuperior talents, carried him
from Drefden to Rome in 1741. After having there
purfued his art for four years, and copied the princi¬
pal monuments of that capital, he returned to Dref¬
den, where he executed different works for Augullus
with very uncommon fuccefs. During his abode in
Italy, he became acquainted with Don Carlos king of
Naples; and when this prince fucceeded to the crown
of Spain in 1761, he was careful to engage Mengs in
his fervice, by granting him an yearly penlion of 2000
doubloons, together with a houfe and equipage. He
lived, however, chiefly at Rome; where in 1779 he fell
a facrifice to his confidence in a German quack, who
pretended to cure him of a difeafe which he had con-
tradled partly by his intenfe application, and partly by
grief for the lofs of his wife. His natural timidity
and great ignorance of the world, the diftruft which
feemed to be expreffed in his air and manners, and his
melancholy conftitution of body, by no means leffen-
ed the envy of his rivals. Under this rude appearance,
he had a heart full of kindnefs and humanity. On
one occafion, when he perceived that he had offended
a certain perfon by his bluntnefs (excufable only in
a great genius), he was not only forry for his inatten¬
tion, but he afiifted with his advice the painter whom
he had offended. He made no myftery of his art any
more than of his fentiments. Clement XIV. fubmitted
to his judgment fome puftures of no great value, and in
excufe told him that he had bought them at the re¬
commendation of an eminent painter. “This man
and I (replied Mengs) are two artifts, one of whom
praifes every thing which he cannot equal, and the
other blames every thing which he can furpafs.” His
3 G 2 manners
M E N [3
Mcnijs nlanncrs were pure and Ample, and enthufiafm for the
; ; arts had almoft extinguifiied in him every other paf-
plii). ^on* He was a good hu&and and a good father;
—y and his family could reproach him with nothing but
want of economy and unbounded generofity. Although
had received during the laft 18 years of his life
more than 250,000 livres, he hardly left wherewithal to
d.efray the expences of his funeral. The king of Spain
adopted his five daughters, and granted penfions to
his two fons. His chief works in the line of his pro-
feffion are at Madrid and at Rome. A catalogue of
them is to be found in the account of his life prefixed
to his whole works, in 2 vols 4to, publifhed at Parma
in 1780 by the Chevalier d’Azara, with notes. The
firft volume contains, 1. Refleftions on the beautiful,
and on tafie in painting. 2. Refledlions on Raphael,
Corregio, Titian, &c. 3. On the means of promoting
the cultivation of the fine arts in Spain.—The fecond
volume contains, 1. Two letters on the group of Ni-
obe. 2. A letter on the origin, progrefs, and decline
of drawing. 3. A letter on the principal paintings at
Madrid. 4. Memoirs of the life and works of Cor-
reggio. 5. Memoirs concerning the academy of fine
arts at Madrid. 6. Pradfical leffons in painting. Part
of his works have been, tranflated into French by M.
Doray de Longrais, and publiihed at Paris 1782 in
8vo. A colle&ion of them was lately publiflied in 410,
2 vols, 1787.—Mengs placed Raphael at the head of
modern painters for defign and exprefiion, Corregio
. for gracefulnefs of attitude and the claro obfcuro, and
Titian for colouring. He formed his own ftyle upon
the different excellencies of thofe three artilfs. He
united the molt fublime expreffion to the truefl colour¬
ing, and to that knowledge of different effedls which
captivates the fenfes at the firlt impreffion, and which
•wiH bear the mofl rigid examination. His paintings
poffefs chiefly that grace which one feels without be¬
ing able to explain. Nobody ever ftudied the ancients
with greater care than he did. The technical part in
VHiJloire cbe V Art, by his friend the Abbe Wi nek el-
man, is of his compoiition. He refpedfed and admired
the ancients; but he was dellitute of that exceffive
zeal which makes their votaries conceal thofe faults
which they perceive.
MENIALS, domeftic or houfehold fervants, who
live under their lord or mailer’s roof.
MENINGES, or Menynges, in anatomy, a name
given to the dura and pia mater of the brain. See A-
natomy, n° 129.
MENINX, an illand in the Mediterranean, to the
well of the Syrtis Minor. Suppofed by Strabo and
Polybius to be Homer’s country of the Lotophagi;
and hence Ptolemy and Eratollhenes denominate the
ifland Lotophagitis, with a cognominal town .Meninx.
It was the country of Vibius Gallus the emperor, and
of Volufianus. Now called Gerbi and Zarbi.
MENIPPUS, a cynic philofopher of Phoenicia.
Pie was originally a Have, but obtained his liberty
with a fum of money, and became one of the greatell
ufurers at Thebes. He grew fo defperate from the
continual reproaches and infults to which he was daily
expofed on account of his meannefs, that he deftroy-
ed himfelf. He wrote 13 books of fatires, which have
been loll.
MENIPPEAN (fatira Menipfej), a kind of fa-
5
88 ] MEN.
tire confiding of profe and verfe intermixed. It is Menifcu*
thus called from. Menippus a cynic philofopher who II
delighted in compoling fatirical letters, &c. In imi- M.ainon*
tation of him, Varro alfo wrote fatires under the title /
of Saline Menippae: whence this fort of compofition.
is alfo denominated,ParmiLwfall ..
Among the modems there is a famous piece under
this title firlt publiihed in 1 ^94, againlt the chiefs of
the league, called alfo the Catholicon of Spain. It is
dteemed a mafter-piece for the time.
MENISCUS, in optics, a glafs-or lens, concave
on one fide and,convex on the other; fometimes alfa
called lunula. See Optics.
MENISPERMUM, moonseed : A genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the dioeciaclafs of plants f
and in the natural method ranking under the nth or¬
der, Sarmentacear. The male has four exterior and
eight interior petals; there are 16 llamina ; the co¬
rolla of the female is the fame as in the male ; there
are eight barren llamina, and two monofpermous ber¬
ries. There are three fpecies, all of them climbing
plants, rifing 14 feet high, and natives of warm cli¬
mates ; but noway remarkable for beauty. The feeds
of a kind which grows in the Levant, being formed
into a pafte, are regarded by the inhabitants as fpe-
cific againll lice and cutaneous eruptions. The fame
palle is likewife ufed' for the purpofe of intoxicating
filhes. - See Cocculus Indicus.
MENNITH, or Minnith, Judges xi. 33. a town
near Helhbon (Jerome), in Arabia Petraea ; in a di-
llridl named Ecojipolis, or twenty-towns, (.Cellaring}.’
There is alfo a Minnith mentioned Ezekiel xxvii. as
being in a good wheat country t but whether the
fame with the foregoing is uncertain ; though fome
think that the firll Minnith lay in the .country of Am¬
mon, (Wells).
MENNONITES, a fedl in .the United Provinces,
in moll refpedls the fame with thofe in other places
called Anabapt'Jls.
They had their rife in 1536, when -Menno Simon,
a native of Frielland, who had been a Romilh priell,
and a notorious profligate, Tefigned his rank and office
in the Romifh church, and publicly embraced the
communion of the Anabaptills.
Menno was born at Witmarfum, a village in the
neighbourhood of Bolfwert in Frielland in the year
1505, and died in 1561 in the duchy-of Holllein, at
the country feat of a certain nobleman not far from
the city of Oldelloe, who, moved with compaffion by
a view of the perils to which Menno was expofed, and
the fnares that were daily laid for his ruin, took him
with certain of his alfociates into his protection,, and
gave him an afylum. The writings of Menno, which
are almoll all compofed in the Dutch language, werft
publilhed in folio at Amllerdam in the year 1651.
About the year 1637, Menno was earneltly folicited
by many of the fedl with which he connedled himfelf,
to affume among them the rank and functions of a
public teacher; and as he looked upon the perfohs
who made this propofal to be exempt from the fana¬
tical phrenzy of their brethren at Munller (though
according to other accounts they were originally of
the fame llamp, only rendered fomewhat wifer by their
fufferings), he yielded to their intreaties. From this
period to the end of Iris life, he travelled from one
country
MEN [ 389 ] MEN
Mention- country to another with his wife and children exer-
lte-' cifing his miniftry, under preffures and calamities of
various kinds,, that fucceeded each other without in¬
terruption, and conftantly. expofed to the danger of
falling a vidtim to the feverity of the laws. Eat! and
Weft Fridland, together with the province of Gro¬
ningen, were lirll vifited by- this zealous apoftle of the
Anabaptifts;, from whence he dire<fted his courfe into
Holland, Gelderiand, Brabant,, and Weftphalia, con¬
tinued it through the German provinces that, lie pn
the coafts of the Baltic Sea, and penetrated fo far as
Livonia. In all thefe places his minifterial labours
were attended with remarkable fuccefs, and added to
his fed: a prodigious number of followers. Hence he
is defervediy confidered as the common chief of almoft
all the Jinabaptijlsy and the parent of the fed that ftill
fubiifts under, that denomination. Menno was a man
of genius, ui^direded by a very found judgment; he
pofleffed a natural and perfuaftve eloquence, and fuch
a degree of learning as made him pafs for an oracle in
the eftimation of the multitude. He appears, more¬
over, to have been a man of probity, of a meek and
tradable, fpirit, gentle in his manners, pliable and ob-
feqnious in his commerce with perfons of all ranks and
charaders, and extremely zealous in promoting prac¬
tical religion and virtue, which he recommended by
his example as-well as by his precepts. The plan of
dodrine and difcipline drawn up by Menno was of a
much more mild and moderate nature than that of the
furious and fanatical Anabaptists, whofe tumultuous
proceedings have been recited under that article, but
fomewhat more fevere though more clear and con-
ftftent than the dodrine of the wifer branches of that
-fed, who aimed at nothing more than the reftoration
of the Chriftian church to its primitive purity. Ac¬
cordingly he condemned the plan of eccldiaftical dif¬
cipline that was founded on the profped of a new
kingdom, to be miraculoufly eltablifhed by Jefus Chrift
on the ruins of civil government and the deftrudion
of human rulers, and which had been the fatal and
peftilential fource of fuch dreadful commotions, fuch
execrable rebellions, and fuch enormous crimes. He
declared publicly his difiike of th ;t dodrine, which
pointed out the approach of a marvellous reformation
in the church by the means of a new and extraordi¬
nary effufion of the Holy Spirit. He exprefled his
abhorrence of the licentious tenets, which feveral of
the Anabaptifts had maintained, with refped to the
lawfulnefs of polygamy and divorce ; and finally, con¬
fidered as unworthy of toleration thofe fanatics who
were of opinion that the Holy Ghoft continued to
defcend into the minds of many chofen believers, in
as extraordinary a manner as he did at the firft efta-
bliihment of the Chriftian church, and that he teftified
this peculiar prefence to feveral of the faithful by mi¬
racles, predidions, dreams, and vifions of various kinds.
He retained indeed the dodrines commonly received
among the Anabaptifts, in relation to the baptifm of
infants, the millennium, or 1000 years reign of Chrift
upon earth, the exclufion of magiftrates from the
Chriftian- church, the abolition of war, and the pro¬
hibition of oaths enjoined by our Saviour, and the
vanity as well as.the pernicious effeds of human fcience.
But while Menno retaiaed thefe dodrines in a gene?
ralTenfe, he explained and modified them in fuch a Mennon-
manner as made them refemble the religious tenets ltcs~ ,
that were univerfally received in the Proteftant '
churches; and this rendered them agreeable to many,
and made them appear inoflenfive even to numbers
who had no inclination to embrace them. It how¬
ever fo happened, that the nature of the dodrines
confidered in themfelves, the eloquence, of Menno
which fet them off to fuch advantage, and the cir-
cumftances of the times, gave a high degree of cre¬
dit to the religious fyftem of this famous teacher among
the Anabaptifts, fo that it made a rapid progrefs in
that fed. And thus it was in confequence of tire
miniftry at Menno, that the different forts of Ana¬
baptifts agreed together in excluding from their com¬
munion the fanatics that difhonoured it, and in re¬
nouncing all tenets that were detrimental to the au¬
thority of civil government, and by an unexpeded
coalition formed themfelves into one community.
Though the Mennonites ufually pafs for a fed of
Anabaptifts, yet M. Herman Schyn, a Mennonite
minifter, who has publifhed their hiftory and apology,
maintains, that they are not Anabaptifts either' in
principle or by origin. However, nothing can be
more certain than this fad, viz. that the firft Men¬
nonite congregations were compofed of the different
forts of Anabaptifts, of thofe who had been always
inoffenfive and upright, and of thofe who, before their
converiion by the miniftry of Menno, had been fedi-
tious fanatics : befides it is alledged, that the Menno¬
nites do adually retain, at this day, fome of thofe
opinions and dodrines, which led the feditious and
turbulent Anabaptifts of old to the commiflion of
fo many andffuch enormous crimes : fuch particularly
is the dodrine concerning the nature of Chrift’s king¬
dom, or of the church of the New Teftament, though
modified in fuch a manner as to have loft its noxious
qualities, and to be no longer pernicious in its influ¬
ence.
The Mennonites are fubdivided into feveral feds;
whereof the two principal are the Flandrians or
Flemingians, and the Waterlandians. The opi¬
nions, fays Molheim, that are held in-common by the
Mennonites, feem to be all derived from this fundamen¬
tal principle, that the kingdom which Chrift eftablilh-
ed upon earth is a vifible church or .community, into
which the holy and juft alone are to be admitted, and
which is confequently exempt from all thofe inftitu-
tions and rules of difcipline that have been invented
by human wiljiom, for the.corredion and reformation
of the wicked. This principle, indeed, was avowed
by the ancient Mennonites, but it is now almoft whoB
ly renounced : neverthelefs, from this ancient dodrine,
many of the religious opinions that diftinguifh the
Mennonites from all other Chrdftian communities,
feem to be derived : in.confeqqence of this dodrine,
they admit none to the facrament of baptifm but
perfons. that are come to the full ufe of their reafon ;
they neither admit civil rulers into their communion,
nor allow any of their members to perform the func¬
tions of magiftracy ; they deny the lawfulnefs of re¬
pelling force by force, and confider war, in all its
fhapes, as unchriftian and unjuft ; they entertain the
utmoft averlion to the execution of juftice, and more
efpecially.
MEN r 390 1 MEN
Mention- cfpcctally to capital puniflunents 5 and they alfo refure
,t(®8 to confirm their teftimony by an oath. The particular
Me fals ^ent‘mcnt9 ^iat divided the more confiderable focieties
T_ Ll' ‘‘of the Mennonites are the following 5 The rigid Men-
nonites, called the Flemingians, maintain, with vari¬
ous degrees of rigour, the opinions of their founder
Menno, as to the human nature of Chrift, alledging
that it was produced in the womb of the Virgin by the
creating power of the holy Ghoft ; the obligation that
binds us to wafh the feet of ftrangers, in confequence
of our Saviour’s command ; the neceflity of excom¬
municating and avoiding, as one would do the plague,
not only avowed finners, but alfo all thofe who depart,
even in fome light inftances pertaining to drefs, &c.
from the fimplicity o^ their anceilors ; the contempt
due to human learning, and other matters of lefs mo¬
ment. However this airftere fyftem declines, and the
rigid Mennonites are gradually approaching towards
the opinions and difcipline of the more moderate or Wa-
terlandians.
The firft fettlcment of the Mennonites, in the U-
nited Provinces, was granted them by William prince
of Orange, towards the clofe of the i6th century ; but
it was not before the following century that their li¬
berty and tranquillity were fixed upon folid founda¬
tions, when, by a confefilon of faith publiflied in the
year 1626, they cleared themfelves from the imputa¬
tions of thofe pernicious and deteftable errors that had
been laid to their charge. In order to appeafe their
inteftine difcords, a coniiderable part of the Anabap-
tills of Flanders, Germany, and Friefland, concluded
their debates in a conference held at Amfterdam, in
the year 1630, and entered into the bonds of fraternal
communion, each referring to themfelves a liberty of
retaining certain opinions. This affociqtion was re¬
newed and confirmed by new refolutions, in the year
1649; in confequence of which the rigorous laws of
Menno and his fuccefibrs were, in various refpects,
mitigated and corrected.
MENOCH1US, vulgarly Menochia, (James), a
famous lawyer, meanly born at Pavia, but who became
fo Ikilful in the law, that he was called the Baldus and
Bartholus of his age; all the princes of Italy folici-
ting him to their univerfities. He read at Padua 23
years together ; and for love of his country removed
to Pavia, and fucceeded Nicholas Gratiani. He hath
got an immortal fame by his works, De recuperanda
pojfejfione; De adipifcenda pnjfcjjione ; De prefumptionibus ;
De arbitrariis Judicum quejlionibus & caujis conciliorum,
tom. 13. &c. He died in 1607, aged 75.
MENOLOGY, Menologium, (from month,
-and difcourfe), in much the fame as martyrolo-
gy, or callendar, in the Latin.
The Greek menologium is divided into the feveral
months in the year; and contains an abridgement of
the lives of the faints, with a bare commemoration of
the names of fuch whofe lives were never written. The
Greeks have various menologies ; and the Romans tax
them with inferting divers heretics in their menologies
as faints.—Baillet treats of them at large.
MENSA, in law-books, a term that includes in it
all patrimony, and neceffaries for livelihood.
MENSALS, mensalia, in church-hiftory, fuch
livings as were formerly united to the tables of religi¬
ous houfes, and hence called menfal bcnejicei. See the Manfe^
article Benefice. y——
MENSES^ Catamenia, in medicine, the monthly
evacuations from the uterus of women not with child
or not giving fuck. They are fo called from menfit
“ month," the period wherein they return. They
are alfo called Jlowers, courfes, &c. By the Jewifli
law a woman was unclean while the menftrual blood
flowed; and the man who touched her, or the
moveables fhe had touched, was declared unclean.—
Levit. xv.
The menfes make one of the moft curious and
difficult phenomena in the whole human body; for
the explanation whereof, many hypothefes have been
framed, though the matter is yet fcarcely afeer-
tained.
It is generally agreed by all, that the neceffity wo¬
men are under for fome extraordinary fupply to com-
penfate the expence, and fupport them during the
time of geftation, was the final reafon why this redun¬
dance at other times was given them, which conti¬
nues whilft this neceffity fubfifts, and ceafes when, ac¬
cording to the conftitution of the female frame, it is
no longer required : but this is all they agree in.
Some, not content with this occafion alone, will have
the menftruous blood offend in quality more than
quantity ; which they argue from the pain it gives
many women in the evacuation ; with many other idle
notions.
Others aferibe this effeft to an imaginary dominion
of the moon over the bodies of women. This was
formerly the prevailing opinion ; though the fmalleft
reflection would have fhown the weaknefs of it: for,
had this purgation been owing to the influence of the
moon, all women of the fame age and temperament
would have found it at the fame periods and revolu¬
tions of the moon, i. e. at the fame time ; which all
experience ffiows to be falfe.
There are two other opinions which carry with
them great probability, and are argued with a great
deal of ftrength and reafon ; in both which, the quality
of the blood is allowed to be innocent, but they fiill
differ about the reafon of its iffue. The former is
that of Dr Bohn and Dr Freind, who maintain this
flux to be the refult of a plethora or plenitude;
and to be evacuated only for relief againft the quan¬
tity.
Dr Freind, who has maintained the caufe of a ple¬
thora with the greateft ftrength and clearnefs, fup-
pofes, that this plethora arifes from a coacervation in
the blood-veffels of a fuperfluity of aliment, which, hq
thinks, remains over and above what is expended by
the ordinary ways; and that women have this pletho¬
ra, and not men, becaufe their bodies are more humid,
and theirveffels,efpecially the extremities of them, more
tender, and their manner of living generally more inac¬
tive than that of men; and that thefe things concurring,
are the occafion that women do not perfpire fufficient-
ly to carry off the fuperfluous alimentary parts, till they
be accumulated in fuch quantities as to diftend the vef-
fels, and force their way thro* the capillary arteries of
the uterus. It is fuppofed to happen to women more
than the females of/Other fpecies, which have the fame
parts, becaufe of the eretl pofture of the former, and
MEN l 39* 1 MEN
the vagina and other canals being perpendicular to the
horizon ; fo that the preffure of the blood is directed
towards their orifices: whereas in brutes, they are pa¬
rallel to the horizon, and the preffure wholly is on the
fides of thofe veffels. The difcharge, he thinks, hap¬
pens in this part rather than in any other, as being
more favoured by the ftru&ure of the veffels ; the ar¬
teries being very numerous, and the veins finous and
winding, and therefore more apt to retard the impe¬
tus of the blood ; and confequently, in a plethoric
cafe, to occafion the rupture of the extremities of the
veffels, which may laft, till, by a fufficient difcharge,
the veffels are eafed of their overload.
This is the fubftance of Dr Freind’s theory ; from
whence he very mechanically and very philofophically
accounts for the fymptoms.
To his argument, why women have menfes rather
than men, we may add from Boerhaave, that, in the
former, the os facrum is wider, and Hands farther out,
and the os coccygis farther in ; the o//a innominata wider,
and farther apart, and the loweft of them, as well as
the lower eminences of the os pulls, farther outwards
than in the latter. Hence, in women, the latitude or
cxpanfion about thefe bones, and the capacity of the
pelvis, is vaftly great in proportion to thofe of men ;
and yet, in a woman not pregnant, there is not much
to fill this expanfe. Again, the fbrefide of the tho¬
rax is fmoother in women than in men and the blood-
veffels, lymphatics, adipofe, and nervous veffels, mem¬
branes, and fibres, are much laxer in women than in
men: whence all their cavities, cells,veffds, &c. are
more eafily replenifiied, and the humours aggregated
in them ; befides, that they are found to perlpire lefs
than men, and to arrive much fooner at their maturi¬
ty, or of increafe. To which he adds the con-
fideration of the foft pulpous texture of the uterus,
and the vaft number of veins and arteries with which
it is filled. Hence a healthy maid, being arrived at
her growth, begins to prepare more nutriment than is
required for the fupport of the body ; which, as there
is not to be any farther accretion, mutt of necefiity fill
the veffels, and efpecially thofe of the uterus and
breafts, they being the leaft compreffed. Thefe will
be dilated more than the others; whence the lateral
vafcules evacuating their humour into the cavity of
the uterus, it will be filled and extended. Hence a pain,
heat, and heavinefs, will be felt about the loins, pubes,
&c. the veffels of the uterus, at the fame time, will
be fo dilated as to emit blood into the cavity of
the uterus, and its mouth will be lubricated and loofen-
ed, and blood iffue out. As the quantity of blood is
diminiftred, the veflels will be lefs preffed, and will
contract themfelves again clofer, fo as again to retain
the blood, and let pals the groffer part of the ferum ;
till at length only the ufual ferum^paffes. Again,
there are more humours prepared, which are more ea¬
fily lodged in veffels once dilated ; and hence the
menfes go and return at various periods in various
perfons.
This hypothefis, however plaufible, is oppofed by
Dr Drake, who maintains, that there is no fuch re¬
pletion, or at leaft that it is not neceffary to menftru-
ation ; arguing, that, if the menfes were owing to a
plethora fo accumulated, the fymptonrrs would arife
gradually, and the heavinefs, ftiffnefs, and inaftivity,
necefl'ary fymptoms of a plethora, would be felt long
before the periods were completed, and wpmen would
begin to be heavy and indifpofed foon after evacua¬
tion, and the fymptoms would increafe daily; which
is contrary to all experience, many women, who have
them regularly and eafily, having no warning, nor any
other rule to prevent an indecent furprife, than the
meafure of the time ; in which, fome that have flipped,
have been put to confufion and ftiifts no ways confift-
ent with the notice a plethoric body would give. He
adds, that even in thofe who are difficultly purged this
way, the fymptoms, though very vexatious and tedi¬
ous, do not make fuch regular approaches as a gra¬
dual accumulation neceffarily requires. If we confi-
der what violent fymptoms come on in an hour, we
fliall be extremely puzzled to find the mighty accef-
iion of matter, which Ihould, in an hour or a day’s
time, make fuch great alterations. According to the
hypothefis, the laft hour contributed no more than the
firtt; and of confequence, the alteration ftiould not be
greater in the one than in the other, fetting afide the
bare eruption.
This is the fubftance of what is argued againft Dr
Freind’s theory ; which, it mutt be owned, notwith-
ftanding thefe objections, is ttill the moft rational and
confident.that has yet been advanced.
Thofe who oppofe it, give into the doftrine of fer¬
mentation, and maintain the evacuation of blood in
thofe parts to be an effedt of an effervefeence or ebulli¬
tion of the blood. This opinion has been maintained by
many, particularly by Dr Charleton, Bale, De Graaf,
and Drake ; the two firft of whom fuppofe a ferment
peculiar to the women, which produces this flux, and
affedls that part only, or at leaft principally. Di'
Graaf, lefs particular in his notion, only fuppofes an
effervefeence of the blood, raifed by fome ferment,
without affigning how it adfs, or what it is. The hid¬
den turgefcence of the blood occaficned them all to
think, that it arofe from fomething till then extrane¬
ous to the blood, and led them to the parts principal¬
ly affe&ed to feek for an imaginary ferment, which
no anatomical inquiry could ever Ihow, or find any re¬
ceptacle for, nor any reafoning neceffarily infer. A-
gain, that heat which frequently accompanies this tur¬
gefcence, led them to think the cafe more than a ple¬
thora, and that there was fome extraordinary intettine
motion at that time.
Dr Drake improves on the dodtrine of a ferment j
and contends, not only that it is neceffary there
fliauld be a ferment, but a receptacle alfo for this fer¬
ment ; concluding, from the fuddennefs and violence of
the fymptoms, that a great quantity muft be convey¬
ed into the blood in a Ihort time, and confequently,
that it muft have been ready gathered in fome recep¬
tacle, where, while it was lodged, its aftion was re-
ftrained. But he goes farther ftill, and pretends to>
afeertain the place, See. both of the one and the other,
making the gall-bladder to be the receptacle, and the
bile the ferment. This liquor he thinks well adapted
to raife a fermentation in the blood, when difeharged
into it in a quantity ; and, as it is contained in a re¬
ceptacle that does not admit of a continual iffue, it
may be there referved, till in a certain period of time
the
1
M E N
r 392
men
Menfes. the bladder becoming turgid and full, through the
V, compreflion of the incumbent vifcera, it emits the
gall ; which, by the way of the hnfteals, infinuating it-
felf into the blood, may raife-that effervefcence which
occalions the aperture of the uterine arteries. To
confirm this, he alledges, that perfons of a bilious con-
flitution have the menfes either more plentifully, or
more frequently, than others.; and that diltempers ma-
nifeftly bilious, are attended with fymptoms refembling
thofe of women labouring under difficult menihuation.
—If it be objefted, that on this principle men ffiould
have menfes as well as women, he anfwers, that men do
whatever catife this flux is obftrucled, except m the Menles.
Hate of pregnancy, proper means ihould be ufedtore- —v~~»'
llore it; and if exercife in a dry, open, and rather cool
air, wholefome diet, generous liquors in a weak and
languid ftate of the hody, chearful company, and
amufement fall, recourfe mull be had to medicine.—
When obftru&ions proceed from a weak relaxed ftate
of the folids, fuch medicines as tend to promote di-
geftion, tOybrace the -folids, and affift the body in pre¬
paring good blood, ought to be ufed. See Medicins-
Index.
When the menftrual flux is too great, the patient
not abound in bile fo much as women, the pores of becomes weak, the colour pale, the appetite and di-
the former being more open, and carrying off more
of the ferous part of the blood, which is the vehicle
of all the other humours, and confequently a greater
geftion are bad, and oedemiitous fwellings of the feet,
dropftes, and confumptions, often enfue. This fre¬
quently happens to women about the age of forty-five
part of each is difcharged through them than in wo- or fifty, and is very difficult of cure. It may proceed
men, wherein the fuperfluity muft either continue to from a fedentary life ; a full diet, confifting chiefly ox
circulate with the bloo'd, or be gathered into proper falted, high feafoned, or acrid food ; the ufe of fpiri-
• receptacles, which is the cafe in the bile. The fame
i-eafon he gives why menftruation fhould not be in
brutes : the pores of thefe being manifeftly more open
tuous liquors; exceffive fatigue ; relaxation ; a dif-
folved ftate of the blood; violent paffions of the mind,
&c. In order to reftrain the flux, the patient fhould
than thofe of women, as appears from the quantity of be kept eafy both in body and mind. If it be very
hair which they bear, for the vegetation whereof a
large cavity, and a wider aperture of the glands, is ne-
ceffary, than where no fuch thing is produced : yet
there is fome difference between the males and females
even among thefe, fome of the latter having their
menfes, though not fo often, norin-the fame form and
quantity, as women.
He adds, that the feveral phenomena of the menfes,
whether in a natural, a regular, or difeafed cafe, flow
violent, fhe ought to lie in bed wy’th her head low ; to
live upon a cool and flender diet, as veal or chicken-
broths with bread, and to drink decodlions of nettle-
roots or the greater conifrey. If thefe fail, recourfe
muft; be had to ftronger aftringents, &c. See Medi¬
cine n° 246.
The difcharge of the menfes is interrupted natural¬
ly during pregnancy : but this is not always the cafe,
becaufe fome have them three months, fome fix months,
naturally and readily from this hypothefis ; and that and fome during the whole time of geftation, though
whatever may be accounted for from a plethora, or
from any particular ferment, may without any ftrain-
ing be applied to this.
Females generally begin to menftruate about the age
of fourteen or fifteen, and ceafe about fifty; though
inftances have occurred of. their commencing fooner
and continuing longer. There are,,there fere, two cri¬
tical periods in the lives of females which require their
particular attention. In order to efcape the chlorofis,
in lefs quantity than at other times. The menfes a
moftly interrupted during the time of giving fuck,
though many women have a return about the third or
fourth month after-delivery, and almoft all have them
again in the ninth or tenth month. In cafes of ob»
ftruftion, the inenftrual blood hath difcharged itfelf by
other outlets.
It ufually happens that this periodical difcharge
ceafes between the age of forty and fifty ; and the fea-
and other fimilar difeafes, incident to that period of fon in which this takes place is critical to the fex.
life when the menfes commence, they ffiould avoid in¬
dolence and inactivity, and accuftom themfelves to ex¬
ercife in the open air as much as poffible. Unwhole-
fome food, dulnefs of difpofition, and ftrait deaths, are
very injurious to females at this feafon. The difcharge
in the beginning, is feldom fo inftantaneous as to fur-
prife them unawares. The eruption is generally pre¬
ceded by fymptoms that indicate its approach ; fuch as
a fenfe of heat, weight, and dull pain in the loins;
difte-nfion and hardndV of the breafts, head-ach, lofs
of appetite, laffitude, paltnefs of the countenance,
and fometimes a flight degree of fever. When thefe
fymptoms occur, every thing ffiould be carefully avoid¬
ed which may obftruft the menftrual flux, and all
means ufed to promote it; as fitting frequently over
However, thofe who ffirvive this period without c
tracting any chronical difeafe, become more healthy
and vigorous than they were before. About this time,
fome are affiiCleel with the well known fymptoms of
plethora, heat, fluffiings, reftlefs nights, troublefome
dreams, and unequal fpirits ; others are attacked with
inflammations of the bowels, or other internal parts;
fpafmodic affetlions of various parts, ftiffnefs in the
limbs, fvvelled ancles, with pain and inflammation, the
piles, and other effedls of plenitude. Thofe of full
plethoric habits, accuftomed to copious evacuations,
will find great relief by bleeding frequently in mode¬
rate quantities, keeping the bowels lax, moderating
their diet, and ufing fufficient exercife that is not too
heating. If an immoderate flux of the menfes hap-
.‘ams of warm water,, drinking warm diluting pens at this period, it ftiould be reftrained by gentle
liquors, &e. When the menfes have begun to flow, laxatives, cooling medicines, reft, anodynes, a molt
great care ffiould be taken to avoid every thing that fparing not too liquid diet, rather than by very copi-
tends to obftruCl them ; fuch as fiffi, and all kinds of ous bleedings and aftringents of any kind. Dr Fo-
food that are hard of digeftion, and eoldncid liquors, thergill obferves, that various purgations of aloes, the
Cold is likewife hurtful at this period ; as alfo anger, tinClura facra, pil. Ruffi, elixir proprietatis, and other
fear, grief, and other affedlions of the mind. From compofitions of this kind, are recommended as proper
Ng 210. purgatives
MEN C 393 3 MEN
Menfes purgative! to be ufed on the ceflation of the menfes,
II But many inconveniences have arifen from thefe heat-
Mgmha- ing medicines, as the piles, ftrangury, immoderate
_ v difcharges of the menfes, racking pains in the loins,
and other fimilar complaints. Rhubarb, fena, magne-
fia, fulphur medicines, fmall dofes of jalap, and vari¬
ous combinations of thefe, may be fubftituted in the
room of the others, and will fupply fufficient variety
to the prefcriber and patient. When the menfes are
about to go off, they appear for the mofl part irregu¬
larly both in time and quantity; once in a fortnight,
three, five, or fix weeks; fometimes very fparingly, at
ether times in immoderate quantities. Great Ioffes of
this kind are often prevented by taking away four or
five ounces of blood a few days after the firft menftrual
fupprefiion. If a patient has in early life been fubjedf
to cutaneous eruptions, fore eyes, glandular fwellings,
or other obvious marks of morbid humours fubfifting
in the conftitution, and all which may have difappear-
ed about the time the menfes became regular, an iffue
is an advifable drain, and may prevent many inconve¬
niences. If at this time ulcerous fores break out about
the ancles, or in other parts of the body, they ought
to be continued open, or artificial drains fubftituted in
their ftead; for thofe who will have them dried up are
foon after carried off by acute difeafes, or fall into
thofe of a chronic nature.
MENSORES, among the Romans, were harbin¬
gers, whofe bufinefs it was to go before the emperor,
<md fix upon lodgings for him when he travelled into
any of the provinces. They alfo marked out encamp¬
ments, and afligned every regiment its poll.
Menfores were alfo land-furveyors, architects, orap-
praifers of houfes and public buildings. The diftri-
butors of provifions in the army were called menfores
frumentaril. And menfores was' alfo an appellation
given to fervants who waited at table.
MENSTRTUAL, or Menstruous, a term in
medicine, applied to the blood which flows from wo¬
men in theij^judinary monthly purgations. See
Menses.
MENSTRUUM, in chemiftry, any body which in
a fluid or fubtilifed ftate is capable of interpofing its
fmall parts betwixt the fmall parts of other bodies, fo
as to divide them fubtilly, and form a new uniform
compound of the two.
MENSURATION, in general, denotes the aft or
art of meafuring lines, fuperficies, or folids. See Geo¬
metry.
MENTHA, mint, in botany: A genus of the gym-
rofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
4_2d order Verticillatee. The -corolla is nearly equal,
and quadrifid, with one fegment broader than the reft,
and emarginated; the ftamina are ereft, (landing afun-
der. There are many fpecies; but not more than three
are cultivated for ufe, namely, the viridi . or common
fpearmint, the piperita or peppermint, and the pule-
gium or pennyroyal. All thefe are fo well known as
to need no defcription; and all of them are very ea-
fily propagated by cuttings, parting the roots, or by
offsets.
Ufes. For culinary purpofes, the fpearmint is pre¬
ferable to the other two ; but for medicine, the pep-
Vox-.XI. Part I.
permint and pennyroyal have in fome places almoft en- Menth*
tirely fuperfeded it. A conferve of the leaves is very ^
grateful, and the diftilled waters both fimple and fpi> '‘ltz'
rituous are univerfally thought pleafant. The leaves are
ufed in fpring fallads; and the juice of them boiled
up with fugar is formed into tablets. It has been ima¬
gined that cataplafms and fomentations of mint, would
diffolve coagulations of milk in the bread ); but Dr
Lewis fays, that the curd of milk, digefted in a ftrong
infufion of mint, could not be perceived to be any
otherwife affefted than by common water: however,
milk, in which mint-leaves were fet to macerate, did
not coagulate.near fo foon as an equal quantity of the
fame milk kept by itfelf. Dr Lewis fays, that dry
mint digefted in reftified fpirits of wine, gives out a
tinfture, which appears by day-light of a fine dark
green, but by candle-light of a bright red colour. The
faft is, that a fmall quantity of'this tinfture is green
cither by day-light or by candle-light, but a large
quantity of it feems impervous to common day-light ;
however, when held betwixt the eye and a candle, or
betwixt the eye and the fun, it appears red.
The virtues of mint are thofe of a warm ftomachic
and carminative : irt lofs of appetite, naufea, and con¬
tinual retchimg to vomit, there are few fimples of
equal efficacy. In colicky pains, the gripes to which
children are fubjeft, lienteries, and other immoderate
fluxes, this plant frequently does good fervice. It
likewife proves beneficial in many hyfteric cafes, and
affords an ufeful cordial in languors and other weak-
neffes confequent upon delivery. The bed preparation
in thefe cafes is a ftrong infufion of the dried herbiii
water (which is much fuperior to the green), or ra¬
ther a tinfture or extraft prepared with reftified fpirit.
Thefe poffefs the whole virtues of the mint; the ef-
fential oil and diftilled water contain only the aromatic
part ; the expreffed juice only the aftringency and bit-
terifhnefs, together with the mucilaginous fubftancc
common to all vegetables. The peppermint is much
more pungent than the others.
Pennyroyal has the fame general charafters with the
mint, but is more acrid and lefs agreeable when taken
into the ftomach. It has long been held in great
efteem, and not undefervedly, as an aperient and de-
obftruent, particularly in hyfteric complaints and fup-
preflions of the menfes. For thefe purpofes the diftil¬
led water is generally made ufe of, or, what is of
equal efficacy, an infufion of the leaves It is obfer-
vable, that both water and reftified fpirit extraft the
virtues of this herb by infufion, and likewife elevate
the greateft part of them by diftillation. The ex¬
preffed juice, with a little fugar, is not a bad medicine
in the chincough.
MENTOR (fab. hill.), a faithful friend of Ulyffes;
a fon of Hercules ; a king of Sidonia, who revolted
againft Artaxerxes Ochus, and afterwards was reftored
to favour by his treachery to his allies, &c. Dlod. 16.
An excellent artift in poliftiing cups and engraving
flowers on them. Plin. 33. c. 11.—Mart. 9. ep. 6c„
v. 16.
MENTZ, an archbiftiopric and deflorate in Ger¬
many. It lies on the banks of the river Mayne, between
the deflorate of Triers on the weft, the Palatinate on
the fouth, Franconia on the eaft, and the Wetteraw
3D on
MEN [ 394 ] MEN
on the north. It is about 60 miles in length from
north-eaft to Fouth-weft, and about 50 in breadth.
A confiderable part of tffe ele&or’s revenue arifes from
the toll on the Rhine and the Mayne, and from the
tax on the excellent wines pi-oduced in this country.
The chief towns of any trade are, 1. Mentz ; (fee
the next article.) In its neighbourhood is Hock-
heim, fo celebrated for good wines, that the belt
Rhenilh is from thence called old heck. It is a pretty
village, containing about 300 families ; and belongs
to the chapter of Mentz, the dean of which enjoys
the revenue of it: in a good year he makes from
twelve to fifteen, thoufand guilders of his wine. He
and the Auguftines of Mentz and Francfort have the
exclufive enjoyment of the belt Hockheimer wine, of
which, in good years, a piece, confifting of 100 mea-
fures, fells for'from 900 to 1000 guilders from the
prefs. “ This (fays the Baron Rielbeck) is cer¬
tainly one of the dearelt wines in the world. Having
a defire to tafte it on the fpot, we were obliged to pay
a rix-dollar; it was, however, of the belt vintage in
this century, viz. that of 1766. Nor fhould we have
had it, but for an advocate of Mentz, to whom the
hoftefs meant to Ihow favour. This was the firft Ger¬
man wine I had met with which was entirely without
any four tafte : it was quite a perfume to the tongue;
whereas the other wine of Hockheim, let it be as good
as it may, is not quite clear of vinegar; though for
this alfo, if it has any age, you are forced to pay a
guilder and a half.” 2. Bingen is a pleafant town,
which Hands in the diftrift called Rhinegau, This town,
which, together with the toll on the Rhine, is worth
about 30,000 guilders, belongs to the chapter of
Mentz, is extremely beautiful, and contains about
4500 inhabitants. A great part of the corn which
is carried into the Rhinegau from the neighbouring
Palatinate, comes through this place, which, on the
other hand, fupplies the Palatinate with drugs, and va¬
rious foreign commodities. This traffic alone Avould
make the place very lively ; but befides this, it has
very fruitful vineyards. The hill, at the foot of which
it lies, and one fide of which is made by the gullet,
through which the Nahe runs into the Rhine, forms a-
notherfteep rock behind this gullet parallel to the Rhine
and thegolden Rudelheimer mountain ; it therefore en¬
joys the fame fun as this does, which makes the Bude-
ffieimer wine that grows on it little inferior to the Ru-
deffieimer. See Rudesheim. The rifing grounds
about it produce wines that are efteemed preferable to
thofe of Baccharac, fo much in vogue heretofore.—
3. Elfeld, five miles weft from Mentz, is a ftrong
fortified town, on the north-fide of the Rhine, and the
chief of the Rhinegau.—Here is Rudefheim, a place
noted for the growth of the beft wines in thefe parts.
4. Weifbaden lies between fix and feven leagues from
Francfort, and about five or fix miles north of Mentz :
it is the metropolis of a country belonging to the
branch of Naffau-Saarbrak, and is famous for its mi¬
neral waters.
After the pope, there is no doubt but the archbi-
fhop of this place is the moft confiderable and richeft
prelate in the Chriftian world. According to Baron
Rieibeck, the fee is indebted for its increafe of riches
to St Boniface, who may be called, with great juftice,
the apoftle of the Germans. It was this man, an Eng-
liffiman by biith, who in the time of Charlemagne Mentz.
baptized Witikind and the other brave Saxons who 'r~m*
had fo long refifted baptifm with their fwords, and
fpread the empire of the vicar of Jefus Chrift as far
as the northern and eaftern feas. He it was who in¬
troduced the Roman liturgy into Germany, and made
the favage inhabitants abftain from eating horfe’s fleffi.
He raifed the papal power to a higher pitch than it
had been raifed in any other country in Chriftendom
and, in recompence of his fervices, the pope made all
the new-founded biflioprics in the north of Germany
fubjeft to the fee of Mentz, which Boniface had cho-
fen for his refidence. The provinces, the moft con¬
fiderable in the whole papal dominions, all Swabia,
Franconia, Bohemia, and almoft all Saxony, with a
part of Switzerland, Bavaria, and the upper Rhine,
belong to this diocefe. Though the reformation, and
revenge of the kings of Bohemia, have leffened it one
third, it ftill contains the archbifhqpric of Sprengel
and eleven biftioprics, moft of which are the moft
confiderable of Germany, as Wurzburg, Paderborn,
Hildeflieim, Auglbourg, &c. When the building of
the papal monarchy was completed by Gregory VII.
the archbiffiops of Mentz became powerful enough to
be at the head of the empire. In the 13th and 14th
centuries, they were fo eminent as to be able to make
emperors without any foreign affiftance ; and it was
to one of them that the houfe of Haplburg was in¬
debted for its firft elevation. Since the boundaries of
the two powers have been more accurately afcertained,
and the temporal has fo much got the better of the
fpiritual, the power and influence of the archbifhops
of this place have of courfe been much reduced ; ftill,
however, they are pofleffed of very important prero¬
gatives, which they might exert with much more ef¬
ficacy than they do, were it not that various circum-
ftances have rendered them too dependent on the em¬
perors. They are ftill the fpeakers in the Electoral
College, have the appointment of the diets under the
emperors, and may order a re-examination of the
proceedings of the imperial courts. Thefe high pri¬
vileges are, however, too much fubject to the con-
troul of the boufe of Auftria ; nor are their fpiritual
powers any longer what they once were. Their fuf-
fragan biffiops K^ve taken it into their heads that all
biffiops are alike as to power, and that the title of
archbirtiop only intitles its pofleffbr to the firft place
amongft brothers who are equal. The temporals,
however, which are ftill annexed to this chair, make
him who fits in it rich amends for-the diminution of
his fpiritual and political fplendor. Though he does
not abfolutely poflefs the largeft, yet he certainly has
the richeft and moft peopled domain of any ecclefia-
ftical potentate in Germany. The country, it is true,
does not contain more than 125 German miles fquare,
whereas the archbiffiopric of Saltzburg contains 240 ;
but then Saltzburg has only 250,000 inhabitants,
whereas Mentz has 320,000. The natural riches of
the territory of Mentz, and its advantageous fitua-
tion, make a fubjedt of Mentz much richer than one
of Saltzburg, the gre^teft part of which is only inha¬
bited by herdfmen. In the territory of Mentz there
are 40 cities; in that of Saltzburg only feven. The
tax on veflels which go down the Rhine of itfelf pro¬
duces 60,000 guilders,, or 6000.1. a year, which is
nearly
MEN t 395 ] MEN
Mentz. nearly as much as all the mines of Saltzburg put to-
““"v—' gether, excepting only the fait mine at Halle. The
tax on wine, here and in the country round, produces
the court above 100,000 guilders, or 10,0001. a-year,
in which fum we do not reckon the cuftoms of the
countries which lie at a greater diftanct. Upon the
whole, the income of the prefent archbilhop may be
valued at 1,700,000 guilders, or 170,000!.
If the lands of the ele&or lay all together,'they would
produce a fufficiency of corn and all the prime necef-
faries of life ; but as feveral parts of them lie wide af-
funder, the people are compelled to purchafe a great
deal from foreigners. The capital itfelf, as well as
the adjacent Rhinegau, depends on the Palatinate for
its corn, notwithftanding the great abundance of that
and every other fpecies of grain in its own pofleflions
in Wetterau. The nobleft production of the elector’s
territory on the Rhine is the wine, which is almoft
the only true .Rhenilh. Connoiffeurs, indeed, allow
the wines of Neirftein, Bacharach, and a very, few
other places out of this country, to be true Rhenilh:
but they do not give this name to the wines of the
Palatinate, of Bardon, and of Alfatia. There is a
great deal of wine made in the countries which lie on
the fouth and weft of the Rhine, at Laubenheim,
Bodenheim, Budelheim, and Bingen; but the true
Rhenilh, that which infpires fo many who are and fo
many who are not poets, comes only from the Rhine¬
gau, which lies on the northern banks of the Rhine.
See Rhinegau.
The civil lift of the archbilhop (according to
Baron Rielbeck), is by much too immoderate and
expenfive. “ He has his minifters, his counfel-
lors of ftate, and eighty or ninety privy counfel-
lors of various denominations. The expence of this
eftablilhment is very difproportionate to the revenue
of the ftate. This is owing to the large number of
poor nobility, who can only accept of employments
of this kind. Ignorance of the true principles of go¬
vernment are the caufes of this evil. The confequen-
ces are, that a great nnmber of perfons, who might
be ufefully employed, live in idlenefs. Even the mi¬
litary eftablilhment of the country appears to me more
calculated for the purpofe of feeding a hungry nobi¬
lity than for real ufe. At the acceffion of the prefent
eleCtor, though the 'whole army only confided of 2 200
men, there were fix generals. The regular eftablilh¬
ment paid for and fupported by the country is 8oco
men ; but though there are only 2ouo men kept up,
the money expended for their fupport, particularly
that given to numberlefs ufelefs officers, might be
made ufe of more for the benefit of the country. The
army of the archbilhop con fills of a German guard of
50 men and 25 horfes, a Swifs guard, a fquadron of
huflars of 130 men (the mod ufeful troops, as they
purge the land of robbers and murderers), a corps of
artillery of 104 men, three regiments of infantry of
600 men each, and fome companies belonging to the
armies of Franconia and the Upper Palatinate. Of
th.e fortifications of the capital we may fay much the
fame as of the army. Were they, indeed, improved
and kept up as they ought to be, they would vie
with Luxemburg, and be the moll powerful of all the
barriers againft France. It is true, that the nature of
the ground does not allow of a regular plan ; but for M
fingle parts, I have feen no place of the fame capabi- w'
lities, where greater advantages have been taken of
the ground for the ereClion of the feveral works. The
beauty, as well as fize of them, is indeed an objeCl of
great wonder; but though the circle of the Upper
Rhine, and even the empire in general, has laid out
great fums on the building thefe fortifications, parts
of them are not finilhed, and parts of them are ready
to fall to pieces. Their extent, indeed, would require
a great army to man them. But this, as well as the main¬
taining and keeping them up, is evidently beyond the
power of this court, or indeed of the whole circle of
the Upper Rhine united. They are, therefore, alfo
to be looked upon as one of the things which ferve
more for magnificence than real ufe.”
Mentz, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
circle of the Lower Rhine, and capital of the ele&o-
rate of the fame name, is fituated on the Rhine near
its confluence with the Mayne, 20 miles north-weft of
Worms, 1$ weft of Francfort, and 7 5 call of Triers,
in E. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 49. 51. This city claims
a right to the invention of the art of printing: (fee
Hijlory of Printing). Here is a very beautiful quay
along the river, defended by feveral works well forti¬
fied with cannon. That part of the city which ex¬
tends towards the river is moft populous. The beft
vineyards for Rhenifh wine being in this neighbour¬
hood, Mentz has a flourilhing trade in that commodi¬
ty more particularly; and its commerce is the brifker,
by reafon that all the merchandize which paffes up and
down the Rhine Hops in its harbour to change bot¬
toms.
The northern part of the city, in which the arch¬
bilhop refides, is full of very regular buildings. Here
are three regular ftreets, called the B/erchen, which run
parallel to each other from the banks of the Rhine to
600 yards within the city, and are cut almoft regularly
by very pretty crofs ftreets. The archbilhop’s palace
has a moft commanding view of thefe ftreets, the Rhine,
and the Rhinegau. There are alfo fome good build¬
ings in the old part of the city. The market of beaft*
is extremely well worth feeing; and you here and
there meet with other agreeable fpots. The market
in the middle of the town, though not regular, is one
of the prettieft places in Germany. The cathedral is
well worth notice. It is an immenfe large old Go¬
thic building, the fpire of which was ftruck with light*
ning about 20 years ago, and entirely laid in afhes.
As it was made of a foreft of wood, it burned 14
hours before it was entirely confumed. To prevent
thefe accidents for the future, the chapter had the pre¬
fent one built to the fame height in ftone, an under¬
taking which coft them 40,000 guilders or L. 4000.
It is a great pity (Baron Rielbeck obferves) that it is
overloaded with fmall ornaments; and a ftill greater, that
this wonderful edifice is fo choaked up with Ihops and
houfes afs to be hardly more than half vifible. As,
.however, houfes and Ihops are very dear in this part
of the town, one cannot be very angry with the chap*.
ter for choofing rather to make the moft of its ground,
than to Ihow oft the church to the beft advantage. The
rent of a ffiop and a fingle room to live in is 150 guil»
ders or L. 15 per annum in this part of the town.
3 D 2 There
MEN [ 396 ] MEN
Men'* There Is hardly another church in Germany of the
height and length of this cathedral1; and the infide of
it is decorated with feveral magnificent monuments of
princes and other great perfonages. Befides the ca¬
thedral, the city of Mentz contains feveral other
churches in the modern ftyle, very well worth feeing.
St Peter’s, and the Jefuits church, though both too
much loaded with ornament, are among this number.
The church of the Auguftines, of which the inhabi¬
tants of Mentz are fo proud, is a mafter-piece of bad
tafte ; but that of Ignatius, though little is faid about
it, would be a model of the antique, if here likewife
there had not been too much ornament laviihed. Upon
the whole, the palaces of the nobleffe want that noble
fimplicity which alone conftitutes true beauty and
magnificence. In another century the externals of
the city will be quite changed. The late prince built
a great deal, and the prcfent has a tafte for the fame
fort of expence. The monks and governors of hof-
pitals alfo have been forced to rebuild their houfes; fo
that when a few more ftreets are made broader and
ftraighter, the whole will have no bad appearance.
The inhabitants, who together with the garrifon a-
tnount to 30,000, are a good kind of people, and,
like all the catholics of Germany, make great account
of a good table. Their faces are interefting, and they
are not deficient either in wit or activity.
There are few cities in Germany befides Vienna
which contain fo rich and numerous a nobility as this
does: there are fome houfes here which have eftates
of 1 0,000 guilders, or L. 10,000 a-year. The counts
of Baflenheim, Schonborn, Stadion, Ingelheim, Elz,
Oftein, and Walderdorf, and the lords of Dahlberg,
Breitenbach, with fome others, have incomes of from
30,00010 1 co,ooo guilders. Sixteen or eighteen houfes
have from 15,000 to 30,000 guilders annual revenue.—
The nobility of this place are faid to be fome of the oldeft
and moft untainted in Germany. There are amongft
them many perfons of extraordinary merit, who join
uncommon knowledge to all the duties of aftive life.
Upon the whole, theyare far fuperior to the greater part
of the German nobility. Their education, however, is
ftill too ftiff. The firft minifter of the court was re-
fufed admittance into their aflemblies for not being fuffi-
ciently noble; and they think they degrade themfelves
by keeping company with bourgeois.
The clergy of this place are the richeft in Germany .
A canonry brings in 3500 Rhenifti guilders in a mo¬
derate year. The canonry of the provoft brings him in
40,000 guilders a-year; and each of the deaneries is
worth 2600 guilders. The income of the chapter al¬
together amounts to 300,000 guilders. Though it is
forbidden by the canons of the church for any one to
have more than a Angle prebend, there is not an ec-
clefiaftic in this place but what has three or four; fo
that there is hardly a man amongft them who has not
at leaft 8000 guilders a-year. The laft provoft, a count
of Elts, had prebends enough to procure him an in¬
come of 75,000 guilders. Exclufive of the cathedral,
there are feveral other choirs in which the canonries
bring in from 1200, to 1500 guilders a-year. To give
an idea of the riches of the monafteries of this place,
Baron Riefbeck informs us, that at the deftru&ion of
the Jefuits, their wine, which was reckoned to fell
extremely cheap, produced 120,coo rixdollars. A Mentz,
little while ago the eleftor abolifhed one Carthufian Meiitzeh
convent and two nunneries, in the holy cellars of which ' *
there was found wine for at leaft 500,000 rixdollars.
“ Notwithftanding this great wealth (continues, our
author), there is not a more regular clergy in
all Germany, There is no diocefe in which the
regulations made by the council of Trent have been
more ftridtly adhered to than they have here; the
archbifhops having made a particular point of it
both at the time of the reformation and ever fince.
One thing which greatly contributes to keep up dif-
cipline is the not fuffering any prieft to remain in the
country who has not fixed and ftated duties, and a re¬
venue annexed to them. Moft of the irregularities in
Bavaria, Auftria, and other countries, arife from abbes
who are obliged to fubfift by their daily induftry and
any mafles which they can pick up. Thefe creatures
are entirely unknown here. The theological tenets of
this court are alfo much purer than thofe of any other
ecclefiaftical prince in Germany. I was pleafed to fee
the Bible in the hands of fo many common people,
efpecially in the country. I was told that the read¬
ing of it was not forbidden in any part of the diocefe ;
only perfons were enjoined not to read it through,
without the advice of their confeffors. For a long
time fuperftition has been hunted through its utmoft
recefles; and though it is not quite pofiible to get en¬
tirely clear of pilgrimages and wonder-working ima¬
ges, you will meet with no prieft bold enough to ex-
orcife or to preach fuch nonfenfe as we hear in the
pulpits of other German churches.”
Though the trade of this place has been conftantly
on the increafe for thefe 18 or 20 years paft, yet it is
by no means what it ought to be from the fituation
and other advantages. The perfons here who call
themfelves merchants, and who make any confiderable
figure, are in fa<ft only brokers, who procure their
livelihood at the expence of the country or territory
round, or who aft for the merchants of Franckfort.
A few toy-fhops, five or fix druggifts, and four or five
manufafturers of tobacco, are all that can poflibly be
called traders. There is not a banker in the whole
town ; and yet this country enjoys the ftaple privi¬
lege, and commands by means of the Mayne, Necker,
and Rhine, all the exports and imports of Alfatia, the
Palatinate, Franconia, and a part of Suabia and Heffe,
as far as the Netherlands. The port too is conftantly
filled with ftu'ps, but few of them contain any mer¬
chandize belonging to the inhabitants of the place.
MENTZEL (Chriftian), born at Furftenveall in
the Mittel-mark, is celebrated for his {kill in medicine
and botany, in purfuit of which he travelled through
many countries. He had correfpondents in the moft
diftant parts of the world. He died A. D. 1701, about
the 79th year of his age. He was a member of the
academy des Curieux de la Nature. His works are,
I. Index twminum plantarum, printed at Berlin in folio,
1696; and reprinted with additions in 1715, under
the title of Lexicon plantarum polyglotton univerfale. 2. A
Chronology of China, in German, printed at Berlin
1696 in qto. The following manuferipts of his com-
pofition are preferved in the royal library at Berlin.
1. Sur VHiJioire Naiurdle.du Brajil}in four volumes fo-
7
'MEN l 397 1 M E N
Menus Ho, a. Sur les Fleurs et hs Plantes du Japon, with co¬
ll loured plates, two vols folio.
MenzikofF. MENUS (anc. geog.), a river of Germany; now
1 v the Maine-, riling in Franconia, and running from eaft
to weft, into the Rhine at Mentz.
MENUTHIAS (anc. geog ), an ifland adjoining
to the north-eaft of the promontory Prafum of Ethi¬
opia beyond Egypt. Some take it to be Madagafcart
or the ifland St Laurence. Ifaac Voffius will have it
to be Zanzibar; Madagafcar being at a greater di-
ftance from the continent than the ancients ever failed
to, whereas Menuthias was nearer: yet though Zan¬
zibar be nearer the continent, it is however nearer the
equator than Ptolemy’s Menuthias, placed in fouth la¬
titude 124- degrees.
MENYANTHES, Marsh-trefoil, orBuckbean:
A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the
pentandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 2ift order. Precite. The corolla is
hairy; the ftigma bifid; the capfule unilocular. This
plant grows wild in moift marfhy places in many parts
of Britain. It has three oval leaves ftanding together
upon one pedicle, which iffues from the root; their
tafte is very bitter, and fomewhat naufeous. Accord¬
ing to Mr Lightfoot, the flowers of this plant are fo
extremely beautiful, that nothing but their native foil
could exclude it from a place in every garden. They
grow in an elegant fpike; are white, dafhed with pink,
and fringed internally with hairs. The Highlanders
efteem an infufion or tea of the leaves as good to
ftrengthen the ftomach. According to Dr Withering,
an infufion of the leaves is prefcribed in rheumatifms
and dropfies; a dram of them in powder purges and
vomits, and is fometimes given to deftroy worms. In
a fcarcity of hops, the plant is ufed in the north of
Europe to bitter the ale. The powdered roots are
fometimes ufed in Lapland inftead of bread, but they
are unpalatable. Some people fay, that fheep will eat
it, and that it cures them of the rot; but from the
Upfal Experiments it appears, that though goats eat
it, fheep fometimes will not. Cows, horfes, and
fwine, refufe it.—Dr Lewis informs us, that it is
an efficacious aperient and deobftruent; promotes
the fluid fecretions; and, if liberally taken, gently
loofens the belly. It has of late gained great repu¬
tation in fcorbutic and fcrophulous diforders; and
its good effedls in thofe cafes have been warranted by
experience. Inveterate cutaneous difeafes have been
removed by an infufion of the leaves, drank to the
quantity of a pint a-day, at proper intervals, and con¬
tinued for fome weeks. Boerhaave relates, that he
was relieved of the gout by drinking the juice mixed
with whey.
MENZ.IKOFF (Alexander), was originally an ap¬
prentice to a paftry-cook near, the palace of Mofcow;
but by a fortunate circumftance was drawn from that
fituation in early life, and placed in the houfehold of
Peter the Great. Having made himfelf mafter of fe-
veral languages, and being formed for war and for bu-
finefs, he firft rendered himfelf agreeable, and after¬
wards became neceflary, to his mafter. He affifted
Peter in all his projefts; and was rewarded for his fer-
vices with the government of Ingria, the rank of
prince, and the title of major-general. v He fignalized
himfelf in Poland in 1708 and 1709 ; but in 1713 he
was accufed of embezzling the public money, andvrenziko/T.
fined in 300,000 crowns. The Czar remitted the ——v—
fine ; and having reftored him to favour, gave him
the command of an army in the Ukraine in 1719,
and fent him as his ambaflador into Poland in 1722.
Conftantly employed about the means of preferving
his influence after the death of his mafter, who was
then evidently on the decline, Menzikoff difcovered
the perfon to whom the Czar intended to leave the.
fucceffion. The emperor was highly offended, and
his penetration coft him the principality of PlefcoffV
Under the Czarina Katharine, however, he was high¬
er in favour than ever ; becaufe, on the death of the
Czar in 1725, he was active in bringing different par¬
ties in Ruffia to agree to her fucceffion. This prin-
cefs was not ungrateful. In appointing her fon-in-
law Peter II. to be her fucceflbr, Ihe commanded him
to marry the daughter of MenzikofF, and gave the
Czar’s filler to his fan. The parties were adtually be¬
trothed ; and Menzikoff was made duke of Coze! and
grand lteward to the Czar. But this fummitof eleva¬
tion was the prelude to his fall. The Dolgoroukisy.
favourites of the Czar, had influence enough to pro¬
cure his banifhment, together with that of his family*
to one of his own eftates at the diftance of 250 leagues,
from Mofcow. He had the imprudence to leave the
capital with the fplendor and magnificence of a go¬
vernor going to take pofleffibn of his province. His,
enemies took advantage of this circumftance to in.
flame the indignation of the Czar. At fome diftance
from Mofcow he was overtaken by a detachment of
foldiers. The officer who commanded them made him
alight from his chariot, which he fent back to Mof¬
cow; and placed him and his whole family in covered
waggons, to be condudted into Siberia, in the habit
of peafants. When he arrived at the place of his de-
itination, he was prefented with cows and Iheep big
with young, and poultry, without knowing front
whom he received the favour. His houfe was a fimple
cottage ; and his employment was to cultivate the.
ground, or to fuperintend its cultivation. New cau-
fes of forrovv were added to the feverities of exile.
His wife died in the journey ; he had the misfortune
to lofe one of his daughters by the fmall-pox ; and his
other two children were feized with the fame difeafe,
but recovered. He funk under his misfortunes, No¬
vember 2. 1729 ; and was buried befide his daughter,
in a little chapel which he had built. His misfor¬
tunes had infpired him with fentiments of devotion*
which, amid the fplendor of his former fituation, he
had altogether neglected. His two furviving.children,
enjoyed greater liberty after the death of their father.-
The. officer permitted them to attend public wor-
Ihip on Sundays by turns. One day when his daugh¬
ter was returning from the village, (he.heard herfeif
accofted by a pealant from the window of a cottage*,
and, to her great furprize, recognifed in .this peafant.
the perfecutor of her family, Dolgorouki; who, in his..
turn, had fallen a facrifice to the intrigues of the court.
She communicated this intelligence to. her brother,.,
who could not behold, without emotion, this new in-
ftance of the vanity and inftability of honours and.
power. Young Menzikoff and his lifter were foon af¬
ter recalled to Mofcow by the Czarina Ann; and left
Dolgorouki in pofleffion of their cottage- He was.
made
M E Q_ [ 398 ] M E U
made captain of the guards, and received the fifth
part of his father's pofleffions. His filler was appoint-
' ed maid of honour to the Emprefs, and afterwards
married to great advantage.
MENZINI (Benedid), a celebrated Italian poet,
born at Florence, was profeffor of eloquence at the
college Della Sapienza at Rome, where he died in
1704. He wrote, 1. The art of poetry. 2. Satires,
elegies, hymns, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah.
3. Academia Tufculana., a work in verfe and profe,
which pafles for his mafterpiece.
MEOTIS, or Palus Meotis, a fea of Turky,
which divides Europe from Afia ,r extending from
•Crim Tartary to the mouth of the river Don or
Tanais.
MEPHITIC, a name expreffing any kind of noxi¬
ous vapour; but generally applied to that fpecies of
vapour calledf.xedair. See Air, Fixed Air, Gas, &c.
MEPHITIS Fanum, a temple ere&ed to the
goddefs Mephitis, near Lacus Amfandli; who was
worfhipped alfo at Cremona. Figuratively, Me¬
phitis denotes a noifome or peftilential exhalation,
(Virgil.)
MEQU1NEZ, orMiQtnNEz, the northern capital
of the Morocco empire, Hands at the extremity of the
province of Beni-Haflen, 80 leagues north from the
city of Morocco (which is the fouthern imperial
city), and 20 to the eaft of Sake and the ocean.
Maknaffa, its founder, built it firft at the bottom of a
valley ; but Muley Ifmael extended it confiderably
over the plain that lies to the weft of the valky. It
is furrounded with well cultivated fields and hills,
adorned with gardens and olive plantations, and abun¬
dantly watered with rivulets. Accordingly, fruits and
kitchen ftuffs thrive here exceedingly, and even the
fuperior urbanity of the inhabitants announces the
^temperature of the climate. The winter indeed is
very inconvenient, on account of the dirtinefs of the
town, the ftreets not being paved, and the foil being
Ilimy.
Mequinez is furrounded with walls; the palace itfelf
is fortified with two baftions, on which formerly feme
fmall guns were mounted. Muky Ifmael, and Muky
Abdallah, often ip this city refifted the effort's of the
Brebes, the fworn enemies of their tyranny. To the
weft are feen fome walls of circumvallation, fix feet in
height, which were probably mere intrenchments for
the infantry ; the attacks of the Brebes being only
fudden and momentary inroads, which did not require
long defence. There is at Mequinez, as well as at
Morocco, a walled and guarded fuburb for the Jews.
The houfes are neater here than at Morocco. The
Jews here are more numerous; and they can turn
their induftry to greater account, becaufe the Moors
in this city are more polifhed, and (being nearer
to Europe) more vifited, than thofe in the fouthern
parts. Near the Jewry, there is another inclofed and
feparate quarter, called the Negro-town. It was built
by Muky Ifmael, for the accommodation of thofe
black families which compofed his foldiery. This
town is now uninhabited, as are all thofe deftined for
the fame ufe thtough the reft of the empire.
At the fouth-eaft extremity of the city Hands the.
palace of the emperor, which was built by Muky If-
mael. The fpace occupied by this palace is very
gj-eat; it includes feveral gardens, elegantly difpofed, Mera
and well watered. There is a large garden in the M^^’0
centre, furrounded by a vaft and pretty regular gal¬
lery, refting on columns, which communicates ^rith
the apartments. Thofe of the women are very fpaci-
ous, and have a communication with a large chamber
which looks into the garden. As you pafs from one
apartment to another,you find atintervals regular courts
paved with fquare pieces of black and white marble; in
the middle of thefe courts is a marble bafon, from the
centre of which rifes njet-d’eau, and the water Mis down
into this bafon. Thefe fountains are numerous In the pa¬
lace ; they are ufeful for domeltic purpofes, and they
ferve for the ablutions, which the ferupks of the Ma¬
hometans have exceedingly multiplied. The palaces
of the Moorifti kings are large, becaufe they are com¬
pofed only of one range of apartments; thefe are long
and narrow, from 18 to 20 feet high ; they have few
ornaments, and receive the light by two large folding
doors, which are opened more or lefs as occafion- re¬
quires. The rooms are always lighted from a fquare
court in the centre, which is generally encompaffed
with a colonade.
The Moors here are more courteous than thofe in
the fouthern parts; they are civil to ftrangers, and in¬
vite them into their gardens, which are very neat.
The women in this part of the empire are beautiful;
they have a fair complexion, with fine black eyes, and
w'hite teeth. I have fometimes feen them taking the
air on the terraces ; they do not hide themfelves from
Europeans, but retire very quickly on the appearance
of a Moor.
MERA-de-Asta, formerly a large town of An-
dalufia, feated on the river Guadakta, between Arcos
and Xeres de la Frontera ; but now only a large heap
of ruins. Here the Arabs conquered Roderick thelaft
king of the Goths, and by that victory became mafters
of Spain in 713.
MERCATOR (Gerard), one of the moft cele¬
brated geographers of his time, was born at Rure-
monde in 1512. He applied himfelf with fuch in¬
duftry to geography and mathematics, that he is faid
to have frequently forgot to eat and drink. The em¬
peror Charles V. had a particular efteem for him, and
the duke of Juliers made him his cofmographer. He
compofed a chronology, fome geographical tables, an
Atlas, &c. engraving and colouring the maps him¬
felf. He died in 1594. His method of laying down
charts is ftill ufed, and bears the name of Mercators
charts.
MercatOr (Nicholas), an eminent mathematician
in the 17th century, was born at Holftein in Den¬
mark ; and came to England about the time of the re¬
iteration, where he lived many years. He was fellow
of the Royal Society; and endeavoured to reduce
aftrology to rational principles, as appeared from a
MS. of his in the poffeffion of William Jones, Efq.
He publilhed feveral works, particularly Cofmagraphia.
He gave the quadrature of the hyperbole by an in¬
finite feries ; which was the firft appearance in the
learned world of a feries of this fort drawn from the
particular nature of the curve, and that in a manner
very new and abftrafted.
Mercj'Tor’s Sailing, that performed by Mercator's
chart. See Navigation.
MERCATORUM
M E R [ 399 ] M E R
Mercato- MERCATORUM festum, was a fcllival kept
rum, by the Roman merchants on the 15th of May in ho-
Mcruliant. nour 0f Mercury, who prefided over merchandife. A
v" fow was facrificed on the occafion, and the people
prefent fprinkled themfelves with water fetched from
the fountain called aqua Mercurn >• the whole conclu¬
ding with prayers to the god for the profperity of
trade.
MERCHANT, a perfon who buys and fells com¬
modities in grofs, or deals in exchanges; or that traf¬
fics in the way of commerce, either by importation
or exportation. Formerly every one who was a buyer
or feller in the retail way was called a merchant, as
they ftill are both in France and Holland; but here
Shopkeepers, or thofe who attend fairs or markets,
have loft that appellation.
Previous to a peifon’s engaging in a general trade,
and becoming an univerfal dealer, he ought to treafure
up fuch a fund of uifeful knowledge as will enable him
to carry it on with eafe to himfelf, and without rilk-
ing fuch Ioffes as great ill-concerted undertakings
would naturally expofe him -to. A merchant ftiould
therefore be acquainted with the following parts of
commercial learning. 1. He fliould write properly and
correctly. 2. Underftand all the rules of arithmetic
that have any relation to commerce. 3. Know how
to keep books of double and fingls entry, as journals,
a leger, &c. 4. Be expert in the forms of invoices,
accounts of fales, policies of infurance, charter-par¬
ties, bills of lading, and bills of exchange. 5. Know
the agreement between the money, weights, and mea-
fures of all parts. 6. If he deals in filk, woollen,
linen, or hair manufaftures, he ought to know the
places where the different forts of merchandizes are ma¬
nufactured, in what manner they are made, what are
the materials of which they are compofed, and from
whence they come, the preparations of thefe materials
before working up, and the places to which they are
fent after their fabrication. 7. He ought to know the
lengths and breadths which filk, woollen, or hair-ftuffs,
linen, cottons, fuftains. Sec. ought to have accord¬
ing to the feveral ftatutes and regulations of the places
where they are manufaCfured, with their different prices,
according to the times and feafons ; and if he can add
to his knowledge the different dyes and ingredients
which form the various colours, it will not be ufelefs.
8. If he confines his trade to that of oils, wines, &c.
he ought to inform himfelf particulary of the appear¬
ances of the fucceeding crops, in order to regulate his
difpofing of what he has on hand; and to learn as ex-
a&ly as he can what they have produced when got in,
for his direftion in making the neceffary purchafes and
engagements. 9. Pie ought to be acquainted with the
forts of merchandize found more in one country than
another, thofe which are fcarce, their different Tpecies
and qualities, and the propereft method for bringing
them to a good market either by land or fea. 10. To
know which are the merchandizes permitted or prohi¬
bited, as well on entering as going out of the king¬
doms or ftates where they are made. 11. To be ac¬
quainted with the price of exchange, according to the
courfe of different places, and what is the caufe of its
rife and fall. 12. To know the cuftoms due on im¬
portation or exportation of merchandizes, according to
the ufage, the tariffs,, and regulations, of the places to
which he trades. 13% To know the belt manner of merchant,
folding up, embaling, or tunning, the merchandizes for irt '
their prefervation. 14. To underftand the price and
condition of freighting and infuring {hips and mer¬
chandize. 15. To be acquainted with the goodnefs
and value of all neceffaries for the conftruftion and re¬
pairs of {hipping, the different manner of their build*
ing; what the wood, the mafts, cordage, cannons,
fails, and all requifites, may coft. 16. To know the
wages commonly given to the captains, officers, and
failors, and the manner of engaging with them.
17. He ought to underftand the foreign languages, or
at leaft as many of them as he can attain to ; thefe
may be reduced to four, v;z. the Spanifh, which is.
ufed not only in Spain but on the coaft of Africa,
from the Canaries to the Cape of Good Hope; the
Italian, which is.underftood on all the coafts of the
Mediterranean, and in many parts of the Levant: the
German, which is underftood in almoft all the northern
countries-; and the French, which is now become al¬
moft univerfally current. 18. He ought to be ac¬
quainted with the confular jurifdi&ion, with the laws,
cuftoms, and ufages of the different countries he does
or may trade to ; and in general all the ordinances
and regulations both at home and abroad that have
any relation to commerce. 19. Though it is not ne¬
ceffary for a merchant to be very learned, it is proper
that he fhould know fomething of hiftory, particular¬
ly that of his own country; geography; hydrography,
or the fcience of navigation ; and that he be acquaint¬
ed with the difeoveries of the countries in which trade
is eftabliftted, in what manner it is fettled, of the com¬
panies formed to fupport thofe eftablilhments, and of
the colonies they have fent out.
All thefe branches of knowledge are of great fer-
vice to a merchant who carries on an extenfive com¬
merce ; but if his trade and his views are more limited,
his learning and knowledge may be fo too : but a
material requifite for forming a merchant is, his having
on all occafions a ftridt regard to truth, and his avoid¬
ing fraud and deceit as corroding cankers that muft
inevitably deftroy his reputation and fortune.
Trade is a thing of fo univerfal a nature, that it is
impoffiblc for the laws, of Britain, or of any other
nation, to determine all the affairs relating to it:
therefore all nations, as well as Great Britain, {how a
particular regard to the law-merchant, which is a law
made by the merchants among themfelves : however,,
merchants and other ftrangers are fubjeft to the laws
of the country in which they refide. Foreign mer¬
chants are to fell their merchandize at the port where
they land, in grofs, and not by retail; and they are
allowed to be paid in gold or filver bullion, in foreign
coin or jewels, which may be exported. If a diffe¬
rence arifes between the king and any foreign ftate,
the merchants of that ftate are allowed fix months
time to fell their effe&s and leave the kingdom ; du¬
ring which time they are to remain free and unmolefted
in their perfons and goods. See the articles Com
merge, and Mercantile Law.
MERCHET (Merchetum), a fine or compofition.
paid by inferior tenants to the lord, for liberty to dif-
pofe of their daughters in marriage. No baron, or
military tenant, could marry his foie daughter and
heir, without fuch leave'purchafed from the king, pro
8 maritanda-
M E R [ 400 I M E R
■Merck, waritanda filia. And many of our fevvlla tenants
■“■"'V'"*’*' could neither fend their fons to fchool, nor give their
daughters in marriage, without exprefs leave from the
fuperior lord. See Kennet’s Gloffary in Maritagium.
See alfo Marchet.
MERCIA, the name of one of the feven kingdoms
founded in England by the Saxons. Though the
lateft formed, it was the largeft of them all, and grew
•by degrees to be by far the moft powerful. On the
north it was bounded by the Humber and the Mrrfey,
which feparated it from the kingdom of Northumber¬
land ; on the eaft -by the fea, and the territories of
the Eaft-Angles and Saxons 5 on the fouth by the ri-
•ver Thames; and on the weft by the rivers Severn and
E)ee. It comprehended well nigh 17 of'our modem
counties, being equal in fize to the province of Lan¬
guedoc in France; very little; if at all, lefs than the
kingdom of Arragon in Spain ; and fuperior in fize
to that of Bohemia in Germany.
Penda is regarded as its firft monarch 5 and the
.kingdom is thought to derive its name from the-Saxon
word mere, which iignifies “ a march, bound, or li¬
mit,-’ becaufe the other kingdoms bordered upon it
on every fide ; and not from the river Merfey, as fome
' would perfuade us. Penda affumed the regal title
A. D. 626, and was of-the age of 50 at the time of
his accefiion ; after which he reigned near 30 years.
He was of a moft furious and turbulent temper, break¬
ing at different times with almoft all his neighbours,
calling in the Britons to his affiftance, and ihedding
more Saxon blood than had been hitherto fpilled in
all their inteftine quarrels. He killed two kings of
■Northumberland, three of the Eaft-Angles, and com¬
pelled Kenwall king of the Weft-Saxons to quit his
dominions. He was at length flain, with moft of the
princes of his family, and a multitude of his fubjedts,
in a battle fought not far from Leeds, by Ofwy king
of Northumberland. This battle, which the Sa¬
xon chronicle tells us was fought at Winwidfield, A. D.
655, made a great change in the Saxon affairs, which
the unbridled fury of Penda had thrown into great
confufion. He had the year before killed Anna king
of the Eaft-Angles in battle, whofe brother Ethelred
notwithftanding took part with Penda. On the other
hand, Penda the eldeft fon of Penda, to whom his
father had given the ancient kingdom of the Mid-
Angles, had two years before married the natural
daughter of King Ofwy, and had been baptized at
his court. At that time it ihould feem that Ofwy
and Penda were upon good terms ; but after the lat¬
ter had conquered the Eaft-Angles, he refolved to
turn his arms againft the kingdom of Northumberland.
Ofwy by no means had provoked this rupture; on the
contrary, Bede tells Us that he offered large fums of
money, and jewels of great value, to pui*chafe peace:
thefe offers being reje&ed, he was reduced to the ne-
ceffity of deciding the quarrel by the fword. The
river near which the battle was fought overflowing,
there were more drowned than killed. Amongft
thefe, as the Saxon chronicle fays, there were 30
princes of the royal line, fome of whom bore the title
of kings ; and alfo Ethelred king of the Eaft-Angles,
who fought on the fide of Penda againft his family
and country.
His fon Penda, who married the daughter of that
N° .210.
conqueror, became a Chriftian, and was not long after Mercia
murdered, as is faid, by the malice of his mother. His ll
brother Wqlfher becoming king of Mercia, embraced Mcrca-
in pracefs of time the faith of the Gofpel, and proved rial's
a very vi&orious and potent monarch; and is, with no
fewer than feven of his immediate fucceffors, commonly
ftyled king of the Anglo-Saxons, though none of them are
owned in that quality by the Saxon chronicle. But
though poffibly none of them might enjoy this ho¬
nour, they were undoubtedly very puiffant princes,
maintaining great wars, and obtaining many advan¬
tages over the fovereigns of other Saxon ftates, and
efpecially the Eaft-Angles, whom they reduced. The
extent of the Mercian territories was fo ample as to
admit, and fo fituated as to require, the conftituting
fubordinate rulers in feveral provinces; to whom, efpe¬
cially if they were of the royal line, they gave the title
of kings; which occafions fome confufion in their hi-
ftory. Befides the eftablifhing epifcopal fees and con¬
vents, the Saxon monarchs took other methods for
improving and adorning their dominions; and as Mer¬
cia was the largeft, fo thefe methods were moft con-
fpicuous therein. Coventry, as being fituated in che
centre, was ufually, but not always, the royal refi*
dence. Penda, who was almoft continually in a ftate
of war, lived as his military operations direfted, in
fome great town on the frontiers. Wolfher built a
caftle or fortified palace for his own refidence, which
bore his name—Offa kept his court at Sutton Walls
near Hereford.
In each of the provinces there refided a chief magi,
ftrate ; and if he was of the royal blood, had ufually
the title of king. Penda, at the time he married Of¬
wy’s daughter, had the title of king of Leicefler.—
Ethelred made his brother Merowald king of Here¬
ford ; who, dying without iffue, bequeathed it to his
younger brother Mercelm. The like honours were
fometimes conferred upon the princeffes ; and hence,
in Mercia efpecially, we occafionally read of vice-
queens.' By thefe means the laws were better executed,
the obedience of the fubje&s more effectually fecUred,
and the fplendor of thefe refidences conftantly kept up
and augmented.
At length, the crown devolving fometimes on mi¬
nors and fometimes on weak princes, inteftine fac¬
tions alfo prevailing, the force of this hitherto mighty
kingdom began fenlibly to decline. This falling out
in the days of Egbert, the moft prudent as well as
the moft potent monarch of the Weft-Saxons, he
took advantage of thefe circumftances ; and having
encouraged the Eaft-Angles to make an attempt for
the recovery of their independence, he, in a conjunc.
ture every way favourable to his defign, broke with
the Mercians, and after a ftiort war obliged them to
fubmit. But this was not an abfolute conqueft, the
kings of Mercia being allowed by him and his fuc¬
ceffors to retain their titles and dominions, till
the invafion of the Danes put an end to their rule,
when this kingdom had fubfifted above 250 years; and
when the Danes were afterwards expelled by the Weft-
Saxons, it funk into a province, or rather was divided
into many.
MERCURIAL, fomething c^nfifting of, or rela¬
ting to, mercury.
MERCURIALIS (Jerom), an eminent Italian
phyfician
M E It r 401 ] M E R
M1;!'<•!!• pliyficism, bom at Forli in 1530, where lie firft prac*
tifed ; but afterwards was proftflbr of medicine fuc-
cdfiyely at Padua, Bologna, and Pifa. His writings
in phyfic are very numerous ; belides giving an edi¬
tion of Hippocrates in Greek and Latin, with notes,
which, however, did not anfwer the expectations of
the learned. He died in 1606; and in 1644 fome
feleft pieces of his were publiihed at Venice in one
volume folk).
MERCURIALIS, Mercury, in .botany ; A ge-
yms of the enneandria order, belonging to the dioscia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 38th order, Trictxxa. The calyx of the male
is tripartite; there is no corolla, but nine or twelve
llamina ; the anthers globular and twin. The female
calyx is tripartite j there is no corolla, but two ftyles ;
the capfule bicoccous, bilocular, and monofpermous.
There are three fpecies. j. The annua, or French
mercury, with fpiked flowers, male and female. This
is an annual plant, wdth a branching llalk about a foot
high, garnilhed with fpear-fhaped leaves of a pale or
yellowilh green colour. The male plants have fpikes
of herbaceous flowers growing on thfe top of the ftalks:
^ thefe fall off foon ; but the female plants, which have
'Hliculated flowers proceeding from the fide of the
balks, are fuccecded by feeds, which, if permitted to
Latter, will produce plenty of plants of both fexes.
5. The perennis mountain, or dog’s mercury, w'ith
fpiked and tefliculated flowers, grows under hedges
and in w'oods in many parts of Britain. This has a
perennial root, which creeps in the ground; the ftalks
are Angle, and without branches, rifing 10 or 12
inches high, garnifhed with rough leaves, placed by
pairs at each joint, of a dark green colour, indented on
their edges : thefe have their male 'flowers growing in
fpikes, upon different plants from thofe which produce
feeds. 3. The tomentofa, or fhrubby hairy mercury,
is a native of the fouth of France, Spain, and Italy.
It has a fhrubby branching ftalk, growing a foot and
an half high, garnifhed with oval leaves placed by pairs,
and covered with a white down on both fides. The
male flowers grow in fhort fpikes from the fide of the
ftalks upon different plants from the firft. All the fpe¬
cies are eafily propagated by feeds, and are apt to be¬
come troublefome weeds where they have once got a
footing.
Properties. The perennis, according to Mr Light-
foot, is of a foporific deleterious nature, noxious both
to man and beaft. There are inftances of thofe who
have eaten it by miftake inftead of chenopodium, bo¬
nus Hcnricus, or Englifh mercury, and have thereby
flept their laft. In the ifle of Skye, it is called lus-
glen-bracadale; and an infulion of it is fometimes taken
to bring on a falivation ; but our author knows not
how the experiment anfwers. Tournefqrt informs us,_
that the French make a fyrup of the juice of the annua,
two ounces of which is given as a purge; and that they
ufe it in peffaries and clyflcrs, mixing one quantity of
honey to one and a half of the juice. Mr Withering
differs greatly from Lightfoot concerning the quali¬
ties of the perennis. .“.This plant (fays he), dreffed
like fpinach, is very good eating early in the fpring,
and is frequently gathered for that j-’^oofe ; but it
is faid to be hurtful to iheep. Mr Ray iL.-'es the
cafe of a man, his wife, and three children, who expe-
Vol. XL Part II.
rienced highly deleterious effedls from eating it fried Mtreurifi-
with bacon ; but this was probably when the fpring
was more advanced, and the plant become acrimo- ~ .
nious. Steeped in water, it affords a fine deep blue
colour. Sheep and goats eat it; cows and horles re-
fufe it.
MERCUR1FICATION, in metallurgy chemi-
flry, the obtaining the mercury from metallic minerals
in its fluid form. For the effedling this, thofe who
have been engaged in thefe refearches have propofed
three methods. The firft is by means of a certain
mercury, fo prepared as to have a diffolving power,
by which it could take up the mercuries of metals in
the fame manner as water diffolves fait from afties.
The fecond is by means of certain regenerating falts,
fuch as fal ammoniac, which are to detain the more
earthy parts of metals, and leave their mercuries fe-
parate or feparable from them by fufilimation or other-
wife ; and the third method is by means of a large lens
or burning-glafs, in the focus whereof, if atiy metal be
applied, its mercurial part is faid to feparate and go off
in fume, which when collefted and condenfed, appears
to be running mercury.
The firft of thefe methods would be very eafy if the
proper mercury were to be readily produced ; the fe¬
cond is extremely laborious, and requires much pa¬
tience and reiteration. But the third feems eafy e-
nough, and pratticable to advantage, when a glafe of
three or four feet in diameter is at hand, the iky ferene,
and the fun (bines ftrong.
For other proceffes, the reader may confult Junker’s
Confpeftus Chemise. But thefe mercurified metals, or
their mercurial principle rendered fenfible, are a kind
of philofophical mercury, which, although they re-
femble ordinary mercury, are neverthelefs faid by
perfons exercifed in fuch ftudies, to differ from it
confiderably, by having a greater fpecifie gravity,
by more effeftually penetrating and diffolving me¬
tals, by a ftronger adhefion to thefe, and by a lefs
volatility.
MERCURY, in natural hiftory. See Chemistry,
Index. Seealfo Metallurgy, and Quicksilver.
The ufe of mercury in medicine feems to have been
littleknown beforethe 15th century. The ancients look¬
ed upon it as a corrofive poifon, tho’of itfelf perfectly
void of acrimony, tafte, and fmell: there are examples
of its having been lodged for years in cavities both in
bones and fleihy parts, without its having injured or di-
fe&edthem. Taken into the body in its crude (late, and
undivided, it paffes through the inteftincs unchanged,
and has not been found to produce any confiderable
effeft. It has indeed been recommended in afthmas
and diforders of the lungs ; but the virtues attributed
to it in thefe cafes have not been warranted by expe¬
rience.
Notwithftanding the mildnefs and ina&ivity of crude
quickfilver undivided; yet, when refolved by fire into
the form of fume, or otherwife divided into very mi¬
nute particles, and prevented from re-uniting by the
interpofition of proper fubftances, or combined with
mineral acids, it has very powerful effects; affording
the moft violent poifons, and the moft excellent remd-
dies with which we are acquainted.
The mercurial preparations, either given internally
or introduced into a habit by external application,
3 E feem
M E U r 4°2 1 M E R
Mercury, feem to forward circulation through even the minuteft ftimulus, and a third fet to its poffeffing a power of Mercury,
w-and moft remote veflels of the body ; and may be fo deftroying or neutralizing the venereal virus. Of thefe v——'
managed as to promote excretion through all the opinions, the latter is the moft generally received, and
emun&ories. Hence their common ufe in inveterate perhaps the belt founded. But for a more full view
chronic difordcrs, and obllinate obltru&ions of the ex- of the controverfy, we mav refer our readers to late
cretory glands; in fcrophulous and cutaneousdifeafes; publications on the venereal difeafe, and on mercury,
andin the venereal lues. If their powerbe not reltrained by Mr John Hunter, Dr Schwediauer, and Dr Dun-
to certain emun&ories, they tend chiefly to affeft the
mouth ; and occafion a plentiful evacuation from the
falival glands.
The falutary effe&s of mercurials do not depend on
the quantity of fenfible evacuation. This medicine
may be gradually introduced into the habit, fo as,
without occafioning any remarkable difcharge, to be
produ&ive of very happy effe&s. To anfwer this
purpofe, it fliould be given in very fmaU dofes, in
conjun&ion with fuch fubftances as determine its ac¬
tion to the kidneys or the pores of the fldn. By this
method, inveterate cutaneous and venereal diftempers
have been cured, without any other fenfible excretion
than a gentle increafe of perfpiration or urine. Where
there are ulcers in any part, they difcharge for fome
time a very fetid matter, the quantity of-which be¬
comes gradually lefs, and at length the ulcer kindly
heals. If the mercury fhould at any time, from cold,
©r the like, afFe& the mouth, it may be reftrained by
omitting a dofe, and by warmth, or fuitable medicines
promoting the perfpiration.
Cooling purgatives are alfo often employed with
advantage ; but perhaps the moft effeftual means of
giving with fafety a fudden check to a mercurial fali-
vation, is by the application of a large blifter to the
back.
Mercury, as ufed in medicine, has been employed
in a vaft variety of different forms. But there is rea-
fon to believe, that every ufeful purpofe to be anfwer-
ed by mercury may be obtained from a very few. The
mercurial preparations in general, with a view to their
life both externally and internally, may be divided in¬
to two great claffes, the mild and the acrid. Almoft
every purpofe to be anfwered by the former, may be
accomplimed by the unguentum hydragyri and pilulae
ex hydrargyro of the London and Edinburgh pharma¬
copoeias ; while moft of the effects to be obtained
from the latter may be derived from the proper ufe
of thofe preparations, hitherto generally known under
the title of calomel, and corrofive fvblimate mercury.
The marks of pure mercury are, its globules not
lofing their fpherical figure when poured on wmod ;
its not communicating a tinge to water, or fweetnefs
to vinegar, when rubbed with them ; its evaporating
entirely in an iron fpoon over the fire ; and its having
a fhining appearance without any pellicle on its fur-
face. Mercury is bell purified by diftillation in an
iron pot, with a long neck bent and immerfed in
vinegar.
Quickfilver has fometimes been ufed in its pure me¬
tallic ftate, with the view of removing obftructions in
the alimentary canal, from an idea that it would ope¬
rate by its weight. But it is feldom attended with
a good effedl, and fometimes it muft do harm.,
Whole volumes have been written refpefting its
operation and ufe in different difeafes, and particularly
in venereal affedtiqns. Some refer its operation to an ,
evacuant power, others to its operating as a peculiar,
can.
In virulent gonorrhoea, it is doubted whether mer¬
cury be neceffary. This difeafe is commonly treated
like any fimilar inflammation : and the chief things at¬
tended to are cleanlinefs of the parts, a regular bellv,
and an abftinence from every thing ftimulant in food,
drink, &c. An injection of oil with calomel, or white
precipitate, is much ufed, and fome prefer a watery
lolution of opium. The more adlive injedtiohs have
fometimes very difagreeable confequences.
When the conftitution is affedled, which is known
by ulcers on the glands, buboes, ulcers in the mouth
or throat, copper-coloured fpots and ulcers on the fur-
face, nodes, &c. mercury is thrown into the body ei¬
ther by fridlion or by the mouth. The general rule is,
to keep up a flight forenefs of the gums for fome Ihort
time after the fymptoms difappear ; at the fame time
it is to be remembered, that mercury fometimes con¬
tinues gleets, and induces ulcers, that are difficultly
diftinguifhed from venereal ones; and that thefe laft
only yield to w-arm bathing, diaphoretic diluents,
opiates, country air, and milk diet. Corrofive fubli-
mate is fometimes ufed, as more fpeedily arrefting dif¬
agreeable, fpreading, or dangerous ulcers; but the
completion of the cure ftrould always be trufted to the
mild preparations alone. Mercury is alfo ufed in ra¬
bies canina, in worms, in hydrocephalus internus, in
tetanus, and is by fome conlidered as an antidote to
the variolous matter.
Mercury, in the heathen mythology. See Her¬
mes.
Moft of the adlions and inventions of the Egyptian
Mercury have likewife been aferibed to the Grecian,
who was faid to be the fon of Jupiter and Maia, the
daughter of Atlas. No one of all the heathen divini¬
ties had fo many fundiions allotted to him as this god :
he had conftant employment both day and night, ha¬
ving been the common minifter and meffenger of the
whole Pantheon ; particularly of his father Jupiter,
whom he ferved with indefatigable labour, and fome¬
times indeed in a capacity of no very honourable
kind. Lucian is very pleafant upon the multitude of
his avocations; and, according to the confeffion of the
emperor Julian, Mercury was no hero, but rather one
who infpired mankind with wit, leairning, and the or¬
namental arts of life, than with courage. The pious
emperor, however, omits fome of his attributes ; for
this god was not only the patron of trade, but alfo of
theft and fraud.
Amphion is Laid, by Paufanias, to have been the firft
that ere&ed an altar to this god; who, in return, in-
vefted him with fuch extraordinary powers of mufic
(and mafonry), as to enable him to fortify the city of
Thebes in Boeotia, by the mere found of his lyre.
Horace gives us the beft part of his charadter.
Thou god of wit, from Atlas fprung,
Who by perfuafive pow’r of tongue,
And
M E R
^Mercury. And graceful exercife, refin’d
w—y—w rp.jie favage race Gf human kind,
Hail! winged meffenger of Jove,
And all th’ immortal pow’rs above.
Sweet parent of the bending lyre.
Thy praife {hall all its founds infpire.
Artful and cunning to conceal
Whate’er in fpoitive theft you fteal,
When from the god who gilds the pole,
E’en yet a boy, his herds you Hole ;
With angry voice the threat’ning pow’r
Bade thee thy fraudful prey reftore;
But of his quiver too beguil’d,
Pleas’d with the theft, Apollo fmil’d.
You were the wealthy Priam’s guide,
When fafe from Agamemnon’s pride,
Through hoftile camps, which round him fpread
Their watchful fires, his way he fped.
Unfpotted fpirits you confign
To bJifsful feats and joys divine ;
And, pow’rful, with thy golden wand,
The light, unbodied'crovvd command ;
Thus grateful does thy office prove
To gods below, and gods above. Francis.
This ode contains the fubftance of a very long hymn
to Mercury, attributed to Homer. Almoft all the an¬
cient poets relate the manner in which the Grecian
Mercury difcovered the lyre; and tell us that it was
an inftrument with feven firings; a circumftance which
makes it effentially different from that faid to have
been invented by the Egyptian Mercury, which had
but three. However, there have been many claimants
befides Mercury to the feven-ftringed lyre. See
Lyre.
His moft magnificent temple was on mount Cylene,
in Arcadia. He is defcribed by the poets as a fair
beardlefs youth, with flaxen hair, lively blue eyes, and
a finding countenance. He has wings fixed'to his cap
and fandals, and holds thecaduceus (or ftaff furround-
ed with ferpents with two wings on the top) in his
hand; and is frequently reprefented with a purfe, to
ffiow that he was the god of gain. The animals fa-
cred to him, were the dog, the goat, and the cock.
In all the facrifices offered to him, the tongues of
the viftims were burnt; and thofe who efcaped im¬
minent danger facrificed to him a calf with milk and
honey.
Mercury, ^ in aftronomy. See Astronomy,
Index.
This planet is brighteft between his elongations and
fuperior conjun&ion, very near to which laft he can
generally be feen. He becomes invifible foon after he
has found his elongation, going towards his inferior
conjunction; and becomes vifible again a few days before
his next elongation. The brightnefs of this planet al¬
ters fometimes very confiderably in 24 hours. It has
been obferved when lefs than three degrees diftant from
the fun, and may, perhaps, fometimes be feen even in
conjunction with it.
Mercury and Venus appear brightefi and moft; beau¬
tiful in the oppofite parts of their orbits: the firft, be¬
tween his elongations and fuperior conjunction; and the
other, between her elongations and inferior conjunction.
Therefore, Venus is feen in great perfection as a ere-
[ 403 1 M E It
feent, particularly in her inferior conjunction, whilft Mercury
Mercury is feldom feen in fuch perfeCt phafes. Mer- j^-eirix
cury ftrould be always obferved on or near the meri- erem*-i
dian. When fartheft from the fun, he always ap¬
pears with a vety faint light; and when he has a
great fouth declination, or the atmofphere is not per¬
fectly clear, he feldom can be feen in thofe parts of
his orbit, where he only begins to recover his bright¬
nefs, or where it is much diminilhed. He has fre¬
quently been feen on the meridian even with a finall
telefcope and fmall power; and it appears from the
above ftatement that he may be obfeured in a clear day
rather more than half hi orbit, or near pne hundred
and fourfeore days in the year.
Mercury, in heraldry, a term ufed in blazoning by
planets, for the purple colour ufed in the arms of fo-
vereign princes.
MERCY, a virtue that infpires us with compaffion
for our brethren, and which inclines us to give them
affiftanpe in their neceffities. Mercy is alfo taken for
thofe favours and benefits that we receive either from
God or man, particularly in the way of forgivenefs of
injuries or of debts. Nothing can be more beautiful
than the defeription of mercy given us by Shakefpear,
in the pleading between Portia and the Jew :
For. Then muft the Jew be merciful.
Shy. On what compulfion muft I ? tell me that.
For. The quality of mercy is not {train’d ;
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heav’n
Upon the place beneath. It is twice blefs’d :
It bleffeth him that gives, and him that takes.
’Tis mightieft in the mightieft ; it becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown :
The feeptre fhows the force of temporal power.
The attribute to awe and majefty,
Wherein doth fit the dread and fear of kings ;
But mercy is above this feepter’d fway.
It is enthroned in 'the hearts of kings ;
It is an attribute to God himfelf.
And earthly power doth then Ihow likeft God’s,
When mercy feafons juftice. Therefore, Jew,
Though juftice be thy plea, confider this,
That in the courfe of juftice none of us
Should fee falvation. We do pray for mercy ;
And that fame prayer doth teach us all to render
The deeds of mercy. Merchant of Vmice, aft iv.
MERCY-SEAT, or Propitiatory, in Jewifli
antiquity, the covering of the ark of the covenant.-—
The Hebrew name of this cover, which we tranflate
mercy-feat, is Capporeth (Exod. xxv. 17. 22.), from
Cappor, which fignifies to cover, toJhut up, to expiate, to
pay. This cover was of gold, and at its two ends were
fixed the two cherubims of the fame metal, which by
their wings extended forwards, feemed to form a
throne for the majefty of God, who in feripture is re¬
prefented to us as fitting between the cherubims, and
the ark itfelf was as it were his footftool. It was
from hence that God gave his oracles to Mofes, or to
the high prieft that confulted him, (Exod.‘xxv. 22.
Numb. vii. 89,)
MERETRIX, among the Roman?, differed from
the projlibula. The proJlibuU were common courtezans,
with bills over their doors, fignifying their profeffion,
3 E 2 * and
M E R [ 404 I M E R
Me'-g-nfcr, and were ready at all times to entertain cuftomers;
, whereas the meretnces. entertained none but at night.—
The mereirices differed in their drefs from the matrons ;
the former wore the toga and fhort tunics, like thdfe of
the men : the latter .wore t; • Palla and the Jiola of fuch
a length as to reach to their feet.
MERGANSER. See Mergus.
MERGUS, in ornithology, a genus of birds of the
order of anferes ; diftinguifhed by having the beak of
a cylindrical figure, and hooked at the extremities, and
its denticulations of a Tubulated form.
1. The cucullatus, or crefted diver of Catefby, has
a globular creft, white on each fide ; and the body is
CCXcfv ^rown ab°ve and white below. This elegant fpecies
inhabits North America. It appears at Hudfon’s
Bay the end of May, and builds clofe to the lakes.—
The neft is compofed of graft, lined with feathers
from the breall; the number of eggs from four to fix.
The young are yellow, and are fit to fly in July.—
They all depart from thence in autumn. They appear
at New York, and other parts as low as Virginia and
Carolina, in November, where they frequent frefh-wa-
ters. They return to the north in March ; and are
called at Hudfon’s Bay Omifka Jheep.
2. The merganfer, or goofander, weighs four
pounds : its length is two feet four inches ; the breadth
three feet four. The bill is three inches long, narrow,
and finely toothed or ferrated ; the colour of that and
of the irides is red. The c/un-diver, or female, is lefs
than the male : the head and upper part of the neck is
ferruginous; the throat white : the feathers on the hind
part are long, and form a pendent creft: the back, the
coverts of the wings, and the tail, are of a deep afh-
colour : the greater quill-feathers are black, the Idler
white; the breaft and middle of the belly are white,
tinged with yellow. The goofander feems to prefer
the more northern fituations to thofe of the fouth, not
being feen in the laft except in very fevere feafons. It
continues the whole year in the Orkneys; and has been
(hot in the Hebrides in fummer. It is common on
the continent of Europe and Afia, but meft fo to¬
wards the north. It is found alfo in Iceland and
Greenland, and breeds there, retiring fouthward in
winter, at which time it is found about the lake Bai¬
kal. It is frequent in America ; inhabits the province
of New York in winter; retires from thence in April,
probably to Hudfon’s Bay ; and, if it be the bird cal¬
led a Fifherman-duck, found alfo in Carolina.
3. The ferrator, or red-breafted merganfer, weighs
about two pounds : the length is one foot nine inches,
the breadth two feet feven ; the bill is three inches
long ; the lower mandible red ; the upper dufky ; the
irides a purplifti red : head and throat a fine change¬
able black and green : on the former a long pendent
ereft of the fame colour ; the tail ihort and brown ;
the legs orange-coloured The head and upper part of
the female are of a deep rulh-colour, and the tail aftr-
eoloured. Thefe birds are moft frequent in the nor¬
thern parts of Great Britain. They are obferved
to breed on Loch Mari, in the county of Rofs, and
in the ifle of May. The fpecies is common in moft
parts of the north of Europe, on the continent; and
as high as Iceland, where it is called Vatus-ond: alfo
in the Ruffian dominions, about the great rivers of Si-
biria, and the lake Baikal. It is likewife frequent in Meryut,
Greenland in the fummer, where it breeds on the Merian,
(hores. The eggs are like thofe of a wild duck, but v
fmaller and whiter. It dives well, and is very aftive
in the water ; but the Greenlanders often take it by
darts thrown at it, efpecially in Auguft, being the
time when it is in moult. It is frequent in Newfound¬
land, and often appears at Hudfon’s Bay in large
flocks, but is obferved to be of a larger fixe there than
in Europe. They generally come in pairs the begin*
ning of June, as foon as the ice breaks up; make the
neft foon after their arrival, chiefly on dry fpots of
ground in the iflanda, and lay from eight to thirteen
white eggs, the fixe of thofe of a duck : the neft made
of withered grafs, and lined with the down of the
hreaft. The young are of a dirty brown, like young
goflings. They all depart fouth in October to the
lakes, where they may have open water. They are
known at Hudfon’s Bay by the name of As-ftck.
4. The albellus, or fmew, weighs about 34 ounces :
the length 18 inches, the breadth 26; the bill is
near two inches long, and of a lead colour ; the head
is adorned with a long creft, white above and black
beneath : the head, neck, and whole under part of
the body, are of a pure white; the tail is of a deep-
alh-colour, the legs a bluifti grey. The female, or
lough diver, is lefs than the male: the back, the
fcapulars, and the tail, are duiky ; the belly is
white. The fmew is feen in England only in winter,
at which feafon it will fometimes be met with at the
fouthern parts of it; as alfo in France, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Picardy, where it is called la Piette : fi-
milar to this, we have heard it called in Kent by the
name of Magpie-diver. On the continent we find it
as far fouth as Carniola; frequents alfo Iceland, at
which place, or fome other anStic region, it paffes the
fummer ; and where it in courfe breeds, probably along
with the other Merganfers ; as it has been obferved to
migrate, in company with thofe birds, feveral kinds of
ducks, &c. in their courfc up the Wolga, in February.
It alfo inhabits America, having been fent from New-
York, where it is probably a migratory fpecies, as in
Europe.
5. The minutus, or redheaded fmew, weighs about
15 ounces; the length oue foot four inches, the
breadth one foot eleven : the bill is of a lead colour ;
the head flightly crefted, and of a ruft colour: the
hind part of the neck is of a deep grey, the fore¬
part clouded with a lighter colour of the fame kind :
the back and tail are of a dufky afh-colour, the legs
of a pale afh-colour.—It is a native of Europe. Birds
of this genus (Mr Latham obferves) “ are in general
not fo well flavoured as thofe of the duck kind ; yet
we have often met with the laft fpecies in the London
markets, and by fome they are thought to be very
little inferior to the wild duck; which laft now and
then partakes of theyfy&y haul gouty a flavour not difa-
greeable to the palatesof the connoiffeurs in good eating.”
MERIAN (Maria Sibylla), a celebrated paint-
refs, born at Frankfort in 1647, was the daughter
Matthias Merian, a noted engraver and^ geographer.—
As fhe fhowed a very early fondnefs for painting, fhe
was inftrutfted by Abraham Mignon; from whom fhe
learned great neatnefs of handling and delicacy of co-
M E R [ 405 ] M E R
Mcidj lour. Her genius particularly led her to paint reptiles,
M'll. . flowers, and Infe&s, which (he defigned after nature,
. erit 13n1' and iludied every objeft with a moft curious and in-
quilitive obfervation; fo that her works rofe every day
more and more into reputation. Frequently fhe paint¬
ed her fubjefts in water-colours on vellum, and finiih*
ed an aftoniihing number of defigns, as (he was equally
indefatigable in her work and in her inquiries into the
curiolities of nature. She drew the flies and caterpil¬
lars in all the variety of changes and forms in which
they fuccefiively appear from their quiefcent ftate till
they become butterflies ; and alfo drew frogs, toads,
ferpents, ants, and fpiders, after nature, with extraor¬
dinary exaftnefs and truth. She even undertook a
voyage to Surinam, to paint thofe infedls and reptiles
which were peculiar to that climate ; and at her return
to her own country publilhed two volumes of engravings
after her defigns, which are well known to the curi¬
ous. She died in 1717. Her daughter Dorothea
Henrietta Graff, who painted in the fame ftyle, and
had accompanied her mother to Surinam, publilhed a
third volume collebted from the defigns of Sibylla ;
which complete work has been always admired by the
learned, as well as by the profeffors of painting.
MERIDA, a ftrong town of Spain, in Eftrema-
dura, built by the Romans before the birth of Chrift.
Here are fine remains of antiquity, particularly a trium¬
phal arch, but not now what it was formerly. It is
feated in an extenfive and fertile plain, 47 miles call
of Elva, and 45 fouth byeaftof Alcantara. W. Lon.
6.4. N. Lat. 38. 42.
Merida, a town of North America, in New Spain,
and capital of the province of Yutacan, where the
bilhop and the governor of the province refide. It is
inhabited by Spaniards and native Americans; is 30
miles fouth of the fea, and 120 N. E. of Campeachy.
W. Lon. 89. 25. N. Lat. 20. 1,5.
Merida, a town of South America, in the king¬
dom of New Granada, feated in a country abounding
with all kinds of fruits, 130. miles N. E. of Pampe-
luna. W. Lon. 71.0. N. Lat. 8. 30.
MERIDEN, or Mireden, a town of Warwick-
fhire, 97 miles from London, in the London road,
near Coventry. It is pleafantly fituated, though in a
wet clayey fituation, and is not ill built. The church
Hands on an elevated fpot, and contains fome good
monuments. There is an inn here, about half way
from St Clement’s foreft to Coventry, one of the finell •
in this part of England, being built like a nobleman’s
feat.
MERIDIAN, in geography, a great circle fup-
pofed to be drawn through any part on the furface of
the earth, and the two poles ; and to which the fun is
always perpendicular at noon. See Geography.
In aflronomy, this circle is fuppofed to be in the
heavens, and exaftly perpendicular to the terreftrial
one. See Astronomy.
MER1DIANI, in antiquity, a name which the
Romans gave to a kind of gladiators who entered the
arena about noon after the befliarii (who fought in
the morning againfl: beafts) had finifhed. They were
thus called from meridles, i. e. noon, the time when they
exhibited their flrews. The meridiani were a fort of
artlefs combatants, who fought man with man, fword
in hand. Hence Seneca takes occafion to obferve,
that the combats of the morning were full of huma-Meridional
nity compared with thofe which followed. II .
MERIDIONAL distance, in navigation, the ^ er"ia< •,
fame with departure, or calling and welling; being the
difference of longitude between the meridian, under
which the Ihip now is, and any other meridian which
fhe was under before.
Meridional parts, miles, or minutes, in naviga¬
tion, are the parts by which the meridians in a Mer¬
cator’s chart do increafe, as the parallels of latitude de-
creafe.
MERIONETHSHIRE, a county of North-Wales,
is bounded on the north by Caernarvonlhire and Den-
bighlhire; on the call by Montgomeryfhire ; on the
well by St George’s channel, or the Irifh fea ; and on
the fouth by the river Dyffl, which parts it from.Csr-
diganlhire ; extending 40 miles in length and 36 iir
breadth. It is divided into fix hundreds, in which are
four market-towns, 37 parilhes, about 2590 houfes,
and 17,100 inhabitants. It lies in the diocefe of
Bangor, and fends one member to parliament. The
air is very lharp in winter, on account of its many high
barren mountains ; and the foil is as bad as any in
Wales, it being very rocky and mountainous. How¬
ever, this county feeds large flocks of Iheep, many
goats, and large herds of horned cattle, which find
pretty good palture in the valleys. Befides thefe,
among their other commodities may be reckoned
Welch cotton, deer, fowl, filh, and efpecially herrings,
which are taken on this coall in great plenty.
MERIT, fignifies defert: This term is more par¬
ticularly applied to fignify the moral goodnefs of the-
aClions of men, and the rewards to which thofe adlions
intitle them.
MERLIN (Ambrofe), a famous Englilh poet and
reputed prophet, flourilhed at the end of the 5 th cen¬
tury. Many furprifing and ridiculous things are re¬
lated of him. Several Englifh authors have repre-
fented him as the fon of an incubus, and as tranfport-
ing from Ireland to England the great Hones which
form Stonehenge on Salilbury plain. Extravagant
prophecies and other works are alfo attributed to him,,
on which fome authors have written commentaries.
Merlin, in ornithology. See Falco.
MERLON, in fortification, is that part of a para¬
pet which is terminated by two embrafures of a bat¬
tery.
MERLUCIUS, the Hake, in ichthyology. See
Gadus.
MERMAID, or Merman, a fea-creature fre¬
quently talked of, fuppofed half human and half a
filh.
However naturalifls may doubt of the reality of
mermen or mermaids, we have teHimony enough, to efia-
blilh it; though, how far thefe tellimonies may be
authentic, we cannot take upon us to fay. In the
year 1187, as Laray informs us, fuch a monHer was
filhed up in the county of Suffolk, and kept by the
governor for fix months. It bore fo near a confor¬
mity with man, that nothing feemed wanting to it
but fpeech. One day it took the opportunity of ma-
king its efcapej and plunging into the fea, was never
more heard of. Hijl. de Angleterre, P. I. p. 403.
In the year 1430, after a huge tempefl, which
broke down the dikes in Holland, and made way for
ike
M E R [ 406 ] M E R
Mermaid, the fea into the meadows, &e. fome girls of the town the Babylonians. Jeremiah (chap. 1 2 ), fpeaking of Meroe.
Merodrch -^^am ln Weft-Freezeland, going in a boat to milk the ruin of Babylon, fays, “ Babylon is taken, Bel is W
1 ^—.'their cows, perceived a mermaid embarraffed in the confounded, Merodach is broken in pieces, her idols
mud, with a very little water. They took it into their are confounded, her images are broken in pieces.”
boat, and brought it with them to Edam, drefled it We find certain kings of Babylon, in whole names
in womens apparel, and taught it to fpin. It fed like that of Merodach is contained : for example, Evilme-
one of them, but could never be brought to offer at rodach and Merodach-baladaa. Evilmerodach was the
fpeech. Some time afterwards it wras brought to fon of Nebuchadnezzar the Great, and had for his fuc-
Haerlem, where it lived for fome years, though ftill cefibr the wicked Behhazzar. Merodach-baladan, fon
flowing an inclination to the water. Parival relates, of Baladan king of Babylon, having heard that Heze-
that they had given it fome notion of a Deity, and kiah had been cured miraculoufly (Ifa. xxxix.), and
that it made its reverences very devoutly whenever it that the fun had gone backwards to give him an af-
pafled by a crucifix. Delices de Hollande. furance of his recovery, fent him prefents, and made
In the year 1560, near the ifland of Manar, on the him compliments upon the recovery of his health.
weftern coaft of the ifland of Ceylon, fome fifhermen
brought up, at one draught of a net, feven mermen w .
and mermaids; of which feveral Jefuits, and among the ning of the era of Nabonaffar, that is,
reft R Hen. Henriques and Dimas Bofquez, phyfi- the world 2283.
cians to the viceroy of Goa, were witneffes. The
Ptolemy calls him Mardocempadus ,• and fays, that he
began to reign at Babylon 26 years after the begin-
” ' ’ the year of
MERGE' (anc. geog.), an ifland of Ethiopia be-
phyfician, who examined them with a great deal of yond Egypt, in the Nile; with a cognominal town,
care, and made diffection thereof, afferts, that all the the metropolis of the Ethiopians,
parts both internal and external were found perfectly The Jefuits have endeavoured to prove, that the pro-
conformable to thofe of men. See the Hijl. de la com~ vince of Gojam in Abyffinia is the Meroe of the an-
pagnie de Jefus, P. II. T. IV. n° 276. where the rela- cients ; but this is ftrongly contefted by Mr Bruce,
tion is given at length. who is of opinion that it mufl be looked for fomewherc
We have another account of a merman, feen near the between the fource of the Nile and its union with the
great rock called Diamond, on the coaft of Martini- Atbara. The latter, he thinks, is very plainly the
co. The perfons who faw it, gave in a precife deferip- Aftaboras of the ancients; and Pliny fays that this
tion of it before a notary. They affirmed that they ftream inciofes the left fide of Meroc.as the Nile doe?
faw it wipe its hand over its face, and even heard it the right; in which cafe we muft fuppofe him looking
’blow its nofe. fouthward from Alexandria, otherwife the words would
Another creature of the fame fpecies was caught in not apply,
the Baltic in the year '531, and fent as a prefent to We are told by Diodorus Siculus, that Meroe had
Sigifmond king of Poland, with whom it lived three its name from a filler of Cambyfes king of Perfia, who
days, and was feen by all the Court. Another very died there in the expedition undertaken by that prince
young one was taken near Rocca de Sintra, as related againft the Ethiopians. His army perilhed with hun-
by Damian Goes. The king of Portugal and the ger and thirft in the deferts beyond Meroe; which
grand mailer of the order of St James, are faid to have could not have happened if they had reached Gojam,
had a fuit at law to determine which party thefe mon- the latter being one of the moll plentiful countries in
iters belong to. the world. A further proof that Gojam cannot be
In Pontopidan’s Natural Hillory of Norway, alfo, the ancient Meroe is, that the latter was inclofed be-
we have accounts of mermaids; but not more remark¬
able or any way better attefted than the above.
tween the rivers Nile and Aftaboras, while Gojam is
almoft entirely furrounded by the Nile. If the an-
MERNS, or Kincardinshire, a county of Scot- cients were acquainted with Gojam, they muft alfo
.j  1 ‘-1 J -- -*- ^—J-1- have been acquainted with the fountains of the Nile,
which we certainly know they were not. Pliny fays
that Meroe; the moll confiderable of all the iflands of
the Nile, was called dlftaboras, from the name of its
left channel, which cannot be fuppofed any other than
the jundlion of the Nile and Atbara. He informs us
moreover, that the fun was vertical twice in the year,
•urz. when proceeding northward he entered the 18th
degree of Taurus, and when returning he came to the
land, ftretching 27 miles in length and 20 in breadth,
is bounded on the eaft by the German ocean, on the
fouth by the river of North Elk, on the weft by An¬
gus, and on the north by the river Dee and Aber-
deenfhire. The country is pretty plain and level,
fruitful in corn and pafturage, producing an infinite
number of fir-trees, befides a great number of agree¬
able plantations; and along the fea-coafts there are
many convenient creeks and harbours.—The people o
are Lowlanders, civil, hofpitable, and indullrious.— 14th degree of Leo; but this could never be the cafe
The name Merns is by fome derived from that of a with Gojam, which lies in about 10 degrees north la-
valiant nobleman, who, fubduing the country, received titude.
it in reward from Kenneth II. Cambden fuppofes it Again the poet Luoan deferibes Meroe by two cir-
to retain part of the ancient name of Verniames. The cumftances which cannot apply to any other than the
other name is derived from Kincurdin, its ancient capi- peninfula of Atbara. One is, that the inhabitants
tal, now an inconfiderable village. The ftocking-trade were black; which was the cafe with the Gymnofo-
mploys the natives from the banks of the Dee to
Stone-hive; from thence to the North Efk they are
wholly employed in weaving.
MERODACH was an ancient king of Babylon,
phifts and firft inhabitants, and which has been the
cafe with all the reft down to the Saracen conqueft:
but the inhabitants of Gojam, as well as the other A-
byffinians, are fair, at lead greatly different i"
who was placed among the gods, and worfhipped by plexion from the blacks; tlxey are alfo long haired.
M E R [ 407 ] M E R
Merof, and nobody imagined that they ever had philofophers or
Merom. fcience among them,. which was eminently the cafe
with the ancient inhabitants of Meroe. The other
circumftance is, that the ebony tree grew in the
ifland of Meroe, which at this day grows plentifully
in the peninfula of Atbara, and part of the pro¬
vince of Kuara, but not in Gojam, where the tree
could not fubfift on account of the violent rains
which take place during fix months of the year. Mr
Bruce mentions another circumftance quoted from the
poet Lucan, which likewife tends to prove the iden¬
tity of Meroe and Atbara ; viz. that though there are
many trees in it, they afford no fhade. This our tra¬
veller found by experience, when returning from A-
byffinia through Atbara. “ The country (fays he)
is fiat, and has very little water. The foreft, though
thick, afforded no fort of (hade, the hunters for the fake
of their fport, and the Arabs for deftroying the flies,
having fet fire to all the dry grafs and (hrubs; which
palling with great rapidity in the direction of the
wood from eaft to weft, though it had not time to
deftroy the trees, did yet wither, and occafion every
leaf that was upon them to fall, unlefs in thole fpaces
where villages had been and where water was. In
ftich fpots a number of large fpreading trees remained
full of foliage ; which from their great height and be¬
ing cleared of underwood, continued in full verdure,
loaded with large, projedting, and exuberant branches.
But even here the pleafure that their lhade afforded
was very temporary, fo as to allow us no time for en¬
joyment, The fun, fo near the zenith, changed his
azimuth fo rapidly, that every few minutes I was
obliged to change the carpet on which I lay, round
the trunk of the tree to which I had fled for Ihelter;
and though I lay down to Keep perfectly fcreened by
the trunk er branches, I was prefently awakened by
the violent rays of a icorching fun, the (hade having
paffed beyond me. In all other places, though we
had travelled conftantly in a foreft, we never met
with a tree that could (hade us for a moment, the
fire having deprived them of all their leaves.” The
heat of Atbara is exedfive, the thermometer having
been obferved at 119I-0: two of Mr Bruce’s company
died of thiiff, or at leaft of the confequences of drink¬
ing after extreme third. The inhabitants live in the
greateft mifery, and are continually in danger from
the neighbouring Arabs, who, by deftroying and
burning their corn, are able to reduce them to a ftar-
ving condition. Notwithftanding all their difadvan-
tages, however, they have a manufacture of coarfe
cotton towels, of a fize juft fufficient to go round the
waift, which pafs current as filver money throughout
the whole country.
MEROM, (anc. geog.) The waters of Merom,
at which place Jabin and the other confederate kings
met to fight Joihua (xi. 5.), are generally fuppofed by
the learned to be the lake Semechon, which lies be¬
tween the head of the river Jordan and the lake Gen-
nefareth ; fince it is agreed on all hands, that the city
Hazor, where Jabin reigned, was fituated upon this
lake. But others think, that the waters of Merom,
or Merome were fomewhere about the brook Ki(hon,
fince there is a place of that name mentioned in the
account of the battle againft Sifera (Judg. v. 21.), And
it is more rational to think, that the confederate kings
advanced as far as the brook Kilhon, and to a pafs Mer^pe,
which led into the country, to hinder Jolhua from,
penetrating it, or even to attack him in the countryv——v~“
where he himfelf lay encamped, than to imagine that
they waited for him in the midil of their own coun¬
try ; leaving all Galilee at his mercy, and the whole
traft from the brook Kifhon to the lake Semechon.
MEROPE (fab. hift.) one of the Atlantides.
She married Sifyphus the fon of iEolus, and like her
fifters was changed into a conftellation after death. It
is faid that in the conftellation of the Pleiades the ftar
of Merope appears more dim and obfeure than the
reft, becaufe (lie, as the poets obferve, married a mor¬
tal, while her fiftels married feme of the gods or their
defeendants.
MEROPS (fab. hift.) a king of the ifland of Cos,
who married Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He was
changed into an eagle, and placed among the conftel-
latisns. Alfo a celebrated foothfayer of Percofus in
Troas, who foretold the death of his fons Adraftus
and Amphius, who were engaged in the Trojan war.
They flighted their father’s advice, and were killed by
Diomedes.
MEROPS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the
order of pica?. The bill is crooked, flat, and cari-
nated ; the tongue is jagged at the point; and the
feet are of the walking kind. i.The apiafter, or bee-
e&ter, has an iron-coloured back ; the belly and tail
are of a bluifh green ; and the throat is yellow. This
bird inhabits various parts of Europe, on the conti¬
nent, though not in England ; yet is faid to have,
been feen in Sweden, and flocks of them have been
met with at Anfpach in Germany in the month of
June. They are now and then feen in Lorraine,
though only in pairs ; and are not unfrequent in other
parts, fince Kramer talks of their building the neft in
the fandy crags of the Danube. They are met with
in Italy and the fouth of France; and in Candia
and other iflands of the Mediterranean, they are in
plenty, as well as in Paleftine and Arabia, being very,
common in the woods about Yemen, where they are
called. Sehssghagha. It takes the name of bee-eater
from its being very fond'of thofe infers ; but, befides
thefe, it will catch gnats, flies, cicadas, and other in¬
fers, on the wing, like the fwallow. Willoughby
tells us, from Belon, “ that its Angular elegancy in¬
vites the Candy boys to hunt for it with cicadte, as
they do for thofe greater fwallows called fw'fts, af¬
ter this manner :—Bending a pin like a hook, and ty--
ing it by the head to the end of a thread, they thruifc
it through a cicada (as boys bait a hook with a fly),
holding the other end of the thread in their hands:
the cicada, fo faftened, flies neverthelefs in the air j
which the Merops * fpying, flies after it with all her
force ; and catching it, fwallows pin and all, where¬
with (he is caught.”—This bird is faid to be in mod
plenty in theifle of Candia; and, in defeat of infe&s,
to eat feeds of many kinds; and Ray filppofes, from
its fimilarity to the kingsfiflier, it may pollibly feed
on fifii. Moft probably'fame think it good to eat,
as Willoughby faw many of them expofed for fale in
the markets of Rome; Thefe birds make their nefts
in deep holes in the banks of rivers, like the fand mar¬
tin and kingsfiflier, at the end of which the female
lays from five to feven white eggs, rather lefs than thofe
2 off
M E R [ 408 ] M E R
&Ierof» of a blackbird. The neft itfelf is cotnpofed of mofs.
I! 2. The viridis, or Indian bee-eater, is green, with a
^ Merfa. V,lack belt on the bread.; and the throat and tail are
v~"’ black. It inhabits Bengal. 3. The congener is yel-
lowilh, with a green rump. It inhabits the fouth of
Kurope. 4. The fuperciliofus is green, with a white
line both above and below the eyes, and a yellow
throat. It is found in Madagafcar, where the natives
give it the name of Patirich Pinch. 5. The cinereus
is variegated with red and yellow, with the two long-
eft quill-feathers of the tail red. It is a native of Mexi¬
co. 6. Ihe erythropterus, or red-winged bee-eater,
is in length fix inches; the bill is one inch, and black:
the upper parts of the head, body, wings, and tail
Plate coverts> are gvcen brown, deepeft on the head and
CCXCIV back» lighteft on the rump and tail coverts: behind
the eye is a fpot of the fame, but of a very deep co¬
lour : the quills and tail are red, tipped with black ;
the laft two inches in length : the throat is yellow ; the
under parts of the body are a dirty white ; and the
legs black.—This inhabits Senegal, from which place a
well-preferved fkin was brought by M.Adanfon. (See
fig. A.) 7. The wattled bee-eater (fig. B.) is the fize
of acuckow, in length about iqi inch.es. The feathers
on the upper part of the head, being longer than the
reft, give the appearanc of a crefl ; thofe of the un¬
der part are fmooth 5 the plumage for the moft part
is brown ; the feathers are long and pointed, and each
feather has a ftreak of white down the middle ; under
the eye, on each fide, is a kind of wattle, of an o-
range colour ; the middle of the belly is yellow ; the
tail is wedge-ftiaped, fimilar to that of the magpie,
and the feathers are tipped with white ; the bill and
legs are brown.—This bird is fuppofed to be peculiar
to New Holland. There are 14 or 15 other fpecies.
MEROVINGIAN character, derives it name
from Meroiiee, the firft king of France of that race,
which reigned 333 years, from Pharamond to Charles
Martel. This race is faid by fome- to have termina¬
ted in Childeric 111. A. I). 751. There are many
MSS. in the French libraries ftill extant in this cha¬
racter.
MEROZ, (anc. geog.), a place in the neighbour¬
hood of the brook Kiihon, whofe inhabitants refufing
to come to the afliftance of their brethren when they
fought with Sifera, were put under an anathema
(Judges v. 23.) “Curfeye Meroz, fays the angel of the
. Lord; curfe ye bitterly the inhabitants thereof: becaufe,
&c.” Some have thought that Meroz is the fame asMer-
rus or Merom; and this F. Calmet thinks the moil pro¬
bable opinion in this matter. Others will have it, that
Meroz was a mighty man, who dwelt near the Kiihon,
and not caring to come to the afliftance of Barak and
^ Deborah, was excommunicated by the . angel of the
l.ord by the found of 400 trumpets. The angel of
the Lord, according to fome, was Barak, the general
of the Lord’s army ; but according to others he w’as
the high-prieft for the time being, or a prophet.
MERSA, a town of Barbary, pleafantly fituated
about 11 miles from the city of Tunis, and two from
Melcha the fite of ancient Carthage. The Bey has
here two country-houfes, one of them very coftly work,
built by Haflan Bey furnamed the Good. From
thefe are orange gardens reaching almoft to the fea-
NJ 211.
ftiore ; on the edge of which is a famous well offweet
water, efteemed the heft and lighted! in the kingdom. lVTerlet,,!<'
Clofe to this is a coffee-houfe, whether numbers of "v ""
people from the neighbouring places refort to drink
coffee, and a glafs of this natural luxury fo peculiarly
enjoyed in the eaftern countries. In the middle of .
the court is a Large mulberry-tree, under the {hade of ■
which they fit and fmoke and play at chefs ; inha¬
ling the comfortable fea-breeze that refreflies this de¬
lightful fpot. The water is drawn up by a camel with
the Perfian wheel.
Here are the remains of an ancient port, or cothou,
(fuppofed to be an artificial one), built by the Cartha¬
ginians after Sapii had blocked up the old port, no¬
thing but the turret or light-houfe being left.
MERS or Merse, a county of Scotland, called alfo
Berivichjhire. This laft name it derives from the town of
Berwick, which was the head of the fhire before it fell
into the hands of the Englifti, and obtained the appel¬
lation of Mers or March, becaufe it was one of the
borders towards England. It is waftied on the fouth
and eaft by the river Tweed and the German Ocean,
bounded on the weft by Tweedale, and on the north
by Lothian. It extends 24 miles from eaft to weft,
and the breadth amounts to 16. ’The face of the
country is rough and irregular, exhibiting hills, moors,
and moffes, with intermediate valleys, which are plea-
fant and fruitful. It is watered by many ftreams; and
particularly by the famous Tweed, which, rifing from
the fame hills that give birth to the Clyde and Annan,
runs with a rapid courfe through Tweedale foreft and
Teviotdale, and after a courfe of 50 miles difem-
bogues itfelf into the German Ocean. Notwithftand-
ing the length of its courfe, it is not navigable above
Berwick, where there is a noble bridge over it, con¬
fiding of 15 arches. There is another fine one, call¬
ed the Union Bridge, at Coldftream. There is a third
at Melrofe, a fourth at Peebles, and a fifth at
Kelfo. The ftiire of Berwick is generally diftin-
guiftied into the three divifions of Mers, Lammer-
muir, and Lauderdale. The Mers is low, pleafant,
and tolerably fruitful in corn. Lammermuir is a
hilly country, abounding with game, and yielding
good pafture for ftreep and black cattle. Lauder¬
dale is a tra£l of land lying on each fide of the river
Lauder, agreeably varied with hill, dale, and foreft,
producing good llore of corn and patturage, and gi¬
ving the title of earl to the family of Maitland : but
the moft fruitful and populous parts of Berwickfirire,
are thofe that lie along the Tweed, and on both fides
of the lefier rivers White Water, Black Water, and
Eye. The feats of noblemen and gentlemen abound
in this county.
MERSENNE (Marin), in Latin Merfennus, a
learned French author, born at Oyfe, in the province
of Maine, anno 1 <;88. He ftudied at La Fleche at the
fame time with Des Cartes; with whom he contrac¬
ted a ftridt friendftiip, v/hich lafted till death. He
afterwards went to Paris, and ftudied at the Sorbonne ;
and in 1611 entered himfelf among the minims. He
became well Ikilled in Hebrew, philofophy, and ma¬
thematics. He was of a tranquil, fincere, and enga¬
ging temper; and was univerfidly efteemed by perions
illuftrious for their birth, their dignity, and their
' 1 learning. -
M E R r[ 409 3 M E S
Merfey learning. He taught philofophy and divinity in the
Meriis convent Nevers, and at length became fuperior of
^ that convent; but being willing to apply himfelf to
ftudy with more freedom, he refigned all the polls he
enjoyed in his order, and travelled into Germany, I-
taly, and the Netherlands. He wrote^ great num¬
ber of excellent works ; the principal of which are,
I. Qunjliones celeberrima in Genefim. 2. Hartnonicorum
libri. 3. De fonorum nature/, caujis, £5* effeSibus.
4. Cogitata phyfico-mathematica. 5. La write des
Sciences. 6. Les queftions monies. He died at Pa¬
ris in 1648. He had the reputation of being one
of the bell men of his age. No perfon was more
curious in penetrating into the fecrets of nature,
and carrying all the arts and fciences to their ut-
molt perfe&ion. He was in a manner the centre of
all the men of learning, by the mutual correfpondence
which he managed between them. He omitted no
means to engage them to publilh their works; and the
world is obliged to him for feveral excellent difeoveries,
which, had it not been for him, would perhaps have
been loft.
MERSEY, a river of England, that runs through
the counties of Lancafter, York, and Chefter, and
empties itfelf into the Irilh fea at Liverpool. By the
late inland navigation, it has communication with the
rivers Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn,
Humber, Thames, Avon, &c.; which navigation, in¬
cluding its windings, extends above 500 miles, in the
counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancafter,
Weftmoreland, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter,
Oxford, Worcefter, See.
Mersey- IJland, an illand of Effex, at the mouth of
the Coin, fouth of Colchefter. It was feized by the
Danes in the reign of King Alfred, for their winter-
quarters. It had eight parilhes, now reduced to two,
viz. eaft and Weft Merfey. The illand had a bloek-
houfe; and, in the Dutch war, the parliament put
1000 men in it.
MERULA (George), an Italian of extraordinary
parts and learning, born at Alexandria in the duchy
of Milan about the year 1420. He taught youth at
Venice and Milan for 40 years, and laboured abundant¬
ly in reftoring and corredling ancient authors. He
wrote, and addreffed to Lewis Sforza, dntiquitates
Vicecomilum ; or “ The Atftions of the Dukes of Mi¬
lan,” in 10 books ; with fome other things in the fame
Way. His death, in 1494, is faid not to have grieved
any body ; as hb lived in a Hate of war with, and aba-
led, almoft all his cotemporary fcholars.
MERULA (Paul), born at Dort in Holland, a fa¬
mous lawyer, hiftorian, and linguift, was profeffor of
hiftory in the univeifity of Leyden after Lipfius. He
wrote, 1. Commentaries on Ennius; 2. The life of
Erafmus and Junius ; 3. A Cofmography ; 4.. A tfea-
tife of law ; and died in 1607.
Merula, or Blackbird, in ornithology. See Tur-
t)VS.
MERUS, (aftc. geog.), a mountain of the Hither
India, hanging over the city Nyffa, built by Bacchus,
and lituated between the rivers Cophen and Indus.
*The name, denoting the thigh, gave rife to the fable
of Bacchus being inferted into Jupiter s thigh, a.,d
being born twice ; becaufein this mountain he and his
Vol. XI. Part II.
army are faid to have been preferved, when difeafe and Mefaraie
peftilence raged in the plains below. II
MESARAIC-vessels, in the general fenfe, areR c e"teriy;
the fame with Mesenteric.
In common ufe, mefaraic is more frequently applied
to the veins, and mefenteric to the arteries, of the me-
fentery. See Anatomy.
MESCHED, a confiderable town of Perfia, and
in the province of Khoraffan; fortified with feveral
towers, and famous for the magnificent fepulchre of
Iman Rifa, of the family of Ali, to whom the Per-
fians pay great devotion. It is feated on a mountaia
near this town, in which are fine torquife-ftones; in
E. Long. 59. 25. N. Lat. 37. o.
MESEMBRYAN 1'HEMUM, Fig-marigold,
in botany : A genus of the pentagynia order, belong¬
ing to the icofandria clafs of plants ; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 13 th order, Succulent<r.
The calyx is quinquefid ; the petals are numerous and
linear 5 the capfule is fleihy, inferior, and monofper-
mous. There are between 40 and 50 fpecies; all
African plants, from the Cape of Good Hope;
near 40 of which are retained irt our gardens for
variety. Of thefe only one is annual, and the moft
remarkable of them all. It is called the cryjlallinum,
diamond jicoides, or ;ce-plant. It rifes with a ftiort, thick,
fucculent ftalk, dividing low into many trailing, very
fpreading, fucculent branches, befpangled all over with
icy pimples; very pellucid and glittering ; oval, undu¬
late, alternate, papulofe or pimply, glittering leaves;
and from the Tides of the branches, numerous, almoft
clofe fitting, white flowers, tinged with red or crimfon;
fucceeded by plenty of feed in autumn This Angu¬
lar and curious plant, being clofely covered with large
pellucid pimples, full of moifture ftiining brilliantly
like diamonds, is in great efteem. It is a very tender
plant while young ; and is raifed annually from feed
by means of hot-beds. In June it will endure the open
air till Odtober, when it periihes; but if placed in a
hot-houfe in autumn, it will often live all winter. It
is commonly planted in pots for the Conveniency of re¬
moving from place to place ; but if planted in the full
ground, it grows confiderably ftronger, even to luxu¬
riance : however, when confined in pots, it flowers
more abundantly.
The other fpecies are moft durable in ftem and fo¬
liage. Some are Ihrubby ; others pendulous, witli
loofe draggling ftems, and branches inclining to the
ground 5 while others have no ftalks at all : their leaves
are univerfally very thick, fucculent, fleihy ; and of
many various ihapes, fituations, and directions ; while
fome are curioufly punCtured, or dotted with traufpa-
rent points, and fome have pellucid pimples, as already
mentioned : they afford a very agreeable variety at all
times in the year, and merit a place in every collection.
They are green-ho ufe plants, and are propagated by
cuttings of their ftalks and branches.
MESENTERIC, or Misaraic, an epithet gL
ven to two arteries arifing from the. defeending aorta,
and proceeding to the mefentery. See Mesente¬
ry.
MESENTERITIS, or Injlammation of the Mesen¬
tery. See Medicine, n° 191.
MESENTERY, Mesenterium, (formed ef-«!«-®’
3 F middle.
M E S-' l 47-0 ] M E S
MefV.es middle, and t'TS/iov inteJUne), in anatortiy, a fatty mem-
II., branous body, thus called as being placed in the
, e P1,115'. middle of the inteftinep," which it connefts to one ano¬
ther. See Anatomy, n' 94.
MESHES o/-Nats, the openings or interftices be¬
tween the threads.
MESN, or Mesne, a term in law, fignifying
him who is lord of a manor, and fo hath tenants
holding of him ; yet he himfelf holds of a fuperior
lord.
The word is properly derived from malfne, quafi mi¬
nor natu ; becaufe his tenure is derived from another,
from whom he holds.
Mesn alfo denotes a writ, which lieth where there
is lord mefn and tenant ; and the tenant is dillrained
for fervices due from the mefn to the fuperior lord.
This is in the nature of a writ of right; and in this
cafe the tenant (hall-have judgment to be acquitted or
indemnified by the mefne lord ; and if he makes de¬
fault therein, or does not appear originally to the te¬
nant’s writ, he fhall be forejudged of his mefnalty, and
the tenant fhali hold immediately of the lord para¬
mount himfelf.
MESOCHRI, were muficians among the ancients
who prefided in concerts, and by beating a wooden
defic regularly with their feet, dire&ed the meafure of
the mufic. For the purpofe of beating time, they
wore wooden clogs, called by the ancients crupezia,
which occafioned the found to be better heard.
MESOCOLON, in. anatomy, that part of the me-
fentery, which, having reached the extremity of the
ileum, contracts and changes its name. See Ana¬
tomy, n° 94
MESOLOGARITHMS, according to Kepler, are
the logarithms of the co-fines and co-tangents; the
former of which were called by Baron Napier anti-loga¬
rithms, and, the latter differentials,
MESOPOTAMIA, the ancient name of the pro¬
vince of Diarbeck, in Turky in Afia. It is fituated
between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris; having Af-
fyria on the eaft, Armenia on the north, Syria on the
weft, and Arabia Deferta with Babylonia on the fouth.
The Hebrews called it Padan-aram (Gen. xxviii. 2.
&c.), and Aram Nahqraim (title of Pfal. lx.) or Aram
of the two rivers, becaufe it was firft peopled by Aram
Either of the Syrians, and is fituated between the two
rivers already mentioned This Country is much cele¬
brated in feripture, as being the firft dwelling of men
both before and after the deluge ; and becaufe it gave
birth to Phaleg, Heber, Terah, Abraham, Nahor,
Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, Leah, and to the fons of
Jacob. Babylon was in the ancient Mefopotamia, till,
by vaft labour and induftry,. the two rivers of the Ti¬
gris and Euphrates were united into one channel.
The plains of Shinar were in the fame country. Of¬
ten they gave it the name of Mefopotamia (Deut.
xxiii 4 &c.} and foroetimes that of Syria, ^Hofea
xii. 2. ) Balaam fon of Bcor was of Mefopotamia,
I)eut. xxiii. Cbuihan-rifhathaim king of Mefo¬
potamia kept the Hebrews in fubjedf ion fome time after
the death of Jolhua, Judg. iii. 8.
MESOPTERYGIUS, in ichthyology, a term ap¬
plied to fuch fifties as have only one back-fin, and that
fituated in the middle of the back.
MESPILUS, the Msdiab, in botany : A genus
of the pentagynia order, belonging to the icofandria Meft
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking ~~"v
under the 16th order, Pomacea. The calyx is quin-
quefid ; the petals are five ; die berry is inferior and
pentafpermous. There are feven fpecies, viz.
1. The Ggjmanica, German mefpilus, or common?
medlar, rifes with a deformed tree-ftem, branching ir¬
regularly 15 or 20 feet high ; fpear-lhaped leaves,
downy, underneath; and large clofe fitting, white flow¬
ers, fingly from the fides of the branches; fucceeded by.
large roundifti brown fruit, the fize of middling apples,
whicli ripen in Otfober, but are not eatable till begin¬
ning to decay. The varieties are, common great Ger¬
man medlar—fmallerNottingham medlar—fp.:ar-ftiaped
Italian medlar. This fpecies and varieties are all cul¬
tivated in the Englifli gardens for the fruit; but the.
German or Dutch medlar, and the Nottingham kind,,
are the moft comm n ; and the latter of which two*
though a fmaller fruit, is rather preferable for richnefs*
and poignancy of flavour. Thefe kinds of fruit are never-
eatable until they begin to rot; forwhenfirm and found*
they are of a finguiarly auftere difagreeable tafte ; yet-
having lain Lome time after being gathered, till they
begin to affume a ftate of decay and'become foft, they?
acquire a. delicious flavour, extremely agreeable to*
many, though to others altogether unpalatable.—-
All thefe forts ripen in, the latter end of Oftober, or>
beginning of November ; when being gathered, fome.
ftiould be laid in moift bran, in-feveral layers, to for¬
ward their decay; others on ilraw.in the fruitery: thofo
in-the bran will begin to he ready for ufe in about a
fortnight, and thofe laid on ftraw will.come gradually
forward in fucceftion.
2. The arbutifolia, arbutus-leaved mefpilus, hath a?
fhrubby ftem, branching eredfly five or fix feet high
lanceolate, crenated, alternate leaves, downy under¬
neath ; and from the fides and ends of the branches*
fmall white flowers in clutters; fucceeded by fmall*
roundifti, purple fruit, like haws.
3. The amelanchier, or Ihrubby medlar, with black,
fruit,, rifes with feveral ftmibby, flender, hairy items*
branching moderately about four feet high, having,
purpliih branches; oval, ferrated leaves, downy un¬
derneath ; and fmall white flowers, in clufters at:
the ends of the branches: fucceeded by fmall black.-
fruit.
4. The chamas-mefpiius, or dwarf medlar, com¬
monly called bajlard quince, hath a ihrubby, flender,
fmooth ftem, branching weakly four or five feet high,,
having purpliih branches; oval, ferrated, fmootfr.
leaves, on long foot-ftalks; and from the axillas,.
purple flowers, colle&ed into round heads, with nar--
row, purpliih, deciduous braftese ; fucceeded by fmall-
red fruit. -
5. The cotoneafter, commonly called dwarf quince,..
rifes with a ihrubby, fmooth item, branching foun
or five feet high,, the branches flender and reddilh ;
oval entire leaves on ihort foot-ftalks; and from thei
axillas, fmall clofe-fitting purple flowers, two or three
together ; fucceeded by finall, roundifti, bright-red/',
fruit.
6. The Canadenfis, Canada fnbwy mefpilus, hath a
ihrubby, fmooth ftem, branching four or five feet-
high, with fmooth, purpliih branches; oval-oblong,,
ferrated, fmooth leaves, on long fbotftalks; and all
the
M E S [
■Mfefpflus the branches terminated by clufters of fnowy-white
!j, flowers ; fucceeded by fmall, purplifh fruit, like haws.
/ ' ^ ^li'<]. The pyracantha, or ever-green thorn, rife? with
a flrrubby, fpinous ftem, branching diffufely 12 or 14
feet high, the branches flender and flexible, with a
dark greenilh bark, armed with long (harp Tpines;
fpear-lhaped-oval, crenated, ever-green leaves ; and all
the (hoots terminated by numerous clufters of whitifh
flowers ; fucceeded by large bunches of beautiful red
berries, remaining all winter, and exhibiting a very or¬
namental appearance.
All thefe feven fpecies of mefpilus are of the tree
and (hrub kind ; the firft fix forts are deciduous, the
(eventh an evergreen ; the leaves are univerfally Ample;
thofe of the mefpilus Germanica very large, the others
ttioftly of moderate Aze, and which in moft of the forts
grow upon (hort footftalks. They all flower abun-
■ dantlyevery fummer, the flowers univerfally hermaphro¬
dite, and conAfting each of Ave large roundifti petals,
20 ftamina, and ftve ftyles. They are all very hardy,
and fucceed in any common foil and fltuation, and their
propagation and culture is very eafy.
The flrft fort and varieties are cultivated as fruit-
tnees, principally as ftandards, fometimes alfo as efpa-
liers for variety. The other fpecies are very proper
furniture for any ornamental plantation, where they
will make an agreeable variety with their different fo¬
liage ; and their flowers make a fine appearance, as alfo
their fruit in autumn and winter, which, if not devour¬
ed by birds, remain long on the branches, and afford a
fine variety in thofe feafons. The pyracantha, being
rather of flexible growth, is moft; commonly trained
againft walls or the fronts of houfes, both for the fup-
port of its flexible branches, and that it may exhibit
its berries more ornamentally.
When it is defigned to have any of the common
medlars as fruit-trees, they may be trained either as
dwarfs, for dwarf ftandards, or for efpaliers, or trained
as half or full ftandards, and managed in either of
thofe modes of training nearly as other fruit-trees, par¬
ticularly the apple and pear; and are railed either by
feed, by grafting, or by budding; but either of the two
1 latter methods are the moft certain for continuing the
forts without variation: obferving,after (hortening their
ftrft (hoots from the graft or bud, where it (hail feem
neceflary to force out a proper (apply of wood to form
a head, to train the branches afterwards principally at
full length, and let the ftandards branch out in their
own way.
MESS, in a military fenfe, implies a number of fol-
diers, who, by laving away a certain proportion of their
pay towards provifions, mefs together : fix or eight is
generally die number of each mefs. Experience proves,
that nothing contributes mote to the health of a fol-
dier, than a regular and wdi chofen diet, and his be¬
ing obliged every day to boil the pot: it corredls drun-
kennefs, and in a great meafure prevtnts.gaming, and
thereby defertion.
MESSALINA (Valeria), a daughter of Meflala
Barbatus. She married the emperor Claudius, and
difgraced berfelf by her cruelties and incontinence.
Her huftand’s palace was not the only feat of her laf-
civioufnefs, but (he proftituted herfelf in the public
jfreets, and few mep there were.at Rome who could
-not boaft of having enjoyed the favours of the impure
411 ] M E S
Meffalina. Her extravagancies at laft irritated her MefTana
hufband, who commanded her to appear and anfwer jc.
all the accufations which were brought againft her: upon ,
which (he attempted to deftroy herfclf; and when her "
courage failed, one of the tribunes who had been
fent to her dilpatched her with (us fword. It' is in
fpeaking of her debaucheries and lewdnefs that Juve¬
nal fays,
J'-t laffata viris, necdum fatiata, recejfit.
Her name has become a common appellation to de¬
note a woman of (hamelefs and inordinate lull.
MESSANA, (anc. geog ), the firft town of Sicily
on eroding over from Italy, fituated on the (trait now
called the Faro, (Italicus). Anciently called Zande,
according to Diodorus Siculus, from king Zanclus;
or, according to others, from the Sicilian term Zan-
don, denoting a fickle, alluding to the curvity of the
coaft : a name appropriated by the poets; and hence
ZaneUi, the people, (Herodotus, Paufanias) The
other name Mtjjana is from the Mejfenli of Pelopon-
nefus, (Strabo). Thucydides aferibes its origin to
Anaxilas the Meflenian, tyrant of Rhegium, who re¬
ceived all comers, calling the town after the name of
his country. The Greeks always call it Mejfme ; the
Romans Meffena conftantly, to diftinguilh. it from
Mejfene of Feloponnefus. Now Messina, lately ruin¬
ed by earthquakes.
MESSENA, or Messene, an inland town, and
the capital of Meflenia, a country of Peloponnefus;
erroneoufly placed by Ptolemy on the coait. It was
built by Epaminondas, who recalled all the Meflenian
exiles, and gave the town the name of Mejfene. A place
vying in point of ftrength and fituation with Corinth,
according to Strabo; and thereforeDemetriusPhalerius
advifed Philip, father of Perfeus, that if he wanted to
h ive Peloponnefus in his power, he (hould make him-
felf mailer of thefe two towns, as thus he would have
the ox by both horns.
MESSENGERS, are certain officers chiefly em¬
ployed under the dire&ion of the fecietaries of (late,
and always in readinefs to be fent with all kinds of
difpatehes foreign and domeftic. They alfo, by virtue
of the fecretaries warrants, take up perfons for high
treafon, or other offences againft the (late. The
prifoners they apprehend are ufually kept at their own
houfes, for each of which they are allowed 6s. per
day by the , government: and when they are fent
abroad, they have a dated allowance for their journey,
viz. 30I. for going to Paris, Edinburgh, or Dublin.;
2 1. for going to Holland ; and to other places in the
fame proportion ; part of which money is advanced
for the expence of their journey. Their (landing
falary is nyl per a ,Hum; and their pofts, if purchafed,
are efteemed worth 30c 1. The meffengers wait 20
at a time, monthly, and are diftributed as follows,
viz. four at court, five at one Secretary’s office, five at
another, two at the third for North Britain, three at
the council-office, and one at the lord chamberlain’s
of the houiehold.
Messengers, in Scotland. See Law, Part III.
p. 651, par. 16.
M ESS ENG F.Rspf the Exchequer, are four officers who
attend the exchequer, in the nature of purfuivants,
and carry the lord treafurer’s letters, precepts, &c.
Messenger of the Prejs, a peifon who, by order
4 F i of
M E S [ 412
Meffenia. 0f the court, fearches printing-houfes, bookfellers
v‘“—V—"" Hiops, &c. in order to difcover the printers or pu-
bliihers of feditious books, pamphlets, &c.
MESSENIA, a country in the fouth of Pelopon-
nefus, mofHy maritime, fituated between Elea to the
weft, and Laconica to the eaft. Anciently a part of
. Laconica under Menelaus, and called Mejfcne by Ho¬
mer ; interpreted by the fcholiaft, Mejfenea Regia.
Mejfcnti, the people, reduced to a ftate of flavery
and fubjeftion by the Spartans; MeJJ'enius, the epi¬
thet.
This country is famous in hiftory, on account of
the refiftance made by the Meflenians againft the
Spartans, and the exploits of their hero Ariftomenes.
The firft hoftilities commenced about the year 652
B. C. on what occafion is uncertain. Though the
Meffenians were inferior in the knowledge of the art
of war to the Spartans ; yet, by keeping for fome
time on the defenfive, they improved fo much,
that in three years time they found themfelves in a
capacity of giving battle to their enemies in the open
held ; nor did they appear to be in any degree infe¬
rior either in courage or conduft: the war was there¬
fore protracted, with various fuccefs, on both fides.
At laft, both confuked the oracle at Delphi; and re¬
ceived for anfwer, “ that whoever ftiould firft dedicate
100 tripods in the temple of Jupiter at Ithome, a
ftrong-hold of the Meffenians, ftiould be mafters of
the country.” The inhabitants of Meffenia, on hear¬
ing this, having no money to make the tripods of
brafs, fell to cutting them out in wood ; but before
this could be accompliftied, a Spartan having got into
the city by ftratagem, dedicated 100 little tripods of
clay : which threw the Meflenians into fuch defpair,
that they at laft fubmitted to the Spartans.
The new fubjefts of Sparta were treated with
the utmoft barbarity by thefe cruel tyrants; fo
that a new war commenced under Ariftomenes, a
man of unconquerable valour, and enthufiaftiSally
fond of liberty. He perceived that the Argives and
Arcadians, who were called the allies of the Lacedae¬
monians, adhered to them only through fear of their
power; but that in reality they hated them, snd wilhed
to revenge the injuries they had done them. To
thefe Ariftomenes applied ; and receiving an anfwer
conformable to his wiihes, he engaged his countrymen
unanimoufly to take up arms. About a year after
the revolt began, and before either party had received
any auxiliaries, the Spartans and Meflenians met at a
village called Dera>, where an obftinate engagement
cnfued. Ariftomenes was conceived to have performed
more than mortal atchievements: in gratitude there¬
fore, refpett being alfo had to his royal defcent, his
countrymen unanimoufly faluted him king; which title
he modeftly waved, alleging, that he took up arms to
fet them free, and not to make himfelf great: he con-
fented, however, to accept the title of general, with a
power of doing whatfoever he thought requifite for
the fervice of the public. Knowing well the fuper-
ftition of the age in which he lived, he refolved to in¬
timidate the Spartans, by fhowing them what he was
fqre they would take for an ill omen. .Difguifing
himfelf therefore, he went privately to the city, where,
in the night, he hung up a ftiield on the wall of the
temple of Minerva, with, this infcription : Arijlomene:
1 M E S
dedicates this, out of the /foils of the Spartans, to the god- Me
defs. It was eafily perceived that this war would-be —
both long and bloody ; the Lacedaemonians therefore
fent deputies to Delphi, to inquire of the oracle con¬
cerning its event: the anfwer they received was. That
it behoved the Spartans to feek a leader from Athens. The
Athenians, naturally envious of the Spartans, granted
their requeft indeed, but in fuch a manner as mani-
fefted their fpite ; for they fent them for a general
Tyrtaeus, a fchoolmafter and poet, lame of one loot,
and who was fufpefted to be a little put of his wits.
But here their Ikill failed them ; for this captain, not-
withftanding his defpicable appearance, proved of great
confequence to Sparta, teaching them how to ufe
good, and how to bear up under evil fortune
In the mean time, Ariftomenes had drawn together
a mighty army, the Eleans, Argives, Sicyonians, and
Arcadians, having fent troops to his alliitance ; the
Spartans in this, as in the former war, having no ally
but Corinth. The Spartan kings, according to the
cuftom of their city, no fooner took the field, than,
notwithftandirig their inferiority in number, they of¬
fered the enemy battle, which Ariftomenes readily ac¬
cepted.—It was long, obftinate, and bloody ; but ia
the end the Meflenians were viftofious, and the Lace-
dsemonians put to flight with a great flaughter. It
is fcarce to be conceived how much the Spartans were
ftruck with this defeat: they grew weary of the war,
diflatisfied with their kings, diffident of their own
power, and in a word funk into a ftate of general
uneafxnefs and want of fpirit. It was now that the
Athenian general convinced them, that he was ca¬
pable of fulfilling all the promifes of the oracle ; he
encouraged them by his poems, dire&ed them by his
counfels, and recruited their broken armies with cho-,
fen men from among the Helotes. Ar^ornen^s> on
the other hand, a&ed with no lefs prudence and vi¬
gour. He thought it not enough to reftore the repu¬
tation of the Meflenians, if he did not alfo reftore
their wealth and power : he therefore taught them to
adl offenfively againft their enemies; and, entering
the territories of Sparta, he took and plundered Pharas,
a conliderable borough in Laconia, putting all fuch as.
made any reliftance to the fword, carrying off at the
fame time an ihtmenfe booty. This, however, was
an injury which the Spartans could not brook with
patience ; they therefore fent immediately a body of
forces to overtake the Meflenians, which accordingly
they did : but Ariftomenes routed thefe purfuers, and
continued to make a mighty flaughter of them, till
fuch time as he was difabled by having a fpear thruft
in his fide, which occafioned his being carried out of
the battle. His cure, which took up fome time, be¬
ing finifhed, he refolved to carry the war even to the
'gates of Sparta ; and to that purpofe raifed a very
great army : but, whether he found his defign im¬
practicable, or was really diverted by fome dream, he
gave out, that Caftor and Pollux, with their lifter
Helena, had appeared to him, and commanded him to
defift. A ffiort time after this retreat, going with a
fmall party to make an incurlion, and attempting to.
take prifoners fome women who were celebrating re¬
ligious rites near Egila, a village in Laconia, *thofe
zealous matrons fell upon him and his foldiers with,
fitch fury, that they put them to flight., and took him
prifoner
M E S [ 41.3 ] M E S
Meffenia. prlfoner : liowever, hefoon aftervvprds made his-efcape,
  ::nd rejoined his forces. In the third year of the war,
the Spartans with a great force entered Meffenia,
whither Ariftocrates kihg.of Arcadia was come, with
a great tody of troops, to the afliftance of his allies:
Ariftomenes therefore made no difficulty of fighting
when the Spartans approached^; but they entering
privately into a negociation with Arillocrates, en¬
gaged him with bribes and promifes to betray his
confederates. When the battle began, the deceitful
, Arcadian reprefented to the forces under his com¬
mand the mighty danger they were in, and the great
difficulty there would be of retreating into their own
country, in cafe the battle (hould be loft : he then
pretended, that the facrifices were ominous; and,
having terrified his Arcadians into the difpofition of
mind fitteft to ferve his purpofe, he not only drew
them off from both wings, but, in his flight, forced
through the Meffenian ranks, and put them too in
confufion. Ariftomenes and his troops, however, drew
themfelves into clofe order, that they might defend
thernfelves the beft they could : and indeed they had
need of all their valour and ikill; for the Lacedaemo¬
nians, who expefted this event, immediately attacked
and furrounded them on all fides. Fortune was, on
this occafion, too powerful either for the courage or
the conduft of the Meffenians; fo that, notwithftand-
ing their utmoft efforts, moft of their army were cut
to pieces, and amongft them the chief of their no¬
bility. Ariftomenes, with the poor-remains of his
ffiattered forces, retired as rvell as he could; and, per¬
ceiving that it was now impoffible to maintain the war
againft the Lacedaemonians upon equal terms, he ex¬
horted his countrymen to fortify mount Era, and to
make the beft difpofitions poflible for a long defence.
He liken ife placed garrifons in Pylus and Methone
on the fea-coafts; and to thefe three places he ga¬
thered all the inhabitants, leaving the reft of Meffenia
to the mercy of the Spartans. They, on the other
hand, looked on the war as now in a manner finiihed;
for which reafon they divided the lands among their
citizens, and caufed them to be carefully cultivated,
while they befieged Era. But Ariftomenes quickly
convinced them that the war was far from being over:
he chofe out of all the Meffenians 300 men, with
whom he ravaged,all the adjacent country; carried off
a prodigious booty ; and, when Meffenia could no
longer fupply the wants of his garrifon, penetrated
into Laconia,, and bore away corn, wine, cattle, and
whatever elfe was neceffary to the fubfiftence of his
countrymen ihut up in Era : fo that at laft the Spar¬
tans were conftrained to iffue a proclamation, forbid¬
ding the cultivation, not only of the Meffenian terri-
• tory in their hands, but alfo of Laconia in its vici¬
nity ; whereby they diftreffed themfelves more than
their enemies, inducing at laft a famine in Sparta it-
felf, which brought with it its ufuai attendant, fedi-
tion. Here again all things had gone wrong, if the
wifdom of the poet Tyrtseus had n.r. fupported the
Spartan courage ; nor was it without much difficulty
that he'influenced them to. continue the blockade of
Era, and to maintain a flying camp for the fecurity of
the country.
Ariftomenes, in fpite of all thefe precautions, com¬
mitted terrible depredations with his finall corps of
300 men. Amongft other places which he plundered, Mefle
the city of Amyclte was one; from whence he carried '——-'T
not only a great quantity of riches, but alfo many
carriages laden with provifions. The kings of Sparta
lying with their troops in its neighbourhood, as foon
as they heard of this expedition, marched after Arifto¬
menes with the utmoft diligence ; and, as the Meffe¬
nians were encumbered with their booty, came up with
them, before they could reach Era. In this fituation of
things, Ariftomenes, prompted rather by defpair than
prudence, difpofed his troops in order of battle ; and,
notwithftanding they were fo few, male a long and
vigorous refiftance againft the whole Lacedaemonian
army. At length,, however, numbers prevailed : the
greateft part of the Meffenians were flain on the fpot;
and Ariftomenes, with about 50 of his men who fur-'
vived the flaughter, were taken pnfoners ; that chief
having received fo many wounds, that he was fenfelefs
when they carried him away. The Lacedaemonians
expreffed the loudeft joy at the fight of this illuftrious
captive ; who for fo many years, by his fingle abilities,
had enabled his exhaufted country to defend "itfelf
againft the the whole force of Sparta. When he was
recovered of his wounds, they decreed him and all his
fellow-prifoners to be thrown together into a deep ca¬
vern, which was the common puniffiment of the low-
eft kind of offenders. This judgment was executed
with the utmoft feverity, excepting that Ariftomenes
had leave to put on his armour. Three days he con¬
tinued in this difma! place, lying upon and covered
over with dead bodies. The third day, he was al-
moft famifhed through want of food, and almoft poi-
foned with the ftench of corrupted carcafes, when he
heard a fox gnawing a body near him. Upon this he
uncovered his face, and perceiving the fox juft by him,
he with one hand feized one of its hind-legs, and with
the other defended his face, by catching hold of its
jaw when it attempted to bite him. Following as well
as he could his ftraggliog guide, the fox at laft tluaiil
his head into-a little hole ; and Ariftomenes then let-
tmg go his leg, he foou forced his way through, and
opened a paffage to the welcome rays of light, from
which the noble Meffenian had been fo long debarred.
Feeble as he was, Ariftomenes wrought himfelf-an
outlet with his nails ; and travelling by night with all
the expedition he could, at length arrived fafe at Era,
to the great joy and amazement of his countrymen-
When this news was firft blazed abroad, the Spartans,
would have had it pafs for a fiftiou ; but Ariftomenes
foon put the truth of it out of doubt, by falling on.
the polls of the Corinthians, who, as allies of the Spar¬
tans, had a confiderable body of troops before Era.
Moft of their officers, with-a multitude of private men,
he flew ; pillaged their camp ; and, in flioit,. did fo
much mifehief, that the Spartans, under the pretence
of an approaching feftival, agreed to a celfation of arms
for 40 days, that they might have time to bury their
dead. On this occafion, Ariftomenes for the fecond
time celebrated the hecutomphonia, or the facrifice ap¬
pointed for thofe who had killed 100 of the enemy
with their own hands. He had performed the fame
before and after his fecond battle ; and he lived to do
it a third time : which muft appear wonderful to the
reader, when he is informed, that, notwithftanding this,
truce, certain Cretan archers in the ftr.vice o£ the Spar-
4 tans-
M E S [ 414 ] ME S
flVnia. tans fdzed Ariftomenes as he was walking without
V"'""" the walls, and carried him away a prifoner. There
were nine of them in all; two of them immediately
flew with the news to Sparta, and feven remained to
guard their prize, whom they bound, and conduced
-to a lone cottage inhabited only by a widow and her
daughter. It fo fell out, that the yonng woman dreamt
the night before, that fhe faw a lion without claws,
bound, and dragged along by-wolves-; and that fhe
having loofed his bonds, and given him claws, he im¬
mediately tore the wolves to pieces. As foon as Ari¬
ftomenes came into the cottage, and her mother, who
knew him, had told her who he was, fhe inftantly con¬
cluded that her dream was fulfilled; and therefore plied
the Cretans with drink, and, when they were afleep,
took a poinard from one of them, cut the thongs with
- which Ariftomenes was bound, and then put it into his
hands. He prefently verified her viiion, by putting
all his guards to death ; and then carried her and her
mother to Era, where, as a reward for her fervice,
he married the young woman to his fon Gorgus, then
about 18 years of age.
When Era had held out near eleven years, it fell
into the hands of Sparta by an accident : the fervant
■ of one Empiramus, a Spartan commander, driving
his mafter’s cattle to drink at the river Neda, met
frequently with the wife of a Mefienian, whom he
engaged in an amour. This woman gave him notice,
that her hufhand’s houfe was without the wall; fo
that he could come to it without danger, when the
good man was abroad-; and fire likewife gave him in¬
telligence when her hufband was upon duty in the
garrifon. The Spartan failed not to come at the time
appointed ; but they had not been long in bed before
the hufband returned, which put the houfe into great
•confufion : the woman, however, fecured her gallant;
and then let in her hufband, whom fhe received in
appearance with great joy, inquiring again and again
: by what excefs of good fortune fhe was blefled with
lus return. The innocent Mefienian told her, that
Ariftomenes being detained in his bed by a wound,
the foldiers knowing that he could not walk the
rounds, had a,grant to retire to their houfes, ta avoid
the inclemency of the feafon. The Spartan no fooner
heard this, than he crept foftly out of doors, and
rhaftened away to carry the news to his mafter. It fo
happened, that the kings were at'this time abfentfrom
the camp, and Empiramus had the chief command
of the army. As foon as he received this information,
he ordered his army to begin its march, though it
rained exctffively, and there was no moon-light. The
fellow guided them to the ford, and managed matters
- fo well that they feized all the Meffenian polls : yet,
after all, they were afraid to engage ; darknefs, an
high wind, heavy rain, together with the dread of
Ariftomenes, keeping them quiet in the places they
-had feized. As foon as it was light, the attack be¬
gan ; and Era had been quickly taken, if only the
men had defended it; but the women fought with
fuch fury, and by their mingling in the fray, brought
fuch an acceffion of numbers, as made the event doubt¬
ful. Three days and two nights this defperate en¬
gagement lafted : at laft, all hopes of preferving the
city being loft, Ariftomenes drew «tf his wearied
troops. Early the fourth morning, he difpofed the
women and children in the centre, the Meffenian youth MefTenra.
in the front and rear, the lefs able men in the main v“"-v--—1
body: himfelf commanded the van ; the rear-guard
was brought up by Gorgus and Manticlus, the for¬
mer the fon of Ariftomefies, the latter of Theocles, a
Meffenian of great merit, who fell with much glory
in this attack, fighting valiantly in the caufe of his
country. When all things were ready, Ariftomenes
caufed the laft barrier to be thrown open ; and, bran-
difhing his fpear, marched diredtly towards the Spar¬
tan troops, in order to force a paffage. Empiramus,
perceiving his intent, ordered his men to open to the
right and left, and fairly gave them a paffage; fo that
Ariftomenes marched off in triumph, as it were, to
Arcadia.
The Arcadians, when they heard that Fra was
taken, were very defirous of fuccouring their old con¬
federates in this deep diftrefs : they therefore in-
treated their king Ariftocrates to lead them into
Mefferia. But he, corrupted by the Lacedaemonians,
perfuaded them that it was too late ; that the Meffe-
n-ians were all cut off; and that fuch a ftep would on y
expofe them to the fury of the conquerors. When
the thing appeared to be ptherwife, and it was known
that Ariftomenes was on the frontiers of Arcadia,
they went in crowds to carry him provifions, and to
teftify their readinefs to afford him and thofe under
his command all the affiftance in their power. Ari¬
ftomenes defired to be heard before a general affembly;
which being accordingly convoked, he there opened
one of the boldeft and bell laid fchemes recorded in
hillory: he faid, that he had yet 500 undaunted
foldiers, who, at fiis command, would undertake any
thing; that it was very probable moft of the Spar¬
tans were employed in pillaging' Era, and that there¬
fore he determined to march and furprife Sparta;
which appeared fo fenfible, that all the affembly loud¬
ly commended his great capacity and unftiaken cour¬
age. Ariftocrates, however, took care to betray
him; having, by various pretences, retarded the exe¬
cution of the projedl. The Arcadians, who began to
fufpeft him, waited for and furprifed the meffengers
as they came back. They took the letters from him,
and read them openly in the affembly. The purport
of them w as, that they acknowledged his great kind-
nefs both now and in the battle ; and promifed, that
the Lacedaemonians would be grateful. As foon as
the letters were read, the Arcadians fell to Honing
their king, frequently calling upon the Meffenians to
afiill them ; which, however, they did not, waiting
for Ariftomenes’s orders ; who, far from triumphing
in this fpedtacle, flood ftill, with his eyes fixed on
the ground, which he wet with his tears, his foul
pierced with forrow to fee a crowned head fo fhame-
fully and fo defervedly put to death. The Arcadians
afterwards eredled a monument over him, with an in-
feription to perpetuate his infamy. As for the Mef¬
fenians under the command of Gorgus and Manticlus,
they puffed over Into Sicily ; where they founded the
city of Meffene, one of the moft famous in the ifland.
Ariftomenes remained, however, in Greece ; where
he married all his daughters, except the youngeft, to
peffons of great rank. A prince of Rhodes, inquiring
of the oracle at Delphi whom he fhould efpoufe, that
his fubjedts might be happy under his pollerity, was
dire&ed
M E S [ 415 1 M E S
Mefliah.' dtrefted t0 marry the daughter of the mod worthy of
the Greeks; which anfwer was immediately under-
ftood to point at the virgin daughter of Ariftomenes.
Her therefore he demanded, and received ; Ariltome-
nes accompanying him back to his dominions, where
he formed a fcheme of uniting the Lydians and Medes
againft the Spartans, refolving with this view to go
into Media, and to the court of Sardis; but while he
meditated thefe great things, death furpiifed him,
and thereby freed Lacedaemon from the mod for¬
midable enemy die ever had.
MESSIAH, a word dignifying one anointed, or in-
flalled into an oflice by undtion. It was ufual among
the Jews to anoint kings, high-prieds, and fomt times
prophets, at the ddignation or indallment of them,
to fignify emblematically the mental qualifications ne-
ceffary tor difcharging thefe offices. Saul, David,
Solomon, and Joafli, kings of Judah, received the
royal un&ion. Aaron and his fons received the facer-
dotal, and Elitha the difciple of Elijah received the
prophetic undtion.—The name Messiah, Anointed,
or Chrifi {was given to the kings and high-
pried' of the Jews. The patriarchs and prophets
are alfo called by the name of Meffiahs, dr the Lord's
anointed. See 1 Sam. xii. 2, c. 1 Chron. xvi. 22.
Pf. cv. 15.
But this name Mes iah was principally and by
way of eminence given by the Jews to their expedt-
ed great Deliverer, whole coming they dill vainly
wait ; and is a name the Chridians apply to Jfsus
Chrijl, in whom the prophefies relating to the Mef-
fiah were accomplifhed The fum of thefe prophecies
is, That there ffiould be a glorious perfon named
Mejftah, defeended from Abraham, Ifaac, and Jacob,
who ffiould be born at Bethlehem, pf a virgin of the
family of David, then in its decline, before the Jews
ceafed to be a people, while the fecond temple was
danding, and about- 500 years after Ezra's time ;
who, though appearing in mean circumdances, ffiould
be introduced by a remarkable forerunner, whofe bu-
iinefs it fhould be to awaken the attention and ex?
pedtation of the people. That this illudrious perfon
called Mtffioh ffiould himfelf be eminent for the piety,
wifdom, and benevolence of his charadier, and the.
miraculous works he ffiould perform : yet that, not-
withftanding all this, he ffiould be rejedted and put to
death by the Jews ; but ffiould afterwards be raifed
from the dead, and exalted to a glorious throne, on
which he ffiould through all generations continue to
rule, at the fame time making ihterceffion for dinners.
That great calamities fhculd for the prefent be brought
on the Jews for rejedting him : whereas the kingdom
of God ffiould by his means be eredted among the
Gentiles, and difperfe itfelf even unto the ends of the
earth ; wherever it came, deffiroying idolatry,, and
eftablffhirig true religion and righteoufnefs. In a
word, That this glorious perfon ffiould be regarded
by all who believed in him as a divine. teacher; an
atoning facrifice, and a royal governor: by means of
whom God would make a covenant with his people,
very different from- that made with Ifrael of old ; in
confcquence of which, they ffiould be reftored to, and
eftabliflied in, the divine favour, and fixed in a ftate
of perpetual happinefs. See 'Jtsvt Ghriji, and Chris¬
tianity.
The Jews, as was already obferved, ftill wait for the
coming of the Mejfiah, being infatuated with the no- MefTiah,
tion of a temporal Me [ftah, who is to be a mighty Mellina-,
conqueror, and to fubdue all the world. , Moft of the '""v—"-
modern rabbins? according to Buxtorf, believe that
the M' fiah is already come, but that he keeps himfelf
concealed, and will not manifelt himfelf becaufe of the
iins of the Jews. Some of the Jews, however, in or¬
der to reconcile thofe prophecies that feem to contra¬
dict each other as to the character and condition of the
Mejfuh, have had recourfe to the hypothefis of two
Mejjiahs, who are yet to fucceed each other ; one in
a itate of humiliation -and fuffering ; the other of
glory, fpkndor, and power. The firlt, they fay, is
to proceed from the tribe of Ephraim, who is to fight
again ft Gog, and to be (lain by Annillus, Zech. xii. 10.
The fecond is to be of the tribe of Judah, and lineaga
of David, who is to conquer and kill A nnillus, and
refture the kingdom of lirael, reigning over it in the
highelt glory and felicity.
Jefus Chrift afferts himfelf the Mejftah. In St
John iv. 25. the Samaritan woman fays to Jefus, I
know that when Meffiah comes, who is called the Chrift;'
he will tell ns all things. Jefus anfwered her, I that /peak
to thee am he.
There are fcveral impoftors, who have endeavoured
to pals for Meffiahs, as Chriit himlelf predicted. J:
Lent, a Dutchman, has written a hiftory De Pfeudo*
mejfus, “ Of Falfe Mefliahs.” The firft he mentions
was one Barcochab, who appeared under the empire of
Adrian. The laft.was rabbi Mordecai, who began to
be talked of in 1662. A little before him, viz. in
1666, appeared Sabbeihai Sebi, who was taken by the
Turks, and turned Mahometan. /
MESSINA., an ancient, large,handfome, and ftrong
city of Sicily, and in the V al-di-Demona, with a cita¬
del, feveral forts, a fine fpacious harbour, and an arch-
bifhop’s fee. It is feated oh the fea-fide, no miles
eaft of Palermo, 260 fouth by eaft of Rome, and 180
fouth-eaft ofNaples. E. Long. 1 5. 50. N. Lat. 38. 10.
The public buildings and the monafteries a cre nume¬
rous and magnificent, and it contained about 60,000
inhabitants; the harbour is one of the fafeft in tha
Mediterranean, and extremely deep; the viceroy of
Sicily refides here fix months in the year; and it was a
place of great trade in filk, oil, fryit, corn, and excel*
lent wine, efpecially fince it was declared a .free port*
This city in the beginning of the year 1 783 fuffered
moft; dreadfully by the earthquakes, which ffiook great
part of Calabria and Sicily to their foundations, ovei T
turned many, rich- and populous towns, and buried
thoufands in tbeir ruins: (fee Calabria and Earth*
Qt'ah e.)—The following account ofMeffina, as it flood
before the above period, is extraCled from Mr Swin¬
burne’.! Travels in Sicily.
A large chain of mountains preftes upon the ffiore,
and part of the city Hands upon elevated ground. The .
mountains are many of them nobly wooded; the hills .
before.them, finely, chequered with groves and fields.
As the town .runs in a fvveep along the edge of a de->
clivity, every building of confequence is feen to advan¬
tage, while die lefs noble parts, are hidden by the Pa-;
lazzata. This is a regular ornamental range of lofty
houfes, with 19 gates, anfwering to as many ilreels r.
it follows the ftmicircular bend of the port for one
mile and five poles, and would have been the hand*
famed line of buildings in Europe had the defign been.
3. com*
M E S [ 416 1 M E S
Meffina. completed ; but a confiderable part of the extent is
not finifhed, except merely in the front wall, and that
feems' to be in a very ruinous condition. Philibert
Emmanuel of Savoy, viceroy of Sicily, in 1622 began
this princely work. Before it is a broad quay, deco¬
rated with ilatues and fountains; (hips of any burden
can moor clofe to the parapet in great depth of water.
At the weft extremity is a fmall fort and a gate ; the
other end is clofed by the governor’s houfe and the
citadel,, a modern pentagonal fortrefs, built on the
point where the ifthmus dr braccio di San Raniero iflues
from the main land. On this flip of low ground,
which with the Palazzato forms the circular harbour
of Meflina, are placed the light-houfe (lazaretto), and
on the point the old caftle of St Salvatore. The cir¬
cumference of the port is four miles: it probably owes
its formation to an earthquake, which opened an im-
menfe cha fm, and then filled it with water. Near the
light-houfe is a kind of whirlpool in the fea, ftiown as
the Charybdis of the ancients.
The inner part of Meflina is dirty, though it con¬
tains a confiderable number of neat churches and large
fubftantial dwellings. The cathedral is Gothic, en¬
riched with Saracenic mofaics on the altars and (hrines;
the front of the high altar is particularly fplendid :
Gagini has embellilhed the pulpit and fome tombs
with excellent fpecimens of his art.—In the treafury
of this church is preferved the palladium of Meflina,
a letter from the. Virgin Mary to its citizens (a).
This is the title upon which the Meflinefe build their
pretenfions to pre-eminence over the whole iflaijd, nay
over the whole world ; to its virtues and patronage
they attribute every piece of good fortune, and to their
own unworthinefs all finifter events that have befallen
them. The authenticity of this epiftle has been fe-
rioufly impugned, and of courfe vigoroufly defended
by many Sicilian divines and difputators.
N° 211.
There is another church in this city that defervei Meflifis.
particular notice, not fo much on account of its archi-
tefture or ornaments, as for its being the laft re¬
fuge of the Greek liturgy, which was once the pre¬
dominant fervice of the ifland, but gradually abolifhed
by different conquerors. It is dedicated to the Virgin
Mary de Graph to, or of the Letter, which denomina¬
tion may perhaps have furniftied Lafcaris with the idea
of his letter. It is known at prefent by the name of
la Coitollca According to the Greek canons, the en¬
trance of monaftic churches was reciprocally forbidden
to each fex, and the cathedrals were the only places of
worfhip where a daily facrifice was offered up by the
bifhop and clergy, and where both men and women
were prefent at the fame time, but in different parts
of the church. From this general admittance the
building acquired the title of Catholic or univerfal.
Meflina is all paved with lava, cut into large flags
of two feet fquare : a material which the vicinity of
lavas render it eafy to procure, and which being very
hard refills fridtion better than any other
During a feries of -ges, notwithftanding the various
revolutions and calamities to which it has been ex-
pofed, this city has ftill maintained its original fitua-
tion; while moil other cities have ftiifted their ground
more or lefs from the place where they were firll
founded. But its fituation enjoys advantages which
have ftill tempted fuch of its inhabitants as efcaped
from the ravages of war and the defolation of earth¬
quakes, to prefer it to every other fpot, however de¬
lightful or fecure, It is of very ancient origin; ithas
been under many different races of monarchs; and its
name has been repeatedly changed: It has been at dif¬
ferent times called Zancle, Masnertina, Mejfana. Its
firft name Zancle, which in the old language of Sicily
meant “a fickle;” alluding, as fome authors fuppofe,
to the form of the port; or, according to others, to
the
(a) The ftory is as follows: After St Paul had made fome ftay at Meflina (a circumliance of his travels
unnoticed by St Luke), the Meflinefe prevailed upon him to return to Jerufalem with an embaffy of four
perfons fent by the city to the Virgin Mary. Their excellencies were gracioufly received by her, and brought
back a letter written with her own hand in the Hebrew tongue, which St Paul tranflated into Greek. By
the irruption of the Saracens this invaluable treafure was loft, and utterly forgotten till the year 1467, when
Conftantine Lafcaris, a refugee Greek, found a copy of it, and turning it into Latin, made it known to the
citizens, and then to all the Catholic world. Its authenticity is now fo well eftablilhed at Meflina, that
Regna the niftorian candidly acknowledges, that whoever was to confefs even a doubt on the fubjedl in that
city would be treated as an infidel.
This curious epiftle is conceived in thefe termsMaria Virgo Joachim filia, Dei humillima Chrifti Jefa
crucifixi Mater, ex tribu Judas llirpe David, Meffanenfibus omnibus falutem, et Dei patris omnipotentis bene-
didlionem. Vos omnes fide magna legates ac nuncios per publicum documentum ad nos mififfe conftat. Fi-
lium noftrum Dei genitum Deum et hominem effe fatemini, et in caelum poll fuam refurredlionem afeendiffe,
Pauli apoftoli elecli prasdicatione mediante viam veritatis agnofeentes. Ob quod vos et ipfam civitatem bene-
dicimus cujus perpetuam proteftricem nos effe volumus. Anno filii noilri XLII. Indidl. I. III. Nonas Junii,
luna XXVII. feria V. ex Hyerofolymis.
Thus tranflated —“ The Virgin Mary, daughter of Joachim, moll humble mother of God, Jefus Chrift
crucified, of the tribe of Juda and the family of David, health and the blefling of God the Father Almighty
to all the people of Mefiiha. Out of the abundance of your faith, you have, in confequence of a public de¬
liberation, fent a deputation to me; and fince you acknowledge that my Son is both God and man, and that
he afeended into heaven after his refurreftion, as you have learned from the preaching of St Paul the apoftle,
I give my blefiing to you and all your city, and agree to become your prote&refs. In the 42d year of my
Son, the ill of the Indi&ion, the 3d day of June, and the 27th of the moon, at Jerufalem.”
Not to dwell upon the aftronomical blunders in thefe dates, let it fuffice to obferve, that Lafcaris was not
aware that Denis the Little, a Syrian monk in the 6th century, was the firft who made t>fe of the era that
commences at our Saviour’s birth.
M E S [41
ATefllnn, the fertility of the country. Allured by the advan-
— » tages of it? filuation, the Cumaeans, a commercial and
enterprifing people, invaded the ifland and drove the
Siculi from this fettlement; they were in their turn
overpowered by a band of Samian adventurers, who
made way for a colony of citizens of Meffene, and under
thefe matters it changed its name to Mejfana. Their
government was of ftrort duration; for in the 289th
year before Chrift it was deftroyed by the Mamertincs,
a warlike unprincipled nation inhabiting the fouth part
of Brutium. Thefe foldiers being received into Mef-
fana on their return to Italy from Syracufe^ where
they had ferved as mercenaries in the army of Aga-
thocles, took an opportunity of maffacring the inha¬
bitants and ufurping their pofleflions. The city was
now called Mamertina: and, in order to fupport them-
felves againft the refentment of the Sicilian powers,
the Mamertines implored the protedtion of the Ro¬
mans, who, eager to extend their dominion beyond
the limits of Italy, and jealous of the growing power
of Carthage, made no fcruple to fuccour thefe affaf-
fins with a confular army. This ftep brought on the
firft Punic war. The Mamertines reaped no other
fruit from the alliance but a more honourable degree
of flavery ; for fuch was the real nature of their con¬
nexion with Rome, whatever name it might be dif-
guifed under.
Meflina was, however, always diftinguifhed by par¬
ticular attentions and favours from the fenate; and, ex-
cepting a fhort period during the wars of the trium¬
virate, appears to have tatted all the fweets of Roman
profperity, without partaking of the bitter draughts
of adverfity. Its fate, in the ruin of the empire, was
fimilar to that of the reft of Sicily. In 829 Meflina
-fell into the hands of the Saracens, but obtained very
honourable terms or' capitulation 5 for half the city
was left to the Chriftians, where they were to be go¬
verned by their own laws, and profefs their own reli¬
gion undifturbed. In the other refided the bey of
one of the five provinces into which the A rabian con¬
querors had divided the ifland. Notwithftanding this
indulgence, Meflina was the firft to catt off the yoke
in 1037, when George Maniaces landed an army of
Greeks and Normans on the fhore of the Faro. It af¬
terwards held out againft the whole Muffulman force,
till the feeble ftate of a diftrafted empire fhut out all
hopes of afliftance from Conftantinople. This unfor¬
tunate city then opened its gates to the army of the
caliph, and felt very feverely the weight of his refent¬
ment. but it did not long groan under the yoke; for
in lefs than 20 years Roger the Norman took it by
furprife and delivered it from Mahometan bppreffion.
During the crufado our Richard Cceur de Lion and
Philip Auguftus king of France wintered here in their
way to Paleftine; a fojourn marked by continual quar¬
rels, conflagration, and bloodfhed. The Meflinefe
were particularly tardy in entering into the national
confpiracy of 1282, but afterwards exceeded the reft
of the infurgents in deeds of cruelty : This and the
importance of their fituation-fingled them out for the
iirft objcXs of Charles’s vengeance. He invefted tlieir
city very clofely, and declared fo openly his determi¬
nation to refufe all terms whatever to the befieged,
that they faw no hopes of fafety but in an obttinate
defence. Their courage, .perfeveraiice, and iufferings,
you XL Part IL
7 ] M E S
were excefiive; at length their ftrength and refources RL-flina.
began to fail rapidly, and every circumftance feemed
to denounce their fpeedy deftruXion, when Roger
Lauria appeared off the harbour with the Arragonian
fleet, forced the king to retire with precipitation acrofs
the ft rails, and in his fight defeated and deftroyed his
naval armament. Robert, grandfon of Charles I. alfo
made a fruitlefs attack; but in the difturbed reign of
Frederick III. Meffina was delivered up to Louis king
of Naples and his confort -queen Joan, who entered it
in triumph. In a few years it returned to its former
poffeffors. The year 1672 was remarkable for the re¬
volt of the Meflinefe.—They threw off the Spanilh
yoke, and fwore allegiance to Louis XIV. king of
France- They were for fome time vigoroufly afiiffed
by the French; but before the Spaniards had gained
the leaft advantage to excite any hopes of recovering
fo valuable a poffefiion, Louis found himfelf necefli-
tated from motives of political intereft to defert his
new fubjeXs, and leave them to the mercy of their old
incenfed matters. The horror of being thus abandon¬
ed, and the chaftifement infliXed by Spain, broke the
fierce fpirit of the Meflinefe ; they were ftill ftunned
with the remembrance and effeXs of this blow, when
the plague in 1743 was introduced from the Levant
and fvvept away more than half the inhabitants. From
this chain of calamities, the opulence, trade, and po¬
pulation of Meflina, have been gradually finking; and
unlefs very favourable circumftances happen, will every
year fall lower. The number of its inhabitants does
not now exceed 30,000.
The following particulars are added from M. Hou-
el, who vifited this city fince the late earthquakes^
which completed its deftruXion.
On the front of the cathedral there is a fquare,
which, though not regular, is far from being mean.
This was not the largeft fquare in Meffina before its
overthrow; but it was the moft elegant, the moft
fplendidly adorned, and the bell frequented. There
Hands in this fquare an equeftrian ftatue of Charles II.
of Spain, in bronze, which has been fpared by the
earthquake. It Hands on a marble pedeftal, in the
middle of the fquare. Oppofite to this ftatue is as
elegant matble fountain, ornamented with a variety of
figures, reprefenting men and other animals, all of
them fpouting out water in great abundance ; which
ufed, in fummer, to fpread an agreeable aud refrelh-
ing coolnefs over the fquare, that induced company to
affemble here. Seven ftreets terminated here. The
cathedral forms a part of the fquare. It is dedicated
to the bleffed Virgin ; the occalion of which has been
already mentioned.
There is an aniverfary feaft celebrated in Meffina,
which is called the feafl of the Letter. A lock of the
Virgin’s hair, which fhe fent to the Meffenians at the
fame time with the letter, is carried through the city-
in proceffion in a cryftal veffel. She made alfo a pre¬
lent of her piXure to the Mcffenian deputies. It is
placed over the tabernacle. None but the canons of
the cathedral are permitted to touch, or take up on
their fhchilders, the filver Ihrine in which the cryftal
veffel with the Virgin’s hair is depofited. Eight of
thofe canons, with mitres on their heads, bear this
Ihrine'in the proceffion. The canopy fufpended over
it is fupported by fix fenators in their robes. The
3 G piXure
M E S
pi&ure and the hair are (hown to flrangers. This
proceffion and the other religious ceremonies of this
feftival are followed by horfe races. The fpirits; of
the people being already elevated by their religi¬
ous exercifes, they engage with amazing eagernefs
in thefe and the other diverfions with which they are
accompanied: a tumultuous joy reigns over the city ;
and the evening concludes with illuminations and fire¬
works. The (hips in the harbour pay the citizens the
compliment of entertaining them with a difcharge of
their guns on the occafion.
Through a fquare called the Square of the Great Ho~
fpital, runs a large and impetuous torrent, the Porto
(Idle Legnl. It is precipitated from thofe lofty moun¬
tains which overlook this city on the fouth fide. The
channel which it has cut out for itfelf Is at times em
tirely full. It wpuld, on fuch occafions, overflow the
fquare and other parts of the city, were it not con¬
fined by walls which have been built on both fides to
prevent fuch accidents.—Another itream of a fimilar
origin, called the Torrent of La Boccetta, runs through
another part of the city ; it is a ho confined within the
walls to prevent it from overflowing.
The Square of St John of Malta is oneof the large ft
in Meflina. In the middle of this fquare is a fine
marble fountain, ornamented with a variety of fculp-
tured figures and jets~d’eau. Befide the fountain there
ufed to ftand a large refervoir for horfes to drink out of.
In the time of the annual feftivals, there ufed to be
exhibited on the waters of the refervoir a galley, or ra¬
ther a fiftitious reprefentation of a galley, with gal-
ley-flavts, foldiers, officers, and a commander on board,
all in arms, and the galley properly equipped as a fhip
of war. This galley was decorated with great art.;
and by night the mails, and every other fuitable part,
were hung with lamps, wdiich illumined it in a very
fplendid manner. Every thing around was fo artifi¬
cially difpofed, that when the fire-works were played
off, the fpeCtator was led to think, though he per¬
ceived only one galley, that the noife which he heard
was produced by a naval combat; and that the other
fhips were concealed from his view by the fmoke oc-
cafioned by the guns and fire-works. This, when
properly conduced, was a noble fpedfacle. The fe-
nate repaired thither from the cathedral, attended with
a guard and a numerous company. In. one carriage fat
fix fenators, the governor of the city, and fometimes
the archbifhop. It w’as exceedingly large, and drawn
by fix white horfes very richly harneffed. Other car¬
riages followed, with the train who attended the go¬
vernor and the fenators.
Almoft all feftivals owe their origin to fome extra¬
ordinary event, or fome lingular ftory either true or
falfe. It is faid, that when the fplendor with which the
feaft of the affumptwn de la Bara was celebrated at
Meffina, firft began to attraft foreigners to the city,
on that occafion fuch crowds repaired thither as to
alarm the inhabitants with the fears of a famine : But
one year, when the number of ftrangers was greater
than ufual at the time of this feftival, the magiftrates
were very much at a lofs how to fupply them with
provifions ; and at length, every other refource failing,
no hopes of relief remained but from the kindnefs pf
the Bleffed Virgin. Fervent prayers were addreffed to
their patronefs: and next morning by day-break three
M E S
brigantines appeared entering the harbour with full Meffiwd
fails. They proved to be loaded with corn. It was v*~~“
eagerly purchafed: and the people of the city hailed
to appeafe their hunger. But when-they came after
refreftiing themfelves to pay the corn-merchants their
money, neither (hips nor merchants could be found!
After their firft emotions of furprife had-fubfided;.
they naturally concluded that fuch a feafonable fup.
ply muft undoubtedly be a prefent from the Virgin,
who, being pleafed with the zeal of her Meffenian vo*
taries, and delrrous to prevent the concourfe of ftram
gers who attended the-feftival from diminifhing, had
interpofed in this miraculous manner to fave them from
the-diftreffes of famine. A new feftival was celebrated
in gratitude to their generous benefa&refs. Three
fmall veffels of filver were made, and dedicated to the -
Virgin; in memory of the event; and thefe are at pre¬
fent ufed as lamps in the cathedral. ■ The fenate like-
wife decreed, that the clergy ftiould pay annually a
fmall tax, to be laid out in conftru&ing a fmall gal¬
ley to fwim on the fountain, and in defraying the ex-
pences of the fire-works. The profits of the clergy are fo
confiderable on the occafion of the feftival, that they
may be fuppofed to pay the tax with great eheerfulnefs.
In Meflina, as in the other cities of Sicily, the wo¬
men wrap themfelves in a large black mantle above the
reft of their drefs. The ftuffs are richer or plainer ac¬
cording to rank and circumltancesi People who are
not rich enough to have fine cloaths of their own,
hire them at fo much an hour. There are women
who make a livelihood by lending out their cloaths.
The- mantle covers the wearer from head to foot  
It reduces the old and the young, the ill-fhaped and
the handfome, pretty much to an equality in point of
appearance. This muft naturally appear very unfa~
vourable to the influence of beaut}-. But yet, on pro¬
per occafions, at church or in a public walk, the la¬
dies of Meflina find means to open and adjuft th«
mantle fo as to difplay all their beauties of face and
ftiape, and to attrad. the affe&ions of lovers, perhaps
more powerfully than if their drefs were fuited to
difplay their charms in a more oftentatious manner.
Between Meflina and the tower of Faro there Hands
a fmall church called the Madona of the Grotto. It
was anciently a temple of a round ftru&ure, and orna¬
mented with columns like the temple of the fun at
Rome. Modern columns now fupply the place that
was occupied by the ancient. There are large niches
in the rock adjoining to the temple, which are thought
to be of equal antiquity. Thefe contain no feulptu1-
red figures; but in Pagan times they might poffibly
contain fome.
Meflina being fituated between mount iEtna and
the gulph of Charybdis, and being hkewife at no great
diftance from the volcanoes of Lipari and Stromboli,
muft have been in all ages liable to fuffer by earth¬
quakes. Such terrible events, however, appear to
have been more unfrequent in ancient than in modern
times, and have actually alarmed the prefent age oftenef
than any other. In the 1693 a fourth part of the
cities of Sicily was deftroyed by an earthquake. Mef¬
fina merely felt the fliock : all its buildings, however;
fuffered. In the year 1742 it fuffered another equal
ly violent. A plague which followed in 1743 retard¬
ed the repairs neceffary after the earthquake. In the
year
[ 4<8 1
M E S [4
Mefllna. ye&r this city continued,for more than fix months,
to fuffer from a new earthquake.
Were the ftate of the elements, previous to thefe
dreadful events, carefully examined, it might perhaps
be found to undergo certain changes which might be
confidered as prognofticating them.
The autumn of the year 1782 was unufually cold
and rainy. Fahrenheit’s thermometer was often as
low as 56 degrees. The fucceeding winter was dry ;
and the mercury never fell under 25 degrees : And,
what is uncommon in that feafon, ftorms were now.
and then obferved to arife from the weft. The pilots
in the channel obferved that the tides no longer rofe
at the ufual periods, and the gulph of Chary bdis ra¬
ged with extraordinary fury.
On the jth of February 1783, the air was heavy and
calm; the Ikyobfcured with thick clouds, and the at-
mofphere feemingly all in a flame. About half after
twelve at noon, the earth began to fhake with a dread¬
ful noife. The Ihocks continually increafed, and be¬
came at length fo violent as to open the ground, and
to overturn in two or threefminutes a conliderable part
of the buildings.
A long white cloud appeared to the north-weft ;
atid foon after another, very dark, in the fame quar¬
ter of the heavens. The latter in a moment fpread
over the whole horizon, and deluged the city with
rain and hail, accompanied with dreadful claps of thun¬
der. The inhabitants fled in the utmoft terror to the
fields and the ftiips in the harbour.
From mid-day till five in the afternoon the earth¬
quake continued almoft without interruption. The
Ihocks then became fomewhat lefs frequent. The cries
of the dying 5 the (hrieks of thofe who were half-bu¬
ried under the ruins; the wild terror with which others,
who were ftill able, attempted to make their efcape ;
the defpair of fathers, mothers, and hulbands, bereft
of thofe who were deareft to them ; then formed alto¬
gether a fcene of horror, fuch as can but feldom oc¬
cur in the hiltory of the calamities of the human race.
Amid that awful fcene, inftances of the moft heroic
courage and the moft generous affeftion were difplay-
ed. Mothers, regardlefs of their own fafety, rufhed
into every danger to fnatch their children from death.
Conjugal and filial affe&ion prompted deeds not lefs
defperate and heroic. But no fooner did the earth¬
quake ceafe, than the poor wretches who had efcaped
began to feel the influence of very different paflions.
When they returned to vifit the ruins, to feek out the
fituation of their fallen dwellings, to inquire into the
fate of their families, to procure food and colled: fome
remains of their former fortunes—fuch as found their
circumftances the moft wretched became fuddenly ani¬
mated with rage, which nothing but wild defpair could
infpire. The diftindtion of ranks, and the order of fo«
ciety were difregarded, and property eagerly violated.
Murder, rapine, and lawlefs robbery, reigned among
the fmoking ruins.
About one in the morning another Ihock of the
earthquake was felt, which overturned moft of the
houfes that were ftill ftanding. Moft of thofe whom
want, or avarice, or humanity, ftill detained among the
ruins, now' fhared the fame fate with their friends whom
the former ftiocks had buried under them.
19 1 M E S
The fucceeding day fcarce alleviated the diftrefs of Mefll
this difmal night: the few wretches who ftill furvi- 
ve'd found themfelves deftitute of every neceffary. At
length order was in fome degree re-eltablilhed ; and in
two days after every perfon was fupplied at leaft with
fome fmall portion of the neceffaries for fubfiftence.
None yet thought of returning to take up their
abode among the ruins. The common people fixed
their refidence on the plain of Porto Salvo, near the
town of Salleo. The nobles, magiftrates, and mer¬
chants, took up their abode on another plain, on the
other fide of the ftream Porta de Legno ; the foldiers
at Terra Nuova.
Some violent ftiocks which were again felt on the ytli
of February and the 28th of March completed the de-
ftru&ion of the city. The corn magazines, however,
efcaped without damage ; and the public ovens and
the aquedufts were but little injured. From thefe
fads it may perhaps be inferred, that had not the
houfes of Meflina been, in general, haftily built at the
firft, and afterwards carelefsly repaired, fewer of them
would have been overthrown by the earthquake.
The neighbouring villages having fuffered but little,
were the firft to relieve the remaining inhabitants, of
Meflina in their diftrefs. Maltefe galleys for fome days
fupplied neceffaries to the poor and the fick with a
generofity which merits the higheft praife. They
brought furgeons and whatever was needful for the
cure of the wounded. The fupplies fent by the king
of France were refufed, for what reafon we know not.
What money was needed for the fu.pport of the peo¬
ple was taken from the treafury of the city of Meffina ;
for what the king of Naples fent was feized and fpent
by the garrifon.
It is faid that not more than 800 or 900 perfons
periftied by this earthquake. The fea during that
convullion of the land was flightly agitated in the har¬
bour. Farther out the fea was more violently agita¬
ted ; but none of the ftiips in the harbour were daftied
to pieces. The waters rofe fo high as to be injurious
in a very confiderable degree to Pharo, as well as along
the coaft of Scylla and Bagnara.
This earthquake was not of a momentary duration,
like that by which Lifbon was deftroyed, and like
many others : for more than fixty days, from the 5th
of February to the beginning of ..April, Meflina con¬
tinued to be fliaken ; and in that time felt more than
200 ftiocks. And ever after that period the alarm was
again and again renewed. Not only the magiftrates,
the foldiers, and the people, but the priefts likewife,
with their tabernacle and altar, retired to the barracks.
The nuns, too, deferted their cloifter, and fought a
retreat without the walls. Some of them confined
themfelves to the gardens of their convents ; others
mixed indifcriminately with the people.
The chief damage which the public buildings with¬
in the city fuffered was the fall of the dome of the
church of Purgatory'. Only the walls were left ftanding:
and even thefe had fuffered confiderably. One half of
the fteeple of the cathedral was beaten to the ground.
I he magazines of Porto Franco were likewife very
much ftiattered. The fort of St Salvator, being built
on an artificial foundation, the fide next the fea is
there fallen down ; but on the other fide, where it is'
3 G 2 founded
MET [ 420 ] MET
Meffma founded on a rock, it has Hood unmoved by all the
Metlcar- fll0cks oi the earthquake.
pUs. On the 5th of February, when the earthquake was
more violent than at any time afterwards, a Wrong
fmell of fulphur was felt. The earth was affefted
fomewhat in the fame way as if it had been borne up¬
on a fluid ; and feemed to reel with the fhocks much
likd a fhip tofled with the waves. This tremulous
motion was felt all over Sicily ; but towards Pharo
it became weaker. On the following days the fky
was cloudy ; the mountains of Sicily and the fhores of
Calabria continued covered with a thick fog like fmoke.
North and north-eaft winds raged with the molt vio¬
lent impetuofity.
The difaftrous year of this earthquake was fcarce
concluded, the chafms which it had opened in the
ground were ftill yawning, and the poor inhabitants
of the adjacent country ftill trembled with terror, when
the elements again renewed their fury to ravage this
miferable land.
On Tuefday the 6th of January 1784, about fun-
rife, the wind began to blow foftly from the north-
eaft. The fea gradually fwelled, rofe beyond its bed
with rapid impetuofity, overflowed the quay of Mef-
fina, and lafhed with its billows the ruins of the Pa-
lazzata. It loofened and difplaced many of the ftones
of the mole, fpread over the whole ftreet, and attack¬
ed the pedeftals of the ftatues which had been fpared
by the earthquake, and ftill flood firm among the ruins.
The fame furious wind which fwelled the fea in fo ex¬
traordinary a manner, ravaged the whole coaft from
Meflina all the way to Syracufe.
MESSUAGE, Messuagium, in law, a dwelling-
houfe, with fome land adjoining affigned for its ufe.
By the name of mejfuage may a garden, fhop, mill,
cottage, chamber, cellar, or the like, pafs.—In Scot¬
land, denotes what is called in England the manor
^o«/e, viz.the principaldwelling-houfe within any barony.
MESOPORPHYRON, a name given by the
Greeks to the Roman laticlave ; becaufe that garment,
being edged on each fide, where it opened before, with
purple, appeared when clofed with two purple ftripes
down the middle. The fame term was alfo applied to
the angujliclave.
MET A, in the Roman circus, was a pile of ftones
of a pyramidical form, intended as a boundary of the
Jladium, or chariot-courfe.—-When the meta was paffed
the feventh time, the race was concluded. The greateft
art and management were required in avoiding the
meta, and yet going as near it as poflible. If they
went too near, they were in the greateft danger of
breaking the chariot to pieces ; and if they took too
large a circuit in the turn, they gave their rivals an
opportunity of getting within them,*' befides lofing a
great deal of ground. The boundary of the Grecian
jtadiumy or courfe, was called rsyor, ypxw and
<vifK to which laft name Horace probably al¬
ludes in calling death, “ ultima linea rerum.”
The mete at Rome were firft of wood, afterwards
of ftone y but the emperor Claudius made them of
gold, or rather gilded them. In the Roman circus
there were two mete, one at the entrance of the courfe,
and the other at the end of it. An egg was placed
upon the top of the mete.
METACARPUS, or Metacarpium, (from
behind, and ''“P»"’<•, hand), in anatomy, that part of the
hand between the wrift and the fingers. See Ana- n'on>
TOMY, n^ 55. Metal. ^
METAG1TNION, the fecond month of the Athe- "'lP
nian year, anfwering to the latter part of our July and
the beginning of Auguft, and fo called from mete^tte/u,
a feftival in honour of Apollo, which was kept in it.
The Boeotians called this month panemus, and the Sy-
racufans, carnius.
METAL, in natural hiftory, a fimple, ponderous,
finning, fixed, opake body, that fufes and becomes
fluid by fire, and by cold coagulates and hardens into
a folid mafs, capable of being dillended under the
hammer. See Metallurgy, and Chemistry.
Metal, in heraldry. There are two metals ufed in
heraldry, by way of colours, viz. gold and iilver, in
blazon called or and argent.
In the common painting of arms thefe metals are
reprefented by white and yellow, which are the natu¬
ral colours of thofe metals. In engraving, gold is.
exprefled by dotting the coat, &c. all over; and fil-
ver, by leaving it quite blank.
It is a general rule in heraldry, never to place me¬
tal upon metal, nor colour upon colour : fo that if the
field be of one of the metals, the bearing muft be of
fome colour; and if the field be of,any colour, the
bearing muft be one of the metals.
Metals, Solution of. See Ch em 1 stky-Index.
On this fubjeft Mr Keir has fome curious obferva-
tions in the Philofophical Tranfadlions for 1790. He
takes notice, that the word folution has two meanings
one expreflive of the ail of diflblving, as when we fay
that “ folution is a chemical operation and the
other, when it is put for the fubftance diflblved in the
acid, as “ a folution of filver in the nitrous acid.” To
avoid confufion, therefore, he ufes the word folution to.
exprefs the fubftance diflblved, together with its fol-
vent; dffolution being the term made ufe of when the
a& of diflblving is meant. He continues the ufe of
the terras phlogijlicated and dephlogifticated to exprefs
certain ftates of the acids, but without reference to.
theory of any kind.
In diflblving metals, our author obferves, that the
properties of the feveral acids have been inveftigated:
with confiderable fuccefs; and even one compound,
viz. that of fpirit of nitre and fpirit of fait, commonly
called aqua regis, is well known on account of its qua¬
lity of diflblving gold. A vaft field, however, yet re¬
mains for examination in the other acids, whether mix¬
ed together, or poffeffing various degrees of concen¬
tration, temperature, or phlogiftication. Thus, tho’
no two fubftances are more frequently in the hands of
chemifts than vitriolic acid and nitre, yet the proper¬
ties of the mixture had not been inveftigated before
Mr Keir made his experiments ; and upon trial he
found, that this mixture polfelTed certain properties
which neither the vitriolic nor nitrous acids fingly pof-
fefs. The refults of his experiments on this fubjedfc
are as follow.
1. In a long-necked retort containing 1400 grain;
meafures,. 100 grains of oil of vitriol of the fpecific
gravity of 1.844 were put along with 10c grains of
pure nitre, and the fait diflblved in the acid by means
of a water-bath. On applying a boiling heat, the filver
began to difiblve* and the folution aflumed a purple
os
Meta!.
Met*!.
MET [42
or violet colour; but no air was extricated. An end
was put to the operation (by the rufhing in of the
water ufed in the pneumatic apparatus applied to the
retort) when 39 grains of iilver had been diffolved.
2. To 100 grains of nitre previoufly diflblved in an
equal quantity of vitriolic acid, 200 grains of llan-
dard filver were added; of which 92 grains were dif¬
folved without the production of any air or gas : but
upon pouring in 200 grains of water into the retort,
a violent effervefcence took place, and 3100 meafures
of nitrous gas were thrown off; and on adding 200
grains more, a farther emiffion of 600 grain meafures
erifued ; but no more was emitted on the addition of
more water, nor did any farther difiblution of the
metal take place than two grains. The fame pheno¬
mena took place in various proportions, according to
the different quantities of acid and metal made ufe of.
On fubftituting tin for filver, none of the metal was
diffolved or calcined by mixtures in the proportion of
200 grain meafures of oil of vitriol to as much nitre, nor
by 260 of the vitriolic acid to 150 of nitre : but with
a proportion of 200 meafures of the acid to too grains
of nitre, the tin foon began to be afted upon, and
diffufed through the liquor; but no gas was extrica¬
ted till the digeftion had been continued in boiling
water for two hours. The tin was ftill only calcined,
not diffolved; 8500 grain meafures of nitrous gas were
extricated, and 73 grains of the metal reduced to a
white powder. On pouring into the retort 200 grains
of frelh water, a new effervefcence took place betwixt
the water and white powder, by which 4600 grain
meafures of nitrous gas were thrown off. The aftion
of the menftruum was greatly promoted by augment¬
ing the quantity of oil of vitriol, and adding water to
the mixture.
By this mixture quickfilver was calcined to a grey
powder, nickel was alfo partly calcined and partly
diffolved ; but no other metal was much affefted, tho’
the furfaces of fome of them were tarnifhed. The
mixtures themfelves were very apt to congeal, efpe-
cially where there was a large proportion of nitre ;
and their properties are much altered by the addition
of water. Thus, in their concentrated ftate, they do
not a6l upon iron ; but by adding water, it acquires
the property of a&ing upon that metal, and in dif¬
ferent degrees according to the quantity of water ad¬
ded. Thus, by adding two meafures of the compound
acid to one of water, the liquor is rendered capable
of calcining iron, and forming with it a white pow¬
der, but without any effervefcence. An equal mea-
fure of water produces effervefcence; and with a larger
proportion of water the iron acquires a yellow or
brown colour, fuch as phlogifticated nitrous acid ac¬
quires from iron, or communicates to a folution of
martial vitriol in water. Dilution with water renders
this compound acid capable of diffolving copper and
zinc, neither of which it will touch in its concentra-
tfed ftate.
From this property of the compound acid not dif-
(blving copper, but very readily lilver, we have an
eafy method of feparating the two metals from each
other. This might be ufeful in many cafes; but is
particularly fo in Birmingham, where great numbers
of copper veffels covered with filver are manufactured.
Thus there are always a great number of cuttings or
i J MET
fmall bits called fcraps, which are of no ufe but to fe-
parate the two metals from one another. The eafieft
method of doing this is an obje<?t of fome confequence.
Two methods have been generally pra&ifed for this
purpofe : one is by melting the whole mafs ef metal
with lead, and feparating them by means of eliqua-
tion and telling ; the other is by diffolving both me¬
tals in vitriolic acid, and then feparating the folution
of copper from the vitriol of filver. The difadvan-
tage of the former method is, the quantity of lead
and copper wafted; and of the latter, that of vitriolic
acid. The virtues of a mixture of oil of vitriol and
nitre were fome time ago communicated by Mr Keir
to an artift at Birmingham ; and it is now generally ufed
there to effeCl the ftparation of the two metals. The
method of ufing it is very eafy ; nothing more being re-
quifite than to put the pieces of plated metal into a
glazed earthen pan, and to pour upon them fome of the
acid liquor, which may contain about one pound of
nitre to eight or ten of oil of vitriol. Stir them about,
and aflift the axftiou by an heat from xco to 200 of Fah¬
renheit’s fcale. When the liquor is nearly faturated*
the fdver may be precipitated in the form of luna cor¬
nea by common fait; or it may be obtained in its
metallic form by adding to the liquor fome pieces of
copper, and as much water as will enable it-to a&.
upon them. He is of opinion, that the menftruum
may be ufeful in all reparations of filver from other
metals. The name he feems to wifh to impofe upon
it is aqua reglna. The following are the concluftons
drawn from the experiments on thefe mixtures by our
author.
1. A mixture of the vitriolic and nitrous acids dif-
folves filver plentifully.
2. It afts upon tin, and moftly calcines it, as well as-
mercury and nickel; having little or no a£lion upon
other metals.
3. The quantity of gas produced while the metal
is diffolving, is greater, relatively to the quantity of
the metal diffolved, when the proportion of nitre to
the vitriolic acid is fmall, than when it is large ; and-
when the metals are diffolved by mixtures containing
much nitre with a fmall produdtion of gas, the folu¬
tion itfelf, or the metallic fait formed in it, yields
abundance of gas when mixed with water.
4. Dilution with water renders the concentrated
mixture lefs capable of diffolving filver,. but more fo-
of adling upon other metals.
5. This mixture of highly concentrated vitriolic
and nitrous acids, acquires a purple or violet colour
when phlogifticated, either by the addition of inflam-
mable fubftances as fulphur, or by its adlion on me¬
tals, or by very ftrong impregnation of oil of vitriol;
with nitrous gas.
6. By means of this phlogiftication the mixture ac¬
quired a property of diuolving, though in fmall quan¬
tities, copper,, iron, zinc, and regulus of cobalt.
7- Water expels a vaft quantity of nitrous gas from,
a concentrated mixture of vitriolic acid and nitre im¬
pregnated with it; but this fluid unites with a mix¬
ture of oil of vitriol and nitre without any confide-
rable effervefcence.
By adding to the mixture of oil of. vitriol and nitre
a folution of common fait, a very powerful aqua regn
is formed, capable of diffolving gold and platina ; and,
which**
MET [ 422 ] MET
which, though perfe&ly free from all metallic matter, METALEPSIS. See Oratory, n9 59. "MeraleplK
acquires at once a deep yellow colour. Dry common METALLISATION, the natural procefs by Metailifa*
fait added to the concentrated mixture produces an ef- which metals are formed in the bowels of the earth. tl0-‘' .
fervefcence, but no yellow colour. See Metallurgy, fe&. i.
METALLURGY.
METALLURGY,acccfdingtoBoerhaave,com- tion of the ores themfelvesTeemed likewife neceflary
prehends the whole art of working metals, from to be given ; and to this place, too, we have refer-
the glebe or ore to the utenfil; in which fenfe effay- red a general account of metals, metallifation, mines,
ing, fmelting, refining, parting, fmithery, gilding, and ores, as a proper introdu&ion to the fubjedL
&c. are only branches of metallurgy. But, in the Hence the following divifion'into three parts. The
prefent work. Gilding, Parting, Purifying, Refining, JirJl treating, 1. Of metals and metallifation. 2. Of
Smithery, &c. are treated under their proper names, mines and ores in general. 3. Of the pyrites. 4. Of
With others, therefore, we have chofen to reftrain the eflaying of ores in general. The/ereW, Of the par-
Metallurgy to thofe operations required to feparate ticular ores, and the methods of eflaying them. The
metals from their ores for the ufes of life. Thefe opera- third. Of fmelting of ores, or the methods of ex-
tions are of two kinds : the fmaller, or Eflaying; and tracing metals from large quantities of ores for the
the larger, or Smelting. But a particular defcrip- purpofes of commerce or manufadure.
P A R. T I.
Sect. I. Of Metcils and Metallifation.
UNDER the general name metal, we comprehend
here not only the metals properly fo called, but
alfo the femimetals, or all matters which have the ef-
fential metallic properties which we fliall here recount.
Thus the word metal and metallic fubjlance will be fy*
nonymous in this article.
Metallic fubftances form a clafs of bodies, not very
numerous, of very great importance in chemiftry, me¬
dicine, arts, and the ordinary affairs of life. Thefe
fubftances have very peculiar properties, by which they
differ from all other bodies.
The natural bodies from which metals differ the leaft
are, earthy and pyritous matters, on account of their
folidity and denfity. Metals and ftones are, neverthe-
lefs, very different; the heavieft ftones which are un-
metallic being much lighter than the lighteft metals.
A cubic foot of marble weighs 252 pounds ; and an
equal bulk of tin, the lighteft of metals, weighs 516
pounds. The difference is much greater when the
weight of fuch ftone is compared with that of gold,
a cubic foot of which is 1326 pounds.
Opacity is another quality which metals poffefs emi¬
nently, the opacity of metals being much greater than
that of any unmetallic fubftance.
This great opacity of metals is a confequence of their
denfity; and thefe two properties produce a third, pe¬
culiar alfo to metals, namely, a capacity of refle&ing
much more light than any other body ; hence metals
whofe furfaces are polilhed, form mirrors reprefenting
the images of bodies more clearly than any other
matter. Thus looking-glaffes produce their refleftion
merely by the filvering, which is a covering of
metal upon their furfaces. To this refleftive proper¬
ty metals owe their peculiar lultre, called the metallic
lujlre.
Although the feveral metallic fubftances differ con-
f derably in hardnefs and fufibility, we may fay in ge¬
neral, that they are lefs hard and lefs fufible than .pure
earths.
Metals cannot unite with any earthy fubftance, not
even with their own earths, when thefe are deprive#
of their metallic ftate : hence, when they aare melted,
they naturally run into globes, as much as the abfo-
lute gravity of their mafs, and their preffure upon the
containing veffels, will allow. Accordingly, the fur-
face of a metal in fufion is always convex. A metal in
that ftate always endeavours to acquire a fpherical form,
which it does more perfectly as the mafs is lefs. This
effeft is very fenfible in quickfilver, which is nothing
but a metal habitually fluid or fufed. A mafs of feve¬
ral pounds of mercury, contained in a ftiallow wide¬
mouthed veflel, is fo fpread out, that its upper furface
is almoft flat, and the convexity is not very fenfible
but at its circumference-: on the contrary, if we put
very fmall maffes of 'mercury into the fame veffel, as,
for inftance, maffes weighing a grain each, they be¬
come fo round as to feem perfedf globes. This effeft
is partly occafioned by the inapitude of metals to unite
with the veffels containing them when in fufion, by
which qualitythe whole affinity which fubfifts betwixt
the integrant parts of thefe metals is capable of aft ing;
and partly alfo by this affinity, which difpofes the in¬
tegrant parts to come as near to each other as they
Can, and confequently to form a fphere.
This property is not peculiar to melted metals, but
to all fluids, when contiguous to bodies folid or fluid,
with which they have no tendency to unite. Thus,
for inftance, maffes of water upon oily bodies, or oily
maffes upon bodies moiftened with water, affume al¬
ways a form fo much nearer to the fpherical as they
are fmaller. Even a large drop of oil poured upon a
watery liquor, fo that it fliall be furrounded with this
liquor, becomes a perfeft fphere.
All metals are in general foluble by all acids; but
often thefe folutions require particular treatment and
circumftances,which arementioned under Chemistry.
With acids, they form a kind of neutral falls, which
have
Scrl. I. METAL
Of Metal- have all’more or lefs caufticity. The affinity of me-
litatian. ta2s ;s }efs than of abforbent earths and alkaline falts
^ v^" to acids; and therefore any metal may be feparated
from any acid by- thefe fubftanees.
Alkaline falts are capable of a&ing upon all .metallic
fubltances, and by'proper management will keep them
diffolved.
Metals may in general be united with fulphur and
liver of fulphur. Vvlth fulphur they form compounds
refembling the peculiar fubflance of ores, which are
generally nothing elfe than natural combinations of
fulphur and metal. Metals have lefs affinity with ful¬
phur than with acids ; hence fulphur may be fepara¬
ted from them by acids. Some exceptions from thefe
general rules, concerning the affinity of metals to ful¬
phur and liver of fulphur, and concerning their fepara-
tion from fu'lphur by acids, may be feen under the ar¬
ticles of the feveral metals. 13 ut thefe exceptions do
probably take place, only becaufe we have not yet
found the method of furmounting fome obftacles which
occur in the ordinary methods of treating certain me¬
tals.
All metals may in general be united with each other,
with which they form different allays whkth have pe¬
culiar properties; but this rule alfo is not without
fome exceptions.
Metals have a ftrong affinity with the inflammable
principle, and are capable of receiving it fuperabun-
dantly.
Laftly, oily fubflances ftem to be capable of afting
upon all metals. Some metals are eafily and copiouf-
ly difl’olved by oils; and perhaps they might all' be
found to be entirely foluble in oils, if the methods
known in ehemiflry were tried for the accomplifhment
©f thefe folutions.
The properties above mentioned agree in general to
all metallic fubftances : but, befides the properties pe¬
culiar to each metal, fome properties are common to
a certain number of them ; and hence they have been
divided into feveral clafles.
Thofe metallic matters which, when ftruck by a
hammer, or ftrongly compreffed, are extended, length¬
ened, and flattened, without being broken (which
property is called duSHity or malleability'), and which
alfo remain fixed in the moft violent and long conti-
mied fire, without diminution of weight, or other fen-
fible alteration, are called perfect metals. Thefe per¬
fect metals are three ; gold,Jilver, platina.
The metallic matters which are du&ile and fixed in
the fire, to a certain degree, but which are defiroyed
by the continued aftion of fire, that is, changed into
an earth deprived of all the charafteriitic properties of
metals, are called imperfed metals. Of this kind are
four \ copper, iron, tin, lead.
The metallic fubftances which, as well as the im-
perfeft metals, lofe their metallic properties by expo-
fure to fire, but which alfo have no dudtility nor fixi¬
ty, are diftinguifhed from the others by the name of
Jemi-metals. Of this clafs are feven ; regains of anti¬
mony, bifmuth, seine, nickel, regains of cobalt, regains of
arfenic, and of manganefe.
Laftly, mercury, which has all the general proper¬
ties of metals, makes a clafs feparate from the others;
becaufe in purity and gravity it is funilar to the per-
L IT R G Y. 423
feft metals, and in volatility to the femi metals. Its Of Metal-
fufibility alfo To far furpafles that of any other metallic ITition.
matter, that it is fufficient to diftinguiffi it from all, ~ ^
and to give it a diftinft clafs. We have enumerated,
therefore, in all, 15 metallic fubftances; four of which
were unknown to the ancients, namely, platina, re¬
gains of cobalt, of manganefe, and nickel.
As chemifts can compound bodies by being ca¬
pable of feparating the principles of fuch bodies,
and even of re-uniting their principles fo as to repro¬
duce fuch compounds as they were originally ; and as
hitherto they have not been able to accomplifh any
fuch decompofition upon the perfect metals: hence, if
all the other metallic fubftances were equally unalter¬
able, we ffiould be very far from having certain notions^
concerning metals in general: but if we except gold,
filver, and platina, all the other metallic matters are-
iufceptible of decompofition and of recompofition, at
leaft to a certain degree ; and experiments of this kind
have thrown much light on the fubjeft.
We may obferve, that even if we had not been
able to decompofe any metallic fubftance, we might
ftill, by reflecting on the eflential properties of me¬
tals, difeover fufficiently well the nature of their
principles.
The folidity, the confiftence, and efpecially the gra¬
vity, which they poflefs in a degree fo fuperior to all
other bodies, would not have allowed us to doubt that
the earthy element, of which thefe are the charafteri-
ftical properties, enters largely into their compofttion,
and makes their bafis.
The facility with which they combine with almoft
all inflammable matters, ind with all thofe which have
great affinity with phlogifton, fuch as acids ; joined to
their incapacity of being allayed with meagre matters
that are purely earthy or purely watery, which have
no difpofition to unite with phlogifton ; would alfo
have furniffied veiy ftrong motives to believe, that the
inflammable principle enters largely into the compo-,
fition of metals.
The deftruftible metals prefent exactly the fame
phenomena as all other bodies containing the inflam¬
mable principle do, in the ftate of combuftion. When
expofed to fire, without accefs of air, that is, in clofe
veflels, they become red-hot, melt, or fublime, accord¬
ing to their nature : but they receive no alteration in
their compofition from fire applied in this manner, and .
they are afterwards found to be exaftly in the fame
ftate as before. In this refpeft, they refemble perfectly
all bodies which contain no other inflammable matter
than pure phlogifton.
But when imperfeeft metals are expofed to fire, with
accefs of air, as, for inftance, under a muffle in a fur¬
nace which is made very hot, then they burn more on
lefs fenfibly, as their inflammable principle is more or
lefs abundant, or more or lefscombined. Some of them,!
as iron and zinc, burn with a very lively and brilliant
flame; but this flame is of the fame nature as that of
charcoal, of fulphur, ©f all bodies, the combuftible
principle of which is pure phlogifton, and is not in aa
oily ftate, that is, furnifties no foot capable of black¬
ening.
The imperfeft metals detonate with nitre, and
their phlogifton is confurned by this method much
4*4 METAL
^/ifatlon^* n',orc quickly and completely than by ordinary cal-
« cination or combuftion. Their flame is alfo much
more lively and brilliant: and fome of them, as iron
and zinc, aie ufed in compofitions for fireworks from
their very vivid and beautiful flame.
Nitre is alkalifed by thefe metallic detonations ex-
aftly in the fame manner as in its detonation by
coals.
Laftly, imperfeft metals being treated with acids
which have an affinity with phlogifton, that is, with
the vitriolic and nitrous acids, are deprived by thefe
acids of a more or lefs confiderable part of their in¬
flammable principle ; they give a fulphureous quality
to vitriolic acid, and are even capable of producing
fulphur with that acid.
Although the experiments now mentioned were the
only proofs of the exiftence of an inflammable principle
in metallic fubftances, they would be fufficient to
eftabliih it inconteftably. But we ftrall fee, when we
continue to examine the phenomena attending the de-
compofition of metals, that thofe are not the only
proofs.
If the inflammable matter which (hows itfelf fo evi¬
dently in the burning of metals, is really one of their
conftituent parts, their efiential properties mull be al¬
tered in proportion to the quantity of it taken from
ihem : and this evidently happens upon trial: for the
refiduum of metallic matters, after calcination, departs
from the metallic chara&er, and approaches to the na¬
ture of mere earth. The opacity, brilliancy, du&ility,
gravity, fufibility, volatility, in a word, all the pro¬
perties by which metallic fubftances differ from Ample
earths, diminifti or entirely difappear, by taking from
them their inflammable principle ; fo that when their
calcination has been carried as far as is poffible, they
refemble mere earths, and have no longer any thing in
common with metals. Thefe earths can no longer be
combined with acids or with metals, but are capable of
uniting with pure earths. They are then called calxes
or metallic earths. See Chemistry.
We muft obferve concerning the decompofition of
metals, i. That when a fmall quantity of inflammable
principle is taken from me tab, only a fmall quantity
of calx is formed, and the remaining part continues in
the metallic ftate : hence, as the portion of calcined
matter can no longer remain united with that which
is deftroyed, it feparates in form of fcales from the
furface of the metal when the calcination has been
performed without fufion, as generally happens to iron
• nd to copper : or thefe fcales float upon the furface
of the melted matter when the calcination is perform¬
ed during fufion, becaufe the calx is fpecifically light¬
er than the metal; as happens to the very fufible me¬
tals, as tin, lead, and moft of the femimetals.
2. The imperfedf metals are not all equally eafily
and completely calcinable. In general, as much of
their phlogffton may be eafily taken from them, as is
fufficient to deprive them of their metallic properties;
but the remaining portion of their phlogifton cannot
he fo eafily driven off. Some of them, as copper,
refill the firft calcination more than the reft ; and
others, as lead and bifmuth, may be very eafily calci¬
ned, but only to a certain degree, and retain always
obftinately the laft portions of their inflammable prin¬
ciple ; laftly, others, as tin and regulus of antimony,
N° 211.
L U R G Y. Part 1.
may not only be eafily and quickly calcined, but alfo Of Metal,
much more completely. AH the other metals partake Jlfation.
more or lefs of thefe properties relating to their calci- ^
nation In general, if we except the labours of al-
chemifts, which are not much to be depended upon,
we have not yet made all the proper efforts to arrive at
a perfeft calcination of the feveral metallic fubfhmces;
which, however, is abfolutely neceffary, before we can
arrive at a complete knowledge of the nature of their
earths, as we ftiall afterwards fee.
When metallic earths have loft but little of their
phlogifton, and are expofed to ftrong fire, they melt,
and are reduced to compa& maffes, ftill heavy and
opakf; although much lefs fo than the metals, and al¬
ways brittle and abfolutely unmalleable. If the calci¬
nation has been more perfeft, the metallic earths are
ftill fufible by fire, but lefs eafily, and convertible into
brittle and tranfparent maffes poffeffed of all the pro¬
perties of glafs, and are accordingly called metallic
glares. Thefe glaffes do not poffefs any of the pro¬
perties of their metals, excepting that they are fpeci¬
fically heavier than other glaffes, that they are capable
of being attacked by acids, and that the glaffes of the
femimetals are fomewhat lefs fixed than unmetallic
glaffes. Laftly, when the calcination of metals has
been carried to its greateft height, their earths are ab¬
folutely fixed, and unfufible in the fire of our furnaces,
and poffefs no longer the folubility in acids by which
metals are charadlerifed.
Thefe are the principal changes which metals fuffer
by lofing their phlogifton. They are thus changed
into fubftances which have no properties but thofe of
earth. This is a certain proof that the inflammable
principle is one of their conttituent parts. But we have
alfo other proofs of this important truth. The reduc¬
tion of metallic calxes into metal, by the addition of
phlogifton alone, completes the proof; and the whole
forms one of the cleareft and moft fatisfaftory demon-
ftrations in all the fciences. This reduction is effec¬
ted in the following manner :
If the earth of a metal be mixed with any inflam¬
mable matter, which either is or can be changed into
the ftate of coal, together with fome fait capable of
facilitating fufion, but which, from its quantity or qua¬
lity, is incapable of receiving the inflammable principle ;
and if the whole be put into a crucible, and the fufion
promoted by a fire gradually raifed; then an efferve-
fcence will happen, accompanied with a hilling noife,
which continues a certain time, during which the fire
is not to be increafed ; afterwards, when the whole has
been well fufed, and the crucible taken from the fire
and cooled, w'e ftiall find at the bottom, upon break¬
ing it, the metal, the earth of which was employed for
the operation, poffeffed of all the properties which it
had before calcination and reduction.
We cannot doubt that this transformation of an
earthy fubftance into a metal, is folely caufed by
the phlogifton palling from the inflammable matter to
the metallic earth. For, firft, in whatever manner and
with whatever fubftance metallic earths be treated,
they cannot be ever reduced into metals without a con¬
currence of fome fubftance containing phlogifton.
2dly, The nature of the fubftance which is to furnilh
phlogifton is quite indifferent, becaufe this principle is
the fame in all bodies containing it. 3dly, If, after
Sea. r. META I.
of the operation, the fubfiance furnifltmg the phlogifton
lifation, by examined, we fhall find that it has loft as much of
, J * that principle as the metallic earth has received. See
Phlogiston.
The fafts related concerning the decompofition and
the recompofition of metals, prove inconteftably that
they are all compofed of earth and phlogifton. But
we do not yet certainly know whether thefe two be
the only principles of metals.. We might affirm this,
if we could produce metals by combining phlogifton
with fome matter which is certainly known to be Ample
• earth. But this hitherto has not been accompliffied;
For if we try to treat any earth, which has never been
metallic, with inflammable matters, we lhall perceive
that the Ample earths are not combinable with phlogi¬
fton fo as to form metals. We ffiall even perceive that
the metallic earths refill this combination, and are in¬
capable of reduction into metal, when they have been
fo much calcined as very nearly to approximate the na¬
ture of Ample earths.
Thefe confiderations, added to this, that we cannot
eafily conceive how, from only two certain principles,
fo many very different compounds as the feveral me¬
tallic fubftances are, ffiould refult, are capable of indu¬
cing a belief that fome other principle is added to thefe
two already mentioned in the compofition of metals.
Many great chemifts, and particularly Becher and
Stahl, feem to be of this opinion. Chiefly from the
experiments concerning the mercurification of metals,
they believe that this third principle exifts copioufly
in mercury ; that it is of a mercurial nature ; that it
alfo exifts in marine acid, to which it gives its fpecific
character; that, by excradling this mercurial principle
from marine acid, or any other body containing it co¬
pioufly, and by combining it with Ample earths, thefe
may acquire a metallic charadler, and be rendered cap¬
able of receiving phlogifton, and of being completely
metallifed.
Thefe chemifts admit alfo, and with probability, a
different proportion of metallic principles in the feve¬
ral metals; and believe, that particularly the principle
which they call mercurial earthy exifts more copioufly
and fenfibly in certain metals than in others. The moft
mercurial metals, according to them, are mercury, fil-
ver, lead, and arfenic. Moft chemifts diftinguifti them
from the other metals, which they call white metahy
lunar metals, or mercurial metals.
All thefe confiderations being united, and others too
many to be mentioned, give fome probability to the
exiftence of the mercurial principle in metals. We mull
however acknowledge, that the exiftence of this prin¬
ciple is merely probable ; and, as Stahl obferves, is
. not nearly fo well demonftrated as that 6f the inflam¬
mable principle : we may even add, that we have ftrong
motives to doubt of its exiftence.
To produce metals artificially has juftly been reckon¬
ed one of the moll difficult problems in chemiftry.
Metallic fubftances, although they refemble each
other by their general properties, differ neverthelefs
from each other very evidently by the propel tjes pe-
ciuiar to each. Do thefe differences proceed from
the different proportion, and from the more or lefs in¬
timate connexion of the inflammable principle with
the earthy principle, fuppofing that this latter fhould
be effentially the fame in all metals ? or ought they to
-be attributed to the difference of earths, which in that
Vou XI. Part II.
L tr R G V. 4Ji
cafe would be'diftindt and peculiar to each metal ? or, Of Mml-
laftly, do metals differ from each other, both by the liUtlor- ,
nature of their earths, and by the proportion and in- ~ ' ^ '
timacy of connexion of their principles ? All thefe
things are entirely unknown j and we may eafily per¬
ceive, that till they are known, we cannot difeover
what method to purfue in our attempts to accomplifti
the combinations we are now treating of.
The moft effential point then is, to arrive at a know¬
ledge ofthe true nature of the earths which are in metals;
and the only method of atriving at this knowledge is,
by reducing them to their greateft fimplicity by a per-
fedl calcination. But this cannot be accomplilhed
but by long and difficult operations. We have feeu
above, that all metals are not calcinable with equal
eafe ; that the perfedl metals have not been hitherto
calcined truly by any procefs ; and that, in general, thb
laft portions of phlogifton adhere very ftrongly to cal¬
cinable metals. f
Some metals, however, as tin and regulus of anti¬
mony, may be eafily calcined fo as to be rendered irre¬
ducible. By carrying the calcination ftill further, we
might obtain their earths fo pure, that all their effen¬
tial properties maybe difeovered, by which they might
be eafily compared together. This companion would
decide whether their nature be effentially different or
not.
If they were found to be compofed of earths effen¬
tially the fame, we might next proceed to compare me¬
tallic with unmetallic earths. If the former were found
fimilar to fome of the latter kind, we fhould be then
affured that the earth of metals is not peculiar to them,
and that ordinary unmetallic earths are fufceptible of
metallifation. From fome late experiments, it was
imagined that lime and magnefia alba were capable of
being converted into metallic fubftances, but the pro-
ceffes are now found to be erroneous.
The greater the number of metals operated upon,
the more general and certain the confequences refult-
ing from thefe would be : fo that, for inftanee, if the
operation were extended to all calcinable metals; and
if the refult of each of thefe operations were, that the
calxes, when perfectly dephlogifticated, do not diffef
from each other, and are fimilar to earths already
known; we might conclude from analogy, and‘we ,
ftiould be almoft certain, that the earths of the perfect
metals are alfo of the fame nature.
They who know the extent and difficulties of che¬
mical operations, will eafily perceive that this would
be one of the moft; confiderable. Neverthelefs, after
having determined this effential point, we fhould only
have done half our work : For a knowledge of the
nature of the earth of metals, and where it is to be
found, would not be fufficient; we muft further en¬
deavour to find a method of combining with this earth
a fufficient quantity of phlogifton, and in a manner
fufficiently intimate, that a metal might be formed by
fuch a combination. But this fecond difficulty is per¬
haps greater than the former.
We muft obferve here, that fome famous chemical
proceffes have been confidered by many as metallifa-
tions, but which are really not fo. Such is Becher’s
famous experiment of the minera arenaria perpetua,
by which that chemift propofed to the States-General
to extraCt gold from any kind of fand. Such alfo is
the procefs of Becher and of Geoffroy, to obtain iiom
3 H from
426 METAL
OF Metal- from all clays"by treating them with L'nfeed oil in clofe
, llfotlon- veffels. In thefe, and many other fuch procefies, we
" only obtain metal that was already formed. Every
earth and fand, as the intelligent and judicious Cra¬
mmer obferves, contains fome particles of gold. Clays
do not commonly contain iron ready formed ; but all
of them contain a ferruginous earth, naturally dif-
pofed to metallifation. (See Clay.) Accordingly we
mull conclude, that, biy Mr Geoffroy’s experiment,
iron is only reduced or revived, but is not produced.
The great difficulties which occur in attempting to
give a metallic quality to iimple earths have induced
a belief, that the nature of metals ready formed
might be more eafily changed, and the lei's perfeil
brought to a more perfedl Hate. To effedt this",
which is one of the principal objects of alchemy, and
Is called tranfmutatioii, numberlefs trials have been
made- As we have not any certain knowledge of
what occafions the fpecific differences of metallic fub-
ftances, we cannot decide whether tranfmutation be
poffible or not. In faft, if each metallic fubftance
have its peculiar earth, effentially different from the
earths of the others, and confequently if the differ¬
ences of metals proceed from the differences of their
earths; then, as we cannot change the effential pro¬
perties of any fimple fubllance, tranfmutation of metals
muftbeimpoffible. Butif the earths and other principles
of metals be effentially the fame, if they be combined in
different proportions only, and more or lefs ftridfly
united, and if this be the only caufe of the fpecific
difference of metals; we then fee no impoffibility in
their tranfmutation.
Whatever be the caufe of the differences of metals,
their tranfmutation feems to be no lefs difficult than
the produftion of a new metallic fubftance ; and per¬
haps it is even more difficult. Alchemifts believe that
tranfmutafion is poffible, and they even affirm that
they have effedled it. They begin by fuppofing that
all metals are compofed of the fame principles ; and
that the imperftft metals do not differ from gold and
filver, but becaufe their principles are not fo well
combined, or becaufe they contain heterogeneous mat¬
ters. We have then only thefe two faults to remedy,
which, as they fay, may be done by a proper co&ion,
and by feparating the pure from the impure. As we
have but very vague and fuperficial notions concerning
the caufes of the differences of metals, we confefs that
we cannot make any reafonable conjefture upon this
matter; and we ftrall only advife thofe who would
proceed upon good principles, to determine previoufly,
if metals have each a peculiar earth, or only one com¬
mon to them all. In the fecond place, if it fhould be
demonftrated that the earthy principle is the fame in
all metals, and if that be demsnitrated as clearly as
the identity of the inflammable principle in metals is
proved ; they muff then determine whether thefe two
be the only principles in metals, whether the mercu¬
rial principle exifts, and whether it be effential to all
metals or to fome only, and what is the fp-oportion
of thefe two or three principles in the feveral metallic
fubftances. When we fhall clearly underftand thefe
principal objefts, we may then be able to determine
concerning the poffibility of tranfmutation ; and if the
poffibility ftiould be affirmed, we fhall then begin to
difcover the road which we ought to purfue.
L U R G Y. Pan I.
We have no reafen to believe that any other prin- Of Metal,
ciple enters into the compofition of metals than thofe hlation. ^
above-mentioned : no veftige is perceptible of either air v
or water. Some chemifls have neverthelefs advanced
that they contain a faline principle. If that were true,
they would alfo contain a watery principle. But
all the experiments adduced to prove this opinion are
either falfe, or only fhow the prefence of fome faline
particles extraneous to the metals, or contained un¬
known to the chemifts in the fubftances employed in
the experiments. For metals perfectly pure, fubjeft-
ed to all trials with fubftances which do not contain
and which cannot produce any thing faline, do not
difeover any faline property. We muft however
except arfcnic, and even its regulus, thefe being An¬
gular fubftances, in which the faline are as fenfible as
the metallic properties.
Arfenic feems to be one of thofe intermediate fub¬
ftances which nature has placed in almoft all its pro¬
ductions betwixt two different kinds, and which par¬
take of the properties of each kind. Arfenic thus placed
betwixt metallic and faline fubftances has properties
common to both thefe kinds of fubftances, without be¬
ing either entirely a metal or fait. See Arsenic.
As water feems to aft to a certain degree upon iron,
even without the concurrence of air, as the operation
of martial eibiops fliows, we might thence fufpeft
fomething faline in that metal. Neverthelefs, what
happens in that operation has not been fo well explain¬
ed, that any certain confequences can be deduced. *
i. The water employed ought to be perfeftly pure
that is, diftilled rain-water. 2. The iron employed
ought alfo to be perfeftly pure, and fuch is very diffi¬
cultly to be procured. 3. The operation ought to be
performed in a bottle accurately clofed, that we may
be affured that the air contributes nothing to the aftion
upon the iron. 4. After the water has remained a-
long time, fuppofe a year, upon the iron, it ought
to be carefully filtrated and examined, to afeer-
tain whether it really has diffolved any part of the
metal.
In the mean time, we may conclude that metals dev
hot feem to contain any faline principle. And when
we confider well their general properties, they feem
to be nothing elfe than earths combined more or lefs
intimately with a large quantity of phlogifton. Al¬
though we can demonftrate that their inflammable
principle is not in an oily ftate, and that it is pure
phlogifton, they have neverthelefs an oily appearance,,
in this circumftance, that they adhere' no more than
oils to earthy and aqueous fubftances, and that they
always affume a globular figure when fupported by
thefe fubftances entirely free from phlogifton.
This refemblance is fo fenfible, that chemifts, be¬
fore they knew the nature of phlogifton, believed that
metals contained an oily and fat matter. The caufe of
this quality of metals is the quantity of phlogifton
which they contain. Sulphur, phofphorus, oils, and
even fats, have this appearance merely from the in¬
flammable principle which enters into their compofi¬
tion : for this-property is communicated by that prin¬
ciple to every compound which contains a certain
quantity of it. See Phlogiston.
When the phlogifton combines copioufly and inti¬
mately with earthy matters fo as to form metals, it
8 probably
Sea I. METAL
Of Metal- probably fo difpoles them, that the primitive inte-
iifation. grant parts of the new compound, that is, of the
metal, approximate and touch each,other much more
than the integrant parts of iimple earths can. This
is proved by the great denfity or fpecific gravity, and
other general properties, of metals.
In fad, as we cannot conceive that a body fliould
be tranfparent, unlefs it have pores and interftices
through which rays of light can pafs ; therefore the
more denfe a body is, that is, the fewer fuch inter¬
ftices it has, the lefs tranfparent it will be ; fo that the
denfeft bodies ought to be the moft opaque as in metals.
The difpofition of the pores of bodies contributes alfo
touch to their greater or lefs tranfparency ; and bodies,
the pores of which are continued and ftraight, are
more tranfparent than thofe w’hofe pores are inter¬
rupted, tranfverfe, or oblique; fo that a body may
be much more tranfparent than another which is lefs
denfe, as we fee that glafs is more tranfparent than
charcoal. But when other circumftances are equal,
the denfeft bodies are the moft opaque. Therefore the
opacity of bodies is proportionable to their denfity,
and to the deviation of their pores from right and pa¬
rallel lines.
From the great opacity of metals, they probably
pofiefs both thefe qualities in an eminent degree. We
have feen, at the beginning of this article, that the
luftre of metals, and their property of refleding light
much better than any other fubftance, are necefi'ary
confequences of their opacity. This is alfo felf-evi-
dent, becaufe the fewer rays any body can tranfmit,
the more it muft refled.
Laftly, the dudility of metals proceeds alfo from
their denfity, from the difpofition of their pores, and
from the adion of latent heat; for even the moft
brittle bodies, fuch as glafs, fealing-wax, &c. become
dudile by heat. The foftnefs, fufibility, and volatility,
of which all metals partake more or lefs, and which
many of them poffefs in a fuperior degree, being pro¬
perties entirely contrary to thofe of the earthy prin-
•ciple, probably proceed from the inflammable prin¬
ciple.
The order in which metals compared with each
other poffefs moft eminently their principal properties,
is the fame as that in which they are here enumerated,
beginning always with that metal in which the pro¬
perty is moft confiderable.
1. Specific gravity or denjity. Platina, gold, mercury,
lead, filver, copper, iron, and tin.
2. Opacity. We cannot well compare metals with
each other in this refped, becaufe it is fo confiderable
in all, that it feems complete. If, however, they dif¬
fer in this icfped, the fame order will ferve for opacity
as for denfity.
3. Metallic lujlre or brilliancy. The fame obferva-
tion which was made concerning the laft mentioned
property is applicable to this alfo. We muft, how¬
ever, obferve, that as by polifh bodies are rendered
brighter, and that as whitenefs contributes much to
the reflexion of light, the whiteft and hardeft metals
therefore refled heft. Hence, according to Mr Mac-
quer, platina ought to be placed firft; and then iron,
or rather fteel, filver, gold, copper, tin, lead.
Hardnefs of metals may contribute much to the du¬
ration of their polifh; but certainly foft metals, if their
L U R G Y. 427
texture be equally compad, are no lefs capable of re- °f Metal-
ceiving a polifh than hard metals. Some hard metal- , i
lie allays have been found to be lefs liable to tarnifli
than fofter compounds, and have for this reafon alfo
been chiefly ufed for fpeculums. The property of rc-
fleding light feems chiefly to depend on the clofenefs
of the particles or on the denfity, on the fmoothnefs
of the furface, and on the colour being moft fimilar to
the colour of the light to be refleded. The white
metals, filver, mercury, tin, refled light more abun¬
dantly than others. Gold, being the denfeft metal next
to platina, and perhaps becaufe the, colour of folar
light has a flightly yellowifh tinge, does alfo refled
light very copioufly. Hence fpeculums made of leaf-
gold have been found to be very powerful. Iron or
fteel refleds much lefs light than any of the above-
mentioned metals, although Mr Macquer has confi-
dered it as capable of a greater refledive power. Pla¬
tina is generally in f® fmall grains, that its refledive
power cannot eaiily be determined. The precife de¬
grees of that power which ought to be afligned to
each of the above-mentioned metals, cannot without
accurate experiments be afeertained. Perhaps, how¬
ever, their refledive powers will be found to be more
nearly in the following order, than in that above men¬
tioned from Mr Macquer. Silver, quickfilver, tin,
gold, copper, iron, lead.
4. Ductility. Gold, filver, copper, iron, tin, lead.
The dudility of mercury and that of platina are not
yet determided.
5. Hardnefs. Iron, platina, copper, filver, gold, tin,
and lead.
6. Tenacity. By tenacity we underftand the force
with which the integrant parts of metals refift their
feparation. This force appears to be in a compound
ratio of their dudility and hardnefs. The compara¬
tive tenacity of metals is meafurtd by the weight
which wires of the fame diameter, made of the feveral
metals, can fuftain without breaking. Gold is the
moft tenacious; then iron, copper, filver, tin, lead.
The tenacity of mercury is unknown : that of pla¬
tina is not yet determined, but is probably confider¬
able.
7. Fufibility. Mercury, tin, lead, filver, gold, cop¬
per, iron, and laftly platina, which cannot be fufed by
the greateft fire of our furnaces, but only by the folar
focus, or by a fire excited by dephlogifticated air.
Sect. II. Of Mines and Ores in general.
The fubftances found naturally combined with me¬
tals in the earth, are, particularly, fulphur and arfenic,
fometimes feparately, but generally conjointly. Me¬
tals combined with thefe fubftances are called metals
mineralifed by fulphur, or by arfenic, or by fulphur and
arfenic; and thefe matters are called mineralfng fub¬
ftances.
Befides the fulphur and arfenic with which metals
are ftridly combined in the mineral ftate, they are alfo
pretty intimately combined with earthy fubftances, of
different natures, and more or lefs divided.
Thefe different matters united together form maffes
which are compact, heavy, brittle, and frequently pof-
feffed of much metallic luftre. Thefe fubftances are
properly called ores, or the matter of mines.
3 H 2
Theft
428 M E T A L
Of Mines Thefe ores are found in earths and ftones'of different
^and Ore. k;nc|s> as fancis, flints, cryftals, flates, indurated clays,
■ - v~“ according to the ground in which they are contained.
But two kinds of ilones in particular feem to accom¬
pany ores ; and have therefore been confidered by fe-
veral mineralogifts as matrixes in which metals are
formed. One of thefe Ilones is a kind of cryftal, ge¬
nerally white, milky, .and femi-opaque, flriking tire
with lleel, and of the clafs of vitrifiable earths. It is
called Quartz.
The other ftone is lefs hard, which does not {trike
fire with Heel, ^and is fometimes milky like quartz ;
fometimes tranfparent and of different colours, con¬
fiding of rhomboidal cryftals, which are compofed of
plates and faces. This ftone becomes more foft and
friable by being expofed to fire. It is called /par. Spar
is more like to gypfeous ftones than to any other, but
it differs from gypfeous ftones in pofieffing a much
greater denfity. Some fpars are fo heavy, that they
exceed in this refpeft all other ftones. See Spar.
Thefe earthy and ftony fubftances form the matrix of
the ore.
Ores are natural compounds, containing metals al¬
layed with different fubftances.
Excepting gold, and a very fmall quantity of each
of the other metals found in fome places fo pure as to
poffefs all their charadteriftic properties, nature exhi¬
bits to u§ metals and femimetals differently allayed not
only with each other, but alfo with feveral heteroge¬
neous fubftances, which fo alter and difguife their qua¬
lities, that in this ftate they cannot ferve for any of the
purpofes for which they are proper when they are fuf-
ficiently pure.
Ores confift, I. Of metallic fubftances calcined; or,
2. Of thefe fubftances combined with other matters,
with which they are faid to be mineralifecl.
Calcined metallic fubftances, or calciform ores, are
metallic fubftances deprived of phlogifton, and in the
ftate of a calx or metallic earth. Such are all ferru*
finous ochres, which are calces of iron.
Min^ralifed ores, are, 1. Simple, containing only one
metallic fubftance: or, 2. Compound, containing two or
more metallic fubftances.
Of the iimple, and alfo of the compound ores, four
kinds may be diftinguifhed.
1. Ores confifting of metallic fubftances mineralifed
by fulphur. Such is the lead-ore called galena, com¬
pofed of lead and fulphur.
2. Ores confifting of metallic fubftances mineralifed
by arfenic. Such is the white pyrites, containing iron
and arfenic.
3. Ores confifting of metallic fubftances mineralifed
by fulphur and by arfenic. Such is the red fiver-ore,
containing jilver, arfenic, and fulphur.
4. Ores confifting of metallic fubftances mineralifed
by fa line matters. Such are the native vitriols. Such
alfo is probably the corneous filver-ore, which, accord¬
ing to Mr Cronftedt’s opinion, is a luna cornea, or fil-
ver combined with marine acid. Of this kind of ores,
or native metallic falls, is perhaps the fedative fait of
borax, which from Mr Cadet’s experiments, publifhed
in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy for the year
1766, is conjeftured to be copper combined with ma¬
rine acid, and which has been faid to be found native,
To this clafs alfo may be referred Xktfiver mineralifed
L U R G Y. Parti.
by an alkaline fvhfance, which Mr Von Juft! pretends to Of Mm-*
have difeovered. awl Ore-%
Henckel, and after him Cramer, and the author Gf v"—^
the Dictionary of Chemiftry, pretend, that in minera¬
lifed ores, befides the above mentioned metallic and
mineralifing fubftances, are alfo contained a metallic
and an unmetallic earth. But Wallerius affirms, that,
the exiftence of fuch earths cannot be fhown, and that
fulphur is incapable of diffolving unmetallic earths, and
even the calces of all metallic fubftances, excepting
thofe of lead, bifmuth, and nickel.
Metals and metalliferous ores are found in various
places.
I. Under water; in beds of rivers, lakes, and feas,
and chiefly at the flexures of thefc : fuch are the au¬
riferous and ferrugineous fands, grains of native gold,
ochres, and fragments of ores wafhed from mines.
II. Diffolved in water: fuch are the vitriolic waters
containing iron, copper, or zinc.
III. Upon the furface of the earth. Such are many
ochres ; metalliferous ftones, fands, and clays; and
lumps of ores, Mr Gmelin fays, that in the northern
parts of Afia ores are almoft always found upon or
near the furface of the ground.
IV. Under the furface of the earth. When the quan¬
tity of thefe colle&ed in one place is confiderable, it is
called a mine.
Subterranean metals and ores are differently difpp-
fed in different places.
1. Some are infixed in fones and earths, forming no¬
dules or fpots diverfely coloured.
2. Some are equably and uniformly diffufed through
the fubfance of earths and fones, -to which they give co¬
lour, denfity, and other properties. Such are the
greateft part of thofe earths, ftones, fands, clays, exf-
itals, flints, gems, and fluors, which are coloured.
3. Some form frata in mountains. Such are the
flates containing pyrites, copper-ore, lead-ore, filver-
ore, or blend. Thefe lie in the fame dire&ion as the
flrata of ftones betwixt which they, are placed; but
they differ from the ordinary ftrata in this circum-
ftance, that the thicknefs of different parts of the fame
metalliferous ftratum is often very various; whereas the
thicknefs of the ftony ftrata is known to be generally
very uniform.
4. Fragments of ores are frequently found accumu¬
lated in certain fubtenanean cavities, in fiffures of
mountains, or interpofed betwixt the ftrata of the
earth. Thefe are loofe, unconneSed, frequently in¬
volved in clay, and not accreted to the contiguous
rocks or ftrata immediately, nor by intervention of
fpar or of quartz, as the ores found in veins are.
Tin and iron mines are frequently of the kind here de-
feribed.
5. Large entire maffes of ores are fometimes found
in the ftony ftrata of mountains. Thefe are improperly-
called cumulated veins, becaufe their length, relatively
to their breadth and depth, is not confiderable.
6. Some inflances are mentioned of entire mountains
confifting of ore. Such is the mountain Taberg in
S.moland ; and fuch are the mountains of Kerunavara
and Luofavara in Lapland, the former of which is *
1400 perches long and too perches broad. Thefe
mountains confift of iron-ore.
7. Laftly, and chiefly, metals and ores are found in
7. oblong
Sea. III. METALLURGY. 429.
Of Pyrites, oblong tra&s3-forming mp.fles called veins, which lie in of any regular form, the mafs of which appears evi- Of Pyrites..
~v  the ftony ilrata compoling mountains. See the article dently to be entire, that is, not to have been a frag- ^
Mine. ment of another mafs, and which is fo hard as to be
Sect. III. Of the Pyrites.
Pyrite is a mineral refembling the true ores of me¬
tals, in the fubftances of which it is compofed, in its
colour or luftre, in its great weight, and, lailly, in the
parts of the earth in which it is found, fmce it almoft
always accompanies ores. It is, like ores, compofed
of metallic fubftances, mineralized by fulphur or by
arfenic, or by both thefe matters, and of an unmetal-
lic earth intimately united with its other principles.
Notwithftanding the conformity of pyrites with ores
properly fo called, fome chemifts and rnetallurgifts di-
ftinguiih the former from the latter minerals; becaufe
the proportion and conne&ion of the materials compo-
fing the pyrites differ much from thofe of ores. Thus,
although fometimes pyrites contains more metal than
fome ores, yet generally it contains lefs metal, and a
larger quantity of mineraliling fubftances, fulphur and
arfenic, and particularly of unmetallic earth. The
connexion of thefe matters is alfo much ftronger in
pyrites than in ores, and they are accordingly much
harder; fo that almoft every pyrites can ftrike fparks
from fteel.
From the above property of ftriking fparks from
fteel, they have been called pyrites; which is a Greek
word fign ifyingfre-fune. Pyrites was formerly ufed
for fire-arms, as we now ufe flints; hence it was called
carabine-Jione. It is ftiil named by fome marcafte. Per¬
haps no other kind of natural body has received fo
many names. Perfons curious to know the other names
lefs ufed than thofe we have mentioned, may rind them
in Henckel's Pyritologia. We think, with that cele¬
brated chemift, that the fubjedf has been perplexed by
this multiplicity of names; for before his great and
excellent work, the notions concerning pyrites were
very confufed and inaccurate.
Pyrite differs alfo from ores by its forms and pofl,-
tions in the earth. Although pyritous metals generally
precede, accompany, and follow veins of ores; they do
not, properly fpeaking, themfelves form the oblong
and continued maffes called veins, as ores do;, but they
form maffes fometimes greater and fometimes fmaller,
but always diftintt from each other. Large quanti-
tie* of them are often found unaccompanied by ores.
They are formed in clays, chalk, marks, marbles, pla-
fters, alabafters, flates, fpars, quartz, granites, cryftals,
in a word, in all earths and ftones. Many of them are
alfo found in pit-coals and other bituminous matters.
Pyrites is alfo diftinguifhable from ores by its luftre
and figure; which is almoft always regular and uniform,
externally or internally, or both. Some ores indeed,
like thofe.of lead, many ores of filver, and fome others,
have regular forms, and are in fome manner cryftal-
lized; but this regularity of form is not fo univerfal
and fo confpicuous in ores as in pyrites. The luftre
of pyrites feems to be caufed by its hardnefs, and the
regularity of its form by the quantity of mineralifing
fubftances which it contains.
By all thefe marks we may eafily, and without anal
lyfis, diftinguifli pyrites from true ores. When we fee
a.mineral that is heavy, pofleffed of metallic luftre, and
capable of ftriking fparks from fteel, we may be affu-
red that fuch a mineral is a pyrites, and not an ore.
The clafs of pyrites is very numerous, various, and-
extenfive. They differ one from Mother in the nature
and proportions of their component parts, in their
forms, and in their colours. 'I he forms of thefc mi¬
nerals are exceedingly various. No folid, regular or.
irregular, can eafily be conceived, that is not perfeftly
imitated by fome kind of pyrites. They are fpheri-
cal, oval, cylindrical, pyramidal, prifmatical, cubi£;
they are fohds with 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, jo,'&c. rides. The-
furface of fome is angular, and confifts of many tjaks
of fmall pyramids; while their fubftance is compofed
of thefe pyramids, the points of . which all unite in the
centre of the maft.
Pyritous minerals differ alfo in their component fub¬
ftances. Some of them are called fulphureous, martial,
cupreous, arfenicai, as one or other of thefe fubftances
predominate. We mult obferve with Henckel, whofe.
authority is very great in this fubjed, that in general
all pyrites are martial; as ferruginous earth is the ef-
fential and fundamental part of every pyrites. This
earth is united with an unmetallic earth, with fulphur
or arfenic, or with both thefe matters ; in which cafe,
the fulphur always predominates over the arfenic, as
Henckel obferves. He confiders thefe as the only ef-
fential principles of pyrites ; and believes that all the
other matters, metallic or unmetallic, which are found
in it, are only accidental; amongft which he even in-.,
eludes copper, although fo much of it exifts in fome
kinds of pyrites, that thefe are treated as ores of cop¬
per, and fometimes contain even jolb. of copper each
quintal. Many other metals, even gold and iilver, are
fometimes combined in pyrites; but thefe are kfs fre¬
quent, and the precious metals always in very fmall
quantities; they are therefore juftly to be confidered as
accidental to pyrites. Hie different fubftances'compor
ring pyrites fenfibly affed its colours. Henckel di-
ftinguifhes them in general into three colours, white, _
yellowifh, or a pale yellow, and yellow. He informs
us, that thefe three colours are often fo blended one
with another, that they cannot be eafily diftinguiftred’
unlefs when compared together.
The white pyrites contain moft arfenic, and are fi-
milar to cobalt and other minerals abounding in arfe¬
nic. The Germans call them mifpickle, or mifpilt. Iron
and arfenic form the greateft part of this pyrites. As
arfenic has the property of whitening copper; fome
pyiitous minerals almoft white, like that of Chemnitz
in Mifnia, are found to contain 40 pounds of copper
per quintal, and which are fo much whitened by the
arfenic, that they are very like white pyrites. But
Henckel obferves, that thefe pyritous matters are very
rare, and are never lo white as the true white pyrites,,
which is only ferruginous, and arfenicai.
Yellowiih pyrites is chiefly compofed of fulphur and
iron. Very little copper and arfenic are mixed with .
any pyrites of this colour, and moft of them contain
none of thefe two metallic fubftances. This is the moft.
common kind of pyrites : it is to be found almoft every,
where, its forms are chiefly round, fpherical, oval*
flattened, cylindrical; tmd it is compofed internally of
ceeftles s
^ Q
fO
M E T A L L U R G Y.
Part f.
f t’yrites. needles or radii, which unite in the centre, or in the
‘—v   axis of the folid.
Yellow pyrites receives its colour from the copper
and fulphur which enter into its compofition. Its co¬
lour, however, is inclined to a green ; but is fufhciently
yellow to diltinguilh it from the other two kinds of
pyrites, particularly when they are compared together.
To make this comparifon well, the pyrites mull be
broken, and the internal furfaces mult be placed near
each other. The reafon of this precaution is, that the
colour of minerals is altered by expofure to the air.
Perfons accudomed to thefe minerals can eafdy di-
liinguilh them. The chief difficulty is, to diltinguilh
white pyrites from cobalt and other minerals ; which
alfo contain fome copper and much arfenic.
Hence then we fee, that arfenic is the caufe of white-
nefs in pyrites, and is contained in every pyrites of
that colour ; that copper is the principal caufe of the
yellow colour of pyrites; and that every pyrites which
is evidently yellow contains copper; that fulphur and
iron produce a pale-yellow colour, which is alfo pro¬
duced by copper and arfenic ; hence fome difficulty
may arife in diitinguiffiing pyrites by its colours. We
may alfo obferve, that fulphur and arfenic, without any
other fubkance, form a yellow compound, as we fee
'•from the example of orpiment or yellow ai fenic. Thus,
although the colours of the pyrites enable us to dixlin-
guiffi its different kinds, and to know their nature at
fir ft fight, particularly when we have been accuftomed
to obferve them ; yet we cannot be entirely certain
concerning the true nature of thefe minerals, and even
of all minerals in general; that is, to know precifely
the kinds and proportions of their component fub-
ftances, but by chemical analyfis and decompofition.
Befides the above-mentioned matters which com-
pofe pyrites, it alfo contains a confiderable quantity
of unmetallic earth ; that is, an earth which cannot
by any procefs be reduced to metal. Henckel, Cra¬
mer, and all thofe who have examined this matter,
mention this earth, and prove its exiftence.
We ought to obferve, that this earth is combined
with the other principles of the pyrites, and not mere¬
ly interpofed betwixt its parts. It mufl therefore be
diftinguifhed from other earthy and ftony matters mix¬
ed accidentally with pyrites, and which do not make
a part of the pyrites, fince they may be feparated by
mechanical means, and without decompofing that mi¬
neral: but the earth of which we now treat is inti¬
mately united with the other conftituent parts of the
pyrites, is even a conftituent part of pyrites, and ef-
fential to the exiftence of this mineral, and cannot be
feparated but by a total decompofition of it.
According to Hcnckel, this unmctallic earth a-
bounds much in the white pyrites, fiace he found
from the analyfes which he made, that the iron, which
is the only metal exifting in thefe pyrites, is only about
•s^th part of the fixed fubftance that remains after the
arfenic has been expelled by torrefaddon or fublima-
tion. « ,
A much larger quantity of iron is in the pale-yel¬
low pyrites, according to Henckel. The proportion
of iron is generally about 12 pounds to a quintal
of pyrites, and fometimes 50 or 60 pounds: this is
therefore called martial pyrites. It contains about
one-fourth of its weight of fulphur, and-fne reft is of fy
unmetallic earth. v
The quantity of unmetallic earth contained in the
yellow or cupreous pyrites, which are alfo martial,
lince, as we have obferved, iron is an eflential part of
every pyrites, has not yet been determined. They
probably contain fome of that earth, though perhaps
lefs of it than the others.
The nature of this unmetallic earth of pyrites has
not been well examined. Hcnckel thinks that it is an
earth difpofed already by nature to metallifation, but
not fufficiently elaborated to be confidered as a metal¬
lic earth. This opinion is not improbable ; but as
alum may be obtained from many pyrites, may we not
fufpedl that this unmetallic earth is of the nature of
the bafis of alum or argillaceous earth ? Perhaps alfo
this earth is different in different kinds of pyrites.
The fubjeft deferves to be well examined.
Although pyrites are not fo valuable as true ores,
becaufe in general it contains lefs metal, and but ex¬
ceedingly little of the precious metals; and becaufe its
metallic contents are fo difficult to be extra&ed, that,
excepting cupreous pyrites, which is calledrop-
per ore, it is not worked for the fake of the contain¬
ed metal; yet it is applied to other purpofes, and fur-
niffies us with many ufeful fubftances 5 for from it we
obtain all our gi een and blue vitriols, much fulphur,
arfenic, and orpiment. See the principal procejfes by
which thefe fubjlances are cxtraBed from pyrites, under the
fe&ion Smelting o/'Ores.
As all pyrites contain iron, and moft of them con*
tain alfo fulphur; as the pyrites moft frequently found
contains only thefe two fubftances with the unme¬
tallic earth ; and as iron and fulphur have a Angular
adlion upon each other when they are well mixed to¬
gether and moiftened ; hence many kinds of pyrites,
particularly thofe which contain only the principles
now mentioned, fuftain a fingular alteration, and even
a total decompofition, when expofed during a certain
time to the combined aftion of air and water. The
moifture gradually penetrates them, divides and atte¬
nuates their parts ; the acid of the fulphur particularly
attacks the martial earth, and alfo the unmetallic earth;
its inflammable principle is feparated from it, and is
diffipated. While thefe alterations happen, the py¬
rites changes its nature. The acid of the fulphur
which is decompofed, forms with the fixed principles
of the pyrites, vitriolic, aluminous, and felenitic falts ;
fo that a pyrites, which was once a fliining, compadf,
very hard mineral, becomes in a certain time a greyifh,
faline, powdery mafs, the tafte of which is faline, au-
ftere, and ftyptic.
Laftly, if this mafs be lixiviated with water, cryftals
of vitriol, and fometimes of alum, according to the na¬
ture of the pyrites employed, may be obtained by eva¬
poration and cryllallization.
This alteration and fpontaneous decompofition of
pyrites, is called efflorefcence and vitriolization ; becaufe
the pyrites become covered with a faline powder, and
becaufe vitriol is always formed. This vitriolization is
more or lefs quickly accomplifhed in pyrites according
to its nature. It is a kind of fermentation excited by
moifture amongft the conftituent parts of thefe mine¬
rals ; and it is fo violent in thofe which are moft dif¬
pofed
Sea. nr. metal
Of Pyrites, pofed to it, that is, in the pale yellow pyrites, which
v"— contain chiefly fulphur and iron, that when the quan¬
tity of thefe is confiderafcle, not only afulphureous va-
our and heat may be perceived, but alfo the whole
indies and burns intenfely. The fame phenomena are
obferyable, and the fame refults are formed, by mixing
well together, and moiftening a large quantity of fi¬
lings of iron and powdered fulphur ; which experiment
Lemeri has made, to explain the caufes of fubterranean
fires and volcanoes.
We cannot doubt that, as the earth contains very
large mafits of pyrites of this kind, they mull undergo
'the fame changes when air and moillure penetrate the
•cavities containing them ; and the bell natural philofo-
phers agree, that very probably this furprifing decom-
pofitionof pyrites is the caufe^of fubterranean fires, of
volcanoes, and of mineral waters, vitriolic, aluminous,.
fulphureous, hot and cold.
No other pyrites is fubjeft to this fpontaneous de-
compofition when expofed to humid air, but that which
is both martial and fulphureous ; that is, the pale-
yellow pyrites. The arfenical pyrites, or that which
contains little or no fulphur, is not changed by expo-
fure to air. This latter kind is harder, heavier, and
more compadl, than the former. The pyrites which is
angular and regularly fhaped, is chiefly of this kind.
Mr Wallerius, in his Mineralogy, propofes to diftin-
guifh this kind of pyrites by the name of marcaftte.
When cut, it may be polilhed fo well as to give a lullre
almoit equal to that of diamonds, but without refrac¬
ting or decompofing the light; for it is perfedlly opaque.
It has been employed fome years pall in the manufac¬
ture of toys, as of buckles, necklaces, &c. and is call¬
ed in commerce marcqjite.
We cannot, however, concur with Mr Macquer
(from whom the above is taken), in thinking that
there is fufficient reafon for confi'dering the minerals
called as a diiHnft clafs of fubftances from ores.
They have indeed no mark by which they can certain¬
ly and conftantly be diflinguifhed from thefe. The
hardnefs or property of ftriking ignited fparks from
fteel is not common to all theTubftances generally call¬
ed pyrites ; for we find fome of thefe enumerated by
mineralogifts which have not that property. Wallerius
even mentions a pyrites which contains no iron, altho’
that metal is thought by Henckel to be eflential to py¬
rites, The diflinftion of pyrites from ores has been
chiefly introduced by miners; becaufe the greateft part
of the former minerals contain fo little metal, and fo
much of the mineralifing fubflances, fulphur, or arfe-
nic, that they are feldom fmelted. Neverthelefs, fome
kinds of pyrites are fotind which contain fo much cop-
p<jr, that they are fmelted with great profit. Accord¬
ingly, fome later mineralogifts confider the cupreous
yellow pyrites as an ore of copper, the pale-yellow
martial pyrites as an ore of iron; and the white arfe¬
nical pyrites as an ore of arfenic. See Ores of Copper r
Iron, and of Arjenic, below.
Sect. IV. EJfaying of Ores in general.
Essays are chemical operations made in fmall, to
determine the quantity of metal or other matter which
is contained in minerals; -or to difeover the value or
L U R G Yr 431
purity of any mafs of gold or filver. The former kind Effaying of
is the fubjeft of the prefent feftion; the latter is treat- 0‘g''
ed under the word Essays, in the order of the alpha- ” Y™" *
bet.
Before effays of ores can be well made, a preliminary
knowledge of the nature of the feveral metallic mine¬
rals ought to be attained. Each metal has its proper
and improper ores, which have peculiar chara&ers and
appearances; hence perfons accuftomed to fee them,
know pretty nearly by the appearance, weight, and'
other obvious qualities, what metal is contained in a
mineral. A good effayer ought to be very intelligent
in this matter, that he may at once know what the
proper operations are which are requifite to the efiay'
of any given mineral.
As metals are very unequally diftributed in their
.ores, we fhould be apt to make falfe and deceitful ef-
fays, if we did not ufe all pofiible precautions that the
proportionable quantity of metal produced by an effay
flrall be nearly the medium contained in the whole
ore. This is effedled by taking pieces of the mi¬
neral from the feveral veins of the mine if there be
feveral, or from different places of the fame vein.
All thefe minerals are to be ftiaken together with
their matrixes. The whole is to be well mixed to¬
gether, and a convenient quantity of this mixture iV
to be taken for the effay. This is called the lotting
of the ore.
As effays, particularly the firft, are generally made
in fmall, effayers have very fmall weights correfponding
to the weights ufed in the great; that is, to the quin¬
tal or hundred pounds weight, to pounds, ounces,,
drams, &c. The effay quintal and its fubdiviiions
vary according to the difference of weights in diffe¬
rent countries; and this occafions fome confufion-
when thefe weights are to be adjufted to each other.
Tables of thefe weights are found in treatifes of ef-
faying; and particularly in that written by Schlut-
ter, and tranllated and rendered more complete by
Hellot, which contains all the details neceffary for
the fubjeft:
The cuftom is to take, for the effay quintal, a real
weight of a gros, or dram, which in France is equal
to 72 grains ; but as the whole dram reprefents xoo
pounds, each grain reprefents a pound and a fraction
of a pound ; and hence fome difficulty and confufion
arife in making the fubdivifions. A better method is
that of Mr Hellotr which is to make the fi&itious or
effay quintal equal to 100 real grains, and then each
grain reprefents a real pound. This effay quintal is
fufficiently exaft for ores of lead, tin, copper, iron,
antimony, bifmuth, and mercury. But for ores of fil¬
ver and gold, another reprefentation is convenient: for
thefe metals, as Mr Hellot fays, arc generally in fo
fmall quantity, that the button or fmall piece of metal
obtained in the effay could not be accurately weighed
if tco real grains were made to reprefent a quintal;
and the difficulty of feparating the gold from fo fmall
a quantity would be ftill greater. Thefe motives have
induced Mr Hellot to ufe for thefe ores a fiaitious
quintal 16 times bigger; that is, equal to 1600 real
grains, which reprefent 1600 ounces ; that is, xoo lb.
or quintal. The ounce being reprefented by a grain,
its feveral fubdivifions muff be reprefented by fractions
METAL
t grain. Thus j 2 grains of the fiftitious quintal
L U R G y.
Part T.
correfpond with ^ of a real grain (b) ; and this latter
r quantity may he accurately weighed in effay-balances :
■ which when well made are feufible to a much lefs
i weight. See ^^%^'Balance.
When a quintal of an ore to be effayed has been
weighed, and lotted, as we defcribed above, it is to
„ be roailed in a left under a muffle. It is to be waffled,
/if neceflary,; and, in fflort, the fame operations are to
be made in fmaty which are ufually done in great. Ad¬
ditions alfo are to be made, and in proper proportions,
f according to the peculiar nature of the ore. The fluxes
generally mixed with the elfays in ore are three, four,
or five parts of black flux; one, two, or three parts of
calcined borax ; and one half of that quantity of de¬
crepitated common fait. The more refraftory the ore
. is, the more neceflary is the addition of thefe fluxes:
then the whole mixture is to be fuled either in a forge
or in a melting or eflay furnace.
To make eflays well, all pofiible attention and ac¬
curacy are to be employed. This objeft cannot be too
much attended to; for the leaft inaccuracy in weigh¬
ing, 1or lofs of the fmalleft quantity of matter, might
caufe errors, fo much greater as the difproportion be¬
twixt the weights employed and thofe reprefented is
greater. The moil minute accuracy therefore is ne-
cefiary in thefe operations. Tor inftance, the effay-
balances ought to be fmall, and exceedingly juft. The
ore ought not to be weighed till it has been reduced
to grofs powder fit for roafting; becaufe fome of it is
always loft in this pulverization. When the ore is
roafted, it ought to be covered with an inverted teft ;
becaufe moil ores are apt to crackle and difperfe when
fir ft heated. To make the fufion good and complete,
the precife degree of fire which is requifite ought to
be employed; and when it is finiffled, the crucible ought
to be-ftruck two or three times with fome inftrument,
to facilitate the difengagement of the parts of the re-
gulus from the fcoria, and to occafion their defcent and
-union into one button of metal. The crucible ought
not to be broken, nor its contents examined, till it is
perfe&ly cold.
\ Upon breaking the crucible, we may know that the
fufion has been good, if the fcoria be neat, compadl,
and equal; if it has not overflowed or penetrated the
crucible ; if it contain no metallic grains ; and if its
furface be fmooth, and hollowed in the middle. The
regains or button ought to be well collefted, without
holes or bubbles, and to have a neat convex furface; it
is then to be feparated from the fcoria, well fcraped
-and cleaned; and, laftly, is to be weighed. If the ope¬
ration has been well made, its weight fflows the quan- Effaj-ing of
tity of metal which every real quintal of ore will yield Cji es-
if r.—^r*.i * „rr u„ •  "
in the great. If the perfeft fuccefs of this eflay be in any
   ' :ft
refpedt doubtful, it ought to be repeated; but the belt
method at all times is, to make feveral efl'ays of the
fame ore. Some fmall differences are always found,
however well the eflays may have been made. By ta¬
king the medium of the refults of the feveral opera¬
tions, we may approach as nearly as poffible the true
produft of the ore,
Laftly, as mines are not worked, nor founderies
eftabliffled (which cannot be done without conlider-
able expence), till the ore has been eflayed, 10 or 12
real pounds of the ore ought to be previoufly eflayed;
and eflayers ought to be furniffled with neceflary fur¬
naces and inilruments for thefe larger eflays.
, In Part II. to the feveral articles of the ores of me¬
tals, we fflall add the moft approved methods of eflay-
ing thefe ores. We fflall here only further obferve in ge¬
neral, that the methods commonly praftifed for effaying
. ores of imperfeft metals, and femimetals efpecially, are
infufficient to procure the whole quantity of metal con¬
tained in ores, or even fo much as is obtained in the
fmelting of large quantities of ores ; and that there¬
fore the refult of eflays is not to be confidered as the
precife quantity contained in an ore, but generally
only as an inaccurate approximation to that quan¬
tity. M. Gellert afcribes one caufe of the want of
fuccefs of thefe operations to the alkaline falts em¬
ployed as fluxes to the ores, by which moft metal¬
lic calces are partially foluble, but more efpecially
fo when any of the fulphur of the ore remains;
which, by uniting with thefe falts, forms a hepar
of fulphur which is the moft powerful of all fol-
vents. He propofes therefore to omit the black
flux, and other alkaline falts, and to add nothing
to the ore but powder of charcoal and fome fufible
glafs. This method, he fays, he learned from Mr
Cramer, and has himfelf ufed with much fuccefs in the
eflays of iron and copper: but finding that other im-
perfedl metallic fobftances could not fuftain the heat
neceflary to effe& the fufion and vitrification of the un-
metallic parts of the ore without being partly dilfipa-
ted, he found it neceffary to add in the eflays of thefe
latter metallic matters fome borax, by which the fu¬
fion might,-be completed with lefs heat. As we confi-
der this as a •ebnfiderable improvement in the art of ef¬
faying ores, .we fflall, to the articles of the feveral
ores, add not only the proceffes commonly prefcribed,
but all thofe of Mr Gellert, according to the method
here mentioned.
II.
Containing a fummary Defcription of the principal Ores of each Metal, and the
Methods of Ellaying them.
Sect. I. Ores of Gold.
$ l’ T)&operly fpeaking, no ores of gold exift :
I for as this metal cannot be allayed with ar-
fienic, nor with fulphur, it is never found directly mi-
Tf° 2IX.
neralifed by thefe fubftances, as the other metals are.
In the fecond place, if it be mineralifed indire&ly by
the union it contrafts with other metals naturally
combined with fulphur and arfenic, To . fmall a
quantity of it only is found in thefe ores, that
they
Sea. I. METALLURGY.
Ores of they fcarcely even deferve the name of improber ores Becher and Cramer think, that no fand fs entirely E
Gold- of gold. ‘ free from gold. The yellow, red, black, and violet-
Hence gold is found either in its natural ftate, of coloured ferruginous fands, are faid to contain mod
a certain degree of purity, polTeffed of all its pro- gold. Mr Hellot relates, that in 11 effays of one kind
perties ; or engaged with fome other metals in certain of fand, from a quintal, or 921,600 grains, were ob-
minerals. tained each time from 848 to 844 grains of noble
The gold which is found alone is called native or metal, exclufive of the gold which remained in the
virgin gold. This is generally incrufted, and fixed in fcoria ; and that of the metal thus obtained two third i
different kinds of ftones, principally in flints and quartz, were gold, and the remaining third was filver. He
Mr Cramer fays, that the yellow brilliant fpots of the fays, that parcels of fand taken up at very fmall
blue ftone called lapis lazuli, are native gold ; but diftances from each other contained very unequal pro-
thefe are very fmall. portions of gold.
Gold is alfo found in fat and muddy earths ; and The gold found in fands is generally lefs pure than
Mr Cramer affirms, that fcarcely any fand can be that which is imbedded in a folid matrix. Reaumur
found which does not contain gold; but he ac- fays, that a piece of gold, weighing 448 ounces,
^knowledges, at the fame time, that the quantity is was fhown to the Royal Academy at Paris, which
too fmall to compenfate for the expence of obtain- was found upon effay to have different finenefs in dif-
ing it. ferent parts of the mafs.
Laftly, the largeft quantity of native gold is to be § 2. Ores and earths containing gold may be ejfayed
found in the fands of fome rivers. It is chiefly collefted by the methods directed for the extra&ion of gold from
in hollows at the bottom of thefe rivers, and at their large quantities of thefe auriferous matters, (fee Part
feveral bendings. The gold is colle&ed in thefe places III.): or they may in general be eflfayed by being fufed
by a natural operation, fimilar to that of waihing in a cupel or teft, placed under the muffle of an effay •
of ores. furnace, or in a crucible placed in an air furnace, with
A confiderable quantity of gold is in the fands of eight or ten times their quantity of lead if they be eafily
feveral rivers in France: fo that perfons who colleft fufible, and with a larger quantity of lead if they be
it find enough to compenfate their trouble. Mr difficultly fufible; and by fcorifying the earthy matters,
Reaumur, in a memoir that he gave in the year 1718 while the lead becomes impregnated with the noble
concerning the rivers of France which contain gold, metals. Thefe operations are entirely fimilar to thofe
enumerates ten of them ; namely, the Rhine, the employed for the feparation of filver from its ores by
Rhone, the Doux, the Ceze, and the Garden ; the precipitation with lead ; a detail of which fee fubjoined
Arriege; the Garonne; two ftreams which flow into under the feclion Ores of Silver, [ Procejfes I. III.
the Arriege, called Ferriet and Benagues; laftly, IV. V. VI.]. Thefe metals are afterwards to be fe-
the Salat, the fource of which is in the Pyrenean parated from the lead by cupellation, in the manner
mountains. dire&ed in the article Essay {of the value of fiver
The Ceze is the river which furnifhes the largeft and of gold). The gold is then to be feparated
quaintity of gold at certain times. Mr Reaumur ob- from the filver by the procelfes deferibed in the article
ferves, that its particles are larger than thofe of the Parting.
Rhine and of the Rhone ; and fays, that in fome days The quantity of lead to be added to the ore in
a peafant will find gold to the value of a piftole, and this effay muft be fuch as renders the fcoria very thin,
in others will fcarcely find any. that the whole gold may be imbibed by the lead.
The native gold found in rivers or elfewhere is ne- Some iron ores containing gold cannot be reduced
ver perfectly pure, or of 24 karats. It always con- into a fcoria fufficiently thin with 16 times their
tains a certain quantity of allay, which is generally fil- quantity of lead, unlefs the heat be at the fame time
ver. The gold of the French rivers, according to confiderably increafed. When the ore is exceedingly
Mr Reaumur’s trials, was found to be from 18 to 22 refraftory, the fcorification ought to be promoted
karats, that of the Ceze being the loweft, and that of by adding to it four times its quantity of tartar, twice
the Arriege being the pureft. its quantity of nitre, and four times its quantity of
Although gold, however, as above obferved from litharge. This mixture is to be put into a good effay-
Macquer, cannot be direttly diffolved by fulphur, yet crucible, and coverecf with the fea-falt. The em¬
it probably may be mineralifed by the intervention of cible is to be fet in a forge-hearth, and expofed
other metallic matters. Thus, although no proper gradually to heat, till the fcoria has acquired fuf-
ore of gold exifts, yet it is found in feveral mineral ficient fluidity, and the lead has imbibed the noble
fubftances, in which it is always accompanied, as metal.
Cramer affirms, with a much larger quantity of filver; See the methods which have been ufedfor ejfaying auri-
to which latter metal that author attributes its mine- ferous fands, under Part III.
ralifed ftate The minerals containing gold are blend, ‘ SeCt. H. Ores of Platina.
cupreous and ariemcal pyrites, ore ot antimony, cm- J
nabar, white ore of arfenic, vitreous and other filver Platina is very rare, and hasbeen'butlatelydif-
ores, and the lead-ore called j’a/mr. covered. As, like gold, it cannot be allayed with
Gold is more frequently imbedded in quartz than fulphur or with arfenic, probably no ore, properly fo
in any other matrix, but it is alfo found in limeftone called, exifts of this metal. Accordingly in the only
and in hornblend. Gold mines are in general very mines of platina which we know, namely, the gold
precarious, as they do not form regular veins, nor is mines of Santafe near Carthagena, the platina is found
the gold uniformly diftributed through a matrix. native like the gold, and in its'metallic ftate.
Vot. XI. Part IL 3 I Sect.
434 METAL
Ores ol
. Sl^er~ i Sect. III. Ores of Silver.
§ I. Next to gold, filver is the metal mod fre¬
quently found in its metallic date, that is, not mine-
ralifed by fulphur or by arfenic. This filver, called
alfp native or virgin, generally affects fome regular
form, and confids of filaments or vegetations of va¬
rious figutes. It is found in form of plates, of fibres,
or of grains, or crydallized. It lies generally in quartz,
flint, fpar, date, cobalt, and in filver-ores. It is fome-
times enveloped in a thin dony crud. It is generally
allayed with fome gold : but filver, like all the other
metals, is much more frequently found mineralifed by
fulphur and by arfenic.
Three principal proper ores of filver are known,
which are very rich, but very rare. Thefe are :
1. The vitreous Jilver ore. This ore has no deter¬
minate figure, and has nearly the colour, foftnefs, and
fufibility of lead. It is very heavy, and contains three
quarters of its weight of pure filver. In this ore the
filver is mineralifed by fulphur alone. Some expert ar-
ilts imitate it very well by combining fulphur with fil¬
ver by fufion in a crucible
This ore, according to Crondedt, is either in form
of plates or of fibres, or is crydallized, or has no de¬
terminate figure. It may be imitated by adding about
five parts of fulphur to one part of melted filver; in
which operation mod of the fulphur is confumed ; or
it may be imitated by expofing a plafee of filver red-
hot to the fumes of burning fulphur.
2. The horny or corneous filver ore. This ore is fo
called from its colour and femitranfparency, by which
it refembles horn or colophony. When fuddenly heat¬
ed, it crackles, as almod all ores do, and melts
with a gentle heat. Two-thirds of it are filver, which
is mineralifed by fulphur and arfenic. This ore is very
rare. Wallerius fays, after Woodward, that it is found
at Johaun-Georgen-Stadt in Saxony.
Corneous ore has various colours ; white, pearly,
brown, yellow, greenifh, or reddi/h. It is foliated
and femitranfparent. It is fomewhat duttile, and fu-
fible with the flame of a candle. When heated, it
emits, as Wallerius fays, a fulphureous and blue flame,
and, according to Cramer, alfo a very fmall quantity
of an arfenical fume. Wallerius fays, that it contains
two-thirds of filver, with a confiderable quantity of ful¬
phur, and a fmall quantity of arfenic. Lehman thinks
that it is filver united with a little arfenic. ButMrCron-
ffedt fays, that it is a luna cornea, or filver combined
with marine acid; and that it is incapable of being de-
compofed but by fubltances which can unite with
that acid. This latter opinion feems to be the molt
probable ; as the ore, according to its defcription, is
fimilar to tuna cornea, and as it cannot be imitated by
any mixture of fulphur and of arfenic with filver. The
blue flame, and the fmell flightly arfenical, which are
emitted from heated corneous ore, are alfo obfervable
from every combination of marine acid with a fubftance
containing phlogifton.
3. Red fiver ore, called alfo rof dare. Its colour
is more or lefs red ; it is fometimes cryftallized, very
heavy, and is fufible like the above-mentioned ores.
this ore the filver is mineralifed by arfenic and by
L U R G Y. Part IT.
fulphur, but chiefly by the former. It alfo contains Ores of
a little iron, and furnifhes two-thirds of its weight of Silvtr-
filver. Its red colour may proceed either from the v—*
iron it contains; or from the mixture of arfenic and
fulphur; or, laftly, from the particular manner in
which the arfenic is united with the filver, an example
of which we have in the red precipitate of filver made
by the neutral arfenical fait.
Red fiver ore is either plated or folid, or cryftal¬
lized, and frequently femitranfparent. Its colour is
various, from a dark grey to a deep red, according to
the proportions of the two mineraliling fubftances. It
crackles and breaks in the fire, exhales an arfenical
fume, and is readily fufed. It is found generally in
quartz, fpar, cryital, hornblend.
Befides the three filver ores above defcribed, the
following ores contain filver mixed with other me¬
tals.
1. Grey fiver ore. This contains copper and filver
mineralifed by arfenic and fulphur, and generally more
of the former than of the latter metal; but as it is va¬
lued chiefly for the filver, it has been generally enu¬
merated amongft filver ores.
2. Whitefiver ore is an arfenical pyrites containing
filver.
3. Black fiver ore contains fulphur, affenic, copper,
iron, fotnetimes lead, and about a fourth part of filver,
according to Wallerius.
4. Plumofefiver ore is white or black, ftriated like
plumb-alum, or like ore of antimony. It is filver mi¬
neralifed by fulphur, arfenic, and antimony.
5. Pech-blend. In this blend filver, gold, and
zinc, are mineralifed by fulphur, probably by inter¬
vention of iron, by which the gold and zinc are ren¬
dered capable of uniting with the fulphur.
6. Silver is frequently found in galena; and fome¬
times in martial pyrites ; in the red ore of arfenic; in
various ores of copper, lead, tin, iron, and efpecially
cobalt; in blends ; in yellow or red earths; in black
and blue bafaltes ; and alfo in f rata of fones which
do not appear externally to contain any mineral fub¬
ftance.
7. Liquid fiver ore or guhr offiver, is a grey or
whitiflr liquid mafs, which contains, as Walkrius fays,
either native filver, or fome fluid fubitance capable of
producing it. Mr Cronftedt mentions, in the Swe-
difli Memoirs, a water flowing through a mine in
Norway containing filver. Another inftance is al¬
fo mentioned of a ixlver guhr, in the Act. Erud. Up-
fdl. 1720.
8. Mr Von Jufti pretends, that he has found filver
mineralifed by an alkaline fubfance; but he has not
fpoken fufficiently diftin&ly concerning it, to know
whether he means a faline or earthy, alkaline mat¬
ter. Henckel alfo pretends, that by treating calca¬
reous earth or certain clays with pyrites, filver may b«2
obtained.
§ 2, Ores of fiver may be ejfayed by the fame me¬
thods which are employed for the extraftion of that
metal from large quantities of ores ; which methods
are different, and fuited to the different, qualities of
the different ores. See Part III. Or, in general, ore-i
and earths containing filver may be effayed by the fol¬
lowing proceffes, which are copied from Dr Mortimer’s
2 Engliih
Sea.m. metal
Eflayirg ofEnglilh edition of Cramer’s Art of EJfaying Metals,
Silver^ P«rt II. Proecfs l.
' v ' . PROCESS!.
To precip'tate Silver by means of Lead from fufille
Ores.
u Pound the ore in a very clean iron mortar into
fine powder : of this weigh one docimaftical centrier
or quintal, and eight of the like centners of granula¬
ted lead.
“ Then have at hand the docimaftical teft, which
muft not as yet have ferved to any operation : pour
into it about half of the granulated lead, and fpread it
with your finger through the cavity of it.
“ Put upon this lead the pounded ore ; and then
cover it quite with the remainder of the granulated
lead.
“ Put the teft thus loaded under the muffle of an
eflay-furnace, and in the hinder part of it: then make
your fire, and encreafe it gradually. If you look thro’
the holes of either of the Aiders, you will foon fee that
the pounded ore will be raifed out of the melted lead,
and fwim upon it. A little after, it will grow clam¬
my, melt, and be thrown towards the border of the
teft : then the furfaee of the lead will appear in the
middle of the teft like a bright difc, and you will fee
it fmoke and boil: fo foon as you fee this, it will be
proper to diminifti the fire a fmall matter for a quar¬
ter of an hour ; fo that the boiling of the lead may
almoft ceafe. Then again, increafe the fire to fuch a
degree, that all may turn into a thin fluid, and the
lead may be feen, as before, fmoking and boiling
with great violence. The furface of it will then di-
minifii by degrees, and be covered over with a mafs
of fcorias. Finally, have at hand an iron hook ready
heated, wherewith the whole mafs muft be ftirred,
efpecially towards the border; that in cafe any fmall
parcels of the ore not yet difiblved Ihould be ad¬
herent there, they may be brought down, taking
great care not to ftir any the leaft thing out of the
teft.
“ Now, if what is adherent to the hook during the
ftirring, when you raife it above the teft, melts quick¬
ly again, and the extremity of the hook grown cold is
covered with a thin, fmooth, fhining cruft ; it is a fign
that the fcorification is perfeft; and it will be the
more fo as the faid cruft adherent to the hook fhall be
coloured equally on every fide : but in cafe, while the
fcorias are ftirred, yen perceive any confiderable clam-
minefs in them, and when they adhere in good quan¬
tity to the hook, though red-hot, and are inequally
tinged, and feem dufty or rough with grains inter-
fperfed here and there ; it is a fign that the ore is not
entirely turned into fcorias. In this cafe, you muft
with a hammer ftrike off what is adherent to the hook,
pulverize it, and with a laddie put it again into the,
teft, without any lofs or mixture of any foreign body,
and continue the fire in the fame degree till the fcoria
has acquired its perfe&ion and the above-mentioned
qualities. This once obtained, take the teft with a
pair of tongs out of the fire, and pour the lead, toge¬
ther with the fcoria fwimming upon it, into a cone
made hot and rubbed with tallow. 'T Hus will the firft
operation of the procefs be performed, which does
L U R G Y.
435
Silver,
not commonly indeed laft above three quarters of an EalTy ng of
hour.
“ With a hammer ftrike the fcorias off from the r<
gulus grown cold, and again examine whether they
have the charafteriftics of a perfedt fcorification ; if
they have, you may thence conclude, that the filver
has been precipitated out of the ore turned to fcorias,
and received by the lead.
“ When the fcorification lafts longer than we men¬
tioned, the lead at laft; turns to fcorias or litharge, and
the filver remains at the bottom of the veffel: but the
fire muft: be moderately fupplied, and the veffels be
extremely good, to produce this effed ; for they fel-
dom refill to the ftrength of the fcorias long enough;
fo that the whole fcorification may be brought to an
end; which has afterwards this inconveniency, that the
filver is diffipated by grains in the fmall hollows of the
corroded ore, and can hardly be well colle&ed again,
when the ore has but little filver in it. Nay, there is
ftill more time to be confumed to obtain the perfed
deftrudion of the lead, by means of the combined
adions of the fire and air, becaufe the fcorias fwim¬
ming at the top retard it confiderably.
“ In this procefs, the fulphur and the arfenic of the
filver-ore, when the ore is broken fmall, and extended
widely in a fmall quantity, are in part eafiiy diflipated
by the fire, and in part abforbed by the lead ; the
lighter part of which, fwimming upon the heavier, be¬
comes very clammy by means of the fulphur which is
in the ore ; but when this is diflipated by the violence
of fire, it turns into glafs or fcorias: but when arfe¬
nic is predominant in the ore, the plumbeous part
turns immediately into a very penetrating and very fu-
fible glafs, having a diffolving efficacy, unlefs the ar¬
fenic lies hidden in a white pyrites or cobalt. For this
reafon, the fixed part of the ore, which is no filver, is
diffolved by that glafs, melts, and affumes the form of
fcorias. The unmetallic earths and the pure copper
or lead ores thereto adherent are of this kind. The
filver then remains immutable; and being freed of thefe
heterogeneous bodies, which are partly diffipated and
partly melted, it is precipitated and received by the
remaining regulus of lead. Therefore this procefs is
completed by three diftinft operations; viz. I. By
roafting. 2. By fcorification. 3. By the melting pre¬
cipitation of the filver, which is the refult of the tw®
former operations.
“ The ore muft be pulverifed very fine, in order
to increafe the furface, that the diffipation of the vo*
latiles and the diffolution by litharge may be fooner
effected. This pulverifing mull then be done before the
ore is weighed, becaufe there is always fome part of
the ore adherent to the mortar or iron plate on which
it is made fine ; which part being loft, the operation
is not cxadl. Erker was in the right when he pre-
feribed eight centners of lead for the fubduing of fu-
ftble ores. Neverthelefs, it muft: be owned, that this
quantity is fuperfluous in fome cafes. However, as
the fluxibility of the filver-ore depends upon the ab-
fence of flones, pyrites, &c. it is eafy to fee, that
there are an infinite number of degrees of fluxibility
which it would be needlefs to determine exaftly, ,’.id
moft commonly very difficult to determine by the bare
fight. Befides, a little more lead does not render the
procefs imperfeci; on the contrary, if you ufe too
3 I i final?
436 METAL
Effiiymg of fmaIl a quantity of lead, the fcorification is never
^lUer comP!etely made. Nay, there are a great many ores,
s,. > ,' containing fulphur and arfenic in plenty, that deftroy
a coniiderable quantity of lead : fuch are the red fil-
ver-ort, and that wherein there is a great deal of the
fleel-grained lead-ore. If the fire muft be fometimes
diminifhed in the middie of the procefs, it is in order
to hinder the too much attenuated litharge, which is
continually generated out of the lead, from penetrating
the pores of the tefl, and from corroding it ; which is
eafily done when the fire is over-ftrong; for then the
furface of the veifel which is contiguous to the lead
contia&s cavities, or, being totally confumed by fmall
holes, lets the regulus flow out of it. The veffels
that are mod fubjetl to this inconvenience are thofe in
the materials of which lime, plaller, and chalk are
mixed. Nay, thefe bodies, which are in their nature
refradfory, being eroded during their fcorification, at
the fame time communicate a great clamminefs to the
fcoria ; fo that a great quantity of the mafs remains
adherent to the ttft, in the form of protuberances,
when you pour it out; whereby a great many grains
of the regulus are detained.” -
PROCESS II.
The regulus obtained by the procefs I. contains all
the filver of the ore, and the unfcorified part of the
lead. The filver may be afterwards feparated from the
lead, and obtained pure by cupellation ; which procefs
is defcribed under the article Essay (of the value of
Silver.)
PROCESS III.
If the fiver-ore cannot he nvafhed clean, or if it be ren¬
dered refraBory by a mixture oj unmetallic earths and Jlones,
the fcorification of thefe earthy matters frequently can¬
not be completed by the procefs I. Cramer therefore
diredfs, that fuch ores lhall be treated in the following
manner.
“ Bruife the ore into an impalpable powder, by grind¬
ing in a mortar; to a docimaftical centner of it add a
like quantity of glafs of lead finely pulverifed; for the
more exadtly thefe two are mixed together, the more
eafiiy the fcorification afterwards fucceeds. Put this
mixture, together with 12 centners of lead, into the
teft, according to procefs 1. then put the teft under
the muffle.
“ Make firft under it a ftrong fire, till the lead
boils very well; when you fee it fo, diminifh the vio¬
lence of the heat, as was dire&ed in the firft procefs ;
but keep it thus diminilhed a little longer: then, fi¬
nally, again increafe the fire to fuch a degree, till you
perceive the figns of a perfedt fcorification and fufion.
See the whole procefs I. Now this procefs lafts a little
longer than the foregoing, and requires a greater fire
towards the end.
“ It fometimes happens that a very refradtory ore
cannot be diffolved by litharge; and that a mafs,
which has the clamminefs of pitch, fwims upon the
regulus and upon the fcorias themfelves which are al¬
ready fubdued in part: when you fee this, Ihut the
vents of the furnace to diminifli the fire; then gently
touch this refradtory body with a fmall iron cold hook,
to which it will immediately ftick ; take it off foftly,
not to lofe any thing; pound it into a fine powder,
L U R G Y. Part IT,
adding a little glafs of lead, and put it again into the of
teft ; then continue the fcorification till it is brought ®re9of
to its perfedlion. But you muft always examine the . ‘ ^er' f
fcoria of your refradtory ore, to fee whether there *
may not be fome grains of regulus difperfed in it: for
fometimes the fcorias that grow clammy retain fome-
thing of the metal; which if you fufpedt, pound the
fcorias in to .a fine dull, and thus the grains of metal
will appear if there are any left, becaufe they can
never be pounded fine. The filver is feparated from
this regulus by cupelling, as in Procefs II.
“ All earths and ftones are refradtory in the fire :
for although fome of them melt naturally in the fire,
as thofe that are vitrifiable do $ neverthelefs all the
others, a very few excepted, melt much more diffi¬
cultly than metals, and never become fo thin in the
fufion as is required for the fufficient precipitation of
a precious metal. But litharge itfelf does not con¬
veniently diffolve thefe refradtory matters by the help
of fire alone, unlefs you add fome mechanical mixture
to them ^ for the very moment the faid litharge pene¬
trates through the interftices of the refradtory ore,
and begins to diffolve it, a tenacious mafs is produced,
which hardly admits any farther dilution by the li¬
tharge. You may fee it plain, if you make coloured
glaffes with metallic calces: if you pour carelefsly upon
them a calx that gives a colour, you will never obtain
that they may be equally dyed on every fide, even al¬
though you fhould torture them for whole days toge¬
ther in a great fire. Nay, glafs already made can
never be diluted by only pouring falts and litharge
upon it. Wherefore, you muft ufe the artifice of
glafs-makers, who, in the making of the moft perfedt
glaffes, take great care, before they put the fpecies of
their ingredients into the fire, to have a mechanical
mixture precede, or at leaft accede, during the fufion
itfelf, which is done here by pounding glafs of lead
mixed with the ore : but if you think that your glafs
of lead is not fufficiently fufible, you may add to it 1
litharge melted firft, and then pounded into a fine
powder.
“ As this fcorification requires a longer and a
greater fire than the foregoing, and as a greater
quantity of litharge is moreover requifite to fubdue
the refractory fcoria; it is eafy to fee why a much
greater quantity of lead muft be ufed here than in
Procefs I.; and, although lefs lead is often fufficient,,
it is neverthelefs proper always to ufe the greateft
quantity that can be neceffary; left, for inftance, it
fliould be neceffary to try fo many times the lead
alone, to make it evident how much filver the lead
when alone leaves in the coppel. Nor need you fear
left any thing of the filver be taken away by the
lead, provided the coppels be good, and the cop-
pelling duly put in execution : for you can hardly
colled! a ponderable quantity of filver out of the col-
lefted fume of the lead, which rifes during the cop-
pelling, as well as out of the litharge that is withdrawn:
jnto the coppel.”
PROCESS IV.
If the ore be rendered refraBory by pyrites, Cramer
dire&s that the filver fliould be precipitated by lead
in the following manner. (drt of Affaying, Part II.,
proc. 4.)
Break
Sea. HI. M E T A I
Effaying of “ Break your ore into a rough powder, and put a
°!es of centner of it into the teft : put upon this another teft
. S‘ ^r‘ , ;n the manner of a tile 5 put it under the muffle hardly
’ red-hot: increafe the fire by degrees. There will
always be a crackling : which being ended, taite away
the upper-teft ; for when the veflcls have been red-
hot about one minute, the ore ceafes to fplit. Leave
the ore under the muffle till the arfenic and the ful-
phur are for the moft part evaporated ; which you
will know from the cefiation of the vifible fmoke, of
the fmell of garlic, or the acid ; then take away the
teft, and leave it in a place not too cold, that it may
cool of itfelf.
“ Pour out, without any diffipation, the roafted
ore, and with a knife take away what is adherent to
the veffel; pound it to a moft fubtile powder, and
grind it together with an equal weight of glafs of lead;
and, finally, fcorify the whole colle&ed ore in the
fame teft wherein the telling was made, unlefs it has
contracted chinks, as was deferibed in Procefs III.
“ Remarks. “ Yellow pyrites-ores contain a very
great quantity of fulphur, even greater than is necef-
iary to faturate the metal that lies hidden in them.—
For which reafon this fuperfluous fulphur diflipates in
a middling fire ; but if it had been mixed with lead,
it would have rendered it refraClory, nor could it af¬
terwards be diffipated from it without a confiderable
deftruftion of the lead. The white arfenical pyrites
turn alfo a great quantity of lead into glafs, on ac¬
count of the abundance of the arfenic they contain.
For which reafon thefe ores muft be previoully roafted,
that the fulphur and arfenic may be difiipated. Nor
need you fear left any part of the filver be carried
away with the arfenic ; for when arfenic is feparated
from any fixed body, by a certain degree of fire, it
carries nothing of that body away with it.”
PROCESS V.
Silver may hi precipitated from its ore by cupellation
only, in the following Procefs, given by Cramer.
\_jirl of yjfaying, Part II. Pioc. 9.]
“ Pound one centner of ore; roaft it in the man¬
ner directed in the laft procefs ; beat it to a moft
fubtle powder; and if it melts with difficulty on the
fire, grind it together with one centner of litharge,
which is not neceffary when the ore melts eaiily : then
divide the mixture or the powder of the ore alone into
five or fix parts, and wrap up every ona of them feve-
rally in fuch bits of paper as can contain no more than
this fmall portion.
« Put a very large coppel under the muffle ; roaft
it well firft, and then put into it fixteen centners of
lead: when the lead begins to fmoke and boil, put
upon it one of the faid portions with the fmall paper
it was wrapt up in, and diminifli the fire immediately,
in the fame manner as if you would make a fcorifica-
tion in a teft, but in a leffer time. The fmall paper,
which turns prefently to afhes, goes of off itfelf, and
does not fenfibly increaf - the mafs of the fcorias. The
ore proceeding therefrom is call on the border, and
turns to fcorias very foon, Increafe the fire again im¬
mediately, and, at the fame time, put another por¬
tion of the ore into the coppel, as was juft now faid.
The fame effeCts will be produced. Go on in the
, L U II G Y. 437
fame manner, till all the portions are thrown in andEfta7ing°f
confumed in the lead. Finally, deftroy the remaining
lead with a ftronger fire. *
“ The filver that was in the ore and in the lead
will remain in the coppel. If you deduCt from it the
bead proceeding from the lead, you will have the
weight of the filver contained in the ore. If the ore
employed was eafy to be melted, all the fcoria vanifhes ;
but if it was refraCtory or not fufible, all the fcoria
does not always go away, but there remains fome-
thing of it now and then in the form of duft. A great
many ores and metals may be tried in this way, ex¬
cept only fuch as fplit and corrode the coppels.—
There are likewife fome of them which muft be pre-
vioufly prepared in the fame manner as is required
to render them fit for going through a fcorification.—
See the foregoing ProceJJh
“ Remarks. The ore thrown at feveral times up¬
on lead boiling in a c jppel may be diffolved without
the foregoing fcorification ; but this is very far from
having an equal fuccefs with all kinds of ores ; for
there are ores and metals which refift very much
their diffolution by litharge ; and which being on thi
account thrown on the border, are not fuificiently
diffolved; becaufe the litharge Heals away foon into-
the coppel. Neverthelefs, there are fome others which
vaniftr entirely by this method, except the filver and
gold that was contained in them.
“ A previous roafting is neceffary, firft, for the-
reafons mentioned, and then becaufe the ore thrown
upon boiling lead fflould not crackle and leap out
for, having once paffed the fire, it bears the moft hid¬
den heat.”
PROCESS VI.
Silver may be precipitated out of the fame bodies as were-
mentioned in the foregoing procejfes by fcorification in a
crucible. [Cramer, Proc. 15.]
“ The body out of which you intend to. precipitate
filver muft be previoufly prepared for a fcorification
by pounding and roafting, as mentioned in the former
proceffes. Then, in the lame manner, and with the
fame quantity of lead, put it into a crucible ftridlly
examined, that it be entire, folid, not fpeckled with
black fpots, like the fcoria of iron, efpecially at its
inferior parts, and capable of containing three times
as much. Add befides glafs gall and common fait,
both very dry, and enough, that when the whole is
melted, the falls may fwim at top at the height of
about half an inch.
“ Put the crucible thus loaded into a wind-furnace
fhut it clofe with a tile ; put coals round it, but not
higher than the upper border of the crucible. Then
light them with burning coals, and increafe the fire
till the whole melts very thin, which will be done by
a middling fire, maintained always equal, and never
greater; leaye it thus for about one quarter of an
hour, that the fcorification may be perfeftly made..
Take off the tile and ftir the mafs with an iron wire,,
and a little after pour it out into the mould. When
the regulus is cleaned from fcorias, try it in a teft by
coppelling it.
“ Remarks. The fcorification of any ore what¬
ever, or of any body fetched out of ores, may indeed.1
be
438 METAL
Amalga- be made by this apparatus, as well as in a teft under
Silver and a mu®e : ^ut ^ ^erves chiefly to the end that a greater
Gold Ores-cluant^y metal maY be melted from it with profit.
i—.—  For you may put many common pounds of it at one
fingle time into the crucible ; but then you need not
obierve the proportion of lead prefcribed in the fore¬
going procefs; nay, a quantity of lead two or three
times lefs is fufficient, according to the different qua¬
lities of the objeft But the mafs will certainly be
fpilt, unlefs you choofe a very good crucible ; for there
is no veffel charged with litharge that can bear a
flrong fire having a draught of wind, without giving
-way through it to the litharge.
“ You add glafs-gall and common fait, that they
may forward the fcoiification, by fwimming at top ;
for the refraftory fcoria reje&ed by the litharge, and
adhering between this and the falls that fwim at top,
is foon brought to a flux, and the precipitation of the
fiFer is thereby accelerated. They alfo hinder in a
manner a fmall burning coal fallen into the crucible,
from fetting the litharge a boiling, which troubles
the operation ; for the litharge or glafs of lead, efpe-
cially that which is made without any addition, fo
foon as the phlogifton gets into it, rifes into a foamy
mafs, confifting of a multitude of fmall bubbles very
difficult to be confined, unlefs the phlogifton be en¬
tirely confumed, and the litharge reduced 'to lead,
which fometimes rifes above the border of the
vefiel.”
The corneous ore, if it really be, as Cronftedt fays,
a luna cornea, ought to be treated in fome of the me-
.thods dire&ed for the reduftion of luna cornea. See
Chemis ? nr-Index,
PROCESS VII.
Silver and gold may be exiracledfrom their ores by mercury.
A new method of extrafting the precious metals by
means of amalgamation with mercury has lately been
introduced into Germany. The attra&ion between
thefe has indeed been known from the moil remote
antiquity: Vitruvius informs us, that by this means
gold might be rcovered from embroidery and old
cloaths; and Pliny mentions the gilding of brafs and
other metals by the fame means. From time imme¬
morial mercury has been made ufe of in the ftreaming
for gold, in order to purify and colleft together the
gold duff which is difperfed in the fands; and almoft
all nations who pradfife this ufe the fame procefs. The
gold fand, after being wafhed, is triturated with quick-
filver, and the fuperfluous metal feparated by drain¬
ing through leather. By the miners it was ufed in a
iimilar manner ■, the flones containing gold being firft
pounded and then triturated in mills along with the
mercury. But it was foon found, that in thefe mills
there was a large quantity left behind in the refiduum,
fo that it was neceffary to fubjeft what was left to the
aftion of fire; on which account the mills were deem¬
ed unneceffary, and are now almoft every where dif-
ufed. The procefs of extra&ing gold and filver by
amalgamation, however, was looked upon to be elfen-
tially deficient, by reafon of an opinion which prevailed
among the chemifts, that mercury could not diflblve
either of thefe metals except in their pure and perfedl
ftate; whence it was fuppofed, that a great quantity
L U R G Y. Part II.
which fire could have extracted was left by the mer- Atpalga-
cury. This opinion was fupported by the moft cele- matiou of
brated metallurgifts, as Schlutter, Gellcrt, Wallerius, Gold Ores
and Kramer; whence it became generally believed,
that amalgamation would never anfwer in great opera¬
tions. But of late Baron Inigo Born has not only de-
monftrated that this can be done to great advantage,
but has aftually introduced it, notwithftanding that
fome difficulties were thrown in his way. The fol¬
lowing is an account of the methods which .have been
praftifed for feparating gold and filver from their ores
by means of quickfllver.
This procefs was introduced into fome of the mines Baron
of Mexico in 1566 by Don Pedro Fernandez de Ye-
lafeo, and in 1571 into fome of thofe of Peru by tbe
fame perfon ; and from thence it quickly fpread thro’by Rafpe,
all the, mines in the fouthand north-eaft parts of Ame-4to, 1791,
rica, infomuch that it is almoft the only method ufed
in that part of the world for extracting thefe metals.
The richer ores, however, are purified by fufion with
lead ; and our author informs us, that formerly the
poorer kinds of ores were certainly thrown away, and
when the method of amalgamation was introduced into
Peru, tiie old barrows were fearched for the ores which
had been reje&ed as ufelefs, but were now put to the
quickfilver.
In the year 1588, Don Juan de Corduba, a Spa¬
niard, applied to the court of Vienna, propofing to
extraft filver from its ores, whether poor or rich,
by mercury, and in a Ihort fpace of time. He made
fome experiments upon different kinds of ore, which
on a fmall fcale fucceeded very well, but on attempt¬
ing it with 20 quintals of it he failed; and as Lazarus
Erker, who was employed to give in a report concern¬
ing it, difapproved of the method, it was not purfued
any farther. The reafons alleged in Baron Born’s
book for this failure are, that he did not calcine his
ore; that he did not ufe any fait; and that the weather
was too cold; though this laft circumftance might have
been remedied had Corduba attended to it.
Another Latin and anonymous account of the mode
of amalgamation is preferved among the records of the
aulic chamber. It is direfted to the emperor, but the
year in which it was written is not mentioned. Ac¬
cording to the account given by the author of this pa¬
per, he had examined the mines of Guatimala in New
Spain, and made fome ufeful regulations fot them.
He direCts the ote to be calcined in furnaces like lime¬
kilns, the fire being kept up according to the nature of
the ores, after which they are to be reduced to powder
in mills or ftamps. The pulverifed matter is then
paffed through fine iron fieves, and put into earthen or
copper veffels by 1 o or 20 quintals at a time ; more
or lefs fait being mixed with it according to circum-
ftances. The light-coloured ore requires 50 lb. to
every thoufand, and the darker fomewhat more. To
this mixture are to be added five pounds of dry tartar,
two pounds of pulverized horn, and three pounds of
brick-duft. Some kinds of ores require but a fmall
quantity of thefe additions.
After the mixtures are put into the boilers, as much
water is added as will make the whole of the confiftence
of pafte moderately thick; the veffels mull be expofed to
funfliine, or kept in a place warmed artificially, adding
more water when the matter begins to dry; and it
mult
Sea. m. METAL
Amalga- nuift be ftirred up three or four times a-day. At the
mation of eXpiracion of three or four days, various colours appear
GoM Ore^ uPon the i'urface- After this 15lb. of brimftone is to
~ t r be added to every thoufand pounds of ore, and the
whole worked over again; but this addition is by the
baron confidered as quite fuperftuous. Laftly, loolb.
or lei's of quickfilver is added, according to the nature
of the ore; the whole mars is carefully worked over,
and left at reft for 10 hours. A fire muft next be
kindled under the boil&r, and the matter it contains
triturated or ftirred for two days together; keeping it
always fufficiently diluted by a proportionable quantity
of water. It is, laftly, allowed to reft for 12 hours,
and then dried.
When this operation is fuccefsfully performed, if
the ores be rich, particles of amalgam will be feen in
it: thefe are colle&ed, waihed out, and kept for fur¬
ther ufe, the leavings being carried to a place fit for
walking over. This place ought to be on the Hope of
an hill, where a kind of pit is dug out and lined with
brick and mortar, and ought to be large enough to
contain 25 quintals. A ftream of water is then made
to run upon it, and the matter ftirred without inter-
miffion. The fuperfluous water runs over the rim of
the pit, and carries off the lighter ftony and earthy
particles, the heavy amalgam remaining at bottom. This
is then to be mixed with the fmall clots already men¬
tioned, which were taken out of the mafs originally,
and prefled through a cloth made of hemp or coarfe
linen. The quickfilver, which comes through clean,
is kept for farther ufe ; the remainder diftilled off in
proper veffels, and the remaining filver melted into
ingots. By this method it is faid that even very poor
ores are worked to advantage, the expence being very
moderate.
The following method of ext rafting gold from its
ores is very much recommended by our author: “The
auriferous land, which contains gold grains and gold-
duft, is concentrated by walking; and without any
calcination goes to the above mentioned walhing-pit,
which for this purpofe need not be fo large. On
its upper part is fixed a fquare launder, about 12 feet
long, Covered in the bottom with a woollen cloth, in -
order to retain any part of the gold-dull which may
be carried over with the water and fluff gently ftirred
in the pit. When the water carries off no more mud,
but runs clear, the farther fupply is to be Hopped ;
the water in the pit is pumped or taken out with
buckets; the coarfer fand in the bottom is feparated
or fcraped off by hands ; and the finer heavieft fand at
the bottom is mixed with quickfilver. Then it is
fqueezed through a piece of cloth ; the quickfilver
comes off without any gold, which feparated from the
fand remains as an amalgam, and is pure after the re¬
maining quickfilver has been evaporated. The fand
and heavier dull remaining on the launder is wafhed
and treated in the fame manner.
“ The auriferous ores and loadftones, however,
which rife from different mines, are calcined like filver
ores, more or lets as the nature of their matrixes will
direft. Then they are ground and lifted; and the au¬
riferous fluff, thus prepared, is put into heaps, expo-
fed to the funlhine, and worked and turned about for
three or four days. It requires no. fait. Afterwards
L U R G Y. 439
fulphur, and at laft quickfilver, are added and mixed Amalga-
with it. There is no occafion for fire under the veffel
in which it is triturated, except in winter; and two G0i,i Qres«
days after, though not dried, it is immediately carried —^
to the walhing-pit, and treated like the amalgam of
filver.
“ This method of extrafting gold and filver is fo
certain and fafe, that when other methods of amalga¬
mation extraft only one ounce of gold and filver, this
produces three or four from the poorell ores in a Ihor-
ter time and with lefs expence.”
P. Jofeph Acolla tells us, that at Potofr 6000 or 7000
quintals of quickfxlver are annually confumed in the
dreffing of the ore, not to mention what is recovered,
from the leavings of the firft walhing. Thefe leavings,
called lamas, are burnt in particular furnaces in order
to extraft the remaining quickfilver; and there are
upwards of 50 fuch furnaces near Potofi and Tarapa-
ja. The ore refined there amounts, according to the
bell information, to the immenfe quantity of 300,000
quintals. Only about 2000 quintals of the quicklilver
are recovered, which Ihows a lofs of about two pounds
of quickfilver on every quintal of ore. The ores are
of different natures, and in proportion to the filver
they contain require more or lefs quickfilver. That
which contains moll, requires naturally the greateft
quantity of quickfilver; though fome of the workmen
pretend that there is a kind which contains very little
filver, and yet requires a great deal of mercury : but
whether this be owing to the ignorance of the work¬
men, or to the mercury being abforbed by fome other
matter, is not generally known. The ore is firll pul-
verifed in mills, and then palled through iron or brafs.
fieves. The mills will grind, when properly regulated,
30 quintals in the fpace of 24 hours. The pulverifed-
matter is put into heaps in the open air, and fait is
mixed with it in the proportion of 5 to 50 quintals of
the ore, in order to macerate and cleanfe it of its im¬
purities, that the quickfilvbr may the more readily
amalgamate with the metal. Upon thefe heaps, and
while they are ftirring, the quickfilver is prelfed
through a cloth. Before the invention of fire-places,
the ore was repeatedly kneaded with quickfilver in
wooden troughs, and formed into large round maf-
fes, which were left in tnat form for two days;, after
which they were worked again, until the metals
appeared to be embodied together, which took from
9 to 20 days; but it was afterwards found that
heat aflifted the operation fo far, that by means of
proper ovens the fame might be accomplilhed in five
or fix days. When the quickfilver has taken up the
filver, and wholly feparated it from its matrix the lead
and the copper, the ovens are opened, the matter is -
taken out, and the quickfilver expelled and recovered’
in the following manner. The mixture is put into
water troughs* and ftirred therein by means of mills and -
water-wheels, by which the earthy and extraneous par- •
tides are wafhed away, and the amalgam fettles at the
bottom. The fediment looks like farrd. It is further'
, wallied over in flit plates, and perfeftly cleanfed; what
goes off with the water is collefted for further ufe un¬
der the name of relates. When the amalgam is be¬
come clean and bright by this method, it is put into *
a cloth and fqueezed out. The uncombined-quiek*
filve^
440 METAL
Amalga- filver runs off, and the remaining body of amalgam
Sitoer'and contains five parts of quickfilver and one of folid me-
<Jold Ores. ta^ >s made into maffes named pinnas, having the
I. ngyi form of a fugar loaf, hollow within, and weighing
about 100 pounds, They are expofed to a ftrong
fire in order to expel the quickfilver, after being put
into pots covered with earthen heads. The filver ftill
appears in the form of amalgam, but is reduced to
one fixth of the former weight. Its texture is fpongy,
and the quality of the metal fo fine, that the filver-
fmiths cannot work it, neither can it be formed into
coin, without an alloy. Baron Born obferves, how¬
ever, that it is only cold amalgamation which pro¬
duces filver of fuch uncommon finenefs ; by hot amal¬
gamation it is generally alloyed with copper, which
cannot be parted from it without cupellation.
The moft circumftantial account of the amalgama¬
tion of filver ore is that of Alonzo Barba. He di¬
vides the ores into two claifes: i. thofe which are bell
treated by fire and fufion ; and, 2. fuch as are moft fit
for amalgamation. Thofe called pacos and tacana, may¬
be amalgamated; but that none of their richer con¬
tents may be loft, it will be beft to combine them
with lead, and proceed by cupellation. The former
of thefe ores has no luftre or brightnefs. It is faid
to be of a reddifti-yellow, foft and friable ; feldom rich
in filver, and moftly valuable on account of its being
eafily got from the mine. Tacana is a rich filver ore,
of a black colour, fometimes of a grey or of an aih-
colour; or a brown, rich, filvery earth. 3. The plo-
mo is too rich for pulverifation and amalgamation, and
is therefore Amply melted down with the tacana., This
feems to be the fame with the horn-iilver ore ; and is
defcribed as almoft entirely confifting of native filver,
of a black, grey, or greenifh-white colour. Barba fays
that they found at Potofi fome plomo of a cinnabar
colour, which they had not feen any where elfe ; but
Baron Born thinks that here he has miftaken the red
filver ore for another fpecies. Frezier afterts, that in
what he calls the plomo ronco, the native filver appears
upon rubbing or fcratching it, and that it gives white
and very pure filver by Ample fufion without any a-
malgamation. In the imperial cabinet at Vienna,
there is a fpecimen weighing about a pound, of black
horn filver ore from Potofi, on the polifhed furface of
which the virgin lilver appears very plainly. 4. The
machacado (virgin filver or gold grown in the matrix in
the form of wire or hair), is amalgated in the mortar.
5. The /oraches (lead ores containing filver), are melt¬
ed along with the ro/icler and conchifo, two kinds of
red filver ore. 6. The negrillos (grey copper and
white filver ores) may be refined by amalgamation,
though they are more fit for fire.
Befides this clafiification into fuch as are fit for fire,
and thofe for amalgamation, the ores require further
to be forted into fuch as require the addition of par¬
ticular fubftances for their amalgamation. Vitriol is
generally hurtful, efpecially when fait is added to the
vitriolic ores; and it requires the addition of iron,
tin, lead, and lime, in order to counteraft its effe&s ;
but in fome cafes it is of feivice, and promotes amal¬
gamation. The calcination of vitriolic ores is of no
fervice, but rather the contrary, as it difengages the
vitriol, and brings on a vitriolic efflorefcence. It may,
however, be feparated by wafhing till the water comes
NJ in.
L U R G Y. Part 11.
off taftelefs and fweet. The amalgamation is difturb- Amalga-
ed, by fulphur, bitumen, and antimony, only by the rnat,0:i °f
fmoothnefs and needle-like figure of the particles, OokTores
which reduce the quickfilver to a kind of duft. The 1
ores mixed with thefe always run into reguli, and muft
therefore be put into a ftrong calcining fire ; if melted
without calcination, they would run entirely into drofs
and fcoria.
The finer the ores are pounded fo much the better ;
and after putting the powder thro’afine fieve,the coarfer
part goes again to the mill: they ought to be previ-
oufly burnt, in order to affift the operation of grind¬
ing. The beft method of obtaining fine powder is by
walhing over; but as this is very apt to pack and
turn clammy, it ought to be mixed with fand.
The ores are known to be fufficiently calcined by
their change of colour and lofs of brightnefs. Barba tells
us, that all bright ores muft be calcined, but with great
care, that no vitriol may be difengaged, as that proves
injurious to the amalgamation ; but baron Born fays,
that one of the greateft objefts in the calcination of
the Hungarian ores is to decompofe the fulphur into
vitriol, as promoting the decompofition of the fait.
The amalgamation is likewife promoted by burning
and calcination, in as far as it promotes the pulveri¬
zation of the ore, and affifts the a&ion of the quick¬
filver ; but it is chiefly ufeful in the black and grey
filver ores. It can only be determined by circumftan-
ces whether it be better to pulverize the ores before
or after calcination. Their value is beft known by
pounding them previous to calcination. The fluff'muft
be conftantly ftirred during the time it is calcining, and
fome powder taken from the mafs to be tried with
quickfilver and fait. The thickening of the quick¬
filver, and the grain of the ftuff, ftiow what additions
are neceffary, or whether the calcination be completed
or not. When ores are calcined in lumps, the fire does
not a<ft equally upon all their parts ; though this me¬
thod is attended with the advantage of lofing much
lefs duft, as well as faving the expence of ftamps and
mills.
Ores cannot be calcined in reverberatory furnaces,
. as the heat would run it together, and part of the
metals themfelves would be carried off by the ftrong
current of air and the violent fmoke. Barba recom¬
mends a furnace of an oblong fquare figure, with three
vaults over each other; the fire is put into the lower-
moft, and the ore into the two upper ones. The heat
circulates by means of lateral openings in the walls, and
is let out on the back without a flue. The heat is
graduated by regifters and dampers on the outfide.—
Whatever kind of furnace, however, is ufed, fome of
the ore will have clotted, and muft therefore be ground
to a fine powder; but to prevent as much as poflible
thefe inconveniences, the hard ores ought to be cal¬
cined before they go to the mill, and the foft ones af¬
ter, but with proper additions. The irony ores, which
refill the fire longer, are calcined with an addition of
fulphur, or of fulphureous and antimonial matter, pro¬
portioned to the iron they contain ; but fulphureous
and antimonjal ores require to be calcined with the
fcoria of iron. Arfenieal ores, or thofe mixed with
orpiment and fandarac, are calcined with lead glance ;
and thofe mixed with white or black bitumen, muft be
calcined with iron fcoria or pounded limeftone.
i The
■Sefuir, METAL
Aroaiga- The Impurities of ores, and the additions proper to
CoM and mac^e to are determined by pounding them
•Silver Ores. coar^y» anx^ throwing them upon a heated plate of
w—y— iron. If the fmoke be white or black, it (hows a mix¬
ture of bitumen of thefe colours 5 if yellow, it (hows
orpiment; if red, fandarac ; if greeni(h-yellow, ful-
phur.
Salt ought not to be ufed in the calcination of ores,
as it would calcine the filver; and the duration of the
calcining muft be determined by the change of colour
which the ores undergo by calcination by themfelves,
and the brightnefs they a flume by trituration with
quickfilver. It is aifo a mark'of fufficient calcination
when antimonial and fulphureous ores no longer fend
6ut adifagreeable fmoke ; if the thick and black fmoke
bf bituminous ores become white ; and if the filver in
the fluff appears in white glittering fparks. Vitriolic
ores may alfo be calcined in the fame manner; but they
require a longer time with the addition of alum and
fait: they, however, require no farther addition in
the fubfequeht operations ; and in the courfe of four
days all their filver will be taken up by the quickfilver.
JLefs quicklilver will alfo be loft 5 for as there is no occa-
(ion for the frequent turning and working of the heap,
a very fmall part of it only can be turned into ufelefs
duft. Vitriolic ores ought always to be well waffled
With water before they are calcined; and if there is
ftill a fufpicion of their being vitriolic, they muft be
tried by quickfilver : if it takes a lead-colour, the fluff
fnuft be wafhed till iron put into it no longer takes a
copper colour. The lixivium is kept as an ufeful ad¬
dition to feme ores.
Amalgamation, according to Alonfo Barba’s me¬
thod, is performed in three ways, viz. in heaps or
caxons, in the boiler, and in mortars.
1. In heaps. Before the operation takes place in
the large way, an effay is made of three or four pounds
bf the fine fifted powder taken from the general quan¬
tity ; and according to the produce of this he calcu¬
lates that of the whole. He tries it alfo with quick¬
filver, to know perfe&ly the method he is to follow,
and the additions that are to be made. In this ef¬
fay the following method is adopted : 1. The mat¬
ter is elixated, to extradl the vitriol if there be any.
2. One pound of the lixiviated matter is tried with
quickfilver and fait, carefully obferving the colour and
its change. If the quickfilver affumes the appearance
of filver filings, and thefe quickfilver flakes become
thinner and thinner, it proves that the amalgamation
goes on fuccefsfully, and that there is no occafion for
any addition. The whole is ftirred from time to time,
till the quickfilver feehrs to diminifh, and recover its
natural form, but without dividing into fmall globules;
after which the matter is to be waffled, as all the filver
is by that time completely taken up. The ores of
Verevgvela de Pacetges are treated only with quickfilver
and fait, and yet yield their full produce.
When the Ore turns black, iron is added ; When of
a light lead-colour, tin ; if a dark lead-colour, lead ;
and if of a yellowifti or gold-colour, lime. The three
firft of thefe are fiyled. by Baron Born, “ very idle
and ufelefs additions.”—The ore frequently divides
into fmall and powdery globules, in confequence of
the hardnefs of the minerals, or from too much ftir-
Vol. XI. Part II.
L U R G Y. 441
ring ; but this may be prevented by calciriatidrt before Arealga-
it is reduced to powder, or by lefs ftirring. ’ In a great
many operations, however, this quickfilver duft can g;[V!.r ore;i>
fcarceiy be avoided. It ferves the workmen as an in- -y--—<
dex of the progrefs they have made, or fometimes as
a dire&ion how to operate ; and has different names
according to the caufe by which it is produced ; as
quickfilver duft, the duft of addition, and filver duft.
The firft of thefe arifes (imply from too great divifion,
and is white without any quicknefs, fcarceiy moving
when the matter is ftirred with water: it flicks fomC-
what to the bottom, and runs into globules when bro¬
ken between the fingers. The fecond is produced by
the amalgam of lead and tin ; and, when prefled be¬
tween the fingers, unites with the quickfilver which
had begun to combine with the filver. The third
comes from the amalgam of filver: it finks towards
the coarfer (luff on the bottom, and floats about in
flakes of different fixes ; turning into an amalgam when
rubbed or prefled between the fingers. All of thefe
are produced chiefly when there are lead, marcafite,
and irony ores in the mixture ; or by vitriol of copper,
which is particularly produ&ive of this minute divifion
of the quickfilver. They are produced alfo by too
plentiful an addition of fait, which thickens the water,
and prevents the defeent of the particles of quick-
filver.
According to the produce of the eflay the large
heap is regulated. It is firft wetted with water, and
mixed with the due proportion of fait; but at the be¬
ginning only one third of the quickfilver and one half
of the lead and tin are added. It is turned over once
every day during the two firft days, becaufe the quick¬
filver being then uncombined would be apt to'be
driven off in fmall globules, and a great wafte occa-
fioned. The heap is likewife too much cooled by the
addition of too much quickfilver at once ; fo that it is
better to put it gradually to the other matters. The
lead and tin are always thrown into the heap along
with the quickfilver ; but too much -of either is hurt¬
ful, by deadening the quickfilver, and preventing the
amalgamation. All thefe additions, however, muft vary
according to circumftances ; obferving that the quan-
ties added muft always be lefs and lefs in proportion as
the amalgam advances to perfection. The matter
(hould be kept rather dty than otherwife, and two
parts of amalgam be in the heap to one of fluid quick¬
filver. Too great an abundance of this fluid mafs is
very detrimental, on account of the quantity of quick¬
filver duft which it occafions; and if the other ingre¬
dients are accidentally wafted, the duji of addition will
be changed into quiclfrlver duji; which having veiy
little weight, will be poured off along with the water.
But when lime is added, the whole muft be mixed at
once, and the entire heap turned over two or three
days, till the quickfilver be added. Too much lime
prevents the union pf the two metals, and is an incon¬
venience which cannot be remedied.
The heaps are frequently turned and worked over
after the firft two days, which is attended with feve-
ral advantages; as^that the quickfilver is thus heated,
mote thoroughly mixed with the matter, and the fil¬
ver is purified by the frequent rubbing. The heaps,
however, are fubjeCt to various accidents, owing to
3 K the
442 META L
Air.alga- tlie difFei'ence between tlie various kin^is of ores, which
' cTLl cannot always be exactly known. When the quick-
gi'“er f)”es. filver is deadened by too large an addition of lead,
■ t iron, tin, or lime, it lofes its oval form, and a^Tumes
a vermicular one : if lhaken in a glafs, or other veffel,
without water, it adheres to the fides in threads, and
is unfit for taking up the filver. The heft remedy is
vitriol of copper, or the lixivium of vitriolic ores al¬
ready mentioned ; or powder of copper may be thrown
into the heap. All additions of this kind, however,
muft be made very cautioufly, and in confequence of
experiments made by fmall efiays, which determine
the .quantity of materials to be ufed. When the heaps
have too much vitriol, without any correcting ingre¬
dient, the quickfilver has a leaden colour, and the
fmaller particles afi' '.me a fpherical f®rm. Iron might
be added to abforb the too great quantity of vitriolic
acid j but there is no certain rule for the proportion
to be added, fo that it muft be determined by expe¬
riment.
When the quickfilver appears, on turning the heaps,
like a bunch of grapes, this fhows an excefs of fait,
which prevents the quickfilver from combining with
the filver : it is to be remedied by the addition of fome
coarfe fluff which cleanfes the fluid. Some add aflies;
but the bed and moft natural remedy is alum, which
is found at Potofi in abundance, and whitens the fil¬
ver. If the heap be not tupned equally, or the quick-
fihrer added at a proper time, or if the filver do not
unite with it, fome of the filver will appear in a dry
form, and lie on the coarfer fluff like a cobweb ; and
jf not fkimmed off in time, will be carried away by the
waffling water. To colleCt this dry filver, and the
fined quickfilver dull, fome filver amalgama is preffed
upon it through a chamois flcin ; and the whole is
once more turned and worked over. The frequent
turning, the heat of the climate and feafon, as well as
the fermentation produced in the heap by the vitriol
and other additions, all promote the amalgamation; but
cold, negleCl of ftirring, ^ind the quickfilver affuming
a lead-colour, are againft it. It is, however, very dif¬
ficult to determine the maturity of the heap, when
all the filver is taken up, and the matter may go to
the wafhirrg; though great inconveniences attend an
ignorance in this refpeft. If wafhed too foon, fome
filver is left in the leavings ; and if worked too long,
there is a lofs of quickfilver as well as time and la¬
bour. The difficulties attending the knowledge of
this important point, are by our author enumerated
as follow: “ The heap may appear not to require any
additional quickfilver ; the filver dull may appear to
be completely collefted ; that of quickfilver may be¬
gin to make its appearance ; the amalgama may be¬
gin to appear pure, and to fhow a gold-colour ; and
yet filver may remain in the leavings. The moft in¬
fallible tell of the maturity of the heap, is the effay
of the triturated fluff by fire. If no filver is produced
thereby, then fo much qufekfilver is thrown into the
heap, that it may contain three parts of amalgama to
two of filver. or at leaft one part of quickfilver to
two of amalgama. By this additional frefti quick-
filver, all the duft of quickfilver, and the dry and un¬
combined quickfilver, are perfeftly collefted ; the amal¬
gam is the heavier for it, and finks the more readily
io the bottom when brought to the wafhing-tub.—
L U RG Y. Part If.
Soiqe clean quickfilver is alfo put into the bottom of Amalga-
this tub ; the infide of which muft be lined with iron maT‘'in
plate well cleaned, and rubbed with quickfilverg^ver Ores
(though this laft operation feems to be quite fuperflu- ^
ous, as mercury will not in the leaft unite with iron ^
by rubbing.) “ The fluff brought into the tub
muft be diluted with a great quantity of water, and
be flirred round with a peftle lined with iron-plate in
fuch a manner that it may turn round fix times one
way and fix times the other, always touching the bou
tom ; the unconnedled bodies of quickfilver and amal¬
gam are thereby to meet, to combine, and to fall to
the bottom. To recover the fait which had been mix-,
ed with the heap, the water muft be evaporated
but the Baron obferves, that at Shemnitz no fait is,
recoverable from the lixivium ; and if any be recover¬
ed by the Spaniards, it only fhows that they add too
much, and that part of-the remainder is undecompo-.
fed by the vitriolic acid. The quickfilver is feparated
from the amalgama much in the fame way as already
deferibed. . ;
2 Amalgamation by boiling, was accidentally difeo-
vered by Barba, in an attempt to fix quickfilver.—.
On mixing filver ore finely powdered with quickfil-
ver. and boiling it with water in a capper veffel, he
found that the metals readily united; a:xl thus having,
difeovered a fhorter method of amalgamation, he gradu¬
ally improved and introduced it into prailice in Peru.
In this operation the boilers muft be of copper, ear¬
then or other veffels being found not to anfvver : the
copper alfo muft be pure, becaufe the quickfilver would
diffolve the metals with which it is alloyed. They,
muft be in the fhape of inverted cones, and flat-bot¬
tomed. The under part has a rim of fix or eight-
inches high and half an inch broad, all beat of onq
piece. Other copper plates are fixed in the infide with
copper nails ; and care muft be taken that it be water¬
tight, that no quickfilver may run off; and for the bet¬
ter fecurity, the infide of the boiler may be lined with
lime and ox-blood. The boilers may be of any mag¬
nitude ; their upper parts being furrounded with iron
rings with flrong handles, into which a crofs board is
wedged. In the middle of this board is a hole for the
fpindle to move in. The fpindle is of light wood,-
and moves on a brafs pivot in the bottom. It has
four-wooden ^ings, with three or four perpendicular
bars, alfo of wood ; the fiirtheft from the fpindle being
the fhorteft ; the nigheft fo long as to fweep the bot¬
tom. It is turned by a moveable handle on the up¬
per end.
Thefe boilers are put into an oblong furnace, ca¬
pable of holding to of them ; the fire place being in
the middle, and the flame and fmoke paffing under the
boilers, and going out on both ends of the furnace by
two chimnies. The fire being lighted, firft the wa¬
ter, then the fine fluff, and at laft the quickfilver, isi
put in ; obferving always that the bottom be fully co¬
vered with quickfilver. The water muft always be
kept boiling, otherwife the operation may be inter¬
rupted or become tedious : on account of the evapo¬
ration, the boilers muft be fupplied with a quantity of
water, in fmall quantities at a time, that the boiling
be not checked. The fluff muft be proportioned to
the fize of the boiler: if too little be put in, the-amal¬
gamation goes on too flowly ; while too much would
4 , aot
/
Sea. nr. metal
Am; Iga- not allow the ftiafs to he thick enough, or to boil with
fufficient freedom. Some of the amalgam is to be ta-
Silvcr Ores.ken out from t,'me to t:me wlt^ a l°ng laddie, and the
v~~- ProSre^s t^5e °Petat’on *s jU(lged of by the colour.
The eflay of the fluff determines whether all the fil-
ver be taken out of it in this manner. Some quicks
filver is then thrown upon the furface of a fample of
the boiled fluff, and worked round with it in a veffel
two or three times. If the quickfilver rifes and takes
up fome of the fluff, fome filver remains ; if not, the
whole is taken up. Then the fire is flopped, the
fpindle is taken out, and the water and fluff let off.
The coarfer matter on the quickfilver may at all events
be wafhed in cold water, and go once more to the
mill. Almoft the whole of the filver amalgama lies
upon the furface of the quickfilver, immediately under
the fluff, fometijpes four or five fingers thick ; the fire
under the boilers preventing the filver from uniting
with the quickfilver in the bottom. This metal, when
poured off, muft be preffed and treated in the ufual
manner.
The advantages attending this method are, that the
heat promotes the union of the metals, while the boil¬
ing of the water and ftirring of the mixture with the
fpindle bring them more frequently in contadl with
each other in a quarter of an hour, than they would
be in feveral days in the common method ; by which
means the whole procefs is finifhed in about 24 hours
Lefs quickfilver is alfo loft by it; for being always co¬
vered with water, it cannot evaporate ; and in well
managed and fuccefsful operations, no quickfilver duft
is produced: but the greateft recommendation is, that
it is not attended with any lofs of filver, fo that even
the pooreft ores will yield all that they contain. Bar¬
ba looks upon the profit of this method above the
other to amount to 25 dollars for every heap of 50
quintals; even making allowance for the coals. The
only objections are, that both filver and copper are
apt to be loft by the corrofion of the copper-boilers :
but if the copper be pure, there is no great reafon to
be apprehenfive of any thing of this kind ; or, at all
events, the bottom of the boiler, which is conftantly
expofed to the aftion of the quickfilver, may be fecu-
ted by a copper ring three or four inches high ; and
the bottom itfelf may be fecured in the fame manner;
fo that when corroded they may be changed for new
ones : or the boilers may be paved or lined with var-
hifhes or mortars of difterent kinds; which will as ef¬
fectually prevent any lofs While the whole is boil¬
ing, the quickfilver violently feir.es on the other me¬
tal ; by which means the amalgam is filled with many
heterogeneous particles. Thefe are feparated by wafh-
ing in- quickfilver, on the furface of which they fwim
like fcoria, and may eafily be taken off, till the
quickfilver fhows its ufual brightnefs ; and aS this can¬
not be done without taking off fome of the metals
alfo, the leum may be referved for the next operation.
The advantage of amalgamation by boiling chiefly
appears in this, that heaps, in which by too large
additions, the quickfilver has been totally diffolved fo
as to difappear, may be eafily cured by boiling them,
in iron or copper veffels with bits of iron ; for then
the quickfilver appears again in its proper metallic
form and brightnefs.
3. Amalgamation in mortars. It is difficult to pro*
L U R G Y. 44j
cure the full produce from ores which contain native Amalia-
gold and filver either in the form of hair or wire, of ^
in larger lumps and nodules. Thefe cannot be cons-silver Ore#.
pletely pounded, nor can they be amalgamated ; for the ; —t f
mercury will not diffolve the large particles of gold
and filver ; and when they are treated by fire, the ftub*
born nature of their matrices occafions a great lofs of
metal. The following method of treating.them in a
mortar was difeovered by a Francifcan friar.
A round conical hole is cut in a hard ftone, half
a foot in diameter at top, of an equal depth, and Hop¬
ing into a truncated, or rather obtufe and nearly flat'
bottom, of about four inches in diameter. Some
quickfilver is poured into it, together with a propor¬
tional quantity of fmall bits of the native metal or
ore ; after which they are triturated with an iron
peftle. By this violent trituration, the gold and filver
combine with the quickfilver; and the finer, lighter
fluff of red filver ore and other filver calces, which are
generally found with native fllver, runs off by means
of a fmall launder and current of water. It ismot,
however, fuffered to run away, but is left to fettle for
common amalgamation.
Mortars of the dimenfions above deferibed being
too fmall for any confiderable quantity of ore, Barba
propofes to fubftitute in their place larger ftones of a
concave figure, with vertical grinders, as in oil-mills ;
or common horizontal and parallel grinders of the grift-
mill. The ore and quickfilver are put between thefe
ftones. with a fmall ftream of water ; which, running
off, will carry away the lighter fluff, whilft the gold
and filver will remain at the bottom, taken up by
the quickfilver.
There are feveral other methods of amalgamation
deferibed in Baron Born’s work, as praftifed by the
Spaniards of South America : but as all of them agree
in the moft material circumftances with thofe already
mentioned, we lhall only farther take notice of that
invented by the Baron himfelf, and by him lately in¬
troduced at Shemnitz in Lower Hungary.
This method is very pompoufly related, and at
great length, in his work on the fubjeft. His theory
contains the following particulars :
x. Quickfilver has a tendency to unite with othef
metals and femimetals, and to quicken or animate them
according to certain laws of affinity which are deter¬
mined by experience.
2. It unites with gold, filver* copper, tin, lead, bif-
muth, and zinc, without heat; but with other metals
and femimetals it will not unite but in a ftate of fu-
fion. It upites with tin and bifmuth more eafily than
with gold and filver; and with thefe more readily
than with copper.
3. The union of quickfilver with other metals is
promoted by heat.
4. This union is alfo greatly promoted by mechani¬
cal comminution.
5. No amalgamation, or only a very flow and par¬
tial one, will take place, if the furface of the quick¬
filver or metallic particles be covered with a coat of
heterogeneous matter; which happens chiefly in the
amalgamation of ores where the fine particles of the
metal are involved in fulphur and arfenic.
6. Hence it is neceffary to free the noble metals
3 K 2 from
44+
METALLURGY.
Part IL.
■ from the ftony matter which furrounds them, and to gold can be extra&ed. The reparation will alfo be Amalga-
| reduce the bafer ones from their calciform to a me- promoted by the addition of fulphureous fubftances.
t>tallic ftate, before they can be amalgamated with fuc- From thefe conliderations, the Baron lays down the silver Ores*
cefs. following rules concerning amalgamation. '
7. Particles of gold and filver may be freed from “ 1. The ores and mixtures previous to their amal-
the ftony matters which involve them by trituration ; gamation mull be mechanically comminuted, and re-
and from fulphur and arfenic, by calcination. duced to a fine powder, by liamping, grinding, and
8. In calcination, fome part of the fulphur is de- lifting, that the furfaces of the particles, and their
ftroyed, and vitriolic acid difengaged ; which, combi- points of contact, may be increafed and multiplied,
ning with the earthy matters contained in the ore, as “ 2. This powder muft’be calcined, that, befides the-
well as the calces of the bafer metals mixed with it, pure particles of the nobler metals, thafe which are
ftiil leave the gold and filver involved: whence it is difguifed in the ore may be difengaged and laid bare
n.eceffary to employ fuch chemical agents as will free by defulphuration and calcination.
the partichs of thele metals from their heterogeneous “ 3. If before its calcination no common fait was
coat, and keep their furface as well as that of the added, it muft be added afterwards; then it muft be
quickfilver clean, without acting either upon the gold triturated with a proportionate quantity of quickfilver
®r filver. Thefe agents are principally the mineral and water, long enough,' and in fuch a manner, that
acids, which a£t varioufly according to their different the quickfilver, by an uninterrupted motion of the
natures. The marine acid is moft efficacious for gold whole mafs, may come into repeated contact with the
or filver ores ; but it would be exceedingly expenfive difengaged gold and fiiver particles, and take then>
to ufe it in its proper form, fo that it is neceffary to up.
take fome method of expelling it extemporaneoufly “ 4. As much depends on the juft-mentioned propor-
from common fait by means of oil of vitriol. tion«, the infpeclor, director, or mafter of the work,,
9. The calcined ore, when pulverifed, muft be muft be well acquainted with the elective attraftion of ~
wetted with water, for the purpofe of diffolving the bodies, that forming a juft idea ofy and judgment on,
difengaged vitriolic acid and the earthy and metallic their different mechanical cw chemical decompofition
neutral falts, which are produced by it in proportion and combination, he may remedy and remove fuch un¬
to the fulphur contained in the ore. Vitriol is pro- toward difficulties and impediments in the procefs as*.
duced by calcination only in this proportion ; and may, and will fometimes, prevent its full fuccefs.”
hence if the ore does not naturally contain a fuffici- The various fteps by which the metals are extracled
ency of fulphur to produce vitriol for the purpofe of from their ores, according to the Baron’s method, are*
decompofition, it will be neceffary. to add fomething 1. Stamping, grinding, and fifting.. 2, Calcination j
of this kind. Vitriol of copper or of iron will an- after which the grinding and fifting muft be repeated,
fwer, but the former is preferable. If, therefore, the 3. Trituration. 4. Walhing of the refiduum. 5. E-
pulverifed ore, which has once gone through the pro- liquation of the amalgama. 6. Heating of the fame.;
cefs of amalgamation, fliould ftill appear to contain 7. Diftillation of the quickfilver preffed from the amaU
gold or filver, mix it with fome additional vitriol and gam. 7. Refining of the heated amalgam. 8. Ex-,
common fait; leave it for fome time to macerate by trailing from the refidua fuch parts of the noble me-,
itfelf; and, at a.fecond trituration with quickfilver, a tals as may ftill, be contained in them.
1. Stamping, grinding, and Jifting* The Baron recom¬
mends dry-ftamps and mills for this purpofe ; as wet-
ftamps, he fays, “ would bring on great k>fs of Giver,
and expenfive contrivances-to prevent or recover it.”
confiderable quantity of filver will be found in the
amalgama which had not been extrailed in- the firft,.
though common fait had been ufed in it. Thus the
common -fait may be decompofed in the wet way.
o. To deeompofe the common fait in the dry way. On the other , hand, E. Rafpe, the tranllator of h;s
the ore mull be properly flamped and fifted, and the work, fays, that “ late experiments have proved fo
mixtures made up with a proportional quantity of much in favour of the wet ftamps, that they have ac-
pulverifed common or rock fait, and- then undergo an tually been adopted as great improvements.”
adequate calcination in an open fire. Thus the com- The contents of the ores are accurately inveftigated
mon fait will-be decompofed according to the nature by effays before any thing is done in the large way.
of the mixture; either by the vitriolic acid produced The ores are delivered to the refpeftive mills; the
by the decompofition of the fulphur, ox otherwlfe.— fmaller ores are paffed over a brafs fieye, the. mefties of
The muriatic acid, thus difengaged, diffolves the he- which are about one-tenth of an inch wide, that the
terogenepus particles in which the metals are involved, finer particles may be feparated and not fent to the
and allows the quickfilver to aft upon them much-more, ftamps, which would occafion fome wafte, efpecially
effectually than it could hav.e been enabled to do by in the dry way. The finer fand is fentdireftly to the
any mechanical comminution ; and this the more fo mill, and the-big lumps to the ftamp. Each box, ox
as it takes up even thofe particles of dephlogiftica- fet of ftamps, has three ftampTheads, weighing 40 ox
ted iron upon which the other acids are incapable) 54 pounds, the foie being of caft-iron. The matter
of afting. is every now and then wetted with water to pre-
11. The calcination and corrofion of the bafer me- vent the finer parts from flying off. When the ore is
tals is indifpenfably neeeffary, efpecially in a natural fufficiently beat in the ftamps, it is afterwards fifted,
combination of gold and copper ; for the affinity of and the coarfe part returned to the ftamp. When the;
thefe two is fo ftrong, that unlefs the latter be per- coarfeft part is reduced in. this manner to the fize of
fqftly calgincd, or othe.rwife removed, very little of the coarfe fand, it is feut to the mill;, the running ftone of
whicii
Seam. METALLURGY.
AmaTga which muft be kept clofe in a box, and nothing left by the antimony, it mufl in the former cafe leave rich
mation of 0petl but the admiffion-fun nel. The millftones are a refidua, -and in the latter bring on greater lofs. It is
?°'dOre- ^■In^ porphyry, and the fieves of brafs-wire. alfo determined by experience, that the excefs of c
SUver^ re>. ^ Calcination. The ore being reduced to a fufficient quickfilver never does any hurt, while too fmall a
degree of finenefs, is next carried to the calcining fur- quantity never fails to be difadvantageous.
nace; previous to which it is again to be tried by ef- With regard to tire conftriidtion of the boilers, it is
fay, and to have the proper additions.aceording to its needlefs to be particular, as thofe recommended by A-
nature. When the furnace is properly heated, the lonfo Barba feem to be very adequate to the purpofe.
whole quantity of ore deftined to one furnace, about Heat is required; but it is not neceffary that the mat-
jo quintals, is brought up to the top by wheel-bar- ter fhould boil, a moderate fire being fulficient for mar¬
rows ; and being fpread as even as maybe, the proper king the metals unite. Nor is there occafion for more
quantity of fait and lime is fifted over it, and the water than what will make the matter liquid. The.
whole turned .with crooks and rakes till it be perfectly fti'rring apparatus is put in motion by the crank of a
mixed. The calcination is then performed in the fol- water wheel, and a horizontal rack with cogs; which*
lowing manner: The back-door being carefully (hut, being properly fixed in a groove by crofs bars, Hides
eight hundred, weight of the matter, prepared as al- forward and backward on brafs rollers and callers,
ready mentioned, is let down through a funnel upon The cogs of this rack catch into thofe of the perpen*
the upper hearth. Here it is again to be fpread and dicular trundle and fpindle of the itirrers, which turns
allowed to dry before it is put down on the lower round twice by three and an half feet motion of the
hearth; and as foon as this is done, another quantity Hiding rack. The whole moves quicker or flower ia
is put upon the upper hearth, that the two operations proportion to the box of water thrown upon the wheel*
may regularly fucceed each other. and the quicker motion of the rack produces of courfe
Our author deferibes at great length all the minu- a quicker turn and better trituration. The ftirrers muit
tia; of this operation: but, as he juflly obferves, “ Ex- be circular fegments correfponding with, the Tides and
perience and praftice are, and muft be, the heft teach- bottom of the boiler, otherwife their motion is irre^
ers; for there are many things which muft be attended gular and unfatisfadtory. The time of trituration, as de-
to, and which words and deferiptions will hardly make pending on the nature of the ore, mufl; be determined
intelligible.” We (hall therefore only.obferve, that the by. experience.
calcining furnace muft be kept heated day and night: 4. The majhing of the triturated leavings or refiduum
but while the ore is fnoved down from the upper to is performed in large tubs, and requires no particular
the lower hearth, the fire muft be kept very moderate; defeription, farther than that it be continued till all the
and during tht calcination it will be neceffary to keep ftfluble matter be got out; and for this purpofe there
the matter conftantly turning with iron rakes, the muft be a contrivance for ftirring the matter all the
combs or teeth of which are from four to tight inches time it is wafhing.
long. 5. Mliquation of the quickfilver and amalgama. For-
The grinding and fifting after calcination is only merly this was performed in bags made of deer-fkins^
neceflary when the matter has run into hard indiffo- ftrongly comprefled with engines for the purpofe; but
liible clots during the operation; and is performed in a this being, found too expenfive, it is now done by fmall
grinding and fifting mill, which turns by water ; but quantities at a time, and preffed only by the hand till
which it is unneceflary here to deferibe, as every pof- the ball of amalgam yields no more quickfilver. A
feflbr of mines would choofe fuch mechanical contri- fmall quantity always remains in the. quickfilver which
vances as belt fuit his purpofe. pafies through; and this quantity is the greater in pro-
3. Trituration^ boiling) and amalgamation. After the portion to the warmth of the amalgam when prefled,
ores have been. properly calcined and pounded, the 6. The dijlillation of the amalgam is performed per
luccefs of the amalgamation depends moftly on the defeenfum in large Iron pots.-. The undermoft ftands
proportions of quickfilver and water which are added upright to its middle in a ftream of cold running wa=
to the fluff, and the conftru&ion of the ftirring appa- ter which paffes under the hearth ; the upper part
ratus by. which the whole is kept in conftant mation hardly appearing two inches above it. The amalgam,
and mutual contaft. The lighter the fluff, the more made up into balls, is placed in iron cullenders fixed
voluminous and bulky it will prove, and confequently upon a tripod fet in the bottom of the lower pot,
the gold and filver will be the more difperfed: in which and covered in the infide with a coarfe cloth. The
cafe the quantity of quickfilver muft be proportioned upper pot is inverted on the lower one ; and thejunc-
to the mafs, that notwithftanding its conftant gravita- ture being luted, the fire is ,put all round the outer
tkm towards the bottom it may the more frequently one, and the heat paffing through to the amalgam
come into contact with the gold and filver. It a6ls in quickly liquefies it, and raifes the quickfilver in vapour,
proportion to its bulk.and furface. A larger quantity which condenfes in the .under pot continually kept
is therefore advifable, as it not only. forms a larger cool by the ftream of.water. The upper pot is kept
furface on the bottom of the veffel, but comes likewife in a ftrong red heat for five or fix . hours; by which,
into contaft with the gold and filver more frequently ; means the cloth is entirely converted into tinder, fo
nor is there, any greater lofs of quickfilver to he ap- that the cullenders muft afterwards be cleaned with a
prehended on that account. A larger proportion of brafs brufli.
fluid metal is in particular neceffary when the matter The other operations contain nothing particular bui
is mixed with lead or antimony : for, by taking up what may be eafily underftood from what has been aJU
the 1 ad, it becomes proportionably lefs aftive and fit ready delivered.'
for the reception of gold and filver, and turning greafy
3 r Secx,
44>
Amalga¬
mation of
Gold and
METAL
Sect. IV. Ores of Copper.
§ r. Copper is found underground in three diffe¬
rent forms: x. Native or virgin copper diverfely ra¬
mified, which is much more rare than native filver.
This native copper is not fo duftile as copper purified
by fufions from the ore (a). 2. Copper is found in
form of calx, of verdigrife, of precipitates. Such
are the minerals called fliy copper ores, and feveral
white and green earths. Thefe matters are only cop¬
per almoft pure and but little mineralifed, but which
has been corroded, diffolved, precipitated, calcined by
laline matters, by the aftion of the air, of water, and
of earths (b). Copper is frequently in a truly mi¬
neral Hate, that is, combined with fulphur and with
arfenic, with other metallic matters mixed with earths,
and enveloped in different matrices (c). Thefe are the
true copper ores. They have no regular forms ex¬
cept they partake of the nature of pyrites. Their
■colours are very different, which depend chiefly on the
proportion of the mineral fubftances compdfing them.
JLaftly, in almofl: all of them we may perceive green or
blue colours, which always indicate an erofion or cal¬
cination of the copper. Moll copper ores contain al-
fo fome iron or ferruginous earth, to which the ochrey
colour is to be attributed, which might make us believe
them to be ores of iron. Ores which contain much iron
are the moll difficultly fufible.
Copper ores have almoft all a yellow, golden, and
flxining colour, by which they are eafily diftinguilhed.
Some of them are coloured with irifes, and frequently
have fpots of verdigrife, by which alfo they are dillin-
guilhable from other ores.
Many copper ores are alfo rich in filver. Such is
that called the white copper ore, the colour of which
is rather occafioned by arfenic than by filver, although
it contains fo much filver as to be enumerated by fe¬
veral mineralogifts amongft filver ores.
L.aftly, the pyrites of a golden yellow colour which
contains copper and fulphur, and the white pyrites
which contains copper and arfenic, are ponfidered as
copper ores by feveral chemifts and naturalifts. Henc-
leel and Cramer remark, that no proper ore of copper
L U R G Y. Part II.
is known which does not contain a confiderable qusui- Effaymg of
tity of arfenic. °reiof
$ 2. Ores of copper may be effayed in methods fimi-
lar to thofe employed for fmelting of large quantities
of ores (Part III ), or they may in general be effayed
by the following proceffes.
PROCESS I.
To reduce and precipitate copper from a pure and fufihle
ore in a clofe vejfel.
“ Mix one, or, if you have fmall weights, two do-
cimaftical centners of ore beat extremely fine, with fix
centners of the black flux; and having put them into
a crucible or pot, cover them one inch high with com¬
mon fait, and prefs them down with your finger; but
let the capacity of the veffel be fuch that it may be
only half full; flint the veffel clofe, put it into the fur¬
nace ; heap coals upon it, fo that it may be covered
over with them a few inches high; govern the fire in
fuch a manner that it may firft grow flightly red-hot.
Soon after you will hear your common fait crackle ;
and then there will be a gentle hilling noife. So long
as this lafts, keep the fame degree of fire till it is
quite over. Then increafe fuddenly the fire, either
with the funnel and cover put upon the furnace, or
with a pair of bellows applied to the hole of the bot¬
tom part, that the veffel may grow very red-hot. Thus
you will reduce and precipitate your copper in about
a quarter of an hour: then take out the veffel, and
ftrike with a few blows the pavement upon which you
put it, that all the fmall grains of copper may be col-
lefted in one mafs.
“ Break the veffel, when grown cold, in two, from
top to bottom, as nearly as you can : if the whole
procefs has been well performed, you will find a folid,
perfedlly yellow and malleable regulus adhering to the
bottom of the veffel, with fcorias remaining at top of
a brown colour, folid, hard, and Ihining, from which
the regulus muft be feparated with feveral gentle blows
of a hammer; this done, weigh it, after having wiped
off all the filthinefs.
A foft, dufty, and very black fcoria, is a fign of a
fire not fufficiently ftrong. Small neat grains of cop¬
per
(a) Native copper is folid; or confiftingof friable maffes, formed by precipitation of cupreous vitriolic waters,
called cement or ziment copper; or forming crytlallized cubes or grains, leaves, branches, or filaments.
(b) Calciform ores are either pure calces of copper, or are mixed with heterogeneous matters. 1. The pure
are loofe friable ochre, called “ mountain-blue,” and viride montanum “mountain-green;”
and the red indurated calx, called improperly glafs copper ore. 2. Mixed calciform ores are thofe in which the
calx of copper is mixed; with calcareous earth, forming a mountain-blue; with iron, forming a black calx ;
with ayp/um, an indurated green ore, called malachites; and with quartz, a red ore
(c ) Copper is mineralifed, 1, By fulphur, forming the grey copper ore, improperly called vitreous (minera cu-
pri vitrea Wallerii). ?. By JuJphurcited iron, forming the hepatic copper ore (minera cupri hepatica Wallerii)
of a brown yellow colour. It is a kind of cupreous pyrites, and is called by Cronftedt minera cupri pyritacea.
Sometimes it is of a blackilh grey colour, and is then called pyrites cypri . 11feus (minera cupri grifea Wallerii);
fometimes of a reddiffi -yellow, and tarniflted with blue irifes on its furface, when it is called minera cupri
lazure a ; when of a yellowifh green colour, it is the ;y rites cupri favo-viridefeens (cuprum fulphure et ferro
mineralifatum Wallerii) ; and when of a pale yellow colour, it is the pyrites cupri paitide favus. Moll of the
above pyritaceous ores contain alfo fome arfenic, but their fulphur is predominant. 3. Copper mineralifed
by fulphur, iron, and arfenic. White copper ore (Minera cupri alba Wallerii). This ore contains alfo fome
filver. 4. Copper diffolved by vitriolic acid. ' alive 'ue vitriol. 5. Coppt. • jailed <with hiiu.nt.ns. Copper-coal
ore. This is a pit-coal, from the alhes of which copper is obtainable. 6. Copper is alfo found in the mi¬
neral called hupfer nickel.
Sea. IV. - METAL
Effayiig ofper reduced but not precipitated, and adhering {till to
Ores of fCOnas> efpecially not very far from the bottom, and
. CcWt-r- an unequal and ramificated regulus, are figns of ihe
- fame thing. A folid, hard, Ihining, red-coloured
fcoria, efpecially about the regulus, or even the regu¬
lus itfelf when covered with a like fmall cruft, are
figns,,of an excefs in the degree and duration of the
fire.
“ Remarks. All the ores which are eafily melted
in the fire are not the objects of thisprocefs; for they
muft alfo be very pure. Such are the vitreous copper
ores.” (Mr Cramer means, it is prefumed, the red
calciform ore, called improperly glafs ore, and not the
miner a cupri vitrea of Wallerius, which being com-
pofed of copper mineralifed by fulphur, could not be
treated properly by this procefs, in which no previous
roafting is required. The fulphur of this ore would
with the alkali of the black flux form a hepar, from
which the metal would not precipitate). “ But efpe¬
cially the green and azure-coloured ores, and the rie-
ruleum and viride montanum, which are not very diffe¬
rent from them. But if there is a great quantity of
arfenic, fulphur, or of the ore of another metal and
femimetal joined to the ore of copper, then you will
never obtain a malleable regulus of pure copper, tho’
ores are not always rendered refra&ory by the prefence
of thefe.”
PROCESS II.
To reduce and jprecipitate copper out of ores rendered re-
fraSory by earth andJlones that cannot be wajhed off.
“ Beat your ore into a moft fubtile powder, of
W'hich weigh one or two centners, and mix as much
fandiver to them. This done, add four times as much
of the black flux with refpeft to the ore; for by this
means, the fterile terrefirial parts are better difpofed
to a fcorification, and the reducing and precipitating
flux may adt more freely upon the metallic particles
freed from all their incumbrances.
As for the reft, make the apparatus as in laft
procefs: but you mull make the fire a little ftronger
for about half an hour together. When the veffel is
grown cold and broken, examine the fcorias, whether
they are as they ought to be. The regulus will be
as fine and duftile as the foregoing.
“ Remarks. As thefe copper ores hardly conceal
any fulphur and arfenic in them, the roafting would
be of no effedf, and much copper would be loft. For
no metallic calx, except thofe of gold and filver, im¬
properly fo called, can be roafted, without you find a
part of the metal loft after the reduftion.
PROCESS III.
To precipitate copper out of an ore (d) that contains
iron.
“ Do all according to laft procefs. But you will
find, after the veflel is broken, a regulus upon no ac¬
count fo fine, but lefs dudfile, wherein the genuine
colour of the copper does not perfedlly appear, and
which muft be further purified.
L U R G Y. 447.
“ Remarks. The fire ufed in this operation is not Eflaying of
fa ftrong that the iron ftiould turn to a regulus. But es
as copper is the menftruum of iron, which is of itfelf . °rPer.',
very refradlory in the fire; for this reafon, while the
ore and the flux are moft intimately mixed and con¬
founded by trituration, the greateft part of the iron be- 1
ing diffolved by the copper, turns into a regulus along
with it.”
PROCESS IV.
The roajling of a pyritofe, fulphur eons, arfenic al^ femime~
tallicy copper ore.
“ Break two docimaftical centners of the ore to k
coarfe powder, put them into a teft covered with a
tile, and place them under the muffle of a docimaftical;
furnace. But the fire muft be fo gentle, that the
muffle may be but faintly red-hot. When the ore has
decrepitated, open the teft and continue the fire for
a few minutes ; then increafe it by degrees, that you
may fee the ore perpetually fmoking a little: in the
mean time, it is alfo proper now and then to ftir it up
with an iron hook. The fhining particles will aflame
a dark red or blackifh colour. This done, take out
the teft, that it may grow cold. If the fmall grains
are not melted, not- ftrongly adherent to each other,
hitherto all will be well; but if they run again in¬
to one Angle cake, the procefs muft be made again
with another portion of the ore, in a more gentle
fire.
“ Vihen the ore is grown cold, beat it to a powder-
fomewhat finer, and roaft it by the fame method as
before; then take it out, and if the powder is not
melted yet, beat it again to a moft fubtile powder; in
this you are to take care that nothing be loft.
“ Roaft the powder in a fire fomewhat ftronger,
but for a few minutes only. If you do not then find
the ore any way inclined to melt, add a little tallow,,
and burn it away under the muffle, and do the fame
another time again, till, the fire being very bright,,
you no longer perceive any fulphureous, arfenical, un-
pleafant fmell, or any fmoke ; and there remains no¬
thing but a thin, foft powder, of a dark red, or
blackifli colour.
“ Remarks. Every oyrites contains iron, with an
unmetallic earth ; to which fulphur or arfenic, and
moft commonly both, always join. Befides, there is
copper in many pyrites ; but fometimes more' and
forretimeslefs: fome of them are altogether deftitute of
copper; therefore, fo much as pyrites differ with re¬
gard to the proportion of their conftituent particles*
fo much do they differ as to their difpofition in the
fire. For inftance, the more copper there is in py¬
rites, the more it inclines to colliquation The more
fulphur and arfenic it has in it, the more quickly the
melting of it will be procured, and the reverfe : the
more iron and unmetallic earth it contains, the more it
proves refra&ory in the fire. Now if fuch pyrites,
melt in the roafting, as happens to fome of them if
they grow but red-hot, the fulphur and arfenic that
lies hidden therein are fa ftridlly united with the fixed
part, that you would in vain attempt to dillipate them,.
Nay,,
(d) Mr Cramer .ftill means the calciform ores only, and not the mineralifed ores of copper.
•448
METAL
Eflaying ofNay> ^ this Cafe, when it is reduced again into a
r>r'" " powder, it requires a much greater time and accuracy
^ in the regimen of the fire to perform the operation.
For this reafon, it is much better to repeat it with new
pyrites. But you can roaft no more than the double
^quantity at once of the ore you have a mind to em¬
ploy in the foregoing experiment; to the end that, the
precipitation by fufion not fucceeding, there may re*
main ftill another portion entire ; left you ftiould be
obliged to repeat a tedious roafting. If you fee the
fig ns of a ferreous refractory pyrites, the Operation
muft be performed with a greater fire, and much more
- quickly. However, take care not to do it with too
'violent a fire : for a great deal of copper is confirmed
mot only by the arfertic, but alfo by the.fulphur; and
-this happens even in veflels fhut very clofe, when the
•fulphur is expelled by a fire not quite fo ftrong; which
ti reiterated and milder fublimation of the fulphur in
a veffel both very clean and well clofed will clearly
fnow.
“ When the greateft part of the ftilphur and the
arfenic is diflipated by fuch caiifes, as promote colli-
quation, you may make a ftronger fire : but then it is
; proper to add a little of fome fat body ; for this
diffolves mineral fulphur: it changes the mixture ef
it in fome part, which, for inftance, confifts in a
certain proportion of acid and phlogifton ; and at
the fame time hinders the metallic earth from be¬
ing reduced into copper, by being burnt to an ex*
■ cefs. From thefe effects, the reafon is plain, why
affayers produce lefs metals in the trying of veins of
''■copper, lead, and tin, than fkilful fmelters do in large
operations. For the former perform the roafting un¬
der a muffle, with a clear fire, and without any oily
'deducing menftruum '; whereas the latter perform it in
the middle of charcoal or of wood, which perpetually
emit a redu&ive phlogifton.
“ The darker and blacker the powder of the roaft-
ed ore appears, the more copper you may expeft from
k. But the redder it looks, the lefs copper and the
-more iron it affords ; for roafted copper diffolved by
Tulphur or the acid of it is very black, and iron, on the
-contrary, very red.
PROCESS V.
77>e precipitation of copper out of roafled ore of the lajl
procefs.
“ Divide theToafted ore into two parts: each of
•them fflall go for a centner : add to it the fame weight
ef fandiver, and four times as much of the black flux,
and mix them well together. As for the reft, do all
according to the procefs I.: the precipitated regulus
will be half malleable, lometimes quite brittle, now
and then pretty much like pure copper in its colour,
but fometimes whitifti, and even blackifh. Whence it
is moft commonly called black copper, though it is not
always of fo dark a dye.
“ It is eafy to conceive, that there is as great a
difference between the feveral kinds of that metal call¬
ed black copper, as there is between the pyritofe and
ether copper ores accidentally mixed with other me¬
tallic and femi-metallic bodies. For all the metals,
the ores of which are intermixed with the copper ores,
ifceing reduced, are precipitated together with the
M' 212 m
L U R G Y. Part IT.
copper, which is brought about by means of the black Effayini? of
flux. Wherefore iron, lead, tin, the reguline part of ^res °f
antimony, bifmuth, moft commonly are mixed with 0^.,<;
black copper in a multitude of different proportions.
Nay, it is felf-evident, that gold and filver, which are
diffolvable by all thefe matters, are collected in fuch
a regulus when they have been ftrft hidden in the
ore. Befides, fulphur and arfenic are not always alto*
gether ahfent. For they c8rt hardly be expelled fo
perfectly by the many preceding roaftings, but there
remain fome veftiges of them, which are not difflpated
by a hidden melting, -efpecially in a elofe veffel,
wherein the flux fwimming at top hinders the aition
of the air. Nay, arfenic is rather fixed by the black
flux, and affumes a reguline femi-metallic form, while
it is at the fame time preferred from diflipating by the
copper.
PROCESS vr.
To reduce black copper into pure copper by fcorification.
“ Separate a fpecimen of your black copper, of
the weight of two fmall docimaftical centners at leaft^
and do it in the fame manner, and with the fame pre-~
cautions, as if you would detedl a quantity of filver in
black copper.
“ Then with lute and coal-duft make a bed in the
eavity of a teft moiftened: when this bed is dry, put
it under the muffle of the docimaftical furnace, in the
open orifice of which there muft be bright burning
coals, wherewith the teft muft likewife be furrounded
on all parts. When the whole is,perfedtly red-hot, put
your copper into the fire, alone, if it contains lead ;
but if it is altogether deftitute of it, add a fmall quan*
tity of glafs of lead, and with a pair of hand-bellows in*
creafe the fire, that the whole may melt with all fpeed:
this done, let the fire be made a little violent, and fuch
as will fuffice to keep the metallic mafs well melted,
and not much greater. The melted mafs will boil, and
fcorias will be produced, that will gather at the cir¬
cumference. All the heterogeneous matters being at
laft partly diflipated, and partly turned to fcorias, the
furface of the pure melted copper will appear. So foon
as you fee it, take the pot out of the fire, and extin-
guiih it in water: then examine it in a balance; and
if lead has been at firft mixed with your black-copper#
add to the regulus remaining of the pure copper one
1 9th part of its weight which the Copper has loft by
means of the lead, then break it with a vice; and thus
you will be able to judge by its colour and malleabi¬
lity, and by the furface of it after it is broken, whe¬
ther the purifying of it has been well performed or no.
But whatever caution you may ufe in the performing
of this procefs-, the product will neverthlefs be always
lefs in proportion than what you can get by a greater
operation, provided the copper be well purified in the
fmall trial.
“ Retnarks. This is the laft purifying of copper,
Whereby the feparation of the heterogeneous bodies be¬
gun in the foregoing procefs is completed as perfeftly
as it poflibly can be. For, except gold and filver, all
the other metals and femimetals. are partly diffipated
and partly burnt, together with the fulphnr and arfe¬
nic. For in the fufion they either turn of themfelves
to fcoria or fumes, or this is peifomed by means or
iroHj
Sea. IV. METAL
Effaying iron, which chiefly abforbs femlmetals, fulphur, and ar-
of Ores (f fen;C) and the deftru&ion of it is at the fame time ac-
. Co^’er‘ celerated by them. Thus the copper is precipitated
out of them pure ; for it is felf*evident, that the un-
metallic earth is expelled, the copper being reduced
from a vitrefcent terreftrial to a metallic Hate, and the
arfenic being diffipated by means of which the faid
earth has been joined to the coarfer regulufes of the
'firft fufion. But there is at the fame time a good
quantity of the copper that gets into the fcorias: how¬
ever, a great part of it may be reduced out of them
by repeating the fufion.
“ The fire in this procefs mull be applied with all
imaginable fpeed, to make it foon run : for if you ne-
gleft this, much of your copper is burnt; becaufe
copper that is only red-hot, cleaves much fooner, and
in much greater quantity, into half-fcorified fcales,
than it is diminiihed in the fame time when melted.
However, too impetuous a fire, and one much great¬
er than is neceflary for the fufion of it, defixoys a
much greater quantity of it than a fire fufficient only
to put it in fufion would do. For this reafon, when
the purifying is finilhed, the body melted muff be ex-
tinguifhed in water together with the veffel, left, be¬
ing already grown hard, it fhould ftill remain hot for
a while ; which muft be done very carefully to pre¬
sent dangerous explofions.
“ The fcoria of the above procefs frequently con¬
tains copper. To extradf which, let two or three do-
cimaftical centners of the fcoria, if it be charged with
fulphur, be bear to a fubtile powder, and mix it, either
alone, or, if its refradfory nature requires it, with
feme very fufible common pounded glafs without a
reducing faline flux, and melt it in a clofe vefiel, and
in a fire having a draught of air; by which you will
obtain a regulus.
“ But when the fcoria has little or no fulphur at
all in it, take one centner of it, and with the black
flux manage it as you do the fufible copper ore,
(procefs I.) by which you will have a pure regulus.”
PROCESS VII.
The following procefs is tranflated from Mr Gellert’s
Elements of E/faying, and deferibes a new method of
cflaying ores, concerning which, fee the fedfion Of
Effaying in general, p. 338. col. 2.
Eoejfay copper ores.
Roast a quintal of ore [in the manner deferibed
in procefs IV.J : add to it an equal quantity of bo¬
rax, half a quintal of fufible gbfs, and a quarter of a
quintal of pitch : put the mixture in a crucible, the
inner furfaee of which has been previoufly rubbed with
a fluid pafte of charcoal dull and water : cover the
whole with pounded glafs mixed with a little borax,
or with decrepitated fca-falt: put a lid on the cru¬
cible, which you will place in an air-furnace, or in a
blaft-furnace: when the fire ftiall have extended to the
bottom of the coals, let it be excited brifldy during
half an hour, that the crucible may be of a brifle red
colour 1 then withdraw the crucible, and when it is
cold break it: obferve if the fcoria be well made : fe-
parate the regulus, which ought to be femi-dudlile ;
and weigh it. J his regulus is black copper; which
muft be purified, as in procefs VI.
Vol. XI. Part IL
L U R G Y. 449
If the ore be very poor, and inveloped in much
earthy and itony matters ; to a quintal of it, a quintal n£,°res
and a half of borax, a quarter of a quintal of pitch, and V--',/
ten pounds of calx of lead or minium, rauft be added.
The calx of lead will be revived, and will unite with
the fcattered particles of the copper, and togetlier with
thefe will fall to the bottom of the crucible, forming a
compound regulus When the ores of copper are very-
rich, half a quintal of borax and a quarter of a quin¬
tal of glafs will be fufficient for the reduction. If the
ore is charged with much antimony, a half or three
quarters of a quintal of clean iron-filings may be ad¬
ded ; otherwife the large quantity of antimony might
deftroy the copper, efpecially if the ore contained no
lead. If iron be contained in copper ore, as in py¬
rites, fome poundj of antimony, or of its regulus, may
be added in the effay ; as thefe fubftances more readi¬
ly unite with iron than with copper, and therefore dif-
engage the latter metal from the former.
PROCESS VIII.
To ejfay ores of copper by humid folution.
Some pyrites and ores contain fo fmall a quantitv
of copper, that it cannot be feparated by the above
procefles, but is deftroyed by the repeated roaftings
and fufions. Thefe, and indeed any copper-ores, may
be effayed by humid folution, or by menftruums.
1. By roafting a fulphureous ore, the fulphur is
burnt or decompofed, its phlogifton with part of the
acid evaporating, while the remaining part of the acid
combines with the metals, efpecially with the copper
and iron contained in the ore. Accordingly, from an
ore thus roafted, a vitriolic folution may be obtained
by lixiviation with warm water, efpecially if the ore
has been expofed, during a few days after it has been
roafted, to a moift air; as the water thus gradually ap¬
plied unites better with the combination of the metal¬
lic calxes with the concentrated vitriolic acid of the
fulphur: but all the copper is not thus reduced by one
operation to a vitriol. More fulphur muft therefore be
combined with the refiduous ore by fufibn, and muft
be again burnt off, that the remaining part of the cop¬
per may be attacked by fome of the acid of the ful¬
phur. By repeating this operation, almoft all the cop¬
per and iron will be reduced to a vitriolic lixivium,
from which the copper may be feparated and precipi¬
tated by adding clean pieces of iron.
2. Copper-ores may be more eafily effayed by hu¬
mid folution in the following manner:
Roaft the mineralifed ores in the manner direfted
in Procefs IV. and pulverife them. If the ores be cal-
ciform, they do riot require a previous roafting. Put
this powder into a matrafs capable of containing ten
times the quantity of the ore ; pour upon the ore fomc
water: fet the matrafs in a fand-bath, that the water
mriy boil: pour off the lixivium : add to the refiduous
ore more water, with fome vitriolic or marine acid : di-
geft as before in the fand-bath, and add this lixivium
to the former : repeat this operation, till you find that
the acid liquor diffolves no more metal.
By adding clean plates of iron you may precipitate
the copper, which ought then to be collefted, fufed
with a little borax and charcoal dull, and weighed.
3L We
45° METAL
Effavinjr We may remark, that although copper is not foluble
^m^per a dilute vitriolic acid, yet the calx of it obtained
■ by roafting the ore, and alfo the calciform ores, are
readily foluble in that acid.
3. Stahl advifes to effay copper-ores by boiling them,
after they have been roafted and powdered, in water,
together with tartar and common fait, or with alum
and common fait: but we have not found this method,
fo effe&ual as the preceding.
PROCESS IX.
Dr For dice’s method of ejfaying copper ores, ly means
of aqua regia. [Phil. Tranf. for 17S1, vol. Ixxx.
art. 3.]
This method eonfifts only in pouring a quantity of
an aqua regia compofed of equal parts of the nitrous
and muriatic acids upon a fmall quantity of the ore in
powder, till a frefh affufion of the menltruum fhows no
green or blue tinge ; by which means all the metalline
p^rt of the ore will be diffolved. It is then to be pre¬
cipitated by means of a folution of fixed alkali, or
volatile alkali cautioully managed will anfwer the fame
purpofe. The metal then appears in form of a green
precipitate called green •verditer; but is mixed with
what calcareous earth might have been contained in the
ore ; which the acids would diffolve, and the fixed al¬
kali, if that kind was ufed, would precipitate. The
cauftic volatile alkali would not throw down this
earth, and is therefore to be preferred to any other j
but care muft be taken to hit the point of faturation
very exa&ly with it, as it violently diflblves the metal
if added in too great quantity. Dr Fordyce orders
this green calx to be' diflblved in vitriolic acid, and
then, by adding a piece of clean iron to the folution,
all the copper contained in the ore will be obtained in
its metallic form.
This method can be fubjeft to no fallacy, unlefs the
ore contains a luminous matter ; in which cafe fome of
the earth of alum will be mixed with the metal, as that
earth will be precipitated by fixed alkali, by cauftic
volatile alkali, and by iron. This, however, may
very effeftually be prevented by diffolving the green
calx' firft in volatile alkali, and then in vitriolic acid.
It is even probable, that by reducing the ore to a very
fine powder, and treating it with cauftic alkali, all
the metal might be feparated from the ore, without
the trouble of ufing aqua regia. For the principles on
L U R G Y. Part If.
which this method is condudted,'fee the article-Che- O es of
mistry I‘,^ul-
Sect. V. Ores of Lead.
$ r. Lead is feldom .found native (e) and maljeablec
Neither, fays Mr Macquer-(f ), is. it found in form of
calx or precipitate, as copper- is,, becaufe it is much,
lefs liable to lofe its phlogifton by the aftion of air and
water: therefore almoft all lead is found naturally mi,-
neralifed.-
Lead is generally mineralifed by fulphur (c). Its
ores have a dark white, but a finning metallic colour.
Thefe ores, although they form irregular mafies, are
internally regularly difpofed, and feem to be compofed
of cubes of different fizes applied to each other, but
not adherent. Thefe ores are generally diftinguiftied
by the name of Galena. They commonly contain about
three quarters of lead and a quarter of fulphur. They
are accordingly heavy and fuiible, although much lefs
fo than pure lead.
Moll lead-ores contain filver ; none but thofe of Wil-
lach in Corinthia are known to be quite free from it :
fome of them contain fo much of it, that they are con-
fidered as improper ores of filver. The fmaller the
cubes of galena are, the larger quantity of filver has
been remarked to be generally contained.
$ 2. Lead ores may he ejfayed, r. By means of the
black flux, in the mar :r directed by Mr Cramer, as
follows :
“ Let one or more quintals of this ore be grofsly
powdered, and roafted in a teft till no more fulphureous
vapours be exhaled, and then reduced to a finer pow¬
der ; it is then to be accurately mixed with twice its
weight of black flux, a fourth part of its weight of
clean filings of iron and of borax. The mixture is to
be put into a good crucible, or rather into a teft ; it
is then to be covered with a thicknefs of two or three
fingers of decrepitated fea-falt ; the crucible is to be
doled, and placed in a melting furnace, which is to be
filled with unlighted charcoal, fo that the top of the
crucible fhall be covered with it. Lighted coals are
then to be thrown upon the unkindled charcoal, and the
whole is left to kindle flowly, till the crucible be red-
hot ; foon after which a hilling noife proceeds from
the crucible, which is occafioned by the reduction of
the lead : the fame degree of fire is to.be maintained
while, this noife continues, and is afterwards to be fud-
denly
(e) Cronftedt doubts whether any native lead has been found. Linnaeus fays, he has feen what externally
appeared to be fuch.
(f) But he is miftaken. As lead unites ftrongly with vitriolic acid, we might expeft to meet ochres of this
metal as well as of copper. Accordingly, we find fome calciform ores of lead. 1. A pure calx of lead, ii>
form of a friable ochre, cerujfa nativa, found on the furface of galena ; or it is indurated with a radiated or
fibrous texture, of a white or yellowifh green colour, and refembling fpar ; it is called Jpaium plumli, fpar.ry
lead-ore, and lead-fpar. 2. A calx of lead is found mixed with calx of arfenic, forming the ore called arfeni-
cated lead fpar. Sometimes alfo that calx is mixed with calcareous earth.
(g.) Lead is mineralifed, 1. With fulphur; fuch are the feveral kinds of fteel-grained and teffelated gale¬
nas, which alfo contain generally fome filver. 2. With fulphurated iron and filver. It is fine-grained dr tef¬
felated, and is diftinguifhed from the former by yielding a black flag when fcorified, whereas the former yields
a yellow flag. 3. With fulphurated antimony and filver. Plumbum ftihiatum Linmti. Its colour is fimilar to
that of galena,.and its texture is ftrlated. 4. With fulphur and arfenic. This ore is foft, almoft malleable,
like had. From this ore lead may be melted by the flame of a candle.
Seel. VI. METAL
Oresof Tin denty incVtafed, fb as to make a perfedt fufion ; in
which (late it is to be continued during a quarter of
an hour ; after which it is to be extinguifhed ; and the
operation is then finifhed.” The filings of iron are
added to the mixture to abforb the fulphurj a certain
. quantity of which generally remains united with the
lead-ore, notwithftandirtg the fioafting. We need not
fear left this metal fhould unite with the lead and alter
its purity; becaufe, although the fulphur (hould not
hinder it, thefe two metals cannot be united. The re-
'fratlory quality of the iron does not impede the fu¬
fion ; for the union it forms with the fulphur renders
it fo fufible, that it becomes itfelf a kind of flux. This>
addition of iron in the effay of lead-ores would be ufe-
kfs, if the ores were fulficiently roafted, fo that no ful-
jphur ftiould remain.
Or, 2. By the following procefs of Mr Gellert.
“ Mix a quintal of roafted lead-ore with a quintal of
'calcined borax, half a quintal of glafs finely pulverifed,
a‘quarter of a quintal of pitch, and as much of clean
iron-filings : put this mixture into a crucible wetted
with charcoal-duft and water s place the crucible be¬
fore the nozzle of the bellows of a forge, and when
it is red raife the fire during 15 or 20 minutes ; then
withdraw the crucible, and break it when cold.”
Some very fufible ores, fuch as the galena of Der-
bylhire, may be eflayed, as large quantities of it are
fmelted, without previous roaftiug, and without addi¬
tion, merely by fufion during a certain time. For this
purpofe nothing more is requifite than to keep the ore
melted in a crucible with a moderate heat, till all the
fulphur is deftroyed, and the metal be colledfed. To
prevent the deftruttion of any part of the metal after
it is feparated from the fulphur, fome charcoal dull;
may be thrown over the ore, when put into the cru¬
cible ; but if the galena be mixed with pyrites, efpe-
cially arfenical pyrites, it requires much roafting and
faline fluxes.
Sect. VI. Tin Ores.
§ t. Tin is very feldom found pure, but almoft al¬
ways mineralifed, and chiefly by arfenic.
The richeft ore of tin is of an irregular form, of a
black or tarnilhed colour, and almoft the heavieft of
all ores. The caufe of this extraordinary weight is,
that it contains much more arfenic than fulphur, where¬
as moft ores contain more fulphur than arfenic.
The moft common tin ore is of the colour of ruft,
which proceeds from a-quantity of iron or of iron-ore
mixed with it. The tin-ores of Saxony and Bohemia
appear to be all of this kind.
One kind of tin-ore is femi-tranfparent and like fpar.
Laftly, feveral kinds of garnets are enumerated by mi-
neralogifts among tin-ores, becaufe they adtually con¬
tain tin.
The county of Cornwall, in England, is very rich
in tin-ores; and the tin contained in them is very pure.
From tin-mines in the Eaft Indies tin is brought, call¬
ed Malacca tin. -No mines of tin have be6n difeovered
in France; only in Bretagne garnets are found which
contain feme tin.
Native tin is faid to have been found in Saxony and
Malacca, its ores are all of the calciform kind, ex-
L U R G Y. 451
cepting black-lead, whic i appears to be tin mineraii-Ores°flro*v
fed by fulphur and iron. v—
The calcifcVm ores of tin are, 1. Tin-ftone, which
is of a blackilh-brown colour, and of no determinate
figure ; and tin-grains, or cryftals of tin, which re¬
ferable garnets, and are of a fpherical or polygonal fi¬
gure, which they have probably acquired by the attri¬
tion of their angles. The tin-ftone feems to confift of
attrited tin-grains. This ore is calx of tin united with
calx of arfenic, and frequently with calx of iron.
2. Garnets are faid to contain calx of tin united with
calx of iron. 3. Manganefe is faid alfo to contain tin.
§ 2. Ores-of tin may be effayed in the fame manner,
according to Cramer, as he directed for the eflay of
lead-ores, fupra. He further makes upon this eflay the
following remarks.
1. Tin-ore, on account of its greater gravity, ad¬
mits better of being feparated, by elutriation or waffl¬
ing, from earths, ftones, and lighter ores. 2. A moft
exadf feparation of earths and ff ones ought to be made,
becaufe the fcorification of thefe by fluxes require fuch
a heat as would deftroy the reduced tin. 3. The iron-
ought to be feparated by a magnet. 4. By a previous
roafting, the arfenic is diffipated, which would other-
wife carry off a great deal of tin along with it in a melt¬
ing heat, would change another part of it into aihes,
and would vitiate the remaining tin. 5. The eflay of
tin is very precarious and uncertain ; becaufe tin once-
reduced is eafily deftru&ible by the fire, and by the
faline fluxes requifite for the redu&ion.
Mr Gellert diredfs, that ores of tin fhould be eflayed
in the following manner t
“ Mix a quintal of tin-ore, waffled, pulverifed, and
twice roafted, with half a quintal of calcined borax,-
and half a quintal of pulverifed pitch : thefe are to be
put into a crucible moiftened with charcoal-duft and
water, and the crucible placed in an air-furnace : after
the pitch is burnt, give a violent fire during a quarter
of an hour ; and then withdraw your crucible. If the
ore be not very well waffled from the earthy matters,
as it ought to be, a larger quantity of borax is requi¬
fite, with fome powdered glafs, by which the too quick
fufion of the borax is retarded, and the precipitation
of the earthy matters is prevented. If the ore contains
iron, to the above mixture may be added fome alkaline
fait.
Sect VII. Ores of Iron.
5 1. Iron is feldom found in its metallicI|ate, and
free from admixture; though Cramer gives an account
of an ore which needs only to be put into a forge, and .
heated to a welding heat. Several fands and earths-
alfo have tfle appearance of iron, and are even attract¬
able by a magnet. The ore mentioned by Cramer
found vitrefied: with moderate blows the fcorias are
thrown out, and a mafs of iron obtained, which, by
being put into the forge again, gives tough iron with¬
out any o^her procefs. But in general this metal is
found in the ftate of a calx; or, though it is combined
with a great quantity of the principle of inflammability,
it has feldom enough of the metallic form ; and it is
very often intermixed with a certain proportion of .ful¬
phur. The minerals wrought for iron are three, viz.
iron-ore, iron-ftone, and bog-ore.
3 L 2
The
452 METAL
Ore? of Iron The iron ore is found in veins as the ores of other
ku. —y—- metals are, and the appearance i;. very various y fome-
times it ha .a rully iron colour refembling that of iron;
fometimes it has a reddilh caft; often ic is formed in¬
to a fort of cryftallizations which are protuberant knobs
on the outfide; and thefe confiit of fibres tending to a
common centre: and it is of a dark colour like coagu¬
lated blood. It is called h.tmat'les or blood-Jlaire ; and
confifts of a calx of iron with a fmall quantity of vi¬
triolic acid.
Iron-ftone in this country is clay found in ftrata
with coal ; but which contains a large quantity of
iron, fo as to make the working prolitable. Some¬
times it has little appearance of iron; but when burnt
with a certain degree of heat, it becomes of a deep
red.
The bog-ore is an ochre of iron, and is found gene¬
rally in low fituations, and in fprings containing a
fmall quantity of iron, which flowing over thefe grounds
depofits it in the form of ochre ; and after a number
of ages it proves a rich mine of iron,, and it is extiadf-
ed from a calx of this kind in many parts of the
world. 'I here is alfo a particular kind of fpar found
in different countries of a. pale blue colour, fo that
from its firft appearance we would expert copper; but
it contains a fmall quantity of iron, and is a combina¬
tion of the metal with inflammable matter,, as in Pruf-
fian blue..
The loadilone is a noted iron ore. It is always
found in veins, and it is alleged that it is only pof-
fefied of its magnetic qualities when near the furface.
In appearance, it does not differ from many of the ores
of iron, and treated as an ore* it affords a confiderable
quantity of metal.
Neither is iron generally mineralifed fo diftinftly
as other metals are. unlel's in pyrites and ores of other
metals.
Moft of the minerals called iron ores have an earthy,
rufty, yellowilh, or brownifh appearance* which pro¬
ceeds from the facility with which the true iron ores
are decompofed.
Iron is the moft. common and moft abundant, of all
metals. In Europe* at leaft, we cannot find an earth*
a fand, a chalk, a clay, a vitrifiable or calcinable ft'one*
or even the allies of any fubftance, which do not con¬
tain an earth convertible into iron. All earths and
Hones which are naturally yellow or red, and all thofe
which acquire thefe colours by calcination, receive
them from the ferruginous earth mixed with them.
The yellow and red ochres conlift almoft folely of
this earth : the black and heavy lands are generally
very ferruginous.
The iron ore moft commonly found is a ftone of
the colour of ruft, of an intermediate weight betwixt
thofe of ores in general and of unmetallic ftones. This
ore has no determinate form, and eafily furnilhes an
iron of good quality.
Blood-ftone or hematites, fanguine or red-chalk,
and emery, are iron ores; fome of which* for inftanee
blood-ftone, are almoft all iron, Moft of thefe fub-
ftances require but a flight calcination to be rendered
very attra&abk by a magnet* and foluble in aqua¬
fortis ; but the iron, obtained from- them is of a bad-
■quality, and they are therefore negk&ed. Iron from
L U R G Y. PartIL
the hematites is very brittle;, that obtained from ochrca Eflay ng 0f
is red-fliort All thefe iron ores are lb refra&ory, that 0 t,uf lro^
they can fcarcely be lufed.
Iron ores are very various in their form; or rather
they have no determinate form. Sometimes they are
earths, fometimes ftones, fometimes grains. Accor¬
dingly, thofe naturaliits who attend only to the ex¬
ternal form of things in claffing and fubdividing mi-
.nerals* have been obliged to multiply the names of
iron ores: hence they are called iron ores in- form of
peaf, of beansy of coriander feds, of pepper-corns, of
cinnamon, &c. which Mr Cramer treats as ridiculous
trifles.
$ 2. Ores of iron may be ejfayed By the following
procefs
PROCESS L
\Cramkr's Art of Affaying, Proc- 54. J
To reduce a precipitate iron out of its ore in a clofe
veJeL
“ Roast fora few minutes in a teft under a muffle*,
and with a pretty ftrong fire, two centners of the
fmall weight of your iron ore grofsl, pulverifed; that
the volatdes may be diflipated in part* and the ore it-
felf be fattened in cafe it Ihould be too hard. When
it is grown cold* beat it extremely fine, and roaft it a
fecond time, as you do the copper-ore, but in a much-
ftronger fire* till it no longer emits any fmell; then let
it grow cold again. Compofe a flux of three parts of
the white flux, with one part of fufibk pulverifed glafs*
or of the like fterik unfulphureous fcorias, and add.
fandiver and coal dull, of each one-half part y add of
this flux three times the quantity of your roalted ore*
and mix the whole very well together ; then, choofe a.
very good crucible, well rubbed with lute within, to,
flop the pores that may be here and there unfecn; put
into ic the ore mixed with the flux; cover it over with,
common fait; and fhut.it clofe with a tile,, and with
lute applied to the points.
“* Put the wind-furnace upon its bottom-part, ha¬
ving a bed made of eoal-duft. Introduce beiides into
the furnace a fmall. grate fapported on its iron bars*,
and a ftone upon it, whereon the crucible may Hand
as on a fupport:. furround the ,whole with hard coals,
not very large, and light them at top When the vefftl
begins to grow red* which is indicated by the com¬
mon fall’s ceafing to crackle, flop with grofs lute the
holes of the bottom part, except that in which the
nozzle of the. bellows is.received blow the fire, and.
excite it with great force,, adding now and then frelh.
fuel, that the veffel may be never naked at top ; ha¬
ving thus continued your fire in its full ftrength for
three quarters of an hour, or for a whole hour, take
next the veflel out of it, and ftrike feveral times the
pavement upon which it is fet* that the fmall grains*
of iron which happen to be difperfed may be collected:
into a regulus, which you will find.alter having broken^
the vefleL
“ When the regulus is weighed, try its malleabi¬
lity : then make it red-hot;, and when fo, ftrike it
with a hammer : if it bears the ftrokes-of a hammer*
both when red hot and when cold, and extends a little*,
you may pronounce your iron very good; but if> when
eithar
Sea. VII. METAL
Effaying. i either hot or coM, it proves brittle, you may judge it
Ores of Iron t0 not qUjte pure, but ftill in a iemi mineral con-
' dition
“ Rtmarh. The arfenic, but efpecially the fulphur,
jnuft be diflipated by roafling : for the former renders
the iron brittle; and the latter not only does the fame,
but, being managed in a clofe veffd, with a faline al¬
kaline flux, turns to a liver of fulphur ; to the action
©f which iron yielding in every refpedt, it can upon
no account be precipitated; and if not the whole, a
great part of it at kail is retained by the fulphureous
fcoria; fo that in this cafe you commonly i» vain look
for a regains.
“ The iron obtained from this firil precipitation
has hardly ever the requifite ductility, but is rather
bi iitle : the reafon of which is, that the fulphur and
arfenic remain in it; for notwichitauding that the
greateft part of thefe is diifipated by roalting,. yet
feme part adheres fo ilridtly, that it can never be fe-
parated but with abforbent, terreftrial, alkaline ingre¬
dients, that change the nature of the fulphur. For
which reafon, in larger operations, they add quick¬
lime, or marble ftones that turn into quicklime;
which, while they abforb the faid minerals, are, by it,
and by help of the deftroyed part of the iron, brought
to a fuiion, and turn to a vitrified fcoria; although, at
other times, they refill fo much by their own nature a
vitrification. Another caufe of the brittlenefs of iron
is the unmetallic earth, when it is not yet feparated
from it; for the iron ore contains a great quantity of
it, and in the melting remains joined with the reguline
part: whence the iron is rendered very coarfe and
brittle. Some iron ores are altogether untradlable:
neverthelefs, the regulufes produced out of them, when
broken, have fometimes a neat femimetallic look; which
proceeds undoubtedly from a mixture of a fmall quan¬
tity of fome other metal or femimetal.”
PROCESS II.
[The following Procefs for efiaying iron ores, and
ferruginous Hones and earths, is extracted from
Mr Gellert’s Elements of EJfaying.'}
“ Roast two quintals of iron ore, or of ferrugi¬
nous earth : divide the roafted matter into two equal
parts: to each of which add half a quintal of pulve-
rifed glafs, if the fubllance be fufible and contain
much metal ; but if otherwife, add alfo half a quintal
of calcined borax. If the roafting Iras entirely difen-
gaged the fulphur and arfenie, an eighth pait, or even
half a quintal, of quicklime may be added. With
tire above matters mix twelve pounds of charcoal-
powder.
“ Take a crucible, and cover the bottoirr and Tides
of its inner furface with a pafte made of three parts
of charcoal-dull and one part of clay beat together.
In the hollow left in. this pafte put the above mixture ;
prefs it lightly down; cover it with pul verified; glafs;-,
and put on the lid of the crucible.
“ Place two fueh crucibles at the diftance of about:
four fingers from the air-pipe, in fuch a manner that
the air ftiall pafs betwixt them at about the third
part of the height from the bottom: fill the fpace be¬
twixt'the tt^o crucibles with coals of a.inoderate lize ;
L U R G Y.
throw lighted coals upon them, that the fire may de-F.iTaynig of
feend and make them red-hot from top to bottom : at 0,eso: lrui?
firft let the bellows blow foftly, and afterwards ilrongly "
during an hour, or an hour and a quarter : then take
away the crucible, and break it when cold. A regains
will be found in the bottom, and fometimes fome fmall
grains of iron in the fcoria, which mull be feparated
and weighed along with the regulus: then try the
regulus whether it can be extended under the hammer,,
when hot and when cold.
“ Remarks. To difeirgage a metal from the earthy
matters mixed with it by fire, we muft change thefe
matters into fcoria or glafs. This change may be
effedled by adding fome fubftance capable of diflblving;
thefe matters ; that is, of converting them into a fcoria
or glafs, from which the metallic matters may, by
their weight, feparate and form a regulus at bottom.
Fixed alkali, which is an ingredient ®f the black and
of the white flux, is a powerful folvent of earths and
ftones : but the alkali does alfo diflolve iron, efpecially
when this is in a calcined or earthy Hate; and this
folution is fo much more complete, as the fire is longer
applied. Hence, in ordinary eflays, where an alkaline
fait is ufed, little or no regains, of iron is obtained.
Now, glafs a£ls upon and dilfolves earths and ftones ’r
but not, or very little, iron : confequently glafs is the
be/l flux for fuch eflays, and experience confirms this
affertion. If the ore contains but little iron, we may
alfo add to the glafs fome borax ; but borax cannot
be employed fingly, becaufe it very foon fufes, and fc-
parates from the ore before the metal is revived. Quick¬
lime is axlded, not only to abforb the fulphur and arfe¬
nic remaining in the ore, but alfo becaufe it diftblves-
and vitrifies the ftony and earthy matters of iron ores,
which are generally argillaceous. For which reafon,
in the large operations for fmelting iron-ore, quicklime,,
and even in certain cafes gypfum, are commonly added
to facilitate the fufion.
u i he reduction of iron-ore, and even- the fufion of
iron, requires a violent and long-continued heat ::
therefore, in this operation, we mull -not employ an
inflammable fubftance, as pitch, that is foon. confu--
med,. but charcoal pulverifed, which in clofe veflels is
not fenfibly wafted. Too much charcoal muft not be-
added, elfe it will prevent the action of the glafs upon
the earthy matter of the ore, and confequently the-
feparation of the metallic part. Experiments have
taught me, that one part of charcoal-dull to eight
parts of oar was the bell proportion.
“ When, iron is fur rounded by charcoal, it is not de--
compofied or deftroyed ; hence the iron- of the ore,
which finks into the hollow made of pafte of charcoal-
dull and clay, remains there unhurt. The clay is-
added in this palle to render it more compadl, and to
keep the fluid iron colledled together-
“ Hie air is diredled betwixt the cruciblesbecaufe
if it was thrown diredlly upon- them, they would
fcarcely be able to refill the heat The fpaee betwixt
the air-pipe and the crucibles ought to be conllantly
filled with charcoal, to prevent the cold air from-
touching the crucibles. Dudlik and malleable iron is*
feldom obtained in this firft operation. The fulphur
and arfenic, and frequently alfo an earthy matter ad¬
hering to the iron, prevent thefe qualities.”
Sect;
454
Effaw-g
of Ores of
-Mercury.
M E T A I.
Sect. VIII. Ores of Mercury.
§ i. Mercury is fometimes found pure, fluid, and
in its proper metallic ftate, only mixed with earths
and ftones. ' Such are the ores of mercury found near
Montpelier, in Tufcany, and in other placesi
But the largeft quantity of the mercury found in
the earth is mineralifed by fulphur, and confequently
is in the form of cinnabar.
Mercury is never mineralifed by arfenic. The richeft
mine of mercury is that of Almaden, in Spain.
Linnaeus and Cronftedt mention a Angular ore, in
which the mercury is mineralifed by fulphur and by cop¬
per. It is faid to be of a blackifh-grey colour, of a
glaffy texture, and brittle. When the mercury and
fulphur are expelled by fire, the copper is difcovered
by giving an opake red colour to glafs of borax,
which, by continuance and increafe of heat, becomes
green and tranfparent.
$ 2. Cramer direfts, that ores of mercury Jhould be
efayed by the following procefles :
PROCESS I.
To feparate mercury out of an tinfulphureous ore by
dfill at ion.
“ Take a lump of the pulverifed ore, one common
pound, which mufl fland for one centner : put it into
a glafs retort perfectly clean, vvell loricated, or coat¬
ed up to half the length of its neck : this mull be very
long, and turned backwards with fuch a declivity,
that a glafs recipient may be perpendicularly applied
to it: but you mufl choole a retort fmall enough, that
the belly of it may be filled hardly two-thirds with the
ore: this retort muft be placed fo, that nothing of the
fluid adherent to the neck of it may fall into the ca¬
vity of the belly, but that the whole may run forward
into the recipient. Finally, have a fmall recipient
full of cold water : let it be perpendicularly fituated,
and receive the neck of the retort in fuch manner that
the extremity of it be hardly one half-inch immerfed
into the water.
“ Let the retort be furrounded with hot burning
coals placed at fome diftance in form of a circle, left
the veflel ftiould burft by too fudden a heat: then by
degrees bring the burning coals nearer and nearer, and
at laft furround the whole retort with them and with
frefh charcoal, that it may grow flightly red-hot; this
fire having been continued for an hour, let the retort
cool of itfelf: then ftrike the neck of it gently, that
the large drops which are always adherent to it may
fall into the recipient: let the recipient be taken away,
and the water feparated from the mercury by filtra¬
tion, and let the mercury be weighed. This opera¬
tion may be more conveniently performed in a fand-
bath ; in which cafe the pot containing the fand muft
be middling red-hot, and the retort be able to touch
the bottom of it immediately ; nor is it then neeeftary
that the retort be loricated.”
PROCESS II.
To revive mercury from a fulphureous cinnabar-ore.
“ Beat your ore extremely fine, and mix it exact¬
ly with an equal portion of" iron-filings, not riifty;
L U R G Y. Part II.
proceed to diftil it with the fame apparatus as in the °f
former procefs, but urge it with the ftrongeft fire that Ant‘l1'ony‘.
can be made. *
“ Cinnabar may be fepafated from ftones by fub-
limation thus: Beat it to a fine powder, and put it
into a fmall narrow glafs or earthen cucurbit, the
belly of which it mult not fill more than one-third
part: flop the orifice at top ; this muft be very nar¬
row, tq hinder the free adtion of the air. Put this
fmall cucurbit in an earthen pot above too inches wide
in diameter, and gather fand around this pot about as
high as the pulverifed ore rifes in the cucurbit. Then
put it upon burning coals in fuch manner that the
bottom of the pot may be middling red-hot. Thus
will your cinnabar afcend and form a folid ponderous
ring, which muft be got out by breaking the veflel.”
Sect. IX. Ore of the Regulus of Antimony.
Native regulus of antimony was firft obferved by
Mr Swab, in Sweden, in the mine of Salberg, and
defcribed by him in the memoirs of the Swedilh Aca¬
demy in 1749. Mr Wallerius mentions it in his Mi¬
neralogy.
Regulus of antimony is generally united with ful¬
phur, with which it forms antimony, which ought to
be confidered as a true ore of the regulus of anti¬
mony.
Another ore of regulus of antimony is alfo known,
of a red colour, in which the regulus is mineralifed
both by arfenic and by fulphur. This ore refembles
fome iron ores, and fome kinds of blend. It is di-
ftinguiflied by its great fufibility, which is fuch, that
it may be eafily melted by the flame of a candle.
The native regulus of antimony, by Von Swab, is
faid by chat author to have differed from the regulus
of antimony obtained from ores, in thefe two proper¬
ties, that it was capable of being eafily amalgamated
with mercury, and that its calx ihot into cryftals du¬
ring the cooling
Befides the ores of regulus of antimony enumerated
above, this femimetal is alfo found in ores of other
metallic fubftances, as in the plumtfe fiver-ore, and irt
the Jtibiated lead-ore.
§ 2. The ores of antimony may be efayed by the fol¬
lowing proceffes defcribed by Mr Cramer.
PROCE.SS I
To obtain antimony from its ore.
“ Choose a melting crucible, or an earthen pot not
glazed, that may contain fome common pounds of the
ore of antimony, broken into fmall bits. Bore at
the bottom of the crucible fome fmall holes, two lines
in diameter. Let the bottom of the veffel be received
by the orifice of a fmaller one, upon which it muft
be put; and when the ore is put into it, let it be
covered with a tile, and all the joints be flopped with
lute.
“ Put thefe veffels upon the pavement of a hearth,
and put ftones all around them at the diftanee of fix
inches. Fill this intermediate fpace with afires, fo
high that the inferior pot be covered to the upper
brim. Then put frefh and burning coals upon it,'
and with a pair of hand-bellows excite the fire, till
the
Sea. IX. METAL
Eflaying the upper veffels (yrow red-hot : take off the fire a
of Ore? of quarter of an hour after; and when the veffels art
Antimom grown coid. open them. Yon will find that the
^' _v melted antimony has run through the holes made at
the bottom , of the upper veffel: into the inferior oney
where it is collecled.”
PROCESS II.
To roqft crude antimony, or its ore, with or without ad¬
dition.
“ Choose an earthen, flat, low diflr, not glazed;
and -if it cannot bear being made middling red-hot,
cover it over with a coat x>f lute without. Spread it
thinly over with crude aptimony, or with its ore,
beaten to a pretty coarfe powder, not exceeding a few
ounces at once. Put the diftr upon a fire-pan, having
a few burning .coals in it: increafe the fire till it begins
to fmoke a little. Meanwhile you mult inceflantly
move the powder with a piece of new tobacco-pipe; for
this caufesthe fulphur to evaporate the fooner. If you
increafe the fire a little too foon, the powder imme¬
diately gathers into large clots, or even begins to melt.
When this happens, take it immediately olf the fire
before it melts entirely. Then puiverife it again, and
finally make a gentle fire under it. Your black
fiiining powder will affume an aflr colour almoft like
that of earth, and become more refra&ory in the fire;
wherefore you may then increafe the fire till your
powder grows middling red-hot, and let it laft till it
ceafes to fmoke. If you add to your crude antimony
pulverifed, half or an equal quantity of charcoal-duft,
and perform the reft as above, the roafting will be
done more conveniently : for it does not gather fo
eafily into clots, and melts with much greater difficul¬
ty. When part of the lulphur is evaporated, add fome
fat to it at feveral times. Thus you will fooner finiffi
the operation, and the remaining calx will not be burnt
to excels. However, if it be thus expofed to too vio¬
lent and long-lafting a fire, a great quantity of it eva¬
porates ; nor does it ceafe entirely to fmoke in a great
fire. And it’will be enough, if, growing middling
red-hot, it does no longer emit the unpleafant fmell of
the acid of fulphur.”
PROCESS III.
To reduce a calx of antimony into a femimetallic regidus.
“ Mix fome calx of antimony with a quarter part
of the black flux, and put it into the crucible. Cover
the veffel with a tile ; make the fire as quickly as the
veflel can bear it, but not greater than is neceflary to
melt the flux. When the whole has been well in fufion
for half a quarter of an hour (which may be tried
with at obacco-pipe, taking off the tile), pour it into
the melting cone, which muft be warm and done over
with tallow. Then immediately ftrike the cone feve¬
ral times. You will find, when the cone is inverted, a
regulus, above which is a faline fcoria.”
The methods of calcining antimony by means of nitre,
are deferibed under Chemistry, n° 1252—1265; anc^
thofe of obtaining a regulus of antimony without a pre¬
vious calcination or roafting, by throwing a mixture of
powdered antimony, tartar, ^and nitre, into a red-hot
L U R G Y. 45 V
crucible, and by fufing this mixture, and of obtaining
a martial regulus of antimony, are deferibed at the ar- ‘ n'i
tide Regulus.
Sect. X. Orks of Bifmuih.
§' r. Bismuth is found native, refembling the re¬
gulus of bifmuth.
. An ochre of bifmuth, of a whitiffi yellow colour, is
mentioned by Cronfttdt; and is different from the
ore improperly called fowers of bifmuth, which is a
calx of cobalt.
Bifmuth is mineralifed, 1 By fulfil ur. This ore
has the appearance of galena. 2. With fulphurated
iron. Bifmuth is found alfo in cobalts, and in fome
ores of filver.
§ 2. Ores of bifmuth may be ejfayed by the follow¬
ing procefs.
“ Bifmuth ore may be melted with the fame ap¬
paratus as was directed for the fufion of crude anti¬
mony out of its ore. Or you may beat your ore to a
very fine powder, with the black flux, fandiver, and
common fait, in a clofe veflel, like the ore of lead or
of tin, and melt it in a middling fire, having a draught
of air. But as this femimetal is deftru&ible and vo¬
latile, you muft as quick as poffible apply it to that
degree of fire which the flux requires to be melted ;
and fo foon as it is well melted, the veflel muft be ta¬
ken out of the fire ; and when it is grown quite cold
and broken, you will find your regulus.”
Mr Gellert direfts that ores of bifmuth fhould be
effayed by fufing a quintal of pulverifed ore with half
a quintal of calcined borax and half a quintal of pul¬
verifed glafs, in order to vitrify the adherent earths
and flones which envelope the bifmuth. But probably
the heat requifite for this vitrification would volatilile
part of the bifmuth.
If the ore be of the kinds above deferibed, minera¬
lifed by fulphur, or by fulphuf and iron, a previous
roafting would be expedient, which may be performed
in the fame manner as is directed for the roafting of .
antimony.
Sect. XI. Ores of the Regulus of Cobalt.
Cobalt is a grey-coloured mineral, with more or -
lefs of a metallic appearance. Its grain is clofe ; it is
compadi and heavy, and frequently covered with an
efflorefcence of peach-coloured flowers. Of this feve¬
ral kinds are known f. All the true cobalts contain the j. sce ColdlH
femimetal called regidus of cobalt, the calx of which
becomes blue by vitrification. This regulus is mir.e-
ralifed in cobalt by fulphur, and efpecially by a large
quantity of aiftnic. Some cobalts alfo contain bif¬
muth and filver.
Authors have given the name of cobalt to many mi¬
nerals, although they do not contain the femimetal
above mentioned, but only becaufe they externally re-
femble the ore of the regulus of cobalt. But thefe
minerals can only be confidered as falfe cobalts. They
are diftinguiihable from true cobalt by trying whe¬
ther they can yield the blue glafs called /malt, and the
fympathetic ink. The red efflorefcence is alfo a
mark by which true cobalt is ditlinguiihable from tire
s falfe i.
45$ METAL
Ores of falfe : but this efflorefcence only happens when the ore
. ^ ^ has been expofed to a moift air.
The principal mines of cobalt are in Saxony, where
they are dug for the fake of obtaining zaffre, azure-
blue or fmalt, and arfenic. Very fine cobalt is alfo
found in the Pyrenean mountains. It has been like-
wife found in Cornwall and Scotland. And that it is
in the eallern parts of Alia, appears from the bine co¬
louring on old oriental porcelain : but probably the
mines difcovered in thefe countries are nearly exhauft-
ed, as confiderable quantities of zaffre and fmalt are
exported from Europe to China.
Cobalt is heavier than moll other ores, from the
large quantity of arfenic it contains; and in this re-
fpedt it refembles the ore of tin.
Befides the grey or alh-coloured cobalt above de-
fcribed, which is the moft frequent, other cobalts are
found of various colours and textures, mixed with va¬
rious fubftances. Wallerius enumerates fix fpecies of
cobalts. I. The ajh-colonred ore, which is regulus of
cobalt mineralifed by arfenic, confifting of Ihining
leaden-coloured grains. Some ores of this kind are
compaft refembling fteel, and others are of a loofe
texture and friable. 2. The fpecular ore is black, Ihi-
ning like a mirror, and laminated. This fpecies is very
rare ; and is fuppofed by Wallerius to be a foliated
fpar, or felenites mixed with cobalt. 3. The vitreous
or Jlag-like ore, is of a bluilh, Ihining colour, compadt,
or fpongy. 4. Cryjlalli%ed ore, is a grey, deep-colour¬
ed cobalt, confifting of clufters of cubical, pyramidal,
prifmatic cryftals. 5. Flowers of cobalt, red, yellow,
or violet. Thefe flowers feem to be formed from fome
of the above-defcribed compadt ores, decompofed by
expofure to moift air. This decompofition is fimilar
to that which happens to ferruginous and cupreous py¬
rites. 6. The earthy cobalt is of a greenifh white, or
of a yellow colour, and of a foft and friable texture.
This fpecies feems to be an ochre of cobalt; and is
formed perhaps from the flowers of cobalt further de
compofed, in the fame manner as a martial ochre is
formed from the faline efflorefcence of decompofing
pyrites, when this efflorefcence is further decompo¬
fed by expofure to moift air; by which the vitrio¬
lic acid contained in it is expelled, and the effloref¬
cence is changed from a faline ftate to that of an ochre
or calx.
Befides thefe proper ores, cobalt is alfo found in
a blue clay along with native filver, in ores of bif-
muth, and in the mineral called kupfernickel. See
Nickel.
The ejjay of cobalt is defcribed at the article Regu¬
lus o/" Cobalt.
Sect. XII. Ores of Zinc.
§ 1. The proper ore of zinc is a fubftance which has
rather an earthy or ftony than metallic appearance, and
is called calamy, calamine, or lapis calaminaris. This
ftone, although metallic, is but moderately heavy, and
has not the brilliancy of moft other ores. Its colour
is yellow, and like that of ruft. It is alfo lefs denfe
than other metallic minerals. It feems to be an ore
naturally decompofed. The calamine is not work¬
ed diredtly to obtain zinc from it, becaufe this
N° 212.
L U R G Y. Part II.
would only fucceed in clofe veflets, and confequent- Ores of
ly with fmall quantities, according to Mr Margraaf’s 2"iC'
piocefs. But it is fuccefsfully employed for the con- ’ .
verfion of copper into brafs by cementation, by
which the exiftence of zinc in that ftone is fufficiently
proved.
Mr Wallerius enumerates alfo amongft the ores of
zinc a very compounded mineral, confifting of zinc,
fulphur, iron, and arfenic. This mineral, called blend*
refembles externally the ore of lead, and hence has
been called falfe galena. Thefe blends have different
forms and colours; but are chiefly red, like the red ore
of antimony.
Zinc is obtained from certain minerals in the Eaft
Indies, of which we know little.
Calciform ores of zinc, according to Cronftedt, are
pure or mixed. The pure are indurated, and fome-
times cryftallifed, refembling lead-fpar. The mixed
ore contains alfo fome calx of iron. This is calamine.
It is whitifh, yellowilh, reddilh, or brown.
Zinc is mineralifed, 1 By fulphurated iron. Ore of
seine. Wallerius fays, lead is fometimes contained in
this ore. It is white, blue, or brown. 2. By fuU
phur, arfenic, and iron. Blend, or pfeudo-galena, or
falfe-galena, or black-jack. Thefe are of various co¬
lours, white, yellowilh, brown, reddilh, greenifli,
black. They con lift of feales, or are teffelated. Mr
Cronftedt thinks, that in blends the zinc is mineralifed
in the ftate of a calx, and in the ore of zinc in its
metallic ftate
§ 2. Although the minerals above enumerated have
been known, from their property of converting copper
into brafs, to be ores of zinc, yet the method of ef-
fayingthem fo as to obtain the contained zinc was not
known, or at leaft not publilhed, before Mr Margraaf’s
Memoir of the Berlin Academy for the year 1746,
upon that fubjeft. That very able chemift has fhown,
that zinc may be obtained from its ores, from the
flowers, or from any other calx of zinc, by treating
thefe with charcoal-duft, in clofe veffels, to prevent
the combuftion of the zinc, which happens immediate¬
ly upon its reduftion when expofed to air. For this
purpofe, he put a quantity of finely powdered ca¬
lamine, or roafted blend, or other calx of zinc, well
mixed with an eighth part of charcoal-duft, into a
ftrong, luted earthen retort, to which he fitted a recei¬
ver. Having placed his retort in a furnace and railed
the fire, he applied a violent heat during two hours.
When the veffels were cold- and broken, he found the
zinc in its metallic form adhering to the neck of the
retort.
The chief difficulty in this operation is to get an
earthen retort fufficiently compact to retain the va¬
pour of the zinc (for it eafily pervades the Heffian
crucibles, Stourbridge melting-pots, and fimilar vef¬
fels, as may be feen from the quantity of flowers
which appear upon their outer furface, when zinc or
its calxes and any inflammable matter have been cx-
pofed to heat within thefe veffels;, and at the fame
time fufficiently ftrong to refill the violent fire which
Mr Margraaf requires.
A pretty exadt effay of an ore of zinc may be made
in the following manner:
Mixaquantity of pulverifed roafted ore or calx of zinc
6 with
Sea xm.
METAL
Oresoi Ar-with an eighth part of charcoal-dull. Put this mixture
knic- into a crucible capable of containing thrice the quan-
* ' ¥ tity. Diffufe equally amongft this mixture a quantity
of fmall grains or thin plates of copper equal to that of
the calamine or ore employed, and upon the whole lay
another equal quantity of grains or plates of copper ;
and laftly, cover this latter portion of copper with
charcoal-duft. Lute a lid upon the crucible, and ap¬
ply a red heat during an hour or two. The copper or
part of it will unite with the vapour of the zinc, and
be thereby converted ipto brafs.. By comparing the
weight of all the metal after the operation with the
weight of the copper employed, the weight acquired,
and confequently the quantity of zinc united with the
copper, will be known. The copper which has not
been converted into brafs, or more copper with frefh
charcoal-duft, may be again added in the fame man¬
ner to the remaining ore, and the operation repeated
with a heat fomewhat more intenfe, that any zinc re¬
maining in the ore may be thus extracted. A curious
eircumftance is, that a much greater heat is required
to obtain zinc from its ore by diftillation, than in the
operation now defcribed of making brafs ; in which
the reparation of the zinc from its ore feems to be fa¬
cilitated by its difpofition to unite with copper.
Sect. XIII. Ores of Arfenic.
§ i. Th e minerals wtiJch contain the largeft quantity
of arfenic are cobalts and white pyntes; although it is
alfo contained in other ores, it being one of the mine-
ralifing fubftances. But as cobalt mu/J’ be roafted to
obtain the fulphur it contains, the arfenic alfo which
rifes during this torrefaftion is colle&ed, as we ftiall
fee in Part III. (Smelting of Ores),and the particu¬
lar articles of each of the metallic fubftances mention¬
ed in this article.
I. Regulus of arfenic is found native. It is of a
leaden colour ; it burns with a fmall flame ; and is dif-
fipated, leaving generally a very fmall quantity of calx
of bifmuth, or of calx of cobalt, and a very little filver.
When it is of a folid and teftaceous texture, it has
been improperly called teflaccous cobalt^ in German
fcherbencobalt. II. Calx of arfenic is found in form of
powder ; native flowers of arfenic, or of indurated fe-
mitranfparent cryftals ; native cryftalline arfenic.
III. Calx, of arfenic is mixed, I. With fulphur; when
yellow, it is called orpiment; when red, it is called
native realgar: the difference of colour depends on
the proportion of the two component parts. 2. With
L U R G Y. 457
calx of tin ; tin-grains. 3. With fulphur and fxlvcr,Oresof Ar-
in the red filver ore. 4.. With calx of lead, in the lead-, te‘1ic- .
fpar. 5. With calx of cobalt, in the efflorefcence of ,
cobalt. IV. Arfenic is mineralifed, 1. With fulphu-
rated iron ; arfenical pyrites. 2. With iron only;
white pyrites, or mifspickle. 3. With cobalt, in al-
moft all cobalt-ores. 4. With filver. 5. With cop¬
per. 6. With antimony.
§ 2. Arfenic may be feparated from its ore or earthy
matter with which it happens to be mixed, by fub-
limation, according to the following procefs by Mr
Cramer.
“ Do every thing as was faid about mercury, or
fulphur ; but let the veffel which is put into the fire
with the ore in it be of earth or ftone, and the reci¬
pient be of glafs, and of a middling capacity. Nor is
it neceffary that this ftiould be filled with water, fo it
be but well luted. The fire msuft likewife be ftronger,
and continued longer than for the extracting of ful¬
phur. Neverthelefs, every kind of arfenic cannot be
extracted in a confined fire : for it adheres to the ma¬
trix more ftrongly than fulphur and mercury. You
will find in the part of the veffel which is more re¬
mote from the fire, pulverulent and fubtle flowers of
arfenic ; but there will adhere to the pofterior of the
neck of the retort fmall folid maffes, Ihining like fmall
cryftals, tranfparent, fometimes gathered into a folid
fublimate, and perfectly’white, if the ore of the arfe¬
nic was perfectly pure; which neverthelefs happens
very feldom. The flowers are moft commonly thin,
and of a grey colour : which proceeds from the phlo-
gifton mixed with the mafs. They are often of a ci¬
tron or of a golden colour, which is a fign that there
is in the mixture fome mineral fulphur; and if the
fublimate be led or yellow, it is a fign of much ful¬
phur.
“ As all the arfenic contained in the ore is not ex¬
pelled in clofe veffels, you mull weigh the refiduum ;
then i oaft it in a crucible till it fmokes no longer, or
rather in an earthen flat veffel not glazed, and in a
itrong fire to be ftirred now and then with a poker,
and then weigh it when grown cold : you will be able
thus to know how much arfenic remained in the clofe
veffel, unlefs the ore contain bifmuth.”
If the arfenic be fulphurated, it may be purified by
triturating it with mercury or with fixed alkali, and
by fubliming the arfenic from the remaining fulphu¬
rated mercury or alkali. The method of obtaining a
regulus of arfenic is defcribed at the article Regulus of
Arfenic.
PART III.
SMELTING of ORES.
HAving Ihown the nature of the principal metallic
minerals, and the fubftances of which they are
compofed; and alfo explained the proceffes by which
an exa£t analyfis of thefe compound minerals may be
made, and the nature and quantity of the contained
metals may be known; in order to complete what re¬
lates to this important fubjedt, we'(hall deferibe in this
Part the principal operations by which metals, &c.
Vol. XI. Part IL
are obtained “ in the great,” as it is called, or for
commercial purpofes. What we fhall fay upon this
fubjedt will chiefly be extradted from a Trealife on the
Smelting of Ores, by Schlutter, tranflated from the
German into French by M. Hellot; becaufe this, of
all the modern works upon that fubjedt, appears to be
the moft exadt. We fhall firft -deferibe the opera¬
tions upon pyritous matters for the extradtion of ful-
3 M phur
458
METAL
Sulphuf pfour, &c. and afterwards the operations by which
Y-orkf, metaj]iq fubftances are extracted from ores properly
fo called.
Sect. I. Ext ration of Sulphur from Pyrites and
other Minerals.
In order to obtain fulphur from pyrites, this mine¬
ral ought to be expofed to a heat fufficient to fublime
the fulphur, or to make it diftil in veffels, which mull
be clofe, to prevent its burning.
Sulphur is extrafted from pyrites at a work at
Schwartzember, in Saxony, in the high country of
the mines; and in Bohemia at a place called Alien-
Sat tel.
The furnaces employed for this operation are ob¬
long, like vaulted galleries ; and in the vaulted roofs
are made feveral openings. Thefe are called furnaces
'for extruding fulphur.
In thefe furnaces are placed earthen-ware tubes, fill¬
ed with pyrites broken into pieces of the lize of fmall
nuts. Each of thefe tubes contains about 50 pounds
of pyrites. They are placed in the furnace almoft ho¬
rizontally, and have fcarcelymore than an inch of de-
fcent. The ends, which come out of the furnace five
or fix inches, become gradually narrower. Within
#ach tube is fixed a piece of baked earth, in form of a
{tar, at the place where it begins to become narrow¬
er, in order to prevent the pyrites from falling out,
or choaking the mouth of the tube. To each tube is
fitted a receiver, covered with a leaden pipe, pierced
with a fmall hole to give air to the fulphur. The
other end of the tube is exactly clofed. A moderate
fire is made with wood, and in eight hours the ful¬
phur of the pyrites is found to; have paffed into the re¬
ceivers.
The refiduum of the pyrites, after the diftillation,
is drawn out at the large end, and freih pyrites is
put in its place. From this refiduum, which is called
[turnings of fulphur, vitriol is extracted.
# The 11 tubes, into which were put, at three feveral
diftillations, in all nine quintals, or 900 pounds of
pyrites, yield from. 100 to 150 pounds of crude ful¬
phur, which is fo impure as to require to be purified
by a fecond diftillatiotK
This purification of crude fulphur is alfo done in a
furnace in form of a gallery, in which five iron cucur¬
bits are arranged on each fide. Thefe cucurbits are
placed in a floping diredlion, and contain about eight
quintals and a half of crude fulphur. To them are
luted earthen tubes, fa difpofed as to anfwer the pur-
pofe of capitals. The nofe of each of thefe tubes
is inferted into an earthen pot called the fore-runner.
This pot has three openings ; namely that which
receives the nofe of the tube; a fecond fmaller
hole, which is left open to give air; and a third
in its lower part, which is {topped with a wooden
PeS-
When the preparations are made, a fire is lighted
about feven o’clock in the evening, and is a little
abated as foon as the fulphur begins to diftil. At
three o’clock in the morning, the wooden pegs which
flop the lower holes of the fore-runners are for the
firft time drawn out, and the fulphur flov/s out of each
of them into an earthen pot with two handles, placed
L U R G Y Part lift
below for its reception. In this diftillntion the fire
muft be moderately and prudently condu&ed ; other- ^
wife lefs fulphur would be obtained, and it alfo would
be of a grey colour, and not of the fine yellow which
it ought to have when pure. The ordinary lofs in
the purification of eight quintals of crude fulphur is,
at moft, one quintal.
When all the fulphur has flowed out, and has cooled
a little in the earthen pots, it is call into moulds made
of beech-tree, which have been previoufly dipt in wa¬
ter and fet to drain. As foon as the fulphur is cooled
in the moulds, they are opened, and the cylinders of
fulphur are taken out and put up in calks. Thefe are
called roll-hrimfone.
As fulphur is not only in pyrites, but alfo in moft.
metallic minerals, it is evident that it might be ob¬
tained by works in the great from the different orea
which contain much of it, and from which it muft be
fcparated previoufly to their fulion : but as fulphur is
of little value, the trouble of collefting it from ores
is feldom taken. Smelters are generally fatisfied with
freeing their ores from it, by expofing them to a fire
fufficieut to expel it. This operation is called torre-
fadien, or roaf ing of ores.
There are, however, ores which contain fo rnuclv
fulphur, that part of it is actually collefted in the or¬
dinary operation, of roaftiag, without much trouble
for that purpofe. Such is the ore of Fjamelfberg in
the country of Hartz.
This ore, which is of lead, containing filver, is
partly very pure, and partly mixed with cupreous py¬
rites and filver ; hence it is neceffary to roaft it.
The roafting is performed by laying alternate ftrata
of ore and wood upon each other in an open fit Id,
taking care to diminifti the fize of the ftrata as they
rife higher; fo that the whole mafs fhall be a qua¬
drangular pyramid truncated above, whofe bafe is
about 31 feet fquare. Below, forae paffages are left
open, to give free entrance to the air;, and the Tides
and top of the pyramid are covered over with fmall
ore, to concentrate the heat and make it laft longer.
In the centre of this pyramid there is a channel which
defcends vertically from the top to the bafe. When
all is properly arranged, ladlefuls of red-hot fcoria
from the fmelting furnace are thrown down the chan¬
nel, by which means the fhrubs and wood placed below
for that purpofe are kindled, , and the fire is from them
communicated to all the wood of the pile, which con¬
tinues burning till the third day. At that time the
fulphur of the mineral becomes capable of burning
fpontaneoufly, and of continuing the fire after the
wood is confumed.
When this loafting has been continued 15 days,
the mineral becomes greafy; that is, it is covered
over with a kind of varnilh : 20 or 25 holes or hol¬
lows are then made in the upper-part of the pile in
which the fulphur is collefted. From thefe cavities
the fulphur is taken out thrice every day, and thrown
into water. This fulphur is not pure, but crude ; and
is therefore fent to the manufafturers.of fulphur, to be
purified in the manner above related.
As this ore of Ramelfberg is very fulphureous, the
firft roafting, which we are now defcribing, lafts three
months ; and during this time, if much rain has not
fallen, or if the operation has not failed by the pile
1 falling
Sea.I. METAL
Sulphur follj'ng down or cracking, by which the air has fo
, W('rks- much free accefs, that the fulphur is burnt and con-
' v fumed, from i © to 20 quintals of crude fulphur are by
this method collefted.
The fu phur of this ore, like that of moll others,
was formerly neglefted, till, in the year 1570, a per*
fon employed in the mines ca'led Chriftopher Sander,
difeovered the method of colle&ing it, nearly as it is
done at prefent.
Metallic minerals are not the only fubftances from
•which fulphur is extra&ed. This matter is diffufed
in the earth in fuch quantities, that the metals cannot
nbforb it all. Some fulphur is found quite pure, and
in different forms, principally in the neighbourhood
of volcanoes, in caverns, and in mineral waters. Such
are the opaque kind called virgln-fulphur; the tranfpa-
rent kind called fulphur of Quito ; and the native
flowers of fulphur,'as thofe of the Waters of Aix-la-
Chapelle. It is alfo found mixed with different
earths. Here ’we may obferve, that all thofe kinds of
fulphur which are not mineralifed by metallic fub¬
ftances, are found near volcanoes, or hot mineral wa¬
ters, and confequently in places where nature feems
to have formed great fubterranean laboratories, in
which fulphureous minerals may be analyfed and de-
compofed, and the fulphur feparated, in the manner
in which it is done in fmall in our works and labora¬
tories. However that be, certainly one of the bell
and moft famous fulphur-mines in the world is that
called Sofatara. The Abbe Nollet has publifhed,
in the Memoirs of the Academy, fome interefting
obfervations upon this fubjeft, which we fhall here
abridge. _
Near Puzzoli, in Italy, is that great and famous
mine of fulphur and alum called at prefent Solfatara.
It is a fmall oval plain, the greateft diameter of which
is about 400 yards, raifed about 300 yards above the
level of the fea. It is furrounded by high hills and
great rocks, which fall to pieces, and whofe fragments
form very fteep banks. Almoft all the ground is bare
and white, like marie; and is every-where. fenfrbly
warmer than the atmofphere in the greateft heat of
fummer, fo that the feet of perfens walking there are
burnt through their fhoes. It is impofflble not to
obferve the fulphur there; for every-where may be
perceived by the linell a fulphureous vapour, which
rifes to a confiderable height, and gives reafon to
believe that there is a fubterraneous fire below, from
which that vapour proceeds.
Near the middle of this field there is a kind ofba-
fon three or four feet lower than the reft of the plain,
in which a found may be perceived when a perfon
walks on it, as if there were under his feet fome great
cavity, the roof of which was very thin. After that,
the lake Agnano is perceived, whofe waters feem to
boil. Thefe waters are indeed hot, but not fo hot as
boiling water. This kind of ebullition proceeds from
vapours which rife from the bottom of the lake,
which being fet in motion by the adtion of fubterra-
pean fires, have force enough to raife all that mafs of
water. Near this lake there are pits, not very deep,
from which fulphureous vapours are exhaled. Per-
jbns who have the itch come to thefe pits, and receive
the vapours in order to be cured Finally, there are
feme deeper excavations, whence a foft ftone is pro-
L U R G Y. 459
cured which yields fulphur. From thefe cavities va- Sulphur
pours exhale, and ilfue out with noife, and which are Worki” .
nothing elfe than fulphur fubliming through the ere- ’
vices. This fulphur adheres to the fides of the rocks,
where it forms enormous mafles : in calm weather, the
vapours may be evidently feen to rife 25 or 30 feet
from the furface of the earth.
Thefe vapours, attaching themfelves to the fides of
rocks, form enormous groups of fulphur, which fome-
times fall down, by their own weight, and render thefe
places of dangerous accefs.
In entering the Solfatara, there are warehoufes
and buildings ere&ed for the refining of fulphur.
Under a great flied, or hangar, fupported by a wall
behind, and open on the other three fides, the fulphur
is procured by diftillation from the foft ftanes we men¬
tioned above. Thefe ftones are dug from under ground ;
and thofe which lie on the furface of the earth are ne-
glefted. Thefe laft are, however, covered with a ful¬
phur ready formed, and of a yellow colour: but the
workmen fay they have loft their ftrength, and that the
fulphur obtained from them is not of fo good a quality
as the fulphur obtained from the ftones which are dug
out of the ground.
Thefe laft mentioned are broken into lumps, and
put into pots of earthen ware, containing each about
20 pints Paris meafure. The mouths of thefe pots arc
as wide as their bottoms ; but their bellies, or middle
parts, are wider. They are covered with a lid of the
fame earth, well luted, and are arranged in two paral¬
lel lines along two brick walls, which form the two
fides of a furnace. The pots are placed within thefe
walls; fo that the centre of each pot is in the centre
of the thicknefs of the wall, and that one end of the
pots overhangs the wall within, while the other end
overhangs the wall without. In each furnace ten of
thefe pots are placed; that is, five in each of the two
walls which form the tw» fides of the furnace.” Be¬
twixt thefe walls there is a fpace of 15 or 18 inches;
which fpace is covered by a vault refting on the two
walls. The whole forms a furnace feven feet long, two
feet and a half high, open at one end, and Ihut at the
other, excepting a fmall chimney through which the
fmoke paffes.
Each of thefe pots has a mouth in its upper part
without the furnace, in order to admit a tube of 18 line*
in diameter and a foot in length, which communicates
with another pot of the fame fize placed without the
building, and pierced with a round hole in its bafe of
15 or 18 lines diameter. Laftly, to each of thefe laft-
mentioned pots there is a wooden tub placed below, in
a bench made for that purpofe.
Four or five of thefe furnaces are built under one
hangar, or ihed. Fires are kindled in each of them at
the fame time ; and they are thrown down after each
diftillation, either that the pots may be renewed, or
that the refiduums may be more eafily taken out.
The fire being kindled in the furnace, heats the firft
pots containing the fulphureous ftones. The fulphur
rifes in fumes into the upper part of the pot, whence
it paffes through the pipe of communication into the
external veffel. There the vapours are condeufed, be¬
come liquid, and flow through the hole below into the
tub, from which the fu’phur is eafily turned out, be-
caufe the form of the veffel is that of a truncated cone
3 M 2 whofe
460 METAL
Smelting of whofe narrower end is placed below, and becaufe the
Ores in ge- hoops of the tub are fo faftened that they may be oc-
, nc^a1' cafiona'ly loofened. The mafs of fulphur is then car-
ried to the buddings mentioned before, where it is re-
melted for its purification, and call into ro.ls, fuch as
we receive it.
ExtraBion of Vitriol from pyrites. See Chemi¬
stry.
ExtraElion of Alvm from pyritous fubjlances and
from aluminous earths. See Chemistry.
Sect. II. Smelting of Ores in general.
$ 1. As ores confift of metallic matters combined
with fulphur and arfenic, and are befides intermixed
with earthy and ftony fubftances of all kinds, the in¬
tention of all the operations upon thefe compound bo¬
dies is to feparate thefe different fubftances from each
other. This is effe£tcd by feveral operations founded
on the known properties of thofe fubftances. We now
proceed to give a general idea of thefe feveral opera¬
tions. ■
Firft of all, the ore is to be feparated from the
earths and ftones accidentally adherent to it; and when
thefe foreign fubftances are in large maffes, and are not
very intimately mixed in fmall particles with the ore,
this reparation may be aceomplifhed by mechanical
means. This ought always to be the firft operation,
unlefs the adherent fubftance be capable of ferving as
a flux to the ore. If the unmetallic earths be inti¬
mately mixed with the ore, this muft neceffarily be
broken and divided into fmall particles. This opera¬
tion is performed by a machine which moves peftles,
called bocords or f ampere. After this operation, when
the parts of the mineral are fpecifically heavier than
thofe of the unmetallic earth or ftone, thefe latter may
be feparated from the ore by wafhing in canals through
which water flows. With regard to this waffling of
ores, it is neceflary to obferve, that it cannot fucceed
but when the ore is fenfibly heavier than the foreign
matters. But the contrary happens frequently, as well
becaufe quartz and fpar are naturally very ponderous,
as becaufe the metallic matter is proportionally fo
much lighter as it is combined with more fulphur
When an ore happens to be of this kind, it is necef-
fary to begin by roafting it, in order to deprive it of
the greateft part of its fulphur.
It happens frequently that the pyritous matters ac¬
companying the ore are fo hard that they can fcarcely_
be pounded. In this cafe it is neceflary to roaft it en¬
tirely, or partly, and to throw it red-hot into cold-wa¬
ter . by which the ftones are fplitj and rendered much
more capable of being pulverifed
Thus it happens very frequently, that roafting is the
firft operation to which an ore is expofed.
When the fubftance of the ore is very fufible, this
firft operation may be difpenfed with, and the matter
may be immediately fufed without any previous roaft¬
ing, or at leaft with a very flight one. For, to effeft
this fufion, it is neceflary that it retain a great quan¬
tity of its fulphur, which, with the other fluxes added,
ferves to deftroy or convert into fcoria a confiderable
part of the ftony matter of the mineral, and to reduce
the reft into a brittle fubftance, which is called the matt
L U R G Y. Pan HI.
of lead or of copper, 01 other metal contained in the Smehing of
ore. This matt is therefore an intermediate matter be-°res in &«-
twixt the mineral and the metal; for the metal is there liera1,
concentrated, and mixed with lefs ufekfa matter than v~—^
it was in the ore. But as this matt is always fu’phu-
reous, the metal which it contains cannot have its me-
taliic properties. Therefore it muft be roafted feveral
times to evaporate the fu phur, before it is remehed,
when the pure metal is required. This fufion of an ore
not roafted, or but flightly roafted, is called crude fu-
fton.
We may here obferve upon the fubjeft of waffling
and roafting of ores, that as arfenic is heavier than full
phur, and has nearly the weight of metaSs, the ores in
which it prevails are generally very heavy, and confe-
quently are fufceptible of being waffled, which is a
great advantage. But on the other fide, as arfenic i*
capable of volatilifing, fcorifying, and deftroying many
metals,^ thefe ores have difadvantages in the roafting
and fufion, in both which confiderable lofs is caufed
by the arfenic. Some ores contain, befides arfenic*
other volatile femimetals, fuch as antimony and zinc.
Thefe are almoft untradlable, and are therefore neglec-
ted. They are called minera rapaces, “ rapaciou*
ores.”
When the metai has been freed as much as is pof-
fible from foreign matters by thefe preliminary opera¬
tions, it is to be completely purified by fufions more
or lefs frequently repeated ; in which proper additions
are made, either to abforb the reft of the fulphur and
arfenic, or to complete the vitrification or fcorification
of the unmetallic ftones and earth.
Laftly, as ores frequently contain feveral different
metals, thefe are to be feparated from each other by
procefles fuited to the properties of thefe metals, of
which we ftiall fpeak more particularly as we proceed
in our examination of the ores of each metal.
. § 2. To facilitate the extraftion of metallic fub¬
ftances from the ores gnd minerals containing them,
lome operations previous to the fufion or fmelting of
thefe ores and minerals are generally neceffary. Thefe
operations confift of, 1. The feparation of the ores and
metallic matters from the adhering unmetallic earth*
and Hones, by hammers and other mechanical inftru-
ments, and by waftiing with water. 2. Their </m-
fon or reduction into Imaller parts by contufion and.
trituration, that by another walking with water they,
may be more perleftly cleanfed from extraneous mat¬
ters, and rendered fitter for the fubfequent operations,.
calcination or roafting, and fufion, 3. Roajling or cal¬
cination ; the ufes of which operation are, to expel the
volatile, ufelefs, or noxious fubftances, as water, vitrio¬
lic acid, fuiphur, and arfenic ; to. render the ore more
friable, and fitter for the fubfequent contufion and fu¬
fion ; and, laftly, to calcine and deftroy the viler me¬
tals, for inftance the iron of copper-ores, by means
of the fire, and of the fulphur and arfenic. Stones, as
quartz and flints, containing metallic veins or particles,
are frequently made red-hot, and then extinguilhed in
cold water, that they may be rendered fufficiently fri¬
able and pulverable, to allow the feparation of the me¬
tallic particles.
Roafting is unneceffary for native metals; for fome
of the richer gold and filver;ores; for fome lead-ores,
the
Sea. IT. METAL
Reading of the fulphur of v/hith may be feparated during the fu-
Oref* fion; and for many caleiform ores, as thefe do not ge-
v nerally contain any fulphur and arfenic.
In theroafting of ores, the following attentions muft
be given, t. To reduce the mineral previoufly into
fmall lumps, that the furface may be increafed ; but
they mull not be fo fmall, nor placed fo compactly, as
to prevent the paflage of the ah and flame. 2. The
larger pieces muft be placed at the bottom of the pile,
where the greateft heat is. 3. The heat muft be gra¬
dually applied, that the fulphur may not be melted,
which would greatly retard its expulfion; and that the
fpars, floors, and ftones, intermixed with the ore, may
not crack, fly, and be difperfed. 4. The ores not
thoroughly roafted by one operation muft be expofed
to a fecond. 5. The fire may be increafed towards
the end, that the noxious matters more ftrongly ad¬
hering may be expelled. 6. Fuel which yields much
flame, as wood and folfil coals free from fulphur, is
faid to be preferable to charcoal or coaks. Sometimes
cold water is thrown on the calcined ore at the end
of the operation, while the ore is yet hot, to render
it more friable.
No general rule can be given concerning the dura-,
tion or degree of the fire, thefe being very various ac¬
cording to the diffAence of the ores. A roafting du¬
ring a few hours or days is fufficient for many ores ;
while fome, fuch as the pre of Rammellberg, require
that it {hould be continued during feveral months.
Schlutter enumerates five methods of roafting ores.
1. By conftrufting a pile of ores and fuel placed in al¬
ternate ftrata, in the open air, without any furnace.
2. By confining fuch a pile within walls, but without
a roof. 3. By placing the pile under a roof, without
lateral walls. 4. By placing the pile in a furnace con-
lifting of walls and a roof. 5. By roafting the ore in
a reverberatory furnace, in which it muft be continually
ftirred with an iron rod.
Several kinds of fufions of ores may be diftinguilh-
ed. 1. When a fulphureous ore is mixed with much
earthy matter, from which it cannot be eafily fepara¬
ted by mechanical operations, it is frequently melted,
in order to difengage it from thefe earthy matters, and
to concentrate its metallic contents. By this fufion,
feme of the fulphur is diffipated, and the ore is redu¬
ced to a Hate intermediate betwixt that of ore and of
metal. It is then called a matt (lapis fulphureo-melalli-
cus); and is to be afterwards treated like a pure ore
by the fecond kind of fufion, which is properly the
ftnelting, or extradlion of the metal by fufion. 2. By
this fufion or fmelting, the metal is extradled from the
ore previoufly prepared by the above operations, if
thefe be neceffary. The ores of fome very fufible me¬
tals, as of bifmuth,, may be fmelted by applying a heat
fufficient only to melt the metals, which are thereby
feparated from the adhering extraneous matters. This
feparation of metals by fufion, without the vitrification
of extraneous matters, may be called eliquation. Ge¬
nerally, a complete fufion of the ore and vitrification
of the earthy matters are neceffary for the perfedt re¬
paration of the contained metals. By this method,
metals are obtained from their ores, fometimes pure,
and fometimes mixed with other metallic fubftances,
from which they muft be afterwards feparated ; as we
L U R G Y. 461
ftrall fee when we treat of the extraftion of particu- Fufion of
lar metals. To procure this feparation of metals from Ores,
ores, thefe muft be fo thinly liquefied, that the fmall —~v—^
metallic particles may difengage themfelves from the
fcoria; but it muft not be fo thin as to allow the me¬
tal to precipitate before, it be perfedlly difengaged
from any adhering extraneous matter, or to pervade
and deftroy the containing yeffels and furnace. Some
ores are Efficiently fufible ; but others require certain
additions called Jkixes, to promote their fuiion and the
vitrification of their unmetallic parts ; and alfo to ren¬
der the fcoria fufficiently thin to allow the feparatioa
of the metallic particles.
Different fluxes are fuitable to different ores, accor¬
ding to the quality of the ore, and of the matrix, or
ftone adherent to it.
The matrixes of two different ores of the fame me¬
tal frequently ferve as fluxes to each other ; as, for in-
ftance, an argillaceous matrix with one that is calca¬
reous ; thefe two earths being difpofed to vitrification
when mixed, though each ot them is fingly unfufible-
For this reafon, two or more different ores to be fmek-
ed are frequently mixed together.
The ores alfo of different metals require different
fluxes. Thus calcareous earth is found to be beft fuit-
ed to iron-ores, and fpars and fcoria to fufible ores of
copper.
The fluxes moft frequently employed in the fmelt¬
ing of ores are, calcareous earths, fluors or vitreous
fpars, quajtz, and fand, fufible ftones, as flates, bafal-
tes, the feveral kinds of fcoria, and pyrites.
Calcareous earth is ufed to facilitate the fufion of
ores of iron, and of fome of the poorer ores of copper,
and, in general, of ores mixed with argillaceous earths,
or with feltfpar. This earth has been fsmetimes add¬
ed with a view of feparating the fulphur, to which it
very readily unites: but by this union the fulphur is-
detained, and a hepar is formed, which readily diffolves
iron and other metals, and fo firmly adheres to them,
that they cannot be feparated without more difficulty
than they could from the original ore. This addition
is therefore not to be made till the fulphur be previ¬
oufly well expelled.
Fluors or fuftble fpars facilitate the fufion of moft me¬
tallic minerals, and alfo of calcareous and argillaceous
earths, of fteatites, afbeftus, and fome other unfufible
ftones, but not of filicious earths without a mixture of
calcareous earth.
Quartz is fometimes added iii the fufion of ferrugi¬
nous copper ores, the ufe of which is faid chiefly to be,,
to enable the ore to receive a greater heat, and to give
a more perfect vitrification to the ferruginous fcoria.
Thejvfible Jlones, as fates, bafaltes, are fo tenacious
and thick when fufed, that they cannot be confidered
properly as fluxes, fuit as matters added to leffen the
too great liquidity of fome very fufible minerals.
The fcoria obtained in the fufion of an ore is fre¬
quently ufeful to facilitate the fufion of an ore of the
fame metal, and fometimes even ores of other me¬
tals.
Sulphurated pyrites greatly promote the fufibility of
the fcoria of metals, from the fulphur it contains. It
is chiefly added to difficultly-fufible copper-ores, to
form the fulphureous compounds called malts, that the
ores,
4«3 METAL
BnieUin? fifo’-es tlius brought into fufjon may be feparated from
Oretof ^jje adhering earthy matters, and that the ferruginous
,i | ' ^ matter contained in them may be deftroyed, during
the fubfequent calcination and fufion, by means of the
fulphur.
As in the ores called calciform, the metallic matter
•exilts in a calcined ftate ; and as calcination reduces
the metals of mineralifed ores (excepting the perfedt
metals) to that ftate alfo ; therefore all calciform and
calcined ores require the addition of fome inflammable
fubftance, to reduce them to a metallic ftate. In great
works, the charcoal or other fuel ufed to maintain the
fire produces alfo this effect
Mctalt are fometimes added in the fufion of ores of
other more valuable meta’s, to abforb from thefe ful¬
phur or arfenic. Thus iron is added to fulphurated,
.cupreous, and filver ores. Metals are alfo added in the
fiulion of ores of other more valuable metals, to unite
with and collect the fmall particles of thefe difpeifed
through much earthy matter, and thus to aflift their
.precipitation. With thefe intentions lead is frequently
added to ores and minerals containing gold, filver, or
copper.
Ores of metals are a’fo fometimes added to affift the
precipitation of more valuable metals, ’i hus antimony
is frequently added to aflift the precipitation of gold
intermixed with other metallic matters. Thus far of
fmelting of ores in general.
Sect. HI. Smelting of Ores of Silver.
§ i. As filver, even in its proper ores, is always
allayed with fome other metals from which it is intend¬
ed to be feparated after the fxlver-ore has been well
roafted, it muft be mixed with a greater or lefs quan¬
tity of lead previous to its fufion.
Lead has the fame effedi in fufion of gold and filver
as mercury has upon thefe metals by its natural fluidi¬
ty ; that is to fay, it unites with them, and feparates
them from unmetallic matters, which, being lighter,
rife always to the furface. But lead has the further
advantage of procuring, by its own vitrification, that
of all metallic fubftances, excepting gold and filver.
Hence it follows, that when gold and filver are ob¬
tained by means of mercury, they ftill remain allayed
with other metallic fubftances ; whereas when they are
obtained by fufion and fcorification with lead, they are
then pure, and not allayed with any metals but with
each other.
In proportion as the lead, which has been united to
the gold and filver of the ore, is fcorified by the
adtion of the fire, and promotes the fcorrfication of
the other metallic matters, it feparates the perfect
metals, and carries with it all the others to the fur-
lace. There it, meets the unmetallic fubftances, which
it likewife vitrifies, and which it changes into a per-
fedt fcoria, fluid, and fuch as a fcoria ought to be to
admit all the perfedt metal contained in it to precipi¬
tate.
When all heterogeneous matters have been thus
difengaged by fcorification with lead, the perfedt
metals, to which fome lead Hill remains united, are to
be further purified by the ordinary operation of the
cupel.
The common rule for the fufion and fcorification of
filver-ore with lead, is to add to the ore a quantity of
L U It G Y. Part IH,
lead fo much greater as there is more matter to he fco- Smelting of
rifled, and as thefe matters are more refradtory and of Or sof
more difficult fufion. Silver ores, or thofe treated as ,‘il*ver' ,
fuch, are often rendered refractory by ferruginous ’ ^
earths, pyritous matters, or cobalts, containing al¬
ways a confiderable quantity of an earth which is un¬
metallic, very fubtile, and very refradtory, and which
renders a confiderable augmentation of the quantity of
lead necefl’ary.
The quantity of lead which Is commonly added to
fufible filver ores, that do not contain lead, is eight
times the quantity of the ore. But when the ore is
refradlory, it is neceflary to add twelve times the
quantity of lead, and even more; alfo glafs of lead,
and fluxes, fuch as the white and black fluxes; to
which however borax and powder of charcoal are pre¬
ferable, on account of the liver of fulphur formed by
thefe alkaline fluxes.
It is neceflary to obferve, that faline fluxes are only
ufed in fmall operations, on account of their deamefs.
To thefe are fubllituted, in the great operations, of
which we now treat, fandiver, fufible fcoria, and other
matters of little value.
The greateft part of filver now employed in com¬
merce is not obtained from the proper ores of filver,
which are very fcarce ; but from lead, and even copper-
ores, which are more or lefs rich in filver. To give an
idea of the manner of treating thefe kinds of ores, from
which filver is extra&ed in the great works, we ihall
briefly deferibe here, after Schlutter, the fmelting of
the ore of Ramelfoerg, which contains, as we have
already faid, feveral different kinds of metals, but
particularly lead and filver.
When this mineral has been difengaged from its
fulphur as much as poflible by three very long roaft-
ings, it is melted, in the Lower Hartz in Saxony, in
a particular kind of furnace, called a furnace for
fmelting upon a hollow or caffe. The mafonry of this
furnace is compofed of large thick flates, capable of
fuftaining great heat, and cemented together by clay.
The interior part of the furnace is three feet and a
half long, and two feet broad at the back part, and
one foot only in the front. Its height is nine feet
eight inches. It has a foundation of mafonry in the
ground; and in this foundation channels are made
for the evaporation of the moifture. Thefe channels
are covered over with Hones called covering Jlones.
The hollow or caffe, which is made above thefe, is
formed of bricks, upon which are placed, firft, a bed
of clay ; then a bed of fmall ore and lifted vitriols;
and, laftly, a bed of charcoal powder beat down,
called light btafque. The anterior wall of the furnace
is thinner than the others, and is called the chemfe.
The back wall, which is pierced to give paflage to the
pipes of two large wooden bellows, is called the middle
wall. When the furnace is thus prepared, charcoal
is thrown into the hollow, or caife; which being
kindled, the fire is to be continued during three hours,
before the matters to be fufed are added. Then
thefc matters are thrown in, which are not the pure
ore, but a mixture of feveral fubftances, all of which
are fomewhat profitable. The quantity of thefe mat¬
ters is fufficient for one day’s work ; that is, for a
fufion of eighteen hours; and itconfiftsof, i. Twelve
fchorbens or meafures of well roafted Rammelfberg
ore (the fchorben is a meafure whofe contents are
two
Sea. HI. METAL
Smelting nftwo feet five inehea long, one foot feven Inches broad,
^Ive/ an<^ 3 e mQre t^ian 3 ^opt ^eeP : ,,a t0 32
^ 1 ''er* quintals of that country, Cologn weight, at 123
pounds each quintal). 2. Six meafures of fcoria pro¬
duced by the fmelting of the ore of Upper Hartz,
which is refractory, and what workmen call iold%
3. Two meafures of knobben, which is an impure
{coria containing fome lead and fdver, which has been
formerly thrown away as ufelefs, and is now collected
by women and children. Befides thefe, other mat¬
ters are added, containing lead and filver, as the tells
employed in refining,the drofs of lead, impure litharge,
and any rubbifh containing metal, which was left in
the furnace after the foregoing fufion. All thefe
matters being mixed together, are thrown into the
furnace : and to each meafure of this mixture a mea-
fure of charcoal is added. The fufion is then begun
by help of bellows; and as it proceeds, the lead falls
through the light brafque or charcoal-bed into the
hollow, or caffe, where it is preferved from burning
under the powder of charcoal. The fcoria, on the
other hand, being lighter and lefs fluid, is Ikimmed
off from time to time by means of ladles, that it may
not prevent the reft of the lead from falling down in¬
to the hollow. Thus, while the fufion lafts, frefli
matters and frefli charcoal are alternately added, till
the whole quantity intended for one fufion, or, as they
call it, one day, be thrown in.
There are feveral effential things to be remarked in
this operation, which is very well contrived. Firft,
The mixture of matters from which a little lead and
filver is procured, which would otherwife be loft; and
which have alfo this advantage, that they retard the
fufion of the Ramelfberg ore, which, however well
roafted it has been, retains always enough of the ful-
phur and iron of the pyrites mixed with it, to render
it too fufible or too fluid; fo that without the addi¬
tion of thofe matters nothing would be obtained but
a matt. It is even neceffary, notwithftanding thefe
additions, not to haften the fufion too much, but to
give time for the ore to mix with other matters, elfe
it would melt and flow of itfelf before the reft. Se¬
condly, The fufion of the ore through charcoal, which
is praitifed in moft fmelting-houfes, and for almoft all
ores, is. an excellent method, the principal advantage
of which is the faving of fuel. The adtion of the burn¬
ing charcoal directed immediately upon the mineral,
at the fame time that it melts it more readily and effi-
cacioufly, alfo fuppiies it with the phlogifton. necef¬
fary to bring it to a perfedt ftate.
From the Ramelfberg ore after its firft roafting a
•white vitriol is. obtained and prepared at Goflar, whofe
bafis was vine: which proves that this ore contains
alfo a certain quantity of this femimetal. As this ore
is fmelted in a country where the art is well underftood
of extra6ting every thing which a mineral contains, fo
in this fufion zinc and cadmia are obtained in ihe fol¬
lowing manner: When the furnace is prepared for the
fufion, it is nec.effary to clofe it up in the fore-part be¬
fore the fufion is begun.
“ Firft of all, a gritt-ftone is to be placed, fupportr
ed at the height of three inches. This ftone is as long
as the furnace is broad, and the height of it is level
with the hole where the bellows-pipe enters. It is
fattened on each fide of tire furnace, externally and in-
L UR G Y. 463
ternally, with clay. Upon this ftone a kind of re- Snwlcinir of
ceptacle, or, as it is called, the feat of the zinc, is made 9^®*^
in the following manner : A flat flaty ftone is chofen, 1 vJr' .
as long as the furnace is broad, and eight inches irv
breadth. This is placed on the gritt-ftone above men¬
tioned, in fuch a manner that it inclines confideraby
towards the front of the furnace, and that its bottom
touches clofely the gritt-ftone. It is faftened with
day, which is alfo laid upon the feat of the zinc..
Upon this feat, which is to receive the zinc, two round,
pieces of charcoal are placed, and alfo a ftone called
the zinc-Jlone, which is about a foot and an half in
length, and clofes one part of the front of the fur¬
nace. This ftone alfo is faftened on each of its fides.
with clay. Clay is likewife put under the ftone be¬
twixt the two pieces of charcoal, which hinder it from
touching the feat of the zinc. The under-part of this
ftone is but flightly luted, that the workmen may.
make an opening for the zinc to flow out. Thus i&
made the feat or receptacle of the zinc to detain this.
metallic fubftance, which would otherwife fall into the
hotteft part of the fire, called by the workmen the
melting-place, and would be there burnt : whereas it is
collected upon this receptacle during the. fufion, where
it is Iheltered from the a&ion of the bellows, and con-
fequently from too great heat.
“ When all the matter to be fufed in one day is
put into the furnace,_the blaft of air is continued till
that matter has funk down. When it is half way
down the furnace, they draw out the fcoria, that more
of the ore and other matters may be expofed to the
greateft heat. As fiaon as the fcoria is coolled and
fixed a little, two ftiovel-fulls of fmall wet fcoria or
fand is thrown clofe to the furnace, and beat down
with the ihovel; then the workmen open the feat or
receptacle of zinc, and ftrike upon the zinc-ftone to
make the femimetal flow out. As foon as the pureft
part of it has flowed out, it is fprinkled with water
and carried away. Then the workmen feparate'en¬
tirely the zinc-ftone from the wall of the furnace, and
they continue to give it little ftrokes, that the finall
particles of zinc difperfed among the charcoal may
fall down. This being done, the ftone is removed ;
and the zinc is feparated from the charcoal by an iron
inftrument, is cleaned, and remelted along with the
zinc that flowed out at firft, and is call into round
cakes. The reafon why the zinc is withdrawn before,
the bellows ceafe to blow, is, that if it was left till the
charcoal on the feat or receptacle was confumed, it
would be moftly burnt, and little would be obtained..
Thus after the zinc is withdrawn, the fufion is finilhed
by blowing the bellows till the end.”
Thus the zinc is feparated from the ore of Ra-
mellberg, and is not confounded in the hollow or
caffe with the lead and filver, becaufe, being a volatile
femimetal, it cannot fupport the activity of the fire,
without rifing into vapours, which are condenfed in
the place leaft hot, that, is to fay, upon the ftones ex-
prefsly prepared for. that purpofe; and which, being,
much thinner than the other walls of the furnace, are.
continually coolled by the external air.
It is alfo in this furnace, and after the fufion of
the Ramelfberg ore, that the cadmia of zinc, or the.
cadmia of furnaces, is obtained. This ore is com-,
pofed of fulphureous and ferruginous pyrites, of true.
lead--
464 METAL
Smelting of iead-ore containing fxiver, and a very hard and com-
&lverf Pa<^ matter °f a dark brownifh-grey colour, which is
. probably a lapis calaminaris, or an ore of zinc. Thefe
feveral matters of the Ramelfberg ore are not fepa-
rated from each other, either for the roafting or for
■the fufion. Thus there is zinc in all the parts of the
roafted ore; and much more of it would be obtained,
•if it was not fo eafily inflammable. All the zinc
which is obtained is preferved from burning by faking,
while in fufion, behind the chemife or fore-part of the
furnace, which is, as has been faid, a kind of fchiftus
or flate, called by the workmen Jhel-Jlone. But the
part of this femimetal which falls in the middle of the
furnace, near the middle-wall, or towards the fides,
being expofed to the greateft heat of the fire, is there
burnt; and its fmoke or flowers attaching itfelf on all
Tides to the walls of the furnace, undergo there a femi-
fufion, which renders this matter fo hard and fo thick,
that it muft be taken away after every fourth fufion,
or, at moft, after every fixth fufion. That which is
found attached to the higheft part of the furnace is
the beft and pureft. The reft is altered by a mixture
of a portion of lead which it has carried up with it;
and which, from its great weight and fixity, has hin¬
dered the zinc from rifing fo high as it would have
done alone. Therefore, with this kind of impure
cadmia, du&ile brafs cannot be made.
Almoft all the zinc we have, as well as the cadmia
of the furnaces, is obtained from the Ramelfberg ore
by the procefs defcribed, and confequently is not the
produce of a pure ore of zinc or lapis calaminaris,
which is never fufed for that purpofe. Before Mr
Margraaf, although it was well known that this ore
contained zinc, and that it was employed for the
making of brafs, a convenient procefs for extrading
zinc from it was not known ; becaufe, when treated
by fufion with fluxes, like other ores, it does not
yield any zinc : which proceeds partly from the re-
fraftory quality of the earth contained in the cala¬
mine, that cannot be fufed without a very violent fire;
and alfo from the volatility and combuftibility of the
^inc, which for this reafon cannot be colleded at the
bottom of a crucible, as a regulus under a fcoria, like
( moft metals.
M. Margraaf has remedied thefe inconveniences by
diftilling lapis calaminaris, mixed with charcoal, in a re¬
tort,towhich is joined a receiver containing fome water,
and confequently in clofe veflels, where the zinc, by
the help of a very ftrong fire indeed, is fuklimed in its
metallic form without burning. He alfo by the fame
method reduced into zinc the flowers of zinc, or pom-
pholix, cadmia of the furnaces, tutty, which is alfo a
kind of cadmia; in a word, all matters capable of
producing zinc by combination with phlogifton.—
But it is evident that fuch operations as thefe are ra¬
ther fit to fupply proofs for chemical theory, than to
be put in pradice for works in great. M. Margraaf
has obferved, that the zinc which he obtained by this
procefs was lefs brittle than what is obtained from the
fufion of ores; which may proceed from its greater pu¬
rity, or from its better combination with phlogifton.
Zinc is obtained, not only in the method ufed at
Goflar above defcribed ; but is alfo extraded in great
works, from lapis calaminaris and calcined blend, by a
<Jiftillation fimilar to that by which M. Margraaf has
N°2I2
L U R G
Y. Part III.
eflayed ores of zinc. The firft work of that kind Fining of j
was ereded in Sweden by Mr Von Swab, in the year Silver. i
1738. The ore employed was a kind of blend ; this * I
ore, when calcined, powdered, and mixed with char¬
coal, was put into iron or ftone retorts, and the zinc
was obtained by diftillation. In Brirtol a work is
eftablifhed in which zinc is obtained by diftillation by
defeent.
After this digreffion which we have now made con¬
cerning the operation in the great by which zinc and
cadmia are obtained, and which we could not infert
elfewhere, becaufe of the neceffary relation it has with
the fmelting of the Ramellberg ore, we proceed to
the other operations of the fame ore; that is to fay,
to the finery, by which the filver is feparated from the
lead, which are mixed together, forming what is called
the work.
This operation differs from the fning of flay, or in
fmall, principally in this circumftance, that in the latter I
method of fining all the litharge is abforbed into the
cupel, whereas in the former method the greateft part
of this litharge is withdrawn.
The fining in great of the work of Ramelfberg js
performed in a furnace called a reverberatory furnace.
This furnace is fo conftru&ed that the flame of wood
burning in a cavity called the flre-place, is determined
by a current of air (which is introduced through the
afh-hole, and which goes out at an opening on one fide
of that part of the furnace where the work is, that is,
where the lead and filver are) to circulate above, and
to give the convenient degree of heat, when the fire is
properly managed. In this furnace a great cupel, call¬
ed a tefl, is difpofed. This teft is made of the afhes of
beech-wood, well lixiviated in the ufual manner. In
fome founderies different matters are added, as fand,
■fpar, calcined gypfwm, quicklime, clay. When the
teft is well prepared and dried, all the work is put at
once upon the cold teft, to the quantity of 64 quin¬
tals for one operation. Then the fire is lighted in the
fire-place with faggots; but the fufion is not urged too
fall, 1. That the teft may have time to dry; 2. Be¬
caufe the work of the Ramelfberg ore is allayed by the
mixture of feveral metallic matters, which it is proper
to feparate from it, otherwife they would fpoii the li¬
tharge and the lead procured from it. Thefe metallic
matters are, copper, iron, zinc, and matt. As thefe
heterogeneous fubftances are hard and refractory, they
do not melt fo foon as the work, that is, as the lead
and filver; and when the work is melted, they fwirp
upon its furface like a fkin, which is to be taken off.
Thefe impurities are ca'ed the Awe or the fnfll-waflc.
What remains forms a fecond feum, which appears
when the work is at its greateft degree of heat, but
before the litharge begins to form itfelf. It is a fcoria
which is to be carefully taken off. It is called the
fecond wofle.
When the operation is at this point, it is continued
by the help of bellows, the wind of which is direfted,
not upon the wood or fuel, but upon the very furface
of the metal, by means of iron-plates put for that pur¬
pofe before the blaft-hole, which are called papillons.
This blaft does not fo much increafe the intenfity of
the fire, as it facilitates the combuftion of the lead,
and throws the litharge that is not imbibed by the teft
towards a channel, called the litharge-way, through
8 which
Se&. ITT, META h
Vaiiou* which it flows. The litharge becomes fixed out of the
yrocetfis furnaCe: the matter which is found in the middle of
tin Silver t^e larSe^ P]'eces> and which amounts to, about a half
. ^ or a third of the whole, is friable, and falls into pow¬
der like fand. This is put into barrels containing each
five quintals of.it ; and is called faleable litharge, be-
caufe it is fold in’that date. The other part, which
remains folid, is called cold litharge, and is again melted
and reduced into lead. The fufion is called cold fu-
Jion, and the lead obtained from it cold lead, which is
good and faleable when the work has been well clear¬
ed from the heterogeneous matters mentioned above.
The lefts and cupels impregnated with litharge are
added in the fufion of the ore, as we have already re¬
lated.
When two-thirds, or nearly that quantity, of the
lead are converted into litharge, no more of it is
formed. The filver then appears covered with a white
fkin, which the finers call lightening, and the metal
lightened or finedJilver.
The filver obtained by this procefs of fining is not
yet altogether pure. It ftill contains fome lead, fre¬
quently to the quantity of four drams in each marc,
or eight ounces. It is delivered to the workmen, who
complete its purification by the ordinary method.
This laft operation is the refining, and the workmen
employed to do it are called refiners. A fining of 64
quintals of work, yields from 8 to 10 merks of fined
filver, and from 35 to 40 quintals of litharge; that is,
from 12 to 18 of faleable litharge, from 22 to 23 of
cold litharge, from 20 to 22 quintals of impregnated
tell, and from 6 to 7 quintals of lead-drofs. The ope¬
ration lafts from 16 to 18 hours.
§ 2. Ores containing filver maybe divided into four
kinds^ 1. Pure, or thofe which are not much com¬
pounded with other metals. 2. Galenical, in which
the filver is mixed with much galena, or ore of lead
mineralifed by fulphur. 3. Pyritous, in which the
filver is mixed with the martial pyrites. 4. Cupreous;
in which the firlver is contained in copper ores. To
extract the filver from thefe feveral kinds of ores, diffe¬
rent operations are neceffary.
Native filver is feparated from its adhering earths
and ftones by amalgamation with mercury in the man¬
ner direcled for the reparation of gold ; or by fufion
with lead, from which it may be afterwards feparated
by cupellation.
Pure ores feldom requite a previous calcination; but
when bruifed and cleanfed from extraneous matters,
may be fufed directly, and incorporated with a quan¬
tity of lead; unlefs they contain a large proportion
of fulphur and arfenic, in which cafe a calcination
may be ufeful. The lead employed muft be in a cal¬
cined or vitrified ftate, which, being mixed with the
ore, and gradually reduced by the phlogifton of the
charcoal added to it, may be more effedually united
with the filver of the ore, than if lead itfelf had been
added, which would too quickly precipitate to the
bottom of the containing veffel or furnace. The fil¬
ver is to be afterwards feparated: from the .lead by cu¬
pellation.
Galenical ores, efpecially thofe in which pyrites is
intermixed, require a .calcination, which ought to be
performed in an oven, or reverberatory furnace. They
ure then to be fufed together with fome inflammable
Vol. XI. Part II.
L U R G Y
465
matter, as charcoal, by which the lead is revived, and
together with the filver is precipitated.
Pyritous ores muft be firft melted, fo as to form a
matt. If the ftilphur is not fufficient for this kind of
fufion, more fulphurated pyrites may be added. This
matt contains, befides filyer and fulphur, alfo various
metals, as lead, iron, and fometimes cobalt. The
matt muft be expofed to repeated calcinations till the
fulphur is diffipated. By thefe calcinations moft of
the iron is deftroyed. The calcined matt is to be fu¬
fed with litharge, and the filver incorporated with the
revived lead ; from whifch, and from the other imper-
fe& metals with which it may be mixed, it muft after¬
wards be feparated by cupellation.
The filver contained in cupreous ores may be ob¬
tained, either, 1. By feparating it from the copper
itfelf, after this has been extraifted along with the fil¬
ver, in the ufual manner, from the ore; or, 2. By
precipitating it immediately from the other matters
of the ore.
1. It may be feparated from the copper by two me¬
thods. One of thefe is by adding lead, and fcorifying
the imperfedl metals. By this method much of the
copper would be deftroyed, and it is therefore not to
be ufed unlefs the quantity of filver relatively to the
copper be.confiderable. Another method by which
filver may be feparated from copper is by eliquation ;
that is, by mixing the mafs of copper and filver with
a quantity of lead, and applying fuch a heat as {hall
be juft fufficient to make the lead eliquate from the
copper, together with the filver, which being more
ftrongly difpofed to unite with the lead than with the
copper, is thus incorporated with the former metal,
and feparated from the latter.
2. Silver may alfo be extra (Sled from thefe cupreous
ores by precipitation. For this purpofe, let the ore,
previeufiy bruifed and cleanfed, be formed into a matt,
that the earthy matters may be well feparated. Let
the matt be then fufed with a ftrong heat; and when
the fcoria has been removed, and the heat is dimi-
niftied, add to it fome clean galena, litharge, and
granulated lead. When the fire has been raifed, and
the additions well incorporated with the matt, let fome
caft or filed iron be thrown into the liquid mafs, which,
being more difpofed than lead is to unite with ful¬
phur, will feparate and precipitate the latter metal,
and along with it the filver or gold contained in the
matt. This method was introduced by Scheffer, and
is pradtifed at Adelfors in Smoland. In this work the
proportion of the feveral materials is, four quintals of
matt, two quintals of black, copper containing fome
lead with the perfeft metal, one quintal of galena,
one quintal of litharge, a fifth part of a quintal of gra¬
nulated lead, and an equal quantity of caft iron.
The filver in this, and in all other inftances where it
is united with lead, is to be afterwards feparated from
the lead by cupellation ; which procefs is defcribed
at the articles £ssat of the Value of Silver, and Re¬
fining.
Various
for extrac
ting Silver,
Sect. IV. Smelting of Ores of Copper.
§ 1. The fmelting in great of copper ores, and even
of feveral ores of filver and lead, excepting that of Ra-
melfl erg, is performed in furnaces not effentially dif-
3 N ferent
466 ' METAL
ufOr^if ferent from that already defcribed; but_in this refpedl
^CoppeF only’ t^iat ^coria an^ metal are not drawn out of
»1;„— ', the furnace, but flow fpontaneoufly, as foori as they
are melted, into receiving bafons, where the metal is
freed from the fcoria. Thefe furnaces are generally
called pierced furnaces. .
Inllead of a light brafque, or bed of charcoal pow¬
der, under which the metal lies hid, the bottom of
thefe furnaces is covered with a bafon compofed of
heavy brafque, which is a mixture of charcoal-powder
and clay. In the front of the furnace, and at the
bottom of the chemife, there is a hole, called the eye,
through which the melted matter flows, and runs
along a trench or furrow, called the trace, into one
or more receiving bafons made of earth, fcoria, fand,
&c. There the metal is feparated from the fcoria,
by making it flow from thefe bafons into another la¬
teral one. Thefe furnaces are alfo called crooked fur¬
naces.
Different names are given to them according to fome
difference in their conftru&ion. For inftance, thofe
which have two eyes, and two traces, through which
the melted matter flows alternately into two bafons,
are called fpedaclefurnaces. Their greater or lefs
height gives occafion alfo to the diftin&ion of high fur¬
naces and middle furnaces.
The high furnaces are of modern invention. They
were firft introduced at Mansfeldt in the year 1727 ;
and they are now ufed in almoft all countries where
ores are fmelted, as in Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary,
&c. Their chief advantage confifts in amplifying
and diminifliing the labour. This advantage is effec¬
ted by the great height of the furnace, which allows
th.e ore to remain there a long time before it falls- down
into the hotted part of the fire and is melted. Con-
fequently, it fuffers fucceflively different degrees of
heat ; and, before it is- melted, it undergoes a road-
ing which cods nothing : therefore the high furnaces
are chiefly employed for crude fufions; and particu¬
larly for the flate-copper ore. Thefe furnaces are
above 18 feet high. A too great height is attended
with an inconvenience, beifdes the trouble of fupply-
ing it with ore and fuel, which is, that the charcoal is
moflly confumed before it gets down where the greated
heat is required, and is then rendered incapable of
maintaining a fire fufficiently intenfe.
All the furnaces which we have mentioned aie
fupplied with large bellows, moved by the arbor of
a wheel, which is turned round by a current of
water.
The only kind of furnace for fmelting ores where
bellows are not employed, .is what is called a rever¬
beratory furnace. The Germans call it a wind fur¬
nace. It is alfo didinguifhed by the name of Englijh
furnace, becaufe the invention-of it is attributed to an
Englifh phyfician of the name of Wright, who was
well verfed in chemidry ; and becaufe the ufe of it
was fird introduced in England about the end of
the lad century, where it is much employed, as well
as in feve al other count, ies, as at Koniglherg, in
Norway.
The length of thefe furnaces is about 18 feet, com¬
prehending the mafonry : their breadth is 12 feet, and
their height nine feet and a half. The hearth is raifed
L U R G Y. Part TIL
three feet above the level of thefoundery : on one fide Smelting
is the fire-place, under which is an afii-hole hollowed of 0res°f
in the earth ; on the other fide is a bafon made, which ^0lTcr- i
is kept covered with fire when there is occafion : on
the anterior fide of this furnace there is a chimney,
which receives the flame after it has paffed over the
mineral that is laid upon the hearth. This hearth,
which is in the interior part'of the furnace, is made of
a clay capable of fudaining the fire. The advantage
of this furnace is, that bellows are not neceffary ; and
confequently it may be condruded where there is no
current of water, and wherever the mine happens to
be. This furnace has a hole in its front, through
which the fcoria is drawn out; and a bafon, as we
have faid, on one fide, made with fand, in which
are oblong traces for the reception of the matt, and
of the black copper, when they flow out of the fur¬
nace.
Copper is generally mineralifed, not only by ful-
phur and arfenic, but alfo by femimetals and pyritous
matters, and is frequently mixed with other metals.
As this metal has great affinity with fulphur and ar¬
fenic, it is almod impoffible to difengage it from them
entirely by roading : hence, in the fmelting in great,
nothing is obtained by the fird operation but a copper
matt, which contains all the principles of the ore, ex¬
cepting the earthy and dony parts, particularly when
the ore is fmelted crude and unroafted. Afterwards
this matt mud be again roaded and fufed. The pro¬
duce of this fecond fufion begins dill more to refemble
copper, but is not malleable. It continues mixed
with almod all the minerals, particularly with the me¬
tals. As it is frequently of a black colour, it is always
called bl-ick copper, when it is unmalleable, whatever,
its colour happens really to be.
As, of all the imperfeft metals,'copper is mod dif¬
ficultly burnt and fcorified, it is again remelted feveral
times, in order to burn and fcorify the metallic fub-
dances mixed with it; and this is done till the cop¬
per is perfe&ly pure, which is then called red or re-
fned copperr and thefe lad fufions are called the fining
and refining of it: red copper contains no metals but
gold and filver, if any of thefe happened to be in
the ore.
In order to avoid all thefe fufions, it has been pro-
pofed to treat in the humid way certain copper ores,
particularly thofe which are very pyritous. This me¬
thod confids in making blue vitriol from the ore, by
roading and lixiviating it, and in precipitating pure
copper from this lixivium, which is called cement-
water, by means of iron : but it is not much prao
tifed, becaufe it has been obferved, that all the cop¬
per contained in the ore was not procured by this
means.
As expence is not much regarded in fmall efiays
and experiments, thefe fufions aremuch abridged and
facilitated by adding at fird faline and glafiy fluxes 5
and then by refining the black copper with lead in
the cupel, as gold and filver are done. In this me¬
thod of refining, it is to be mod carefully obferved,
that the metal be fufed as quickly as poffible, and
expofed to no more heat than is neceffary, led it be
calcined.
When the black copper contains fome iron, but not
a great
Hen, IV. METAL
Smelting a grest deal, the lead prefentlyfeparates the iron from
of Qr«s of jt> anj makeg it rife to the furface of the copper : but
, ^-0Plie1'- jf tke iron be in too large a proportion, it prevents the
' lead from uniting with the copper. Thefe two phe¬
nomena depend on the fame caufe, which is, that lead
and iron cannot unite.
Frequently copper ores contain alfo a quantity of
filver fufficient to make its extra&ion by particular
proceffes profitable. It was long before any pro-
cefs could be thought of for this purpofe which was
not too expenfive and troublefome: but at length
it is accomplilhed by the excellent operation called
eliquation.
The copper from which filver has been feparated by
eliquation mull be refined after this operation, as it is
generally black copper from which filver is extracted :
but even if it had not been black copper which was
employed for this operation, it would require to be
refined on account of a little lead it always retains. It
is therefore carried to the refiner’s furnace, when this
operation is performed by help of bellows, the blaft of
which is thrown upon the furface of the melted me¬
tal. As in this refining of copper the precife time
when it becomes pure cannot be known, becaufe fco-
ria is always formed on its furfaee, it is necefiary to ufe
an effay-iron, the polilhed end of which being dipt in
melted copper, fhows that this metal is pure when the
copper adhering to the iron falls off as foon as it is dipt
in cold water.
When this mark of the purity of the copper has
been obferved, its furface ought to be well cleaned;
and as foon as it begins to fix, it mull be fprinkled
with a broom or befom dipped in cold water. The fur¬
face of the copper which is then fixing, being fudden-
ly cooled by the water, detaches itfelf from the reft of
the metal, is taken hold of by tongs, and is thrown
red-hot into cold water. By again fprinkling water
on the mafs of copper, it is all of it reduced into plates,
which are called r of dies, and thefe plates are what is
called rofdte-copper.
§ 2. The copper of pyritous cupreous ores cannot be
obtained without feveral operations, which vary accord¬
ing to the nature of the ores. Thefe operations are
chiefly roaftings and fufions. By the firft fufion a matt
is produced, which is afterwards to be roaftcd; and
thus the fufions and roaftings are to be alternately ap¬
plied, till by the laft fufion copper is obtained. Thefe
methods of treating pyritous copper ores depend
on the two following fafts: i. Sulphur is more dif-
pofed to unite with iron than with copper. 2. The
iron of thefe ores is deftruftible by the burning
fulphur during the roafting or the fufion of the ores,
while the copper is not injured. This faff appears
from experiments mentioned by Scheffer and by
Wallerius, and from the daily practice of fmelting cu¬
preous ores.
From thefe fa&s we learn, x. That fulphur may be
employed to feparate and deftroy iron mixed with cop¬
per. 2. That iron may be employed to feparate the
fulphur from copper, as is fometimes done in the ef-
fay of fulphurated copper-ores. 3. That by adjuft-
ing the proportio* of the iron and fulphur to each
other in the fmelting of copper-ores, thefe two fub-
ftances may be made to deftroy each other, and to pro¬
cure a reparation of the copper; and this adjuftment
L U R G Y, 467
may be effected, by adding fulphur or fulphurcoui py- S^elting^
rites to the copper-ore, when the quantity of fulphur 0Q^re*1.1 ^
contained in this ore relatively to the iron is too n^~ ' .
fmall; or by adding iron when the fulphur predo¬
minates ; or by roafting, by which the fuperfluous
fulphur may be expelled, and no more left than is
fufficient for the deftruftion of the iron contained in
the ore. We ffiall apply thefe principles to the fol¬
lowing cafes.
1. When the quantity of fulphur and of iron in a
copper-ore is fmall, and efpecially when the iron does
not too much abound, a previous roafting will at once
calcine the iron, and expel moft of the fulphur ; fo that
by one fufion the calcined iron may be fcorified, and
black copper may be obtained. If the fulphur has not
been fufficiently expelled, a fecond roafting and fufion
are requifite ; for the whole quantity of fulphur ought
not to be expelled during the firft roafting : but as
much ought to be left as is fufficient for the fcorifica-
tion of the calcined iron ; otherwife this might, during
the fufion, be again revived and united with the cop¬
per.
2. If, in a copper ore, the quantity of iron be
,too great, relatively to the fulphur, fome fulphurated
pyrites, efpecially that kind which contains copper,
ought to be added, that a matt may be obtained, and
that the iron may be calcined and fcorified.
3. When the quantity of fulphur and iron is very
great, that is, when the ore is very pyritous and poor,
it ought to be firft formed into a matt; by which it
is feparated from the adherent earths and ftones,
and the bulk is diminilhed: then by repeated and
alternate roaftings and fufions, the copper may be ob¬
tained.
4. When the quantity of fulphur in an ore is great¬
er than is fufficient for the forming a matt, the fuper¬
fluous quantity ought to be previoufly expelled by roaft-
ing.
The copper thus at firft obtained is never pure, but
is generally mixed with fulphur or with iron. It is
called black copper. This may be refined in furnaces,
or on hearths.
In the former method, to the copper when melted a
fmall quantity of lead is added, which unites with the
fulphur, and is fcorified together with the iron, and
floats upon the furface of the melted copper. This pu¬
rification of copper by means of lead is fimilar to the
refining of filyer by cupellation; and is founded on the
property of lead, by which it is more difpofed to unite
with fulphur than copper is; and on a property of
copper, by which it is lefs liable than any other
imperfeft metal to be fcorified by lead. But as cop¬
per is alfo capable of being fcorified by lead, this
operation muft be no longer continued, and no more
lead muft be employed, than is fufficient for the re¬
paration of the fulphur, and for the fcorification of
the iron.
The copper might alfo be purified from any remain¬
ing fulphur by adding a fufficient quantity of iron to
engage the fulphur. Thus Mr Scheffer found, that by
adding to fulphurated copper from ^th to ^-th of old
caft iron, he rendered the copper pure and duftile. Sec
his Differtation on the Parting of Metals amongft the
Szuedifh Memoirs for the year 1752. In this purifi¬
cation, the quantity of iron added ought not to be too
3 N 2 little.
468 METAL
Mai ufac- little, elfe all the fulphur will not be feparated ; and it
tUlro» ought not t0 t0° Krcat> t^ie ^nperfluous quan-
^ tity will unite with and injure the purity of the cop¬
per. The fufion and fcorification, with addition of
lead, frems to be the bell method for the laft purifica¬
tion of copper.
Sect. V. Smelt mg y See. of Ores of Iron.
Notwithstanding the great importance of this
fubjedl, and the labours of Reaumur, Swedenborgius,
and of fome other authors, we have ftill a very im¬
perfect knowledge of the caufes of the differences of
the feveral kinds of ores, of the methods of fmelting
beft adapted to thefe differences, of the caufes of the
good and bad qualities of different kinds of iron,
and of rise means of fo meliorating this metal, that
we may obtain tough and ductile iron from any of
its ores.
Swedenborgius has very induftrioufly and exaftly de-
feribed the different proceffes now ufed in moft parts
©f Europe for the fmelting of ores of iron, for the
forging of that metal, and for the converfion of it into
Heel: but we do not find that he or any other author
have, by experiments and difeoveries, contributed
much to the illullration or to the improvement of this
part of metallurgy, unlefs, perhaps, we except thofe
of Mr Reaumur, concerning the ibftening of call iron
by cementation with earthy fubflances.
The ores of iron are known to vary much in their
appearance, in their contents, in their degrees of fu-
fibility, in the methods neceffary for the extra6lion of
their contained metal, and in the qualities of the me¬
tal when extra&ed.
Moft ores require to be roafted previoufly to their
fufion ; fome more flightly, and others with a more
violent and longer-continued fire. Thofe which con¬
tain much fulphur, arfenic, or vitriolic-acid, require a
long-continued and repeated roafling, that the vola¬
tile matters may be expelled. Of this kind is the black-
iron ore, from which the Swedifh iron is faid to be ob¬
tained.
Some ores require a very flight roafling only,
that they may be dried and rendered friable.—
Such are the ores called bog ores, and others, which
being in a calcined flate, and containing little ful-
phureous matter, would, by a farther calcination, be
rendered lefs capable of being reduced to a metal¬
lic ftate.
The roafling of ores of iron is performed by kind¬
ling piles, confifling of flrata of fuel and of ore placed
alternately upon one another, or in furnaces fimilar to
thofe commonly employed for the calcination of lime-
ftone.
Some authors advife the addition of a calcareous
earth to fulphureous ores during the roafling, that the
fulphur may be abforbed by this earth when con¬
verted into quicklime. But we may obferve, that
the quicklime cannot abforb the fulphur or fulphu¬
reous acid, till thefe be firll extricated from the ore,
and does therefore only prevent the diflipation of
thefe volatile matters ; and, fecondly, that the ful-
phur thus united with the quicklime forms a hepar
of fulphur, which will unite with and diffolve the
L U R G Y. Partlll.
ore during its fufion, and prevent the precipitation Manefac-
of the metal. of
The next operation is the fufion or fmelting of the < ' ' ,»
ore. This is generally performed in furnaces or
towers, from 20 to 30 feet high, in the bottom of
which is a bafon for the reception of the fluid metal.
When the furnace is fufficiently heated, which mufl
be done at firfl very gradually, to prevent the crack¬
ing of the walls; a quantity of the ore is to be thrown
in, from time to time, at the top of the furnace, along
with a certain quantity of fuel and of lime-ftone, or
whatever other flux is employed. When the fuel be¬
low is confumed by the fire excited by the wind of
the bellows, the ore, together with its proportionable
quantity of fuel and of flux, fink gradually down, till
they are expofed to the greateft heat in the furnace.
There the ore and the flux are fufed, the metallic
particles are revived by the fuel, are precipitated
by means of their weight through the fcoria formed
of the lighter earthy parts of the flux and of the
ore, and unite in the bafon at the bottom of the
furnace, forming a mafs of fluid metal covered
by a glafly fcoria. When a fufficient quantity of
this fluid metal is colle&ed, which is generally twice
or thrice in 24 hours, an aperture is made, through
which the metal flows into a channel or groove made
in a bed of fand ; and from thence into fmaller lateral
or connedled channels, or other moulds. There it i&
cooled, becomes folid, and retains the forms of the
channels or moulds into which it flows. The piece
of iron formed in the large channel is called a few,
and thofe formed in the fmaller channels are called
pigs. Sometimes the fluid iron is taken out of the
furnace by means of ladles, and poured into moulds
ready prepared, of fand or of clay, and is thus formed
into the various utenfils and inllruments for which call
iron is a proper material.
The fcoria mult be, from time to time, allowed t©'
flow out, when a confiderable quantity of it is formed,
through an aperture made in the front of the furnace
for that purpofe. A fufficient quantity of it mull,
however, be always left , to cover the furface of the
melted iron, elfe the ore which would fall upon it,
before the feparation of its metallic from its unme-
tallic parts, would leflen the fluidity and injure the
purity of the melted metal. This fcoria ought ta
have a certain degree of fluidity ; for if it be too
thick, the revived metallic particles will not be able
to overcome its tenacity, and colledl together into-
drops, nor be precipitated. Accordingly, a fcoria
not fufficiently fluid, is always found to contain much
metal. If the fcoria be too thin, the metallic par¬
ticles of the ore will be precipitated before they are
fufficiently metallifed, and feparated from the earthy
and unmetallic parts. A due degree of fluidity is
given to the fcoria by applying a proper heat, and bjr
adding fluxes fuited to the ore.
Some ores are fufible without addition, and others-
cannot be fmelted without the addition of fubftances
capable of facilitating, their fufion.
The fufible ores are thofe which contain fulphur,
arfenic, or are mixed with fome fufible earth.
The ores difficultly fufible are thofe which contain
no mixture of other fubllance. Such are moll of the
Sea.V. METAL
Manufar. ores which contain iron in a ftate nearly metallic. As
tnrirg of jron itfelf, when purified from all heterogeneous
, troB- matters, is fcarcely fufible without addition, fo the
* metal contained in thefe purer kinds of ores cannot
be eafily extra&ed without the addition of fome
fufible fubitance. z. Thofe which are mixed with
fome very refra&ory fubftance. Some of thefe re¬
fractory ores contain arfenic ; but as this fubftance
facilitates the fufion of ores, we may prefumfc that
their refraCtory quality depends upon a mixture of
fome unmetallic earth or other unfufible fubftance.
The earth which is mixed with the common calciform
ores is in confiderable quantity ; and is fometimes cal¬
careous, fometimes filiceous, and fometimes argilla¬
ceous.
Perhaps the fufibility of different ores depends
greatly on the degree of calcination to vvhich the
metal contained in them has been reduced ; fince we
have reafon to believe, that by a very perfe& calcina¬
tion, fome metals at leaft may be reduced to the date
of an earth almeft unfufible, and incapable of metalli-
fation ; and fince we know, that in every calcination
and fubfcquent reduction of a given quantity of any
imperfeCt metal, a fenfible part of that quantity is
always loft or deftroyed, however carefully thefe ope¬
rations may have been performed. That fome of
thefe ores are already too'much calcined, appears
from the inftance above-mentioned of the 6og ores,
* which are injured by roafting ; and even the great
height of the common fmelting furnaces, although
advantageous .to many ores that require much roaft¬
ing, is faid to be injurious to thofe which are already
too much calcined, by expofing them to a further cal¬
cination, during their very gradual defcent, before
they arrive at the hotteft part of the furnace, where
they are fufed.
But as too violent calcination renders fome ores
difficulty fufible, fo too flight calcination of other
ores injures the purity of the metai, by leaving much
of the fulphureous or other volatile matter, which
ought to have been expelied.
Various fubjlances are added to ajjtjl the fujion of ores
difficultly fifible. Thefe are, I. Ores of a fufible qua¬
lity, or which, being mixed with others of a different
quality, become fufible: accordingly, jn the great works
for fmelting ores of iron, two or more different kinds
of ore are commonly mixed, to facilitate the fufion,
and alfo to meliorate the quality of the iron. Thus
an ore yielding an iron which is brittle when hot,
which quality is called red-Jhort, and another ore which
produces iron brittle when cold, or cold-Jhort, are of¬
ten mixed together; not, as fometimes fuppof^l, that
thefe qualities are mutually deftruftive of each other,
but that of each of them is diminifhed in the mixed
mafs of iron, as much as this mafs is larger than the
part of the mafs originally pofiefled of that quality.
Thus, if from two fuch ores the mafs of iron obtained
confifts of equal parts of cold-ftiort and of red-fhort
iron, it will have both thefe qualities, but will be only
half as cold-Jhort as iron obtained folely from one of the
ores, and half as red-Jhort as iron obtained only from
the other ore. 2. Earths andJlones are alfo generally
added to facilitate the fufion of iron ores. Thefe are
fuch as are fufible, or become fufible when mixed with
the ore, or with the earth adhering to it. Authors
L U R G Y. 469
direft that, if this earth be of an argillaceous nature, Manufac-
limeftone or fome calcareous earth fhould be added; 0
and that, if the adherent earth be calcareous, an ar-. .. ri—1
gillaceous or filiceous earth ftiould be added ; becaufe
thefe two earths, though fingly unfufible, yet, when
mixed, mutually promote the fufion of each other:
but as limeftone is almoft always added in the fmelting
of iron ores, and as in fome of thefe, at leaft, no ar¬
gillaceous earth appears to be contained, we are in¬
clined to believe, that it generally facilitates the fu¬
fion, not merely by uniting with thofe earths, but
by uniting with that part of the ore which is mofl:
perfectly calcined, and leaft difpofed to metallifation ;
fince we know, that by mixing a calciform or roafted
ore of iron with calcareous earth, without any inflam¬
mable matter, thefe two fubftances may be totally vi¬
trified. See Experiments made upon quicklime and upon
iron, by Mr Brandt, in the Swedijh Memoirs for the years
1749 and I75I* Calcareous earth does indeed fo
powerfully facilitate the fufion of iron ores, that it
deferves to be csnfidered whether workmen do not
generally ufe too great a quantity of it, in order to
haften the operation. For when the fcoria is render¬
ed too thin, much earthy or unmetallifed matter is
precipitated, and the caft iron produced is of too vi¬
treous a quality, and not fufficiently approximated to
its true metallic ftate.
Some authors pretend, that a principal ufe of the
addition of limeftone in the fmelting of iron ores is to
abforb the fulphur, or vitriolic acid, of thefe ore,.:
but, as we have already obferved, a hepar of fulphur
is formed by that mixture of calcareous earth and ful¬
phur, which is capable of diflblving iron in a metallic
ftate ; and thus the quantity of metal obtained from
an ore not fufficiently divefted of its fulphur, or vi¬
triolic acid, (which, by uniting with the fuel, is
formed into a fulphur during the fmelting), muff be
confiderably diminifhed, though rendered purer, by
addition of calcareous earth: hence the utility ap¬
pears of previoufly expelling the fulphur and vi¬
triolic acid from the ore by a fufficient roafting,
3. The fcoria of former fmeltings is frequently added
to affift the fufion of the ore; and, when the fcoria
contains much iron, as fometimes happens in ill-con?
dufted 'operations, it alfo increafes the quantity of
metal obtained.
The quantity of thefe fufible matters to be added
varies according to the nature of the ore; but ought
in general to be fuch, that the fcoria ftiall have its re-
quifite degree of thinnefs, as is mentioned above.
The fuel ufed in moft parts of Europe for the
fmelting of ores of iron is charcoal. Lately, in feveral
works in England and. Scotland, iron ore has been
fmelted by means of pit-coal, previoufly reduced to
cinders or conks, by a kind of calcination fimilar to
the operation for converting wood into charcoal, by
which the aqueous and fulphureous parts of the coal
are expelled, while only the more fixed bituminous parts
are left behind. In France, pit-coal not calcined has
been tried for this purpofe, but unfuccefsfully. The
ufe of peat has alfo been introduced in fome parts of
England.
The quality of the iron depends confiderably upon ■»
the quality and alfo upon the quantity of the fuel
employed. Charcoal is fitter than coaks for pro-
1 ducing
47° METAL
Mam for- Slicing an iron capable of being rendered malleable by
{or%ins-
.» The quantity of fuel, or the intenfity of the heat,
mull be fuited to the greater or lefs fuiibih'ty of the
ore. Sulpliureous, and other ores eafily fntible, re¬
quire lefs fuel than ores difficultly fufible. In general,
if the quantity of fuel be too fmall., and the heat not
fufficiently intenfe, all the iron will not be reduced,
and much of it will remain in the fcoria, which will
not be fufficiently thin. This defedb of fuel may be
lenown by the blacknefs and compaftnefs of the fco-
via; by the qualities of the iron obtained, which in
this cafe is hard,, white, light, intermixed with fcoria,
fmooth in its texture, without fcales or grains, rough
and convex in its furface, and liable to great lofs of
weight by being forged ; and, laftly, it may be known
by obferving the colour and appearance of the drops
of metal falling down from the fmelted ore, and of
the fcoria upon the furface of the fluid metal, both
which are darker-coloured than when more fuel is
ufed. When the quantity of fuel is fvfficiently large,
and the heat is intenfe enough, the iron is darker-
coloured, denfer, more tenacious, contains lefs fcoria,
and is therefore lefs fufible, and lofes lefs of its weight
by being forged. Its furface is alfo fmoother and
fomewhat concave ; and its texture is generally gra¬
nulated. The fcoria, in this cafe, is of a lighter co¬
lour, and lefs denfe. The orops falling down from
the fmelted ore and the liquid fcoria in the furnace
appear hotter and of a brighter colour. When the
• quantity of fuel is too great, and the heat too intenfe,
the iron will appear to have a ftill darker colour, and
.more confpicuous grains or plates, and the fcoria will
be lighter, whiter, and more fpongy. The drops
falling from this fmelted ore, and the fluid fcoria, will
appear to a perfon looking into the furnace through
the blaft-hole to be very white and fluning hot. The
quantity of charcoal neceflary to produce five hun¬
dred weight of iron, when the ore is rich, the furnace
well contrived, and the operation Ikilfully conduced, is
computed to be about 40 cubic feet; but is much more
in contrary circumftances.
The time, during which the fluid metal ought to he
hept in fufion before it is allowed to flow out of the
furnace, mull alfo be attended to. How long that
time is, and whether it ought not to vary according
to the qualities of ores and other circumftances, we
cannot determine. In fome works the metal is al¬
lowed to flow out of the furnace every fix or eight,
and in others only every 10 or 12, hours. Some
workmen imagine, that a confiderable time is necef-
fary for the conco&ion of the metal. This is cer¬
tain, that the iron undergoes fome change by being
kept in a fluid ftate; and that if its fufion be pro¬
longed much beyond the ufual time, it is rendered
lefs fluid, and alfo its cohefion, when it becomes cold,
is thereby greatly diminilhed. The marquis de Cour-
tivron fays, that the cohefion may be reftored to iron
in this ftate, by adding to it fome vitrefcible earth,
which he confiders as one of the conftituent parts of
iron, and which he thinks is deftroyed by the fufion
too long continued. That the fufibility of calt-iron
does depend on an admixture of fome vitrefcible earth,
appears probable from the great quantity of fcoria
forced out of iron.during its converfion into malleable
L U R G Y. Part III,
or forged iron, and from the loft of fuflhhity which it M^ufae-
fufFers nearly in proportion to its lofs. of icoria. The flinnE of
quantity of iron daily obtained front fuch a furnace as i‘''C)“•
is above deferibed, is from two to five tons in 24 hours, J
according to the richnefs and fufibility of the ©re, to
the eonftrudtion of the furnace, to the adjullment of
the due quantity of flux and of fuel, and to the ikill
employed in conducting the operation.
The quality of the iron is judged of by obferving the
appearances during its flowing from the furnace, and
when it is fixed and cold. If the fluid iron, while it
flows, emits many and large fparkles; if many brown
fpets appear on it while it is yet red-hot; if, when it
is fixed and cold, its corners and edges are thick and
rough, and its furface is fpotted ; it is known to have
a red-ffiort quality. If, in. flowing, the iron feems
covered with a thin giafly cruft, and if, when cold,
its texture be whitiffi, it is believed to be cold-ffiort.
Mr Reaumur fays, that dark-coloured caft iron is
more impure than that which is white. The marquis
de Courti ron is of a contrary opinion. But no cer¬
tain rules forjudging of the quality of iron before it
be forged can be given. From brittle caft-iron, fome-
times duftile forged iron is produced. Caft-iron with
brilliant plates and points, when forged, becomes
fometimes red-lhort and fometimes cold-ffiort. Large
Ihining plates, large cavities called eyes, want of fuf-
ficient denfity, are almoft certain marks of bad iron ;
but whetheV it will be cold or red ffiort cannot be
affirmed till it be forged. Whitenefs of colour, brit-
tlenefs, clofenefs of texture, and hardnefs, are given
to almoft any caft iron by fudden cooling; and we
may obferve, that in general the whiter the metal is,
the harder it is alfo, whether thefe properties proceed
from the quality of the iron, or from fudden cooling;
and that, therefore, the darker-coloured iron is litter
for being caft; into moulds, becaufe it is capable in
fome meafure of being filed and polilhed, efpecially
after it has been exppfed during feveral hours to a
red-heat in a reverberatory furnace, and very gradually
cooled. This operation, called by the workmen an¬
nealing, changes the texture of the metal, renders it
fpfter, and more capable of being filed than before,
and alfo confiderably lefs brittle.
Mr Reaumur found, that by cementing caft iron
with abforbent earths in a red-heat, the metal may
be rendered fofter, tougher, and confequently a fit
material for many utenfils formerly made of forged
iron. Whether cementation with abforbent earths
gives to caft iron a greater degree of thefe properties
than the annealing commonly praftifed, has not been
yet determined.
In Navarre, and in fome of the fouthern parts of
France, iron-ore is fmelted in furnaces much fmaller,
and of a very different conftru&ion from thofe above
deferibed. A furnace of this kind confifts of a wide¬
mouthed copper-caldron, the inner furface of which
is lined with mafonry a foot thick. The mouth of
this caldron is nearly of an oval or elliptic form. The
fpace or cavity contained by the mafonry is the furnace
in which the ore is fmelted. The depth of this cavity
is equal to two feet and a half: the larger diameter
of the oval mouth of the cavity is about eight feet,
and its fmaller diameter is about fix feet: the fpace
of the furnace is gradually contradled towards the
2 bottom,-
Sea.V. METAL
Man”.fac- bottom, the greatefl diameter of which does not ex-
tUCon cee^ ^IX ^eet' «Shtecn inc^es above the bottom is a
. cylindrical channel in one of The longer fides of the
caldron and mafonry, through which the nozzle of
the bellows p&ffes. This channel, and alfo the bel¬
lows pipe, are fo inclined, that the wind is dire&ed
towards the loweft point of the oppofite fide of the
furnace. Another cylindrical channel is in one of the
fliorter fides of the furnace, at the height of a few
inches from the bottom, which is generally kept
clofed, and is opened occafionally to give paflage to
the fcoria : and above this is a third channel in the
fame fide of the furnace, through which an iron in-
ftrument is occafionally introduced to ftir the fluid
metal, and to afiill, as is faid, the feparation of the
fcoria from it. The greateft height of this channel
is at its external aperture on the outfide of the furnace,
and its fmaller height is at its internal aperture ; fo
that the inftrument may be diredted towards the bot¬
tom of the furnace ; but the fecund channel below it
has a contrary inclination, that, when an opening is
made, the fcoria may flow out of the furnace into a
bafon placed for its reception. When the furnace is
heated fufficiently, the workmen begin to throw into
it alternate changes of charcoal' and of ore previoufly
roafted. They take care to throw the-charcoal chiefly
on that fide at which the wind enters, and the ore at
the oppofite fide. At the end of about four hours, a
mafs of iron is collefted at the bottom of the furnace,
which is generally about 6c o weight; the bellows are
then ftopt; and when the mafs of iron is become folid,
the workmen raife it from the bottom of the furnace,
and place it, while yet foft, under a large hammer,
where it is forged. The iron produced in thefe fur¬
naces is of the bell quality ; the quantity is alfo very
corifiderable, in proportion to the quantity of ore, and
to the quantity of fuel employed. In thefe furnaces
no limdtone or other fubfianceds ufed to facilitate the
fufien of the ore. We ihould receive much inilrudlion
concerning the fmelting of iron-ore, if we knew up¬
on what part of the procefs, or circumflancCi the ex¬
cellence of the iron obtained in thefe furnaces depends;
whether on the quality of the ore ; on the difufe of
any kind of flux, by which the proportion of vitreous
Or earthy matter, intermixed with the metallic par¬
ticles, is diminiflied ; on the forging while the iron is
yet fsft and hot, as the Marquis de Courtivron thinks;
or on fome other caufe, not obferved.
The iron thus produced by fmelting ores is very far
from being a pure metal; and though its fufibility
renders it very ufeful for the formation of cannon,
pts, and a great variety of utenfils, yet it wants the
rength, toughnefs, and malleability, which it is ca¬
pable ox receiving by further operations.
Call-iron feems to contain a large quantity of vitre-
ohs or earthy matter mixed with the pure iron ; which
matter is probably the chief caufe of its fufibility,
brittlenefs, hardnefs, and other properties by which it
differs from forged iron. The fulphur, arfenic, and
other impurities of the ore, which are fometimes
contained in call-iron, are probably'only accidental,
and may be the caufes of the red lhort quality, and of
other properties of certain kinds of iron : but the
earthy matter above-mentioned feems principally to
dillinguilh call-iron from, forged or malleable iron ;
L U R G Y. 47f
for, firll, by depriving the former of this earthy mat- Manufac-
ter, it is rendered malleable, as in the common pro- turi"g
cefs hereafter to be deferibed ; and, fecondly, by fu- ^n~ ,
ling malleable iron with earthy and vitrefcible matters*
it lofes its malleability, and is rellored to the Hate and
properties of call-iron.
Ihe earthy vitreous matter contained in call-iron
confills probably of fome of the ferruginous earth or
calx of the ore not fufficiently metallifed, and alfo of
fome unmetallic earth. Perhaps it is only a part of
the fcoria which adheies to, and is precipitated with,
the metallic particles, from which it is more and more
feparated, as the heat applied is more intenfe, and as
the fufiori is longer continued.
To feparate thefe impurities from call-iron, and to
unite the metallic parts more clofely and conipadlly,
and thus to give it the dudlility and tenacity which
render this metal more ufeful than any other, are the
effects produced by the following operations.
The firll of thei'e operations is a fufion of the iron,
by which much of its impurities is feparated in form
of fcoria ; and by the fecond operation, a further and
more complete feparation of thefe impurities, and alfo
a clofer companion of the metallic particles, are ef-
fedled by the application of mechanical force or pref-
fure, by means of h*rge hammers.
Some differences in the conltruflion of the forge or
furnace, in which the fu/fw or refining of tajl-irui is
performed, in the method of conducing the opera¬
tion, and in other circumltances, are obi’erved to oc¬
cur in different places. We fhall deferibe from Swe-
denborgius the German method.
The fufion of the call-iron, which is to he render¬
ed malleable, is performed upon the hearth of a forge
fimilar to that ufed by blackfmiths : atone fide of
this hearth is formed a cavity or fire-place, which is
intended to contain the fuel and the iron to be melt¬
ed : this fire-place is 20 inches long, 18 inches broad,
and \ i or 14 inches deep : it is bounded on three fides
by three plates of call-iron placed upright; and on the
fourth fide, which is the front, or that part nearelt
to which the workmen Hand, by a large forge-ham¬
mer, through the eye of which the fcoria is at certain
time., allowed to flow. The floor alfo of the fire-place
is another call-iron plate. The thicknefs of thele
plates is from two to lour inches. One of the upright
fide-plates rells againft a wall, in an aperture through
which a copper-tube, called the tuyere, is luted with
clay. This tube is a kind of cafe or Covering for the
pipe of a pair of bellows placed behind the wall, and
its diredlion is therefore parallel to that of the bel-
lows-pipe; but it advances about half a foot further
than this pipe into the fire-place; and thus gives great¬
er force to the air, which it keeps concentrated, or -
prevents the divergency of the air till it is required to
adt. The tube veils upon the edge of the iide-plate
which leans againll the wall, nearer to the back-part
than to the front of the fire-place; and’in fuch an
oblique diredlion, that the wind ihall be impelled to¬
wards the furthell part of the floor of the fire-place,
or where this floor is interfedled by the oppofite fide-
plate. The obliquity of the tuyere ought to vary ac¬
cording to the quality of the iron : and therefore, in
eveij operation, it may be Ihifted till its proper pofi-
tion is found. The more nearly its direflion ap-
prpackos *
47* METAL
Marmfac proaches to a horizontal plane, the more intenfe is the
turmg of a larger quantity of fuel is confumed than
, mn' is even proportional to the increafe of heat, becaufe
the flame is not then fo well confined. When the iron
is eafily fufibie, great beat is not required : the tuyere
jnay then decline confiderably from the horizontal
plane, and thus fuel may be faved. This tuyere, tho’
made of copper, a metal more eafily fufibie than iron,
is preferved from fufion by the conilant paffage of cold
air through it. It mufl be carefully kept open, and
cleanfed from the feoria, which would be apt to block
up its cavity, by which not only the heat would be
too much diminifhed for the fuccefs of the operation,
but the tube itfelf would be melted.
To prepare for the fufion, a quantity of fcoria of a
former operation is thrown into the fire-place, till one
third-part of this be full; and the remaining two
thirds of the fire-place are to he filled with fmaller
fcoria, coal-duft, and fparks ejected from hot iron.—
Thefe matters, being fufib’e, form a bath for the re¬
ception of the iron when melted. Upon this bed of
fcoria, the mafs of call iron to be melted is placed ;
fo that one end of it fhall be within the fire-place, op-
pofite to the tuyere, and at the diflance of about four
or five inches from its hperture ; and the other end
fhall hand without the fire-place, to be pufhed in, as
the former is melted. The upper fide of the mafs of
iron ought to be in the fame horizontal plane as the
upper part of the orifice of the tuyere, that the wind
may, by means of the obliquity of its courfe, ftrike
upon and pafs along the under-fide of the mafs ; but if
the iron be difficultly fufibie, the tuyere is to be dif-
pofed more horizontally, fo that the wind fhall ftrike
diredtly upon the -mafs of iron ; and that one part of
the blaft fhall graze along the upper furface, and the
other part along the under furface of the iron. The
mafs of iron weighs generally from 200 to 400
pounds. Sometimes two or three fmaller maffes are
put one above another, fo as not to touch. When
thefe are of different qualities, the cold-fhort piece is
placed undermoft, that being more unfufible than the
red-fhort. The iron being placed, charcoal-powder is
thrown on both fides, and coals are accumulated above,
foas to cover entirely the iron.
The coals are then to be kindled, and the bellows
are made to blow, at firll flowly, and afterwards with
more and more force. The iron is gradually liquefied,
and flows down in drops through the melted fcoria t©
the bottom of the fire-place ; during which the work¬
men frequently turn the iron, fo that the end oppofed
to the blaft of wind may be equally expofed to heat,
and uniformly fufed. While the coals are- confumed,
more are thrown on, fo that the whole may be kept
quite covered. During the operation, a ‘workman
irequently founds the bottom and corners of the fire¬
place by means of a bar or poker, raifes up any mafs
of metal which he finds adhering^to thefe, andexpofes
them to the greateft heat, that they may be more per¬
fectly fufed.
When all the iron is fufed, no more coals are to be
added; but th? melted mafs is to remain half unco¬
vered for fome time ; during which the iron boils and
bubbles, and its furface fwells and rifes higher and
higher. When the iron has rifen as high as the up¬
per edge of the fire-place, the coals upon its furface
N° 212;
L U R G Y. Part III.
mufi be removed; and by thus expofing it to cold air, Manufae-
its ebullition and fwelling fubfide. In this ftate, or tu™'^
coCtion, the iron is kept during half an hour or more, ,»
by adding occafionally pieces of good coal, which
maintain a fufficient heat, without covering entirely
the furface of the mafs. During this coftion, the
workmen allow the orifice of the tuyere to be half
flopped up by the fcoria, that the air may not blow
upon the iron with all its force, by which it would be
too much cooled. Accordingly, when they think that
the coftion has continued fufficiently long, they clear
the pafiage of the tuyere, and the mafs is foon cooled
by the cold air. At the fame time alfo they open a
paffage in the eye of the hammer placed in the front
of the fire-place, through which fome of the fcoria is
allowed to flow out. When the iron has become
folid, the bellows are ftopt, the coals are removed, and
the mafs is left during an hour ; and then the work¬
men raife it from the fire-place, turn it upfide down,
and proceed to the fecond cocflion or fufion of the
iron. -
From this fecond operation, the mafs is to be fo
placed, that one part of it (hall reft upon the tuyere,
and the other upon the fcoria remaining in the fire-
pla'ce. This fcoria is to be difpofed in an oblique di-
rection parallel to the tuyere, by which means the
wind of the bellows is obliged to pafs along the under
fide of the mafs of iron. About the fides of the mafs,
charcoal-powder and burnt aflres are thrown ; but to¬
wards the tuyere, dry and entire pieces of coals are
placed, to maintain the fire. When thefe are kindled,
more coals are added, and the fire is gradually excited.
The workman attends to the direction of the flame,
that it pafs equally along the under furface of the iron,
quite to the further extremity, and that it do not
efcape at the fides, nor be reverberated back towards
the tuyere, by which this copper tube might be melt¬
ed. During this fufiop, pieces of iron are apt to be
feparated from the mafs, and to fall down unfufed to
the bottom and corners of the fire-place. Thefe are
carefully to be fearched for, and expofed to the great-
eft heat till they are melted. When the whole mafs
is thus brought into perfedl fufion, the coals are re¬
moved ; and the wind blowing on its fuface, whirls
and diffipates the fmall remaining pieces of fcoria and
fparks thrown out from the fluid iron. This jet of fire
continues about feven or eight minutes, and the whole
operation about two hours. In this fecond fufion the
fcoria is to be thrice removed, by opening a paffage
through the eye of the hammer. The firft time of re¬
moving the fcoria is about 20 minutes from the kind¬
ling of the fire, the fecond tirpe is about 40 piinutes
after the firft, and the third time is near the end of
the operation.
The mafs is then removed from the hearth, and put
upon the ground of the forge, where it is cleanfed
from fcoria, and beat into a more uniform fliape. It
is then placed on an anvil, where, by being forged, it
receives a form nearly cubical. This mafs is to be di¬
vided into five, fix, or more pieces, by means of a
wedge ; and thefe are to be heated and forged till
they are reduced to the form of the bars commonly
fold.
In fome forges, the iron is fufed only once, and in
others it fuffers three fufions, by which it is faid to be
rendered
^ea.V. METAL
Manufac- rendered very pure. Where only one fufion is prac-
tUIr"n it's called the French method. In this, no great-
' ’ ' er quantity of iron is fufed at once than is fufficient
to make one bar. The fire-place is of confiderably lefs
dimenfions, and efpecially is lefs deep, than in the Ger¬
man method above defcribed. The fire is alfo more
intenfe, and the proportion of fuel confumed to the
iron is greater. The iron, when melted, is not kept
in a (late of ebullition as is above defcribed ; but this
ebullition is prevented by ftirring the fluid mafs with
an iron bar, till it is coagulated, and becomes folid.
By thefe operations, fufion and forging, the iron
lofes about XV parts of its former weight, fometimes
more and fometimes lefs, according to the quality of
the caft-iron employed ; it is purified from the vitreous
and earthy parts which were intermixed with it, its
metallic particles are more clofely compafted, its tex¬
ture is changed, and it is rendered more denfe, foft,
and malleable, tough, and difficultly fulible.
The degrees, howeverj of thefe qualities vary much
in different kinds of iron. Thus fome iron is tough
and malleable, both when it is hot and when it is cold.
This is the beft and moft ufeful iron. It may be
known generally by the equable fur face of the forged
bar, which is free from tranfverfe fifliires or cracks in
the edges, and by a clear, white, finall-grained, or
rather fibrous texture. Another kind is tough when
it is heated, but brittle when it is cold. This is called
cold-fiort iron ; and is generally known by a texture
confiding of large, fhining plates, without any fibres.
It is lefs liable to ruft than other iron. A third kind
of iron, called mi-Jhort, is brittle w en hot, and mal¬
leable when cold. On the furface and edges of the bars
of this kind of iron, tranfverfe cracks or fiflures may
be feen ; and its internal colour is dull and dark. It is
very liable to ruft. Laftly, fome iron is brittle both
when hot and when cold.
Moft authors agree, that the red-fhort quality of
iron proceeds from fome fulphur or vitriolic acid be¬
ing contained in it, becaufe fulphur is known to pro¬
duce this effeft when added to iron, and becaufe the
iron obtained from pyritous and other fulphurated ores
has generally this quality.
The caufe of the cold-lhort quality of iron is not fo
well afcertained. Some imagine, that it proceeds
from a mixture of arfenic or of antimony. But this
opinion feems to be improbable, when we confider that
thefe metallic fubftances may in a great meafure be dif-
fipated by roafting, whereas the ores which yield a
cold-fliort iron are injured by much roafting; that no
arfenic or antimony are obfervable in moft, if in any,
of thefe ores; and laftly, that thefe femimetals would
render the iron brittle both when hot and when cold.
Cramer and other authors impute this vicious quality
to a mixture of unmetallic earth or vitreous matter ;
and affirm, that it may be deftroyed by cementation
with phlogifton, and by forging. And laftly, others
afcribe the cold-lhort quality of iron to a defedt of
phlogifton, or, as Swedenborgius fays, of fulphur. To
afcertain the caufes of the bad qualities of iron, and
to difcover pradlical remedies, are Hill defiderata in
metallurgy.
In one bar frequently two or more different kinds of
iron may be obferved, which run all along its whole
Vos.. XI. Part II.
L U R G Y. 473
length ; and fcarcely a bar is ever found of entirely -
pure and homogeneous iron. This difference pro- in ^ .
bably proceeds from the pradlice we have mentioned of
mixing different kinds of ores together, in the fmelt-
ing ; and alfo from the pradlice of mixing two or
more pigs of caftiron of different qualities in the finery
of thefe ; by which means, the red-ftiort and cold-lhort
qualities of the different kinds are not, as we have al¬
ready remarked, mutually counteradled or deftroyed
by each other, but each of thefe qualities is diminifli-
ed in the mixed mafs of iron, as much as this majs is
larger than the part of the mafs originally poffeffed of
that quality: that is, if equal parts of red fhort and
of cold-fhort iron be mixed together, the mixed mafs
will be only half as red-ftiort as the former part, and
half as cold-ftiort as the latter. For 'thefe different
kinds of iron feem as if they were only capable of be¬
ing interwoven and diffufed through each other, but
not of being intimately united o. combined.
The quality of forged iron may be known by the
texture which appears on breaking a bar. The belt
and tougheft iron is that which has the moft fibrous
texture, and is ot a clear greyifli colour. phis fi¬
brous appearance is given by the refiftance which the
particles of the iron make to their rupture. The
next beft iron is that whofe texture confifts of clear,
whitifh, fmall grains, intermixed .with fibres. Theffi
two kinds are malleable, both when hot and when
cold, and have great tenacity. Cold-fiort iron is
known by a texture confifting of large, finning plates,
without fibres : and red-Jhort iron is diftinguiflied by
its dark dull colour, and by the tranfverfe cracks and
fiffures on the furface and edges of the bars. The
quality of iron may be much improved by violent
compreffion, as by forging and rolling-; efpecially
when it is not long expofed to too violent heat, which
is known to injure, and at length to deftroy, its metal¬
lic properties.
For the converfion of iron intoJleeJ, fee the article
Steel.
Sect. VI. Of the Smelting of Fin Ores.
The tin-ores comrron’y fmelted are thofe which
confift of calx of tin combined with calx or arfenic
and fometimes with calx or iron. Thefe are either pure,
as the tin-grains, or intermixed with fpars, ftones, py¬
rites, ores of copper, iron, or of other metals.
The impure ores muft ‘be cleanfed as much as ix.
poffible from all heterogeneous matters. This clean-
fing is more neceffary in ores of tin than of any other
metal; becaufe in the fmelting of tin-ores a lefs intenfe
heat muft be given than is fnfficient for the fcorifica-
tion of earthy matters, left the tin be calcined. Tin-
ores previoufly bruifed may be cleanfed by waftiing,
for which operation their great weight and hardnefs
render them well adapted. If they be intermixed
with very hard ftones or ferruginous ores, a flight
roafting will render thefe im.mre matters more friable,
and confequently fitter to be feparated from the tin-ores.
Sometimes thefe operations, the roafting, contufion,
and lotion, muft be repeated. By roafting, the fer¬
ruginous particles are fo far revived, that they may be
feparated by magnets.
3 Q
The
474 METAL
Smckfng of The ore, thus cleanfed from adhering heterogene-
Tcad * ous matters» 's t0 roafteci *n an oven or reverbera-
. ' * tory furnace, with a fire rather intenfe than long con¬
tinued ; during which it muft be frequently ftirred to
prevent its fufion. By this operation, the arfenic is
expelled, and in fome works is colledled in chambers
-built purpofely above the calcining furnace.
Lailly, the ore cleanfed and roafted is to be fufed,
and reduced to a metallic ftate. In this fufion, atten¬
tion muft be'given to the following particulars. I. No
more heat is to be applied than is fufficient for the re¬
duction of the ore^ becaufe this metal is fufible with
very little heat, and is veiy eafily calcinable. 2. To
prevent this calcination of the reduced metal, a larger
quantity of charcoal is ufed in this than in moft other
fufions. 3. The fcoria muft be frequently removed,
left fome of the tin ftiould be involved in it; and the
melted metal muft be covered with charcoal powder,
to prevent the calcination of its furfece. 4. No flux
or other fubftance, excepting the fcoria of former
fmelcings which contains fome tin, are to be added, to
facilitate the fufion.
Sect. VII. Smelting of Ores of Lead.
Ores of lead are either pure, that is, containing
no mixture of other metal; or they are mixed with fil-
ver, copper, or pyritesi The methods of treating
ores of lead containing filver and copper, are de-
fcribed in the fections of Smelting of Ores of Silver and
of Copper ; and in the former of thefe an inftance is gi¬
ven of the method of fmelting the ore of Ramelfberg,
which contains all thefe three metals.
Pure ores of lead, and thofe which contain fo fmall
a quantity only of filver as not to compenfate for the
expence of extracting the nobler metal, may be fmelt-
ed in furnaces, and by operations fimilar to thofe ufed
at Ramelfberg, or in the following methods. 1. From
the lead-ore of Willach in Carinthia, a great part of
the lead is obtained by a kind of eliquation, during
the roafting of the ore. For this purpofe, the ore is
thrown upon feveral ftrata or layers of wood, placed
in a calcining or reverberatory furnace. By kindling
this wood, a great part of the lead .flows out of the
ore, through the layers of fuel, into a bafon placed
for its reception. The ore. which is thus roafted is
beat into fmaller pieces, and expofed to a fecond ope¬
ration fimilar to the former, by which more metal
is eliquated ; and the remaining ore is afterwards
ground, waftied, and fmelted, in the ordinary method.
The lead of Willach is the pureft of any known.
Schlutter afcribes its great puiity to the method ufed
in extracting it, by which the moft fufible, and con-
fequently the pureft part of the contained lead, is fe-
parated from any lefs fufible metal which happens to
be mixed with it, and which remains in the roafted
ore. This method requires a very large quantity of
wood.
2. In England, lead ores are fmelted either up¬
on a hearth, or in a reverberatory furnace called a
cupel.
In the firft of thefe methods, charcoal is employed
as fuel, and the fire is excited by bellows. Small
quantities of fuel and of ore are thrown alternately
L U R G Y. Partlir.
and frequently upon the hearth. The fufion is very Smelting of
quickly effected; and the lead flows from the hearth as 0res °f Se-
faft as it is feparated from the ore. mi-metals.
3. In the fecond method pra&ifed in England, pit-
coal is ufed as fuel. The ore is melted by means of
the flame paffing over its furface ; its fulphur is burnt
and diffipated, while the metal is feparated from the
fcoria, and collected at the bottom of the furnace.
When the ore is well cleanfed and pure, no addition is
requifite ; but when it is mixed with calcareous or
earthy matrix, a kind of flour or fufible fpar found in
the mines is generally added to render the fcoria more
fluid, and thereby to aifift the precipitation of the me¬
tal. When the fufion has been continued about eight
hours, a paflage in the fide of the furnace is opened,,
through which the liquid lead flaws into an iron ci-
ftern. But immediately before the lead is allowed to
flow put of the furnace, the workmen throw upon the
liquid mafs a quantity of. flacked quicklime, which
renders the fcoria fo thick and tenacious, that it may
be drawn out of the furnace by rakes. Schlutter men¬
tions this addition of quicklime in the finelting of lead
ores in England, but thinks that it is intended to fa¬
cilitate the fufion of the ores; whereas it really has a
contrary effeft, and is never added till near the end of
the operation, when the fcoria is to be raked from the
furface of the metal.
Sect. VIII. Of the Smelting of Ores of Semi¬
metals.
Antimony is obtained by a kina of eliquatfon:
from the minerals containing it, as is defcribed in the
article Antimony ; and the regulus of antimony is
procured from antimony, by the procefles defcribed
in the fame article, and in the article Regulus of yin-
timony.
Arfenici fajfre, and lifmuthr are obtained general¬
ly from one ore, namely, that called cobalt. The ar¬
fenic of the ore is feparated by roafting, and adheres
to the internal furface of a chimney, which is extended
horizontally about 200 or 300 feet in length, and in-
the fides of which are feveral doors, by means of
which the arfenic, when the operation is finiflied, may
be fw^ept out and colle&ed. Thefe chimneys are ge¬
nerally bent in a zig-zag direction, that they may
better retard and flop the arfenical flowers. Thefe
flowers are of various colours, white, grey, red, yel¬
low, according to the quantity of fulphur or other im¬
purity with which they happen to be mixed. They
are afterwards purified by repeated fublimations; while
fome alkaline or other fubftances are added to detain
the fulphur, and to affift the purification.
In the fame roafting of the ore by which the arfenie
is expelled, the bifmuth, or at leaft the greateft part
of this femimetal which is contained in the ore, being
very fufible, and having no difpofition to. unite with
the regulus of cobalt, which remains in the ore, is fe¬
parated by eliquatioiT.
The remaining part of the roafted ore confifts chiefc
ly of calx of regulus of cobalt, which not being vola¬
tile, as the arfenic is, nor fo eafily fufib’e as bifmuth
is, has been neither volatilized nor melted. It containa
aLfo fome bifmuth, and a fmall quantity of arfenic, to¬
gether
Sea.vnr; metal
Smeltine of gether with any filver or other fixed metal which hap-
Ores of Se- pene(j be contained in the ore. This roailed ore be-
^ ' ing reduced to a fine powder, and mixed with three or
four times its weight of fine fand, is the powder called
See Zajfrt. fajf're or zajfre- Or the roafled ere is fometimes fufed
with about thrice its quantity of pure fand and as
•See Smalt, much pure pot-afh, by which a blue glafs, called [malt,
is produced ; and a metallic mafs, called fpeifs, is col-
lefted at the bottom of the veffel in which the matters
are fufed. The metallic mafs or fpeifs is compofed of
very different fubftances, according to the contents of
the ore afid the methods of treating it. The matters
which it contains at different times are, nickel, regu-
lus of cobalt, bifmuth, arfenic, fulphur, copper, and
liiver.
Bifmnth is feldom procured from any other ores but
that of cobalt. It might, however, be extra&ed from
its proper ores, if a fufficient quantity of thefe. were
found, by the fame method by which it is obtained
from cobalt, namely, by eliquation.
Mercury, when native, and inveloped in much earthy
br other matter, from which it cannot be feparated
merely by wafiiing, is diftilled either by afeent or by
defeent. When it is mineralifed by fulphur, that is,
when it is contained in cinnabar, fome intermediate fub-
ftance, as quicklime or iron, muff be added in the di-
ftillation, to difengage it from the fulphur.
The rich ore of Almaden in *Spain is a cinnabar,
with which a calcareous ftone happens to be fo blend¬
ed, that no addition is required to difengage the mer¬
cury from the fulphur. The diftillation is there per¬
formed in a furnace confifting of two cavities, one of
which is placed above another. The lower cavity is
the fire-place, and contains the fuel, reding upon a
L U R G Y> 47?
grate, through the bars of which the air enters, rttain- Sme’rin^ of
tains the fire, and paffes into a chimney, placed at one ta^'
fide of the fire-place immediately above the door thro’
which fuel is to be introduced. The roof of this fire¬
place, which is vaulted and pierced with feveral holes,
is alfo the floor of the upper cavity. Into this upper
cavity, the mineral from vdiich mercury is to be diftil¬
led is introduced, through a door in. one of the fides
of the furnace. In the oppofite wall of this cavity are
eight openings,'all at the fame height. To each of
thefe openings is adapted a file of aludels connedted
and luted together, extending 60 feet in lengths
Thefe aludels, which are earthen veffels open at each
end, and wider in the middle than at either extremity,
are fupported upon an inclined terras; and the aludd
of each file, that is molt diftant from the furnace, ter¬
minates in a chamber built of bricks, which has two
doors and two chimneys.
When the upper cavity is filled fufficicntly with th4
mineral, a fire is made below, which is continued du¬
ring 12 or 14 hours. The heat is-communicated thro*
the holes of the vaulted roof of the fire-place to the
mineral in the upper cavity, by which means the mer¬
cury is volatilifed, and its vapour paffes into the alu¬
dels, where much of it is condenfed, and the reft is
difeharged into the brick-chamber, in which it circu¬
lates till it alfo is condenfed. If any air or fmdker
paffes through the aludels along with the vapour of the
mercury, they efcape through the two chimneys of the
chamber. Three days after the operation, when the
apparatus is fufficiently cooled, the aludels are unluted,
the doors of the chamber are opened, and the mercury
is collected.
MET
Metamor- METAMORPHOSIS, in general, denotes the
y>hofis, changing of fotnething into a different form ; in which
IWcuylKir. fenfe includes the transformation of infedts, as well
* as the mythological changes related by the ancient
poets.
Mythological metamorphofes were held to be of two
kinds, apparent and real: thus, that of Jupiter into
a bull, was only apparent ; whereas that of Lycaon
into a wolf, was fuppofed tb be real
Moft of the ancient metamorphofes include fome al¬
legorical meaning, relating either to phyfics or mora¬
lity : fome authors are even of opinion that a great
part of the ancient philofvphy is couched under them ;
and Lord Bacon and Dr Hook have attempted to un¬
riddle feveral of them.
i METAPHOR, in rhetoric. See Oratory, n> co.
f Metaphor and Allegory, in poetry.—A metaphor
differs from a fimile, in form only, not in fubftance: in
a fimile the two fubjedts are kept diftindt in the expref-
fion, as well as in the thought \ in a metaphor, the
two fubjedts are kept diftindt in the thought only, not
in the exprefficn. A hero refembles a lion, and upon
that refemblance many fimilies have been railed by Ho-
tner and other poets. But inftead of reftmbling a lion,
llet us take the aid of the imagination, and feign or fi¬
gure the hero to be a lion . by that variation the fimile
Us converted into a metaphor; which is carried on by
M E T
deferibing all the qualities of alien that refemblethofe Mctaphori
of the hero. The fundamental pleafure here, that of ^ J
refemblance, belongs to the thought. An additional
pleafure arifes from the expreffion : the poet, by figu¬
ring his hero to be a lion, goes on to deferibe the lion
in appearance, but in reality the hero ; and his deferip-
tion is peculiarly beautiful, by expreffing the virtues
and qualities of the hem in new terms, which, properly
fpeaking, belong not to him, but to the lion. This will
better be underftood by examples. A family connedted
with a common parent, refembles a tree* the trunk and
branches of which are connedted with a common root :
but let us fuppofe, that a family is figured, not barely
to be like a tree, but to be a tree ; and then the fimile
will be converted into a metaphor, in the following
manner:
Edward’s fev’n fons, whereof thyfelf art one.
Were fev’n fair branches, fpringing from one root ;
Some of thefe branches by the deft’nies cut:
But Thomas, my dear lord, my life, my Glo’fter,
One flourifliing branch of his moft royal root,
Is hack'd down, and his fummer-Ieaves all faded,
By Envy’s hand and Murder’s bloody axe.
Richard II. ad-ufe. 3.
Figuring human life to be a voyage at fea;
There is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to Fortune :
3 O a Omitted
MET [ 476 ] MET
Metaphor. Omitted, all the voyage of their life word in a fenfe different from what is proper to it.— Metajhor
Thus youth, or the beginiiing of life, is exprefled fi- ——v~”
guratively by morning of life : morning is the beginning;
of the dary ; and in that view it is employed to fignity
the beginning of any other fenes, life efpscially, the
progrefs of which is reckoned by days, bee J.< iguKe
of Speech.
Metaphor and allegory are fo much conneded, that
it feemed proper to handle them together: the rules
particularly -for diltinguilhing the good from the bad,
are common to both. We lhall therefore proceed to
thefe rules, after adding fome examples to iliultrate the
nature of an allegory, which, with a view to this ar-
Figuring a man who hath acquired great reputation tide, was but flightly illullrated under its proper name,
and honour to be a tree full of fruit: Horace, fpeaking of his love to Pyrrha, which was
" Uh, boys, this ttory now extinguifhed, exprdfeth himfelf thus:
I he world may read in me ; my body’s mark’d  tagu[a facer
With Roman fwords ; and my report was once Votiva paries indicat uvida'
l irlt with the beit of note. Cymbehne lov’d me ; ~ -
Omitted, all the voyage of their life
Is bound in fhallows and in miferies.
On fuch a full lea are we now.afloat;
And we muft take the current when it ferves,
Or lofe our ventures. Julius Cafar, ad iv. Jc. 5.
Figuring glory and honour to be a garland of flowers:
Hotfpur. - Wou’d to heav’n,
Thy name in ai ms were now as great as mine !
i^r .Henry I’ll make it greater ere I part from thee;
And all the budding honours on hy crell
I '11 crop, to make a garland for my head.
Firjt part of Henry IV. ad v fc. 9.
And when a foidier was the theme, my name
Was not far off; then was I as a tree,
Whofe boughs did bend with fruit. But in one night,
A llorm or robbery, ca.! it what you wif!.
Shook down my mellow Hangings, nay my leaves ;
And left me bare to wither.
Cyrnbeline, ad iii. fc. 3.
“ Bleft be thy foul, thou king of fhebs, faid Swaran
of the dark-brown flrield. In-peace, thou art the gale
of fpring ; in war, the mountain-ftorm Take now my
hand in friendfhip, thou nobie king of Morven.”
Fingal.
Sufpendifle potenti
Veftimenta maris Deo.
Carm. lib. i. ode 5.
Again :
Phoebus vo’entem praelia me loqui,
Victas et urbes, increpuit, !yra
Ne parva Tyrrhenum per aequor
Vela darem. Carm. lib. iv. ode 15.
Queen. Great Lords, wife men ne’er fit and wail
their iofs,
But cheerly feek how to redrefs their harms.
What though the malt be now blown overboard.
The cable broke, the hoiding-anchor loll,
And half our failors fwallowed in the flood !
“ Thou dwel efl in the foul of Malvina, fon of mighty Yet lives our pilot Hill. Is’t meet that he
Offian. My iighs arife with the beam of the ealt: my Should leave the helm, and, like a fearful lad,
tears defeend with the drops of night. I was a lovely with tearful eyes add water to the fea,
tree in thy prefence, Ofcar, with all my branches And give more itrength to that which hath too much;
round me : but thy death came like a blaft from the While in his moan the fhip fplits on the rock,
defart, and laid my green head low ; the fpring re- which induttry and courage might have fav’d ?
turned with its fhowers, but no leaf of mine arofe.” Ah, what a lhame ! ah, what a fault were this !
Fingal. FBirdpart of Henry VI. ad. v. fc. 5.
An allegory differs from a metaphor; and a fi¬
gure of fpeech differs from both. A metaphor is Oroonoko. Ha! thou haft rous d
defined above to be an a£t of the imagination. The lion in his den ; he ftalks abroad,
figuring one thing to be another. An allegory re-
ouires no fuch operation, nor is one thing figured to
be another.; it confifts in choofing a fubjedt having pro¬
perties or circumltances refemb ing thofe of the prin-
And the wide foreft trembles at his roar.
I find the danger now. Oroonoko, ad iii. fc.
hill
My well-beloved hath a vineyard in a very fruitful
He fenced it, gathered out the ftones thereof.
- 1 iubJea : and the former 18 deftnbed m fuch a lanted jt wIth the choiceft vine> buiit a tower in the
manner as to reprefent the latter : the fubjeft thus re- of k> and alfo macle a wIne.prefs therein; he
prefented is kept out of view : we are left to d.fcover look£d that it fhould bring forth grapes, and it brought
!t by refle&ion ; and we are pleafed with the difeovery, forth wlld And nQW) q inhabitants of Jeru-
becaufeitisourownwork. (Seetheword Allegory.) fakm> and men of Judah, judge, I pray you, betwixt
Quintilian gives the following inftance of an allegory, me and my vineyard What could have been done
O navis, referent in mare te novi more to my vineyard, that I have not done ? Where-
Flubtus. O quid agis fortiter occupa portum. fore, when I looked that it fhould bring forth grapes,
Horat. lib. i. ode 14. brought it forth wild grapes. And now go to, I will
and explains it elegantly in the following words: “ To- tell you v hat 1 will do to my vineyard : I will take a-
tufque ille Horatii locus, quo navim pro republics^ w'ay the hedge thereof, and it (hall be eaten up ; and
flubtuum tempeftates pro bellis civi ibus, portum pro break down the wall thereof, and it fhah be trodden
pace atque concordia, dicit.” down. And I will lay it wafte : it flrali not be pruned,
In a figure of fpeech, there is no fidlion of the ima- nor digged, but there (hall come up briars and thorns:
gination employed,, as in a metaphor; nor a reprefen- I will alfo command the clouds that they rain no rain
tative fubjea introduced,, as in an allegory. This fi- upon it. For the vineyard of the Lord of hofts is rire
gure, as its name implies, regards the exprefiion only, houfe of Ifrael, and the men of Judah his pleamnt
®ot the thought; and it may be defined, the ufing a plant.” ' Ifaiah, v.
4
M E T
C 477 1
MET
Metaphor. The rules that govern metaphors and allegories are frequent in the fir ft dawn of refinement; the mind in Metaphor*,
'■■"'v—*-'' of two kinds. The conitrudlion of thefe figures comes a new enjoyment knows no bounds, and is generally
under the ftrft kind : the propriety or impropriety of carried to excefs, till tafte and experience difeover the
introduction comes under the other.—To begin with
rules of the firft kind ; fome of which coincide with
thofe already given for fimilies ; fome are peculiar to
metaphors and allegories.
In the firft place, it has been obferved, that a fimile
cannot be agreeable where the refemblance is either
too ftrong or too faint. This holds equally in meta¬
phor and allegory ; and the reafon is the fame in aft.
In the following inftances, the refemblance is too faint
to be agreeable.
Malcolm. But there’s no bottom, none,
In my voluptuoufnefs: your wives, your daughters.
Your matrons, and your maids, could not fill up
The ciftern of my lull. Macbeth, Att iv.fc. 4.
The beft way to judge of this metaphor, is to convert
it into a fimilt: which would be bad, becaufe there is
fcarce any refemblance between iuft and a ciftern, or
betwixt enormous lull and a large ciftern.
Again :
He cannot buckle his diftemper’d caufe
Within the belt of rule. Macbeth, A3 \./c. 2.
There is no refemblance between a diftempered caufe
and any body that can be confined within a belt.
Again :
Steep me in poverty to the very lips.
Othello, Ad iv. fc. 9.
proper limits.
Secondly, whatever refemblance fubje&s may have,
it is wrong to put one for another, where they bear no
mutual proportion. Upon comparing a very high to
a very low fubjeCt, the fimile takes on an air of bur-
lefque: and the fame will be the effect where the one
is imagined to be the other, as in a metaphor; or made
to reprefent the other, as in an allegory.
Thirdly, Thefe figures, a metaphor efpecially, ought
not to be crowded with many minute circumftances i
for in that caf» it is fcarcely pofiible to avoid obfeu-
rity. A metaphor above all ought to be fhort: it is
difficult, for any time, to fupport a lively image of a
thing being what we know it is not; and for that rea¬
fon, a metaphor drawn out to any length, inftead of
illuftrating or enlivening the principal fubjedl, becomes
difagreeable by overftraining the mind. Here Cow¬
ley is extremely licentious : take the following in-
ftance.
Great and wife conqu’ror, who, where-e’er
Thou com’ft, doft fortify, and fettle there!
Who canft defend as well as get;
And never hadft one quarter beat up yet;
Now thou art in, thou ne'er will part
With one inch of my vanquifh’d heart;.
For fince thou tookil it by affault from me, ^
’Tis garrifon’d fo ftfong with thoughts ot thee, v
It fears no beauteous enemy. j
Poverty here muft be conceived a fluid, which it re-
fembles not in any manner.
Speaking to Bolingbroke baniffi’d for fix years:
The fui!en paffage of thy weary fteps
Efteem a foil, wherein thou art to fet
The precious jewel of thy home-return.
Richard H. Ad n.fc. 6.
Again:
Here is a letter, lady,
And every word in it a gaping wound
Ifi'uing life-blood.
Merchant of Venice, Ad m.fc. 3.
Tantse molis erat Romanam condere gentem.
JEneid. 1. 37,
The following metaphor is ftrained beyond all endu¬
rance : Timur-bec, known to us by the name of Ta¬
merlane the Great, writes to Bajazet emperor of the
Ottomans in the following terms:.
For the fame reafon, however agreeable long allego¬
ries may at firft be by their novelty, they never afford
any lafting pleafure : v/itnefs the Fairy §)ueen, which
with great power of expreffion, variety of images,
and melody of verfification,, is fcarce ever read a fe-
cond time.
In the fourth place, the comparifon carried on in a
fimile, being in a metaphor funk by imagining the
principal fubjerit to be that very thing which it only
refembles; an opportunity is furmfhed to deferibe it in
terms taken ftridlly or literally with refpedt to its ima*.
gined nature. This fuggefts another rule, That in con-
ftruriting a metaphor, the writer ought to make ufe of
fuch words only as are applicable literally to the ima¬
gined nature of Iris fubjedt : figurative words ought
carefully to be avoided; for fuch cojqjjlicated figures,
inftead of fetting the principal fubjedt in a ftrong light;
involve it in a cloud, and it is well if the reader, with¬
out rejecting by the lump, endeavour, patiently to ga¬
ther, the plain meaning, regardlefs of the figures:
“ Where is the monarch who dares refift us? where
is the potentate who doth not glory in being numbered
among our attendants? As for thee, defeended from a
Turcoman failor, fince the veffel of thy unbounded
ambition hath been wreck’d in the gulf of thy felf-
love, it would be proper, that thou fhouldft take in
the fails of thy temerity, and call the anchor of re¬
pentance in the port of fincerity and juftice, which is
the port of fafety ; left the tempeft of our vengeance
make thee periffi in the lea of the punifhment thou
deferveft.”
Such ftrained figures, as obfetved above, are not un-
A ftubborn and unconquerable flame
Creeps in his veins, and drinks the ftreams of life.
Lady Jane Gray, Ad\.fc. I.
Copied from Ovid,
Sorbent avidae prcecordia flammae.
Metamorph. lib. ix-. 172.
Let us analyfe this expreffion. That a fever may be
imagined a flame, we admit: though, more than one
ftep is neceffary to come at the. refemblance : a fever,,
by heating the body, refembles fire; and it is no ftretch
to imagine a fever to be a fire: again, by a figure of
fgeech*
MET [478] MET
.Metaphor, fpeech, flame may be put for fire, becaufe they are com-
Y—— monly conjoined; and therefore a fever may be termed
a fame. But now admitting a fever to be a flame, its
effefts ought to be explained in words that agree lite¬
rally to a flame. This rule is not obferved here; for
a flame drinks figuratively only, not properly.
King Henry to his fon prince Henry
Thou hid’il a thoufand daggers in thy thoughts.
Which thou haft whetted on thy ftony heart
To ftab at half an hour of my frail life.
Second part Henry IV. ~A3 ve.fc. 11.
Such faulty metaphors are pleafantly ridiculed in the
■Rehearfal:
“ Phydcian. Sir, to conclude, the place you fill has
more than amply exacted the talents of a wary pilot;
mid all thefe threatening ftorms, which, like impreg¬
nate clouds, hover o’er our heads, will, when they once
are grafp’d but by the eye of reafon, melt into fruitful
Ihowers of bleffings on the people.
“ Bayes. Pray mark that allegory. Is not that
good ?
“ Johnfon. Yes, that grafping^of a ftorm with the
eye is admirable.” AQn.fc. 1.
Fifthly, the jumbling different metaphors in the
fame fentence, beginning with one metaphor and end¬
ing with another, commonly called a mixt metaphor^
Mought never to be indulged.
K. Henry   Will you again unknit
This churlifh knot of all abhorred war,
And move in that obedient orb again.
Where you did give a fair and natural light ?
Firf part Henry VI. Act v.fc. I-
Whether ’tis nobler in the mind, to fuffer
The ftings and arrows of outrageous fortune;
Or to take arms againft a fea of troubles.
And by oppofing end them.
Hamlet, Ac! i-ii./r. 2.
In the fixth place, It is unpleafant to join different
metaphors in the fame period, even where they are
preferved diftinft : for when the fubjeft is imagined to
be firft one thing and then another in the fame period
without interval, the mind is diftrafted by |.he rapid
tranfition ; and when the imagination is put on fuch
hard duty, its images are too faint to produce any good
.effeft:
At regina gravi jamdudum faucia cura,
Vulnus alit venis, et cseco carpitur igni.
A'neid. iv. I.
  Eft mollis flamma medullas
Interea, et taciturn vivit fub pedtore vulnus.
JEneid. iy. 66.
Motum ex Metello confide civicum,
Bellique caufas, et vitia, et modos,
Ludumque fortunse, gravefque
Principum amicitias, et arma
.Nondum expiatis undta cruoribus,
Periculofae plenum opus aleje,
Tradtas, tt incedis per ignes
Subpofitos cineri dolofo.^
Horat, Carm. lib. ii. ode I.
3
In the laft place, It is ftill worfe to jumble togethef Metapho*.
metaphorical and natural expreffion, fo as that the pe- •—y—^
riod muft be underftood in part metaphorically, in part
literally ; for the imagination cannot follow with fuffi-
cient eafe changes fo fudden and unprepared: a meta¬
phor begun and not carried on, hath no beauty ; and
inftead of light, there is nothing but obfcurity and con-
fufion. Inftances of fuch incorredt compofition are
without number: we fhall, for a fpecimen, feledt a few
from different authors. Speaking of Britain.
This precious ftone fct in the fea,
Which ferves it in the office of a wall.
Or as a moat defenfive to a houfe
Againft the envy of lefs happier lands.
Richard II. ad il.fc j.
In the firft line Britain is figured to be a precious ftoneS
in the following line,. Britain, diverted of her meta¬
phorical drefs, is prefented to the reader in her natu¬
ral appearance.
Thefe growing feathers pluck’d from Cxfar’s wing,.
Will make him fly an ordinary pitch
Who elfe would foar above the view of men.
And keep us all in fervile fearfulnefs.
Julius Cafar, ad \. fc. I.
Rebus anguftis anirftofus atque
Fortis adpare : fapienter idem
Contrahes vento nimium fee u
Turgida vela. . Hot.
The fallowing is a miferable jumble of expreflions, ari-
fing from an unfteady view of the fubjedt, between its
figurative and natural appearance :
But now from gath’ring clouds deftrudtion pours,
Which ruins with mad rage our halcyon hours i
Mifts from black jealoufies the tempeft form,
Whilft late divifions reinforce the ftorm.
Difpenjary, canto iih
To thee the world its prefent homage pays.
The hafveft early, but mature the praife.
Pope's imitation of Horace, B. ii.
Oui, fa pudeur ne’ft que franche grimace,
Qu’une ombre de vertu qui garde mal la place,
Et qui %’evanouit, comme Ton peut favoir,
Aux rayons du fdleil qu’une bourfe vait voir.
Moliere, L'Etourdi, aB in. fc. 2.
Et fon feu, de pourvu de fenfe et de ledture,
S’eteint a chaque pas, faut de nourriture.
Boileau, L?art poetique, chant, iii. 1. 3I9*
Dryden, in his dedication of the tranflation of fu*
venal, fays, “ When thus, as I may fay, before the
ufe of the loadftone, or knowledge of the compafs, I
was failing in a vaft ocean,, without other help than the
pole-ftar of the ancients, and the rules of the French
ftage among the moderns, &c.”
“ There is a time when fadHons, by the vehemence
of their own fermentation, ftun and difable one ano¬
ther.” Bolingbroke.
This fault of jumbling the figure and plain expref¬
fion into one confufed mafs, is not lefs common ia
allegory than in metaphor.
Take
MET [ 479 3 MET
Metaphor. Take the following examples:
\      Heu ! quoties fideoi,
Mutatofque Deos flebit, et afpera
Nigris xquora ventis
Emirabitur infolens,
Qui nunc te fruitur credulus aurea :
Qm femper vacuum, Temper amabilem
Sperat, nefcius auras
Fallacis. Horat. Carm. lib. i. ode 5.
Pour moi fur cette mer, qu’ici bas nous courons,
Je fonge a me pourvoir d’efquif et d’avirons,
A regler mes defires, a prevenir I’orage,
Et fauver, s’il fe peut, ma Raifon dd naufrage;
Boileau, epitre 5.
Lord Halifax, fpeaking of the ancient fabulifts :
f< They (fays he) wrote in figns, and fpoke in para¬
bles : all their fables carry a double meaning : the ftory
is one, and entire; the characters the fame throughout;
not broken or changed, and always conformable to the
nature of the creature they introduce. They never tell
you, that the dog which fnapped at a fhadow, loft his
troop of horfe ; that would be unintelligble. This is
his (Dryden’s) new way of telling a ftory, and con¬
founding the moral and the fable together.” After
inftancingfrom the hind and panther, he goes on thus:
“ What relation Has the hind to our Saviour? or what
notion have we of a panther’s Bible ? If you fay he
means the church, how does the church feed on lawns,
or range in the foreft ? Let it be always a church, or
always a cloven-footed beaft; for we cannot bear his
ihifting the fcene every line.”
A few words more upon allegory. Nothing gives
greater pleafure than this figure, when the reprefenta-
tive fubjeft bears a ftrong analogy, in all its circum-
ftances, to that which is reprefented : but the choice is
feldom fo lucky ; the analogy being generally fo faint
and obfcure, as to puzzle and not pleafe. An allegory
is ft ill more difficult in painting than in poetry: the
former can (how no refemblance but what appears to
the eye; the latter hath many other refources for fhow-
ing the refemblance. And therefore, with refperft to
what the Abbe du Bos terms mixt allegorical comimfi-
ticrns, thefe may do in poetry ; becaufe, in writing, the
allegory can eafily be diftinguifhed from the hiftorical
part: no perfon, for example, miftakes Virgil’s Fame
for a real being. But fuch a mixture in a picture is in¬
tolerable ; becaufe in a picture the obje&s muft appear
all of the fame kind, wholly real or wholly emblema¬
tical. For this reafon, the hiftory of Mary de Medicis,
in the palace of Luxembourg, painted by Rubens, is
unpleafant by a perpetual jumble of real and allegori¬
cal perfonages, which produce a difcordance of parts,
and an obfcuvity upon the whole: witnefs, in parti¬
cular,, the tablature reprefenting the arrival of Mary de
Medicis at Marfeilles; where, together with the real
perfonages, the Nereids and Tritons appear founding
their ftiells: fuch a mixture of fi&ion and reality in the
fame group, is ftrangely abfurd. The pidture of Alex¬
ander and Roxana, defcribed by Lucian, is gay and
fanciful; but it fuffers by the allegorical figures. It is
not in the wit of man to invent an allegorical repre-
fentation deviating farther from any fhadow of ref:m-
blance, than one exhibited by Louis XIV. anno 1664;
in which an enormous chariot, intended to reprefent
tha of the fun, is dragged along, furrounded with men Metaphor.^
and women, reprefenting the four ages of the world, v **
the celettiai fig us, the feafons, the hours, &c. a mon-
ftrous compofition, and yet fcarce more abfurd than
Guido’s tablature of Aurora.
In an allegory, as well as in a metaphor, terms ought
to be chofen that properly and literally are applicable
to the reprefentative fubjedt: nor ought any circum-
ftance to be added that is not proper to the reprefen¬
tative fubjedf, however juftly it may be applicable pro¬
perly or figuratively to the principal. The following al¬
legory is therefore faulty:
Ferns et Cupido,
Semper ardentes acuens fagittas
Cote cruentd. Horat. lib. ii. ode 8.
For though blood may fuggeft the cruelty of love, it -
is an improper or immaterial circumftance in the re¬
prefentative fubjedt: water, not blood, is proper for a
whetftone.
We proceed to the next head, which is, to examine
in what circumftances thefe figures are proper, in what
improper. This inquiry is not altogether fuperfeded
by what is faid upon the fame fubjedt in the article
Comparison ; becaufe, upon trial, it will be found,
that a fhort metaphor or allegory may be proper,
where a fimile, drawn out to a greater length, and
in its nature more folemn, would fcarce be reliffied.
And, in the firft place, a metaphor, like a fimilc,
is excluded from common converfation, and from the
defcription of ordinary incidents. Second, in exprefs-
ing any fevere paffidn that totally occupies the mind,
metaphor is unnatural.
The following example, of deep defpair, befide the
highly figurative ftyle, has more the air of raving
than of fenfe :
Calijla. Is it the voice of thunder, or my father ?
Madnefs! confufion ! let the ftorm come on.
Let the tumultuous roar drive all upon me,
Daffi my devoted bark ; ye furges, break it;
’Tis for my ruin that the tempeft rifes.
When lam loft, funk to the bottom low,
Peace fhall return, and all be calm again
Fair Penitent, aB 5.
The following metaphor is fweet and lively; bu's
it fuits not the fiery temper of Chamont, inflamed with
paffion : parables are not the language of wrath vent¬
ing itfelf without reftraint:
Chamont. You took her up a little tender flow’r.
Juft fprouted on a bank, which the next froft
Had nipp’d; and with a careful loving hand,
Tranfplanted her into your own fair garden.
Where the fun always ffiines : there long ftie flourifh’d.
Grew fweet to fenfe, and lovely to the eye ;
Till at the laft a cruel fpoiler came,
Cropt this fair rofe, and rifled all its tweetnefs.
Then call it like a loathfome weed away. Orph. aB 4.
The following fpeech, full of imagery, is not natural
in grief and dejedtion of mind.
Gonfalez^ O my fon ! from the blind dotage
Of a father’s fondnefs thefe ills arofe.
For thee I’ve been ambitious, bafe? and bloody t -
Fq?
MET [ 4S0 ] met
'Metaphor. p0r thee I’ve plung’d into this fea of fin ;
Stemming the tide with only one weak hand,
While t’other bore the crown (to wreathe thy brow),
Whole weight has funk me ere I reach d the Ihore.
Mourning Bride, aft g-fc. 6.
There is an enchanting plfture of deep diftrefs in
Macbeth, where Macduff is reprefented lamenting his
wife and children, inhumanly murdered by the tyrant.
Stung to the heart with the news, he queltions the
meflenger over and over: not that he doubted the faft,
but that his heart revolted againft fo cruel .a misfor¬
tune. After ftruggling fome time with his grief, he
turns from his wife and children to their favage
butcher; and then gives vent to his refentment, but ftill
with manlinefs and dignity :
,G, I could play the woman with mine eyes,
And braggart with my tongue. But, gentle Heav’n!
Cut fhort all intermiffion ; front to front
Bring thou this fiend of Scotland and myfelf;
Within my fword’s length fet him.—If he ’fcape,
Then Heav’n forgive him too.
Metaphorical exprefiion, indeed, may fometimes be
ufed with grace where a regular fimile would be in- Metaphor,
tolerable : but there are fituations fo fevere and difpi- 1 ^
riting, as not to admit even the fiightell metaphor.
It requires great delicacy of tafte to determine with
firmnefs, whether the prefent cafe be of that nature :
perhaps it is; yet who could wilh a Angle word of
this admirable feene altered ?
But metaphorical language is proper when a man
ftruggles to bear with dignity or decency a misfor¬
tune however great; the ftruggle agitates and animates
the mind:
Wolfey. Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatnefs!
This is the Itate of man : to day he puts forth
The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blolfoms,
And bears his blulhing honours thick upon him ;
The third day comes a froft, a killing froft,
And when he thinks, good eafy man, full furely
His greatnefs is a ripening, nips his root.
And then he falls as I do. Henry VIII. aft ^-fc. 6.
METAPHRAST, a tranflator, or perfon who
renders an author into another form or another lan¬
guage, word for word.
M E T A P
, T\ /V Etap hysics has been defined, by a writer
Definition. XVX deeply read in the ancient philofophy, “ The
fcience of the principles and caufes of all things exift-
ing.” This definition, we think, extremely proper :
and hence it is, that mind or intelligence, and efpeci-
ally the fupreme intelligence, which is the caufe of the
univerfe and of every thing which it contains, is the
principal fubjedt of this fcience ; and hence, too, the
fcience itfelf received its name. Ariftotle, indeed,
who, of all the ancient metaphyficians whofe works
have come down to us, was unqueftionably the great-
eft, calls this fcience the first philosophy, as be¬
ing not only fuperior, but alfo prior in the order of
nature, to the whole circle of the other arts and fei-
ences. But, “ what is firft to nature, is not firft to
■man.” Nature begins with caufes which produce ef-
fefts. Man begins with ejfefts, and by them afeends
to caufes. Thus all human ftudy and inveftigation
proceed of necefiity in the reverfe of the natural order
of things, from fenfible to intelligible, from body the ef-
fedl, to mind, which is both the firft and the final
caufe. Now, physics being the name given by the
Stagyrite to the philofophy of body, fome of his in¬
terpreters, from this neceffary courfe of human ftu-
dies, called that of mind metaphysics, implying by
that term, not only that its fubjeft is mdre fublime
and difficult, but alfo that the ftudy of it would be
moft properly and fuccefsfully entered upon after
, that of physics. To this name, which, though it
has fometimes been treated with ridicule, is abundantly
Nu2I2.
HYSICS.
fignificant, the followers of Ariftotle were led by their
mafter, who, to the books in which he pretends to
elevate the mind above things corporeal to the con¬
templation of God and things fpiritual, prefixed the
Greek words ra. pu<r,y.a (a).
The fcience of Metaphyfics has been divided, ac- *
cording to the objects which it confiders, into fix prin- ^Nifion of
cipal parts, which are.called, 1. Ontology; 2. Cofmo-'^^^
logy ; 3. Anthropofophy ; 4. Pfychology ; 5. Pneumatology ;
and, 6. Metaphyficol theology.
x. That part of the fcience which is named f
logy, inveftigates and explains the nature and effence *
of all beings, as well as the qualities and attributes
that efientially appertain to them. Hence it has been
faid that ontology Ihould proceed in its operations
from the moft fimple ideas ; fuch as do not admit of
any other qualities of which they may be compound¬
ed. Thefe fimple ideas are of being, of effencc, of fub~
fiance, of mode, of exigence as well with regard to time
as place, of a neceffary caufe of unity ; the idea of ne¬
gation ; the difference between a being that isfmple or
compound, neceffary or accidental, finite or infinite; the ideas
of ejfential and abfiraft properties, fuch as of the great¬
nefs, perfeftion, and goodnefs of beings, &c. The bufi-
nefs therefore of ontology, is to make us acquainted
with every kind of being in its nature and effential
qualities, which diftinguiffi it from all other beings.
This knowledge being once eftablifhed on fimple prin¬
ciples, juft confequences may thence be drawn, and
thofe things proved after which the metaphyfician en¬
quires,
(a) TtiN meta 7A 't’TTiKA. Cujus infcriptionis haec ratio eft, quod in hoc opere ea traftantur quorum
theoria pofterior eft do&rina natural! faltem quoad nos, qui a corporum cognitione rerumque caducarum in
fubftaniiarum immaterialium atque immortalium contemplationem provehimur,
Du Val. Synopf. Doftr. Perf at.
METAPHYSICS. 481
!>mflone of quires, and which is the bufmefs of his fcience to
the Science prove#
'^ It is eafy to conceive, that even a clear knowledge of
beings, and their effential properties, would be Hill de¬
fective and ufelefs to man, if he did not knew how
to determine and fix his ideas by proper denomina¬
tions, and confequently to communicate his percep¬
tions to thofe whom he would inftruCt, or againft
whom he is obliged to difpute. To render our ideas
therefore intelligible to others, we muft have deter¬
minate words or denominations for each being, and
#ie qualities of each being ; and ontology teaches us
thofe terms which are fo necefiary to fix our ideas,
and to give them the requifite perfpicuity and preci-
fion, that when we endeavour to extend the fphere
of our knowledge, we may not wafte our time in dif-
4 putes about words.
Cofmology; 2. Metaphyfics, having, in as folid a manner as pof-
fible, explained and eftablifhed the principles above
mentioned, continues its enquiries to the fecond part,
which is called cofmology, and examines into the ef-
fence of the world and all that it contains, its eternal
laws; of the nature of matter; of motion; of the
nature of tangible bodies, their attributes and ad¬
juncts ; and of all that can be known by reafoning
and experience. It is alfo in cofmology that the me-
taphyficians of this fchool examine the Leibnitziap
fyftem ; that is, whether God, in creating the world,
muft neceffarily have created the beft world ; and if
this world be fo in faCt. In this manner they purfue
the argument, from confequence to confequence, to its
laft refort, frequently with very little advantage to
truth and fcience.
5 3. Anthropofophy, or the knowledge of man, forms
potophy*- t^ie third branch of metaphyfics. It is fubdi-
vided into two parts. The firft, which confifts in
the knowledge of the exterior parts of the human
frame, belongs not to this fcience, but to Anatomy and
Phyliology. The bufinefs of the metaphyfician is here
to afeertain the nature of thofe powers by which all
the motions effential to life are produced; and to dif-
cover, if poffible, whether they be corporeal or fpi-
' ritual. This inquiry leads at the fame time to
fffychology; 4. Pfychology; which confifts in the knowledge of
the intelleCfual foul in particular : concerning which,
the moft profound, the moft fubtile, and moll abftraCl
refearches, have been made that human reafon is ca¬
pable of; and concerning the fubftance of which, in
fpite of all thefe efforts, it is yet extremely difficult
to fupport any pofitive opinion with conclufive or pro¬
bable arguments.
7 5. The fifth part of metaphyfics is called pneumatology.
Pneuma-- terni> which has not been long in ufe, meta-
’ phyficians mean the knowledge of all fpirits, angels,
&c. It is eafy to conceive what infinite art is necef-
fary to give an account of that, of which nothing po¬
fitive can ever be known in the prefeht ftate of human
exiftence. But the metaphyfician of this fchool readily
offers to Ihow us, “ what is the idea of a fpirit; the
efftClive exiftence of a fpirit; what are its general qua¬
lities and properties; that there are rational fpirits,
and that thefe rational fpirits have qualities that are
founded in the moral attributes of God for this is
in fo many words what is attempted to be taught in
pneumatology.
Vol. XI. Part II.
6. Metaphyfical theology, which Leibnitz and fome Civilians of
others call theodicy, is the fixth and laft branch of thethe s^iencf
fcience of metaphyfics. It teaches us the knowledge g
of the exiftence of God; to make the moft rational Metaphy-
fuppofitions concerning his divine effence, and to form fical th«o
a juft idea kof his attributes and perfections, and tolegy-
demonftrate them by abftraCl reafoning. Theodicy
differs from natural theology, in as much as this laft
borrows, in faCt, from theodicy proofs and demon-
ftrations to confirm the exiftence of a fupreme Being:
but after having folidly eftabliffied that great truth,
by extending its confequences natural theology teaches
us what are the relations and connections that fubfift
between the fupreme Being and men, and what are
the duties which refult from thofe relations. ?
We have briefly mentioned thefe divifions of the This divi
fcience, becaufe they were once prevalent in the Con ufelefs
fchools. The greater part of them, however, appears ancl ltnPro‘
to us to be not only fuperfluous, but fuch as can ferve
no other purpofe than to perplex the mind. The
only beings of which we know any thing are mind
and body ; and we have no reafon to think that there
are any other beings in the univerfe. Of bodies in¬
deed there are various kinds, endowed with different
properties : and it is extremely probable, that of minds
endowed with different powers, the variety may be
equally great. Our own minds we know to be uni¬
ted in one fyftem with bodies by which they perform
all their operations; and we can demonftrate that
there is another Mind, which is independent of all body,
and is the caufe of all things. Between thefe there
may be numberlefs orders of minds; but their energies
are wholly unknown to us, and therefore they can
never become the objeCls of fcience.
Mind and body therefore, i. e. the minds and bo¬
dies which we know to exift, together with their
powers and properties, effential and accidental, can
alone be the fubjeCls -of rational inquiry. We may
inquire into the effence of mind and the effence of
body, and endeavour to afeertain in what refpeCls they
differ. We may examine the nature of different bo¬
dies, in order to difeover whether all bodies, however
modified, have not fomething in common; and we may
confider the properties, relations, and adjunds of bo¬
dies, and endeavour to diftinguifh thofe which are ac¬
cidental from fuch as appear to be fo neceffary that
without them body itfelf could not exift. Of minds
we cannot make the fame comparifon. In this part
of the fcience we have not fulficient data for an accu¬
rate and complete indu£lion : we can only examine
the powers of our own mind; and by probable analogy
make fome eftimate of the powers of fuperior minds,
as obfervation will help us to guefs at the powers of
thofe which are placed beneath us in the fcale of ex¬
iftence.
If this be fo, Cofmology, as diftipguiftied from On¬
tology, cannot properly be a branch of Metaphyfics.
For if mind and body, with their feveral powers, pro¬
perties, and adjundfs, compofe the univerfe, it is ob¬
vious, that when we have afeertained, as well as we
are able to afeertain, the effence of mind and the ef¬
fence of body, together with the powers and proper¬
ties of each, and have traced them all to the firft
caufe, we have done every thing in the fcience of the
univerfe, if we may ufe the exprdfion, which belongs
3 P to
482 M E T A P 1
Divifions of to the province of the metaphyfician. The particu-
ihc Science jar jaws 0f motion on the earth and in the planetary
v fyftem belong to the natural philofopher and aftrono-
In like manner, Anthropofophy, Pfychology, and
Pneumatology, if they be not words expreffive of di-
ilinftions where there is no difference, feem to be at
leaft very needlefsly disjoined from each other. Of
the nature of fpirits we can know nothing but from con¬
templating the powers of our own minds; and the
body of man is in the province, not of the metaphy-
fician, but of the anatomift and phyfiologift. Anthro¬
pofophy, pfychology, and pneumatology, if they be
ufed to denote our knowledge of all minds except the
Supreme, are words of the fame import; for of no crea¬
ted minds except our own can we acquire fuch know¬
ledge as deferves the name of fcience.
Ontology has fometimes been defined the fcience of
being in the abjlraB; but in the courfe of our inquiries
it will be feen, that being in the abjlra'd is a phrafe with¬
out meaning. Gonfidered as the fcience of real beings
and their properties. Ontology is a very fignificant word,
of the fame import with Metaphyfics, comprehending
in itfelf the knowledge of the nature of all things
exifting. Or if it be thought proper to make a di-
ftin&ion between ontology and theology, the former
branch of the fcience will teach the knowledge of
body and created minds, whilft it is the province of
the latter to demonftrate the exiftence and attributes
TO of that mind which is uncreated.
Another Body and mind therefore, with their properties,
propofed. adjuncts, and powers, comprehend the whole fubjeft
of the fcience .of metaphyfics: and as we are earlier
acquainted with body than with mind, the natural or¬
der of conducing our inquiries feems to be, to begin
with the former, and thence proceed to the latter. It
is however obvious, that if we would purfue thefe in¬
quiries with any hopes of fuccefs, we muft firft trace
human knowledge from its fource, afcertain the na¬
ture of truth, and Ihow what kind of evidence on each
topic to be treated ought to enforce conviftion. In
this view of the fcience, metaphyfics appears to be
divided into three parts ; the firft treating of human
underflanding ; the fecond, of body <with its adjunils ; and
the third, of mind with its powers.
11 Previous to the entering upon fuch inquiries, fome
nntinnex- philofophers of great merit have lately thought it ex¬
plained. pedient to explain the terms which they fhould have
1 Y S I C S.
occafion to ufe. Their conduct is judicious and worthy Div:fion» of
of imitation; for the objefts of metaphyfics being,ttie Sciencf
for the moft part, fuch as fall not under the cogni- umf
fance of the fenfes, are liable to be differently appre¬
hended by different men, if the meanings of the words
by which they are expreffed be not afcertained with
the utmoft precifion. We intend, however, to ufe
very few words but in the common acceptation ; and
we therefore hope, that as terms of fcience are ex¬
plained under different words in the Diftionary, to
which references are made, we have little or no oc¬
cafion for fwelling the article by previous defini¬
tions. There are indeed two words which have given
rife to much ufelefs deputation, which yet cannot be
baniftied from fpeculative philofophy, and which it
will therefore be proper here to define. The words
to which we allude are idea and notion. Thefe are
very generally confidered as fynonymous; but we think
that much loquacity might have been avoided by af-
figning to each a determinate fignification. We know
not any philofopher who made much ufe of the word
idea before Plato; but with his myfterious doftrine
concerning ideas we have here nothing to do : our
prefent bufinefs is to afcertain the precife meaning of
the word, which is evidently derived from <*<?« to fee>
as the word notion is from “ nofco, novi, mtum,” and
that from to know or underfund. In the ori¬
ginal fenfe of the two words, therefore, notion is more
comprehenfive than idea, becaufe we know many things
which cannot be feen. We have not a doubt, but
that at firft the word idea was employed to denote
only thofe forms of external obje&s which men con¬
template in their imaginations, and which are origi¬
nally received through the fenfe of fght. Its fig¬
nification was afterwards extended to the relids of
every fenfation, of touch, tafte, found, and fmell, as
well as of fight; and at laft it was confounded with
notion, which denotes the mental apprehenfion of what¬
ever may be known. In our ufe of the word ideat
except when we quote from others, we ihall employ
it only to denote that appearance which abfent ob-
jeftsof fenfe make in the memory or imagination (a);
and by the word notion we ftiall denote our apprehen¬
fion or knowledge of fpirits, and all fuch things as,,
though they be the obje&s of fcience, cannot be per¬
ceived by the external fenfes. Having faid this, we
proceed to our inquiries, beginning with that into
human underftanding.
(a) In thus reftrifting the meaning of the word idea, we have the honour to agree with the great Englifh
Lexicographer.—“ He was particularly indignant againft the almoft univerfal ufe of the word idea in the
fenfe of notion or opinion, when it is clear that idea can only fignify fomething of which an image may be
formed in the mind. We may have an idea or image of a mountain, a tree, or a building; but we cannot
furely have an idea or image of an argument or propofition. Yet we hear the fages of the law delivering their
ideas upon the queftion under confideration ; and the firft fpeakers in parliament entirely coinciding in the
idea, which has been fo ably ftated by an honourable member ; or reprefenting an idea as unconftitutional,
and fraught with the moft dangerous confequences to a great and free country. This Johnfon called modern
cant.” BofweW’s Life of Johnfon..
Part
Parti. METAPHYSICS. 4S3
Origin of Origin of
Ideas and Ideas and
Part I. Of HUMAN UNDERSTANDING. *° "ns‘,
Preliminary Obfervations on the Origin of our Ideas
and Notions.
J4 r I"1 HAT the mind of man has no innate ideas or
No innate J_ notions, but comes into the world ignorant of
ideas or m>.every thing, is a truth which fince the days of Locke
toman” ^ ^as ^een vet7 little difputed. In the firft book of his
minj, Effay on the Human Underftanding, that acute philofo-
pher has demonftrated, that the rudiments or firft prin¬
ciples of all our knowledge are communicated to us by
fenfation ; and he has compared the mind, previous to
the operation of external obje&s upon the fenfes, to a
tabula rafa or fheet of white paper. To repeat his ar¬
guments would fwell the article to no purpofe. There
is not a man capable of attending to his own ideas,
who can entertain a doubt in what manner he received
them. Without the fenfe of fight, we could never
have known colours; nor found, without hearing; nor
hardnefs, foftnefs, fmoothnefs, pain, or bodily pleafure,
without touch; nor odours, without fmell, &c.
Self-evident as thefe fafts are, objedtions have been
ftarted to the inferences drawn from them; and Locke
has been accufed of advancing principles fubverfive of
all diftinftion between truth and falfehood, and favour¬
able of courfe to univerfal fcepticiftn.—“ The firft
book ef his Eflay, which with fubmiflion (fays Dr
Beattie*) I think the worft, tends to eftablilh this
the Nature dangerous do&rine, that the human mind, previous to
education and habit, is as fufceptible of one impreffion
tility of a3 0f another : a dodtrine which, if true, would go
Truth. near tQ prove that truth and virtue are no better than
human contrivances; or at leaft that they have nothing
permanent in their nature, but may be as changeable
as the inclinations and capacities of men; and that
there is no fuch thing as common fenfe in the world.
Surely this is not the do&rine which Mr Locke meant
to eftablifh.” We are fo thoroughly fatisfied that it
, is not, that we cannot help wondering how fueh in¬
ferences could, by a man of learning, genius, and can¬
dour, be drawn from any thing which is to be found in
the Effay on the Human Underftanding.
But the Dodtor thinks Mr Locke's “ fimile of the
mind to white paper one of the moft unlucky allufiOns
that could have been chofen; becaufe the human foul,
when it begins to think, is not extended, nor of a
white colour, nor incapable of energy, nor wholly
unfurnifhed with ideas, nor as fufceptible of one im-
preflion or charadter as of any other:” and it has been,
I j Ujler, obferved by another objedtorf, that “ on a ftieet of
author oj white paper you may write that fugar is bitter; worm-
CUo. let * wood fweet; fire and froft in every degree pleafing
"fa *pfetet~ an<^ fufferable j that compaffion and gratitude are bafe;
printed for treachery, falfehood, and envy, noble; and that con-
J.Davies, tempt is indifferent to us.”
London, All this is true; but we apprehend it is not to the
IU4- purpofe. Mr Locke has no where expreffed himfelf
in fuch a manner as to lead us to fuppofe that he be-
Ob'eMons ^eve(^ t^ie to extended or coloured ; or, when it
anlweicd. begins to think, incapable of energy, and wholly un¬
furnifhed with ideas: but he certainly did believe, that
it begins not to think the firft inftant of its exiftence*
and that it acquires all the ideas of which it is ever
poffeffed. We may undoubtedly write upon a piece
of white paper that fugar is bitter, and that wormwood
is fweet; but how the capacity of paper to receive
the fymbols of falfe propofitions ftiould make Mr
Locke’s comparifon improper or dangerous, we can¬
not comprehend. Mr Ufher indeed fays, that it is im¬
proper on this account, “ that no human art or in-
duftry is able to make thofe impreffions upon the mind:-
in refpeft of them, the mind difcovers not a paffive
capacity, but refifts them with the force of fate.”
Does it indeed? does the mind rejeft the idea of fugar
or of bitternefs, of contempt or of indifference ? May
not any man have the idea of fugar and at the fame
time the idea of bitternefs, and compare the one with
the other in his mind, as well as the word fugar may
be written befide the word bitter, and connected with
it on the fame piece of paper ? In all this we perceive
nothing that is impoffible or even difficult. The mind
cannot indeed be made to feel that fugar has the fame
tafte with wormwood; but who ever thought that it
could ? Not Mr Locke, we fhall be bold to fay; nor
does his fimile give the fmalleft countenance to fuch an
abfurdity. The author of the Effay on the Human
Underftanding underftood his fubjedb too well to ima¬
gine that either truth or falfehood could be communi¬
cated to paper, or that paper is capable of comparing
ideas. Paper is capable of receiving nothing but lines
or figures ; and it paffively receives whatever lines or
figures we may choofe to infcribe on it: yet if a pen
be carried over it in a circular direction, the figure im-
preffed will not be a fquare; juft as, to the mind of one
eating fugar, the tafte communicated is not that of
wormwood.
On a piece of paper a circle may be defcribed, and
clofe befide it a fquare: in like manner an agreeable
fenfation may be communicated to the mind, and im¬
mediately afterwards a fenfation that is difagreeable.
Thefe two fenfations, or the ideas which they leave
behind them, may be compared together; and it is
certainly true that no art or induftry can make them
appear fimilar in the mind: but is it not equally true,
that no art or induftry can make the circle and the
fquare fimilar on the paper ? The paper is fufceptible
of any fort of plain figures, and the mind is equally
fufceptible of any fort of ideas or fenfations; but fi¬
gures diffimilar cannot be made to coincide, neither
can difcordant ideas be made to agree. Again, one
may write upon paper, that “ a circle is a fquare,”
and likewife that “ a circle is not a fquare;” and
both thefe propofitions may be communicated to the
mind by the organs of fight or of hearing. The paper
receives the words expreffive of the falfe as well as
thofe expreffive of the true propofition ; and the mind
receives the ideas and relations fignified by the one clu¬
tter of words as well as thofe fignified by the other:
but in the mind the idea of a fquare is different from
that of a circle, and on the paper the figure of a fquare
is different from ‘One. figure of a circle. The great diffe¬
rence between the mind and the paper is, that the for¬
mer is confcious of its ideas, and perceives their agreement
or difagreement; whereas the paper is not confcious of
3 P 2 the
484 M E T A P
Origin of the figures drawn upon it, nor perceives any thing
a^out t^em- ®ut thofe figures are what they are ;
r J f* they either agree or difagree on the paper, as well as
the ideas either agree or difagree in the mind. It is
not in the power of the mind to alter the ideas of the
fquare and the circle, nor in the power of the paper to
alter the forms of thefe figures.
It appears then, that the principles of Mr Locke, and
the comparifon by which he illuftrates them, have no
more tendency to fubvert the difference betweep truth
and falfehood, right and wrong, than the paffivenefs of
paper has to fubvert the difference between a ftraight
line and a crooked, a circle and a fquare : and with a
view to eftabli/h the dodtrine of innate ideas and in-
ftin&ive principles of knowledge, we might with as
much propriety afk, Whether it be poffible to ima¬
gine that any mode of manufa&ure could make paper
of fuch a nature, as that a pen drawn over it in a cir¬
cular direction would leave the figure of a fquare? as
that, “Whether it be pofiible to imagine, that any courfe
of education could ever bring a rational creature to be¬
lieve that two and two are equal to three ?”
But all&> The mind being thus, as we may fay, originally
rived from white paper, void of all characters, without ideas or
fenfation notions of any kind, the firft queftion which we have
and reflec- tQ conf1(}er is> Whence and in what manner it derives
the materials of all its knowledge ? To this queftion the
only anfwer which can be given is, That it derives them
from obfervation and experience; from obfervation, either
employed upon external objefts of fenfe, or turned in¬
wardly upon its own operations. Our fenfes, converfant
about particular external objects, convey into the mind
feveral diftinft perceptions; fuch as thofe of colour^fi¬
gure, heat, cold, bitternefs, fiweetnefs, and all thofe things
which are ufually called fenfible qualities. The notions,
ideas, or whatever elfe they may be called, which are
acquired in this manner,, may be called ferfible know¬
ledge; and the fource of that knowledge is termed
fienfation.
The other fountain from which experience furnifhes
the underftanding with knowledge, is that attention
which we are capable of giving to the operations of
our own minds when employed about thofe ideas
which were originally fuggefted by objedts of fenfe.
Thefe operations, when the foul comes to refledt on
them, furnifh us with a fet of notions entirely different
from the ideas of fenfe; fuch as the notions of percep¬
tion, thinking, doubting, believing, reafoning, knowing, wil¬
ling, and all the different energies and paffions of our
own minds. Of thefe operations we are always confcious
when we are awake: but it requires, as fhall be ftiown
afterwards, no inconfiderable effort to fet them, as it
were, at a diftance, to refledl on thefn and confider
what they are; but when we have made this effort,
we acquire notions as diftindt, and perhaps more im¬
portant, than thofe ideas which we receive by the me¬
dium of the fenfes.
Senfation and refledtion then furniih mankind with
the firft materials of all their knowledge. The mind
feems not to have ideas or notions of any kind which
it did not receive by one of thefe ways. By means of
the fenfes it perceives external objedts; and by that
power which it has of turning its attention upon itfelf,
it difeovers the nature and manner of its own opera¬
tions.
H Y S I C S, Part Tv
Although the knowledge which we acquire from re- Origin nf
JleHion be of equal importance, and perhaps of greater
certainty than that which we receive through the me- ’c ‘ 1
dium of the fenfes, it comes into the mind at a much
later period; both becaufe it is impoflible that the fa¬
culties of the mind fliould operate without materials,
and becaufe it is much more difficult to attend to thefe
operations even while they are going on, than to the
objedts of fenfe which folicit our attention. It is for
this reafon pretty late before children have any no¬
tions whatever of the operations of their own minds;
and of the greater part of thefe operations the bulk of
mankind have no clear or accurate notions during their
whole lives. On the other hand, every human being
is fo furrounded with bodies, which perpetually and
varioufly affedl his fenfes, that a variety of fenfible ideas
force an entrance even into the minds of children. Ibs
order therefore to trace the procedure of the under¬
ftanding, and to afeertain the extent and limits of hu¬
man knowledge, it fhould feem that we muft begin with-
confidering the external fenfes, that we may difeover
the manner in which we receive knowledge by means of
them, the objedts of that knowledge, and its certainty.
It is to be obferved, however, that though we confider
the mind as poffeffed of many powers or faculties, and
inquire firft into the nature of that faculty which we
conceive to be firft exerted, this is done merely for the
fake of proceeding in our fubjedl with method and per-
fpicuity. The mind is one Ample and undivided be¬
ing ; and in every mental energy it is the whole mind,
and not any part or portion of it, that is energetic. On
this account, it is impoffible to explain even the nature
of fenfation and perception to him who knows not what
is meant by will and underfianding; but to every one
who is acquainted with the common import of thefe
words, and who has read the fhort fyftem of Logic
inferted in this Work, we hope that our theory of
perception will be intelligible and convincing.
Chap. I. 0/*Sensation uni Perception-
Sect. I. Of Senfation.
The Supreme Being, who made us and placed us Senfation
in this world, has given us fuch powers of mind as by five ©r»
he faw to be fuited to our ftate and rank in his creation. 8ans-
He has given us the power of perceiving many obje&s
around us: but that power is limited in various ways;
and particularly in this, that without the organs of the
f^veral fenfes we perceive no external object. The
fenfes, as every one knows, are five in number, and each,
communicates its proper fenfation. It is by the eyes
alone that we fee, by the ears that we hear, by the nofe
that we fmell, and by the tongue and palate that we
tafte; the fenfe of feeling or touch is fpread over the
whole body, for we feel equally by our hands and by
our feet, &c. To the powers of perception by the fenfes
it is neceffary not only that we have all the organs enu¬
merated, but that we have them alfo in a found and na¬
tural ftate. There are many diforders of the eye which
caufe total blindnefs, as well as others which impair
without dellroying the power of vifion. The fame
thing is true of the organs of all the other fenfes.
All this is fo well known from experience, that it
needs no proof; but it may be worth while to obferve*
that
Part I.
METAPHYSICS.
Of Senfa- that it 18 known from experience onlyf. For any thing
‘h”1' that we know to the contrary, our Creator might have
+ 'litMEj- tndoweJ us with the power of perception by a thoufand
fays on the organs of fenfe, all different from thofe which we
JnttlUflual poffefs ; and it is certain that he himfelf perceives
Prnuetsof £ very thing more perfectly than we do without bodily
485
experienced that particular fenfation of touch which Of Senfa*
Scaliger dignified with the name of a fixth fenfe, whe¬
ther, whilft thofe fenfations were new to him, he was
neceffarily led to conceive them as exifling at any par¬
ticular organ. If he was not, it follows undeniably
that the organs of fenfation are different from the be -
organs. For it is to be obferved, that the organs of ing which is fentient; that it is not the eye which fees,
fenfe are different from the being which is fentient.—
It is not the eye which fees, nor the ear which hears;
felve-
fentient,
but
is them- thefe are only the organs by which we fee and hear.
A man cannot fee the fatellites of Jupiter but by
means of a telefcope, dot hear a low voice but by
means of an ear-trumpet. Does be from this conclude,
that it is the telefcope which fees thofe fatellites, or
the trumpet which hears that voice ? Such a conelufion
would be evidently abfurd. It is no lefs abfurd to
conclude that it is the eye which fees, or the ear which
hears. The telefcope and the trumpet are artificial
organs of fight and of hearing, of which the eye and
the ear are natural organs ; but the natural organs fee
and hear as little as the artificial.
Inftruments r^iat this is the cafe with refpedl to the eye and the
of fenfation.ear, is 1° obvious, riiat, as far as we know, it has never
been denied, Buti&ith refpedl to the fenfes of touch,
tafte, and fmell, the truth at fir ft. view appears not fo
* E!emenU evident. A celebrated writer has obferved *, that “ af-
eftnticifm. ter ^ utmofl. effort We find it beyond our power to
conceive the flavour of a rofe to exift: in the mind : we
are neceffarily led to conceive that pleafure as exifting
in the noftrils, along with the imprelfion made by the
rofe upon that organ (c) ; and the fame will be the re-
fult of experiments with refpeft to every feeling of
tafte, touch, and fmell. Touch (he fays), affords the
moft fatisfadfory evidence, and philofophy dete&s the
delufion.” To deleft this delufion requires, indeed,
no great depth in philofophy ; for it is To far from be¬
ing true that we are neceffarily led otherwife than by
the ear which hears, the noilrils which fmell, the
tongue which taftes, nor any part of the body which
feels; and that it is by experience that we learn to af-
fociate our feveral fenfations with thofe organs upon
which the impreffions are made.
It is, however, certain that we receive no fenfation
from external objefts, unlefs when fome impr^fiion is
made upon the organ of fenfe, either by the immedi¬
ate application of the object itfelf, or byrietne medium
which paffes between the objeft and the organ f. Inf Reid's Efr'
two of our fenfes, viz. touch and tajle, there mull on the
an immediate application of the objeft to the organ,
In the other three the fenfation is occafioned by the im- M,n> aiid
preffion of fome medium palling from the objeft to the Hartley's
organ. The effluvia of bodies drawn into the noftrils
with the breath are the medium of fmell; the undulations0"
of the air are the medium of hearing ; and the rays of
light paffing from vifible objefts to the eye are the me¬
dium of fight. Thefe are fafts known from experience g
to hold univerfally both in men and in brutes. It is-j^g
likewife a law of our nature perfeftly known to all a id nerves
who know any thing of anatomy, that in order to ac-nec'ffary tes
tual fenfation the imprefiions made upon the external1®11^1*011*'
organs muft be communicated to the nerves, and from
them to the brain. Firft, the objeft, either immedi¬
ately, or by fome medium, makes an impreffion upon
the organ ; the organ ferves only as a medium, by
which the impreffion is communicated to the nerves ;
and the nerves ferve as a medium to carry it on to the
brain. Here the corporeal part ends; at leaf! we can
n Man.
affociation, of which the laws fhall be explained af- trace it no farther. The reft is all ihtelleftual.
terwards, to conceive the pleafure or pain of touch as
exifting at that part of our body upon which the im¬
preffion is made, that, as every man muft have obfer¬
ved, children previous to experience cannot diftinguifh
the precife place of their bodies which is affefted by
the touch of any external objeft. Nay, we believe it
will be found upon trial, that if a full grown man, with
all the experience of age to guide him, be pricked
with a pin on any part of his body which he has fel-
dom handled, and never feen, he will not readily nor
at firfl put his finger upon the wound, nor even come
very near to the wound. This, however, he would
certainly*and infallibly do were the fenfe of touch ne¬
ceffarily conceived as exifting at the organ. To thefe
obfervations objeftions may perhaps be made, which
we cannot ftay to obviate ; but the following, we think,
will admit of none. We appeal to every man who has
The proof of thefe impreffions upon the nerves and
brain in fenfation is this, that from many obferv^tions
and experiments it is found, that when the organ of
any fenfe is perfeftly found, and has the impreffion
made upon it by the objedl ever fo ftrongly, yet if the
nerve which ferves that organ be cut or tied hard,
there is no fenfation ; and it is well known that difor-
ders in the brain deprive us of fenfation, while both
the organ and its nerve are found.
There is fufficient reafon, therefore, to conclude, proc^
fenfation the objeft produces fome change in nauu
that ii
the organ ; that from the organ the change proceeds fenfation
to the nerve, and from the nerve to the brain. Hence
it is that we have pofitive fenfations from negative ob¬
jefts, or mere non-entities, fuch as darknefs, blacknefs,
and vacuity. For, fenfation refulting from changes in
the brain, whatever produces any change muft .of
6 courfe
(c) Another eminent writer thinks on this fabjeft very differently, and in our opinion much more juftly.  
“ Suppofe (fays Dr Reid) a perfon who never had this fenfe {viz. fmell) before, to receive it all at once, and
to fmell a rofe ; can he perceive any fimilitude or agreement between the fmell and the rofe ? or indeed between
it and any other pbjeft whatever ? Certainly he cannot. He finds himfelf affefted in a new way, he knows
not why, or from what caufe. He is confcious that he is not the caufe of it himfelf; but he cannot from the
nature of the thing determine whether it be caufed by body or fpirit; by fomething near, or by fomethino- at
a diftance. He cannot give it a place any more than he can give a place to melancholy or joy ; nor can he con=
-ceive it to have any exiftence but when it is fmelled.” Inquiry into the Human Mind, ch. 2. fed. 2,
486 M E T A P
Of Senfa- courfc occafion a new fenfation : but it is obvious,
tiun' that the mere abfence of any impreffion, by the re-
moval of the objedl which produced it, muft as' necef-
fatily caufe a change in the organ, nerves, and brain,
as the prefence of a new impreffioVfrom a new objeft.
To thefe changes, or that which immediately produces
them, we give the name of imprejjions ; becaufe we
know not how, in a general manner, to exprefs more
properly any change produced by an external caufe,
without fpecifying the nature of that caufe. Whe¬
ther it be preflure, or attra&ion, or repulfion, or vi¬
bration, or fomething unknown, for which we have
no name, ftill it may be called an impreffion.
Sir Ifaac Newton was perhaps the firft who fuppo-
fed that the rays of light falling upon the bottom of
the eye excite vibrations in the tunica retina ; and that
thofe vibrations being propagated along the folid fibres
of the optic nerves into the brain, caufe the adtual
fenfation of feeing. This hypothefis was adopted by
Dr Hartley, applied to the other fenfes, and fhown to
be ait leaft as probable as any which has yet been in¬
vented to account for the perception of external ob-
jefts by means of the organs of fenfe. Be this as it
may, experience informs us, that whatever be the na¬
ture of thofe impreffions and changes which are made
by external objects upon the fenfes, nerves, and brain,
we have without them no adlual fenfation, and of
courfe perceive nothing ab extra. Hence it has been
. fuppofed, that the mind is wholly paffive in fenfation,
the^nind°nan<^ t^lat 's necejfarily produced by thofe im-
is partly preffions. But this we believe to be a miftake. Every
adtivc. man who has been attentive to his own thoughts and
aftions, muft know inftances of impreffions having
been certainly made upon his organs of fenfe without
producing any fenfation, or fuggefting to his mind the
perception of the particular objects by which the im-
preffions were caufed. He whofe mind is intenfely em¬
ployed in any particular purfuit, may have his eyes
open upon an objeft which he does not fee ; or he may
not hear the found of a clock firiking within two
yards of him: Nay, we will venture to affirm, that
there is hardly one reader of this article to whom fuch
abfences of fenfation have not often occurred. Now,
as there is no reafon to fuppofe, that in the one cafe
the undulations of the air, caufed by the ftriking of
the clock, did not reach his ears, or that in the other
the rays of light, refledted from the objeft, did not
fall upon his eyes, which were open to receive them;
the only reafon which can be affigned for his not having,
in thefe inftances, had audible and vifible fenfations,
is, that his mind was fo engaged in fomething elfe as
not to pay to the vibrations in his brain that attention,
if we may fo fay, without which impreffions ab extra can
produce no fenfation. There are, indeed, fome impref¬
fions on the organs of fenfe fo violent and fo fudden, as
to force themfelves upon the mind however employed.
Such are thofe made on the ear by thunder, and on
the eye by ftrong light. In thefe cafes, fenfation is
involuntary and unavoidable ; whence wfe conclude,
not that in fuch inftances the mind is paffive or defti-
tute of energy, but that by the violent agitation
given to the brain, it is roufed from its reverie, and
compelled to give attention. It appears, therefore,
that in fenfation the mind exerts fome kind of energy;
for in nothing but in the fentient being itfelf can we
H Y S I C S. Part I.
feek for the caufe why, when all external circumftan- Of Percep-
ces are the fame, organical impreffions fometimes pro- tion-
duce fenfations and fometimes not; and that caufe can > J
only be the energy of the mind : what kind of energy,
we pretend not to fay.
Sect. II. Of Perception by the Senfet.
How the correfpondence is carried on between the Difficult to
thinking principle within us and the material world account for
without us, has always, as Dr Reid obferves, been th.: percep-.
found a very difficult problem to thofe philofophers t °n
who confider themfelves as obliged to account for0 ieu‘s*
every phenomenon in nature. It is, indeed, a pro¬
blem of which we expedf not to fee a complete folu-
tion. A few fteps beyond the vulgar we may certainly
go; but the nature of that connexion by which the
mind and body are united, will probably remain for
ever unknown. One queftion, however, which has
employed much of the attention of philofophers, both
ancient and modern appears to be not wholly unan-
fwerable. It is, Whether by means of our fenfes we
perceive external objefts mediately or immediately ; or
in other words, Whether fenfation and perception be
one and the fame thing, or two things fucceeding
each other? On this fubjedt, till of late there appears
to have been in the main a great uniformity in the fen-
timents of philofophers, notwithftanding their varia¬
tions refpefting particular points. Of fome of the
moft eminent of them, we ffiall give the opinions as
we find them collected by one * who is well acquaint- * DrRtiJ in
ed with their writings, who is thoroughly qualified to hls Effays Q*
eftimate their refpe&ive merits, and who cannot be
fufpedted of partiality to that theory, which we feel ^ Martt
ourfelves compelled to adopt.
“ Plato illuftrates our manner of perceiving exter- The
nal objects thus : He fuppofes a dark fubterraneous theft- of
cave, in which men lie bound in fuch a manner as that Plato ;
they can diredt their eyes only to one part of the cave.
Far behind there is a light, of which fome rays come
over a wall to that part of the cave which is before the
eyes of our prifoners. A number of men varioufly em¬
ployed pafs between them and the light, whofe ffiadows
are feen by the prifoners, but not their perfonsthemfelves.
In this manner did that philofopher conceive, that
by our fenfes we perceive not things themfelves, but
only the lhadows of things ; -and he feems to have bor¬
rowed his notions on this fubjedt from the difciples of
Pythagoras.
“ If we make due allowance for Plato’s allegorical A*:^
genius, his fentiments with refpedl to fenfation and ftotje.
perception correfpond very well with thofe of the Pe¬
ripatetics. Ariftotle, the founder of that fchool, feems
to have thought, that the foul confifts of two or three
parts, or rather that we have three fouls—the vegetable,
the animal, and the rational. The animal foul he held
to be a certain form of the body, which is infeparable
from it, and perifties at death. To this foul the fenfes
belong: and he defines a.fenfe to be that which is ca¬
pable of receiving the fenfible forms, or fpecies of ob¬
jects, without any of the matter of them ; as wax re¬
ceives the form of the feal without any of its matter.
Of this dodtrine it feems to be a neceffary confequence,
that bodies are conftantly fending forth,in all diredtions,
as many different kinds of forms without matter as they
have different fenfibie qualities. This was according-
Parti. M E T A P
Of Percep- Jy maintained by the followers of Ariflotk, though not,
, Ilon’ as far as we know, taught by himfelf. They difpu-
v ted concerning the nature of thefe forms or fpecies,
whether they were real beings or nonentities: but of
matter and form we fliall have occalion to fpeak after¬
wards.
Of Det “ After Ariftotle had kept poffeflion of the fchools
Cartes; for more than a thoufand years, his authority, which
had often fupplied the place of argument, was cal¬
led in queftion by Lord Bacon and others. Des Car¬
tes, however, was the firft philofopher who, convin¬
ced of the defe&s of the prevailing fyllem, attempted
to form another entirely new : but on the nature of
perception by means of the fenfes he differs little.or
nothing from thofe who had preceded him in that de¬
partment of fcience. He denies, indeed, and refutes
by folid reafoning, the dodtrine which maintains that
images, fpecies, or forms of external objects, come from
the objedts themfelves, and enter into the mind by the
avenues of the fenfes. But he takes it for granted, as
all the old philofophers had done, that what we im¬
mediately perceive mull be either in the mind itfelf,
or in the brain, to which the mind is immediately pre-
fent. The impreffions made upon our organs, nerves,
and brain, can be nothing, according to his philofo-
phy, but various modifications of extenfion, figure,
and motion. There can be nothing'in the brain like
found or colour, tajle or ftnell, hedt or cold. Thefe are
fenfations in the mind, which, by the laws of the
union of the foul and body, are raifed on occafion
of certain traces in the brain ; and although he fome-
times gives the name of ideas to thefe traces, he does
not think it neceffary that they fhould be perfedfly like
the things which they reprefent, any more than that
words and figns fhould referable the things which they
fignify.
“ According to this fyftem it would appear, that
we perceive not external objefts direfily by means of
our fenfes ; but that thefe objedts, operating either me¬
diately or immediately upon the organs of fenfe, and
they again upon our nerves and brain, excite in the
mind certain fenfations; whence we infer the exiftence
of external objedts from our fenfations of which they
are the caufe. Perception of external objedts, there¬
fore, according to Des Cartes, is not one fimple ori¬
ginal adt of the mind, but may be refolved into a pro-
cefs of reafoning from effedls to caufes.”
Of Male- Thedodtrines of Malebranche, Locke, and Hartley,
tranche ; refpedting perception, differ not effentially from that
of Des Cartes. Malebranche, indeed, fuppofes, that
external objedts are not themfelves the caufes of per¬
ception; but that the, Deity, being always prefent to
our minds more intimately than any other being, does,
upon occafion of the impreffions made upon our or¬
gans of fenfe, difcover to us, as far as he thinks pro¬
per, and according to fixed laws, his own ideas of the
©bjedl : and thus, according to him, we fee all things
in God, or in the divine ideas. He agrees, however,,
with Des Cartes and the ancient philofophers, in con-
fidering it as a truth which it is impoffible to que¬
ftion, that we perceive not the objedfs without us, the
fun, moon, and ftars, &c. becaufe it is not likely that
the foul fallies out of the body, and takes a walk, as it
were, through the heavens to contemplate thefe ob-
jedts. She fees them not therefore by themfelves;
H Y S I C S, 487
and the immediate objedi of the mind, when it fees Of Percep-
the fun, is not the fun itfelf,. but fomething which is ,0“-
intimately united to the mind, and is that which he
calls an idea. ^
Locke fpeaking of the reality of our knowledge, Of Locke,
fays : “ It is evident the mind knows not tilings imme¬
diately, but only by the intervention of the ideas it has
of them. Our knowledge, therefore, according to
him, is real only fo far as there is a conformity be¬
tween our ideas and the things which they reprefent.”
The manner of our perceiving external objedls he il-
luftrates by the following-fimiritude : “ Methinks the
underftanding is not much unlike a clofet wholly ffiut
from light, with only f me little opening left, to let
in external vifible refemblances or ideas of thins-s with¬
out. Would the pidtures coming into fuch a dark
room but ftay there, and lie fo orderly as to be
found upon occafion, it would very much refemblethe
underftanding of a man in reference to all objedls of
fight, and the ideas of them He has elfewhere f * EPyen
defined an idea thus : “ Whatfoever the mind perceives
in itfelf, or is the immediate objedl of perception,brokT
thought, or underftanding, that 1 call an idea; and^hap. 11.
the power to produce any idea in our mind, I calltBookii-
quality of the fubjedt wherein the power is.” He like- chap‘8*
wife, thinks it “ eafy to draw this obfervation, that
the ideas of what he calls primary qualities of bodies,
viz. extenfion, folidity, figure, and mobility, &c. are re¬
femblances of thefe qualities as they really exift in the
body themfelves.”
This unguarded expreffion, which affirms that ideas
in the mind are the refemblances of external things, has -
brought upon Mr Locke much undeferved ridicule.
That on this and other occafions he ufes the word idea
with too great latitude, and that he often confounds
ideas with fenfations, and even with the caufes of fen-
fation, mull be admitted by his warmeft admirers : but
we believe, that by an attentive reader, who perufes
his whole work, and compares fuch paffages as are ob-
fcure with thofe which are clearer, his meaning may
always be difcovered,.and with refpedl to fenfation and
perception will generally be found juft. That by call¬
ing the ideas of primary qualities refemblances of the
qualities themfelves, he meant nothing more than that
bodies in all poffible ftates imprefs the fenfes, nerves,
sind brain, in fuch a manner as to produce in the mind
certain fenfations : between which and thofe impref¬
fions there is an infeparable, though unknown, connec¬
tion, is evident from the account which he gives of the
manner of perception. “ Our fenfes (fays he), corr-
veifant about particular fenfible objedls, do con¬
vey into the mind feveraldiftinft perceptions of things,
according to thofe various ways in which thefe ob¬
jedls affedl them: and thus we come by thofe ideas
we have of yellow, white, heat,, cold, foft, hard, bitter,
fweet, and all thofe which we call fenfible qualities ;
which when I fay the fenfes convey into the mind,
I mean, they from external objedls convey into the
mind what produces thofe perceptions.” And as bo¬
dies can adl only by impulfe, he adds, that “ thofe per¬
ceptions can be produced only by an impreffion made
upon the fenfes, and fome motion thence continued by
our nerves to the brain or feat of perception.”
Dr Hartley was the pupil of Locke and Newton ; ofH2Jtw.
and has, in a more fatisfadlory manner than all who
had.
488 M E T A P I
Of Percep- l^d preceded or have fmce followed lum, explained
. t‘on, the material part of the ptocefs of perception. His
' " principles we fliall have occafion, during the courfe
of the article, to develope pretty fully. For our pre-
fent purpofe it is fufficient to fay, that all his obfer-
vations and arguments evidently fuppofe, that nothing
diftant from the mind can be perceived in the imme¬
diate aft of fenfation ; but that the apparently imme¬
diate .perception of external objefts is an inftance of
early and deep-rooted aflbeiation.
i?' In this fentiment Mr Hume agrees with his prede-
Of Hume. cefpors . but he obfeures his philofophy, and miileads
his reader, by confounding fenfations with the impref-
fions from which they proceed. “ Every one (fays
* Inquiry he *) will allow, that there is a confiderable difference
concerning^ between the perceptions of the mind, when a man
derflanding, ^ee^s the pain of exceffive heat, or thepleafure of mo-
fed. ii. derate warmth, and when he afterwards recals to his me¬
mory; this fenfation or anticipates it by his imagination.”
The lefs forcible and lively of thefe perceptions he
with great propriety calls ideas ; but it is either through
wilful perverfenefs, or confufion of intelleft, that he
chcofes to call the others imprtjjions. Senfation and
perception are caufed by imprejfions} but they are
no more impreffions themfelves, than the pain oc-
cafioned by the ftroke of a bludgeon is the ftroke
itfelf, or the bludgeon with which it was ftruck. But
more of this afterwards.
Agreement Thus far, then, that we perceive not external ob-
ot jihiiofo- jefts direSly, but infer their exiftence from certain
P^ers’ “nd fenfations excited in our minds by the operation of
©fit?4 °n thefe objefts upon our fenfes, nerves, and brain, feems
^ ^ to have been the opinion of every philofopher from
Jlehn'i edt Pythagoras f to Mr Hume. For an opinion fo uni-
tionof Cud- verfal, and at the fame time fo contrary to the perfua-
n'orth's In bon of the multitude, fonft cogent reafon muft have
telUihui^ .S_>"been afhgned. That reafon has been given by many
theoriniomPhilofophers, but by none with greater perfpicuity
of the phi- than the late Dr Porterfield in his eifay concerning the
lofctphers of motion of the eyes. “ How body afts upon mind,
ai.uquity or mind upon body (fays he), I know not; but this
faithfidly ^ am very certain °f> that nothing can aft, or be afted
coik&ed upon, where it is not: and therefore, our mind can
than in am never perceive any thing but its own proper modifica-
wltlT Wh ch tl'0nS’ an<^ th£ vari°us dates of the fenforium to which
we arTac- ** *s Prefent- So that it is not the external fun and
guainted. moon, which are in the heavens, that our mind per¬
ceives, but only their image or reprefentation impref-
N° 213.
I Y S I C S, PartT,
fed on the fenforium. How the foul of a feeing man Of Percep.
fees thofe images, or how it receives thofe ideas from tian’ ,
fuch agitations in the fenforium, 1 know not; but
I am fure it can never perceive the external bodies
themfelves to which it is not prefent.”
This rdafoning appears to have force ; and, per.
haps, the unanimous agreement of thinking men in all
ages has ftill greater force : yet the doftrinc which
prevailed fo long, and which to Locke appeared fo
evident as to need no proof, has been lately called in
queftion by fome eminent philofophers of our own
country ; who, though they allow that we cannot per¬
ceive external objefts but by means of the fenfes, yet
affirm that they are the objefts themfelves which we
perceive direftly ; and that in perception there is no
affociation which can be refolved into a procefs of rea-
foning from fenfations the effefts, to external objeft*
the caufes. Dr Reid, who was perhaps the firft, and
is unqueftionably the ableft of this clafs of philofophers,
has expreffed himfelf on the fubjeft as follows.
“ If we attend to the act of our mind which we
call the perception of an external objeft of fenfe, we
ffiall find in it thefe three things: jirjl. Some concep¬
tion or notion of the objeft perceived. Secondly, A
ftrong and irrefiftible conviftion and belief of its pre¬
fent exiftence. And, thirdly. That this conviftion
and belief are immediate, and not the effeft of reafon-
ing .To the firft and fecond of thefe propofitions, f EJuys««
we are perfuaded that Des Cartes and Locke would
readily have aflented ; nor do we imagine that they^^g^
would have denied the third, had the author allowed fayii. ^.5.
that this ftrong and irrefiftible conviftion is the con-
fequence of an early and deep-rooted afl'oeiation re-
folvable into a procefs of reafoning. This, however,
the learned profeffor does not allow; for he repeated¬
ly affirms, that it is inftinftive and original, and that
“ the conftitution of our power of perception deter¬
mines us to hold the exiftence of what we diftinftly
.perceive as a firft principle, from which other truths
may be deduced, but it is deduced from none.”
With this view of the matter, he could with no pro¬
priety attempt to fupport his own opinion by argu¬
ment ; but to the reafonings of Dr Porterfield and
others in defence of the Cartefian theory, he replies
in the following words: “ That nothing can aft im¬
mediately where it is not, I think muft; be admit¬
ted (d) ; for I agree with Sir Ifaac Newton, that
power without fubftance is inconceivable. It is a
confe-
(d) One of the moft celebrated of Dr Reid’s followers thinks otherwife. “ That no diftant fubjeft can aft
upon the mind, is a propofition (fays Lord Karnes) which undoubtedly requires evidence ; for it is not inftinc-
tively certain : And, therefore, till the propofition be demonftrated, every man may without fcruple rely upon
the conviftion of his fenfes, that he hears and fees things at a diftance.” But his Lordfhip ought to have
known, that Locke and Berkeley, the two philofophers whom he was combating, have no where called in
queftion the conviftion of their fenfes. They do not, indeed, admit, that the external organs are themfelves
percipient, or that by means of them the mind can immediately perceive diftant objefts; but they have no
where denied, that through the medium of them the mind comes to the knowledge of external exiftence. And
the reafons which they affign for this twofold opinion are, that in perception they experience aftion or the
effefts of aftion, which is not their own ; and that it is an intuitive truth, that nothing can aft where it is
-not prefent. “ But admitting (fays his Loidftiip) that no being can aft but where it is, is there any thing
more fimple or more common, than the afting upon fubjefts at a diftance by intermediate means ? This holds
in faft with refpeft both to feeing and hearing.” It certainly does, and with refpeft to the other fenfes like-
wife ; but it is the very thing for which Locke and Berkeley would have contended, had any man in their
days prefumed to call it in queftion. It is the very foundation of their fyftem ; and if.it he granted, nothing
•'Can be more evident than that external exiftence is not the immediate objeft of perception. See appendix to
.Elements of Criticifnu
Part T.
Of Percep-
| EJfays on
the intellec¬
tual Poteen
tfMan,
Effay li.
thap. 14.
unfuccefs-
fuily; and
M E T A P
copfequence of this, that nothing can be ailed upon
immediately where the agent is not prefent: let this,
therefore, be granted. To make the reafoning con-
clufive, it is farther necefiary> that when we perceive
obje&s, either they ail upon us, or we ail upon them.
This does not appear felf-evident, nor have I ever met
with any proof of it
Of the profundity of Dr Reid’s underilanding, we
have the moft firm conviilion ; nor is there any meta-
phyfician, ancient or modern, from whom we differ
with greater reluitance : but we cannot help thinking
this a very rafh affertion, as his own works appear
to us to afford complete proof, that, in perception,
the mind both ails and is ailed upon. Let us attend
however to the reafons which, on this occafion, in¬
duce him to think that in perception there is no ac¬
tion either of the objeil on the mind or of the mind
on the objeil.
“ When we fay, that one being ails upon another,
we mean, that fome power or force is exerted by the
agent, which produces, or has a tendency to produce,
a change in the thing ailed upon. If this be the
meaning of the phrafe, as I conceive it is, there ap¬
pears no reafon for afferting, that in perception, ei¬
ther the objeil ails upon the mind or the mind upon
the objedl. An objeil, in being perceived, does not
ait at all. I perceive the walls of the room where
I fit; but they are perfeilly inailive, and therefore
ail not upon the mind. To be perceived, is what lo¬
gicians call an external denomination, which implies
neither aition nor quality in the objeil percei¬
ved.”
This laft fenttnee we pretend not to underfland.
Subftance without qualities is to us inconceivable, and
certainly is no objeil of perception ; for Dr Reid
himfelf has told us, and told us truly, that “ the ob-
j'eils of perception are the various qualities of bodies.”
That an objeil in being perceived does not ail at all,
is direilly contrary to what the ingenious author has
taught us, both in his Inquiry and in his EJfays, viz.
that “ it is a law of our nature that we perceive not
external objeils, unlefs certain impreffions be made by
the objeil upon the organ, and by means of the or¬
gan upon the nerves and brain for if the external
objeil in being perceived make imprefiions, it is cer¬
tainly not true that it ails not at all. It is indeed
teadily acknowledged, that when one perceives the
walls of the room where he fits, thefe walls do not
ail immediately upon the organs of fight; but it does
Cot, therefore, follow, that they are perfeilly inac¬
tive : for it is known to all mankind, that from every
point of the wall which is feen, rays of light are re-
fieiled to the eye ; that thofe rays make upon the re¬
tina tunica an impreffien, which is conveyed by the
optic nerve to the brain ; and that this impreffion on
the brain is one of the immediate caufes of vjfiQn.
In what particular manner it caufes vifion, we Ihall ne¬
ver be able to difeover, till we know more of the laws
which unite mind and body, and by which one of
thefe is qualified to aft upon the other ; but becaufe
we know not the manner of this operation, t6 affirm
that there is no operation at all, feems to be as abfurd
as it would be to affirm, becaufe we perceive no necef-
fary conneftion between a ftroke and the fenfation of
found, that the found of a mufical firing is not cau*
Vox.. XI. Fart II.
H Y S I C S, 489
fed by the ftroke of a pleftrum, That God might Of Percep- ’
have given us powers of perception of a different kind tlon' ,
from thofe which we poffefs, there can be no doubt * '■“—v——'
but with what we might have been, we have no con¬
cern. As we are, we know perfeftly that the eye is
an inftrument of villon, becaufe without it nothing can
be feen : we know alfo, that the retina and optic
nerves are equally neceffary; becaufe if they be difor-
dered, vifion is ftill wanting : we know likewife, that
the brain is neceffary to all perception ; becaufe, when
it is difordered, thinking either entirely ceafes or is
proportionably difturbed. And, laftly, we are not
more certain of our own exiftence, than, that aflual
perception takes not place but when the objeft makes
an impreffion upon fome organ of fenfe : for when'
no rays of light fall upon the eye, we fee nothing;
when no fapid body is applied to the tongue and pa¬
late, we tafte nothing; and if we could be removed
from every thing folid, we would feel nothing. Thefe
are concluiions which cannot be controverted. They
are admitted equally by the philofopher and by the
plain unlettered man of common fenfe ; nor are they
rendered one whit lefs certain by our not being able
to go a ftep farther, fo as to difeover in what manner
the brain or the affeftions of it can be the immediate
inftrument of fenfation and perception. For (as Dr
Reid, in the fpirit of true philofophy, obferves J), “ in j: Inquiry
the operations of mind, as well as in thofe of bodies, !nt°the H,i'
we muft often be fatisfied with knowing that certain
things are connefted and invariably follow one ano-p. jjg! ‘
ther, without being able to difeover the chain that1
goes between them. It is to fuch conneftions that
we give the name of laws of nature : and when we fay
that one thing produces another by a law of nature,
this fignifies no more, but that one thing which we
call in popular language the caufe, is conftantly and
invariably followed by another which we call the ef-
Je8; and that we know not how they are connec¬
ted.”
In the preceding feftion we have obferved, that in
fenfation the mind exerts fome energy; and therefore,
as on every hypothefis perception is a cohfequence of
fenfation, it follows, that in perception the mind
cannot be wholly inaftive. Dr Reid, in his Effays on
the Intelleftual Powers of Man, feems to affirm that it
is. “ I fee no reafon (fays he) to believe, that in per¬
ception the mind afts upon the objeft. To perceive
an objeft is one thing, to aft upon it is another: Nor
is the laft at all included in the firft. To fay that I
aft upon the wall, by looking at it, is an abufe of lan¬
guage, and has no meaning.” This is indeed true i
it would be a great abufe of language to fay, that by
looking at the wall a man afts upon it; but we do not
believe that any man ever faid or fuppofed fuch a
thing. The philofophers whofe opinion he is com¬
bating, might argue in this manner. We are confci-
ous that in perception the mind is aftive} nothing can
aft immediately where it is not; the mind cannot aft
immediately upon external exiitence: external exift-
ence, therefore, is not the. immediate objeft of that
energy which is exerted in perception. As Dr Reid
affirms that external exiftence is the immediate objeft
of perception, he muft deny the firft propofition in
this argument; for if it be granted, as we have juft
feen that in his reply to Dr Porterfield he admits the
3 fecond*
33
Therefore
the old the¬
ory of p
§ Hartley's
Ohfer’uatlon
9M Man.
M E T A P
fecond, the lav^S of rer.for.ing will compel him to ad¬
mit the third. To fay, that in perception the mind
a£ls no£ upon external objeds, is a trpth jn ^yhich aU
mankind are agreed ; and it js the very principle from
vyhich his antag'Onilts infer, th^t the convidipn ofAe
prefept exiftence of external qbjeds is not ap original
and inftindiye confequence of fpnfafion, but an eqrly
and deep-rooted affociation which may be refplyed
into a procefs of rfafoping. Hi? meaning, therefpre,
muft be, that in perception the ryopd q&f at all:
hut this is ditpdly contrary to his definition of per¬
ception, which he calls an act of the mind ; it is like-
wife contrary to. his theory of perception, as it is de¬
tailed in the Inquiry, into the Human Mind on the prin¬
ciples of Common Serfe. We aye there taught, with equal
elegance and perfpicuity, V that an imprelfion made by
qn external objed upon the organ, nerves, and brain,
is followed by q fenjation^ and -that tips fenfation is
followed by the perception of the qbjed.” We are
likewife taught, that “ although the Petap3^1'03 had
no good reafon to fuppofe ap pdiye and paffive intel-
led, they yet came nearer t}ie U'uth, in holding the
mind to be, in fenfation, partly paHyve and partly ac¬
tive, than the moderns in affirming it to be purely paf¬
five. Senfation, imagination, memory, and judgment,
have by thy vulgar, in pH ages, been confidered a» ads
of the mind. The manner in which they arp expref-
fed in all languages fliovys this: for when the rmpd is.
ynuch employed ip them, we fay, it is very adive ;
•yyhei eas, if they were impreffions only, wp ought to fay
that the mind is very paffive.” All this js undeni¬
able ; but if fenfatisn neceffaiply precede perception,
and if ip fepfation the mind be adive, what becomes
of the afiertion, that in perception it ads not at all l
indeed we may appeal to the commop fenfe, of man-
Jund, whether any thing can be perceived without
fome mental energy of the percipient. For when the
imprelfions made on the external fenfes are faint, in
order to be confcious of them an evident exertion is
yequifite, not of the organ only, but alfo of the mind,
as in perceiving very remote objeds and founds ; but
•yvhen the impreffions are ftronger, the perception ip
involuntary and unavoidable, as has been already ex¬
plained in the preceding fedion.
It being thus certain that in perception the mind
both ads and is aded upon, and it being univevfally
acknowledged that nothing can ad where it is not,
\ve feel ourfelyes compelled to admit with the Carte-
fians, that in. perception the convidion of the prefent
exiftence of external objeds is not original and inftinc-
tive, but the confequence of an early and unavoidable
affociatioo of certain fenfations vyith the caufes which
produce them. In this opinion we are ftill more con¬
firmed by the well-known fad, that particular pref-
fures upon the organ, nerves, and brain, excite not
only fenfations, but even perceptions of objeds appa¬
rently external, when no fuch objeds are within the
reach pf our fenfes. Thus §, if a man in the dark
prefs either corner of his eye with his finger, he will
fee a circle of colours like thofe in the feather of a
peacock’s tail, though no fuch external objed be be¬
fore him, and though the room be fo dark that no¬
thing external could ppffibly be feen. Again, if a
fuming coal be nimbly moved round in a circle, with
gyrations continually repeated, the whole circumfe-
seace of the circle will at once appear on fire, though
H Y S I C S. Parti,
it is certm'n that there cap be really on five but one Of I’prcep.
portion of that circumference, equal in length fo the
diametep pf the coal. Thefp are fads known to all v
mankind ; and they are perfedfly irvecpucileable with
the fupppfition, that the perception pf external objpd%
by the fenfe pf fight is original and inftindiye 5 but
they are at once accounted for, if it be true that rays
of light falling from external pbjeds upon tke retina
tunica agitate the optic nerves aqd b^m, and that fuch
agitations excite fenfations in the mind which experi¬
ence has taughtus to refer £0 external pbjeds, as, under
God, their ultimate caufe.
But though wp have declared ourfelves to be in this
inftance Cartefians, we do not admit all the abfurdi-
ties which have fqmetimes been imputed to that fy-
ftem of perception. We do not believe that external
objeds are perceived by means of images of them in
the mind or the brain ; nor do we think that Des
Cartes or Locke has any where affirmed tfiat they are.
Other wife than by an exprefilon obvioufiy figurative,
denoting, not that the adual jhapes pf things are de¬
lineated in the brain or upon the mind, but oply that
impreffions of fome kind or other are convey ed to the
brain by means pf the organs of fenfe and their cor-
refponding nerves; and that between thofe impreffipns
and the fenfations excited in the mind, there is a real,
and ip our prefent fiate a neceflaiy, though unknown,
cqnpedion.
Upon the \vhp!e, we think that there is good evi-That theo-
dence for believing, that in perception the procefs ofry fairly
nature is as follows : Fitfl, If the objed he not in con- ^ateci' al1^'
tad with the organ of fenfe, there muft be fome me¬
dium vyhiefi pafies between them 5 33, vifion, the rays
of light; in hearing, the vibrations of elaftic air ; and
in fmelling, the effluvia of the body fmelled; othervyifc
\ve have neither fenfation nor perception. Secondly.
There muft be fome adion or impreffiop upon tire or-,
gan pf fenfe, either by the immediate application Ox
the objed, as in the two fenfes of touch and tafte ; or
by the medium that goes between them, as in the
Other three fenfes. Thirdly, The nerves which go.
from the brain to fhe organ, muft receive fpme im-
preffion by means of that which was made upon the
organ ; and by means of thefe nerves that impreffioa,
rauft he carried to the brain. Fourthly, The impref-
fion made upon the pygap, nerves, -and, brain, roufes
the dormant energy of the mind ; and 'this double ac¬
tion of the mind and the objed produces a fenfation*
And, lajliy. As we know by experience that the mind
alone cannot by any exertion of its own produce one
fenfation, and are intuitively certain that nothing
can begin fo exift without a caufe, vve infer from
the exiftence of any new fenfation the exiftence of
fpme qther cauffl than the internal energy of the mind,
from which that fenfation proceeds ; and this caufe
experience teaches, us to be the external objed. This
procefs is carried on fo rapidly, and the feveral parts of
it, by being continually repeated, are fo clofely sffoci-
ated, that except by a reflex ad pf the mind we dir
ftinguiih them not from ope another, and therefore we 35'
denominate the whole perception. - differ l'«ie
It is with extreme diffidence that we advance a doc-.f^ **
trine which Dr Reid has controverted.; but he differs Reid’s,
from us only in the laft ftage (j of the procefs, where. § See /«-
fie fuppofes fenfation and perception to be two fitnplqS^O^"^
and independent ads of the mind. Yet he fpmetimes
expreffes edu. iv38^
* EJays c,
the Tntellec
t.ual Power
oj Man.
nes afford
iiituitive
that fome-
thing cxifts
befides the
perception
and the fen-
Sx,
M E f A t>
■ expteffes himfdf, ss if he tkought as we do, that iff
perception the belief of the prefent evidence of exter¬
nal objedfs is rather the refult of experience than an
iHlUhftive perfualion. Thus, fpeaking of the percep¬
tion which we have in fmdling a rofe, he fays §,
** Perception has always an external obje$, and the
objedt of my perception in this cafe is that quality in
the rofe which I difeern by the fenfe of fmell. Obfer-
ving that the agreeable fenfation is raifed when the
rofe is near, and ceafes when it is removed, lam led
by my nature [We think by experience Would have been
more properJ to conclude fome quality to be in the
rofe, which is the caufe of this fenfation. This
quality in the rofe is the objedt perceived; and that adl
of my mind, by which I have the convidtioff and be¬
lief of this quality, is What in this cafe I call percep¬
tion.Again (he fays) that “ three of our fenfes,
viz. fmell, tafte, and hearing, originally give us only
certain ferifations, and a convidtion that thefe fenfa-
tions are occafioned by fome external objedt. We
give a name to that quality of the objedl by which it
is fitted to produce fuch a fenfation, and connedt that
quality with the objedt and with its other qualities.
Thus we learn, that a certain fenfation of fmell is
produced by a rofe ; and that quality in the rofe by
which it is fitted to produce this fenfation we call
the frrie// of the rofe. Here it is evident that the feri-
fation is original. The perception that the rofe has
that quality which we call its fmell, is acquired.”
To this dodtrine no Cartefian could poffibly obi
jedt; for it is the very account which Des Car¬
tes himfelf would have given of perception by the
organ of fmell, as it refolves fuch a perception
into an early afibciation between a certain fen-
fation and that external quality from which we
knoW by experience that the fehfatioii proceeds.
Indeed the excellent author repeatedly affirrrts, that
every different perception is conjoined with a fenfa¬
tion which is proper to it; and that the one is the
fign, and the other the thing iignified. He likewife
doubts *, whether children, from the time that they
begin to ufe their fenfes, make a diffindtiOn between
things which are only conceived or imagined, and
things which really exift. But if the conviction
of the.prefent exiftence of external objedts were iff
perception infin&ive, we cannot fee how there could
be room for fuch a doubt: for the mere fenfes of chil¬
dren are as perfedt as thofe of full grown men ; and
they know well the difference between adtually fuck¬
ing their nurfes and only thinking of that operation,
though they be not capable of expreffing that diffe¬
rence in language.
But if in perception our convidtion of the preferit
exiftence of external objedfs be not inftin&ive, what,
it may be afked, is the evidence that fuch objedts real¬
ly exift? This queftion we (hall partly anfwer in the
following fedtion, and more completely when we
come to examine Berkeley’s theory of the non-exift¬
ence of matter : but from what has been faid already,
it is fufficiently evident, that every fenfation compels
H Y S I C S. 491
us td believe in the prefent exiftericC of fomething Obpdhor
different from- ourfelves, as well as from our fenfa- reipoy-
... ’ tivs Se;:ks»
tions. .
Sect. III. Of the OhjeBs of each Strife refpefllvely.
Hitherto we have confidefed fenfation arid per-Touc! .die
ception hi general, and ffown that it is not by Inftindt ^.
that we perceive the exiftence of external objedts. w-rceive8
This will appear more clearly, if we can afeeftain the heat and
prCcife nature of that information which each fenfe cold, kc,
affords us: and in order to this, we (hall begin with
the fenfe of touch, not only becaiife it is that which is
certainly fir ft exercifed, but alfo becaufe there is a
meaning in which all the others may be refolved into it. jg
By means of touch We perceive many things; ofThenatin*
which the chief are, heat and cold, hardnefs and foft-heit a:Kl
nefs, fOughnefs and fmoothnefs, extenfiori, figure, fo-Ct,ld’''ll‘ckl
lidity, and motion. Of thefe perceptions, fome are ceWed^'m-
immediate ; and others, as we are perfuaded, early affo-mediately,
ciations, which may be refolvecj into a procefs of fea-
fqning. The perceptions of heat and cold are imme¬
diate. When a perfon for the firft time in his life ap¬
proaches the fire, h’e feels heat; and when he is firft
expofed to the froll, he feels cold. What are heat
and cold, and where do they re fide ? They are obvi-
oufly the reverfe of each other; but are they external
objects, or mere fenfations in the mind ? They are un¬
doubtedly fenfations which have no exiftence but when
they afe felt. To every man not altogether a ftranger to
thefe (peculations, this propofition is felf-evident; but to
the bulk of the people it appears an extravagant para¬
dox. To make it plain, however, to the meaneft ca¬
pacity, it is fuffieient to obferve, that at a certain di-
ifence the fire has no perceptible influence upon any
perfon ; if that diftafice be leffened, we feel an agree¬
able warmth; approach a little nearer, and the warmth
becomes difagreeable ; and ftill nearer, it will rife to
pain. No man fuppofes the pain infli&ed by a fword
to exift in the fword, or any where elfe but in a fen-
tient being: It is equally ahfurd to fuppofe pain to
exift in fire, or any where elfe but in a fentient
being. But that which at one diftance is pain,
at another is only ag’reeable warmth ; and fince warmth
and pain are only diffeient degrees of the fame feel-
ihg, it is e'qually abfurd to fuppofe the one as the
other in the fire. What then is the object of fenfe
When we feel heat ? There is obvioufly no object be¬
yond the prefent fenfation.
But has the fenfation of heat no caufe independent M
of us ? Undoubtedly it has, and experience teaches us ™^j
that the caufe is in the fire. We know that we caa-fes.*’
riot produce the fenfation of heat in ourfelves by any
mental energy of our own ; and we are intuitively cer¬
tain, that nothing can begin to exift without fome
caufe. A man on the fop of a mountain covered with
blow, may imagine or remember what he felt when in
the neighbourhood of fire, and thus have in his mind
what is called an idea of heat; but that idea will not
warm him (e) like the aftual fenfation, which no ex¬
ertion of his own can in fuch circuniftarices produce?
3 Q_2 When
(k)  Who can hold a fire in his'hand,
By thinking on the frofty Caucafus ?
Or cloy the hungry edge of appetite,
By bare imagination of a feaft ?
Or wallow naked in December’s fnow,
By thinking on fantaftic fummer’s heat ?
Oh no ! the apprehenfion of the good
Gives but the greater feeling to the worfe.
lv. Rtch aro II,
402
Objects of
!-hi; refpec
4°
The per¬
ceptions oi
a^.cl'fii'ure
^cc. notin'
ntediate.
M E T A P
' When he leave* the mountain, however, an<J ap«
proaehes the fire, he feels the fenfation aftually pro-
” duced, and produced as often as he makes the experi¬
ment. He is, therefore, under the neceflity of infer¬
ring, that in the fire there is fome power or quality
which, adting either mediately or immediately upon
his fenfe of touch, excites^the feeling which is called
What that power is, we fhall perhaps never be
able to difcover j but it is felf-evident, that it is nei¬
ther heat nor the refemblance of heat, though in vul¬
gar language it is known by that name.
The fame reafoning holds good with refpeft to
cold. There is at certain times, and in certain coun¬
tries, fome power in the air which congeals water and
caufes cold ; but that power is as different from the
fenfation of cold, as the power of fire is different from
the fenfation of heat, or the point of a fword from a
flefh wound.
By the fenfe of touch we perceive extenfion, figure,
‘ and folidity, &c. but we do not perceive them imme-
diately as we perceive heat and cold ; for extenfion, fi-
gure, and folidity, are not fenfations. Thofe percep¬
tions then muff be acquired ; and more clearly to af-
certain the manner in vshich we acquire them, let us
fuppofe a man from his birth deftitute of the fenfe of
fight and the power of local motion, but poffefTed of
intellect and every other faculty which we enjoy.—
Such a^perfon, it is obvious, would be capable of every
fenfation and perception which is original to us, except
the perception of colours; but we doubt whether it
would be poffible to give him perceptions of extenfion,
figure, and folidity. Let us try : and as he cannot
move a fingle limb or member of himfelf, let us fup¬
pofe a folid fubftance of fmall dimeulions to be gently
preffed againft any part of his body ; what would fueh
preffure communicate to him ? We think it could com¬
municate nothing but a new fenfation, to which, as it
is neither pleafing nor painful, no name has hitherto
been given, except the general one of feeling. This
fenfation he would not know whether to refer to an
external or internal caufe; or rather he could have no
notion whatever of an external caufe, though he would
at the fame time be confcious. that the new fenfation
was not excited by any energy of his own will. Were
the preffure to be gradually increafed till it rofe to
pain, our blind man would ftill be confcious of nothing
but a fenfation, which could not lead him to the no¬
tion of extenfion, figure, or folidity, becaufe mere
fenfations'cannot be conceived as either folid or ex¬
tended. Let us next fuppofe the preffure to. be ap¬
plied fucceflively to different parts of his body; hie
would now indeed be confcious of fucceffive fenfations,
but he could not affign to them either extenfion or
place : for it has been already fliown that the external
parts of the body are not themfelves fentient; and it
ihall be fhown afterwards, that to a man who has never
perceived motion, place is abfolutely inconceivable.
Laftly, let us fuppofe the dimenfions of the preffing
fubftance to he greatly enlarged: what would then fol¬
low ? nothing, we apprehend, but an increafe of pain :
for though his whole body were preffed ab extra, the
preffure could affedt the individual being which is
lentient, not more extenfively, but only more vio¬
lently. It-appears, therefore, that a man blind from
his birth, and deftitute of the power of local mo¬
ll Y S I C S. Parti.
tkm, could never be made to perceive extenfion, ft- Objedtsol
gure, or folidity. _ therUpe:-
Let us now fuppofe this man to receive by a miracle t’ve
the ufe of his limbs, and to be fuddenly prompted, by
fome inflindlive impulfe, to arife and walk. So long pj0Vy
as he met with no'obftacle in his way, he would not, aie acqui-
we apprehend, acquire by this exercife any correct no-"red.
tions of extenfion or figure ; but were a ftone or log
of wood of confiderable dimenfions to be laid acrofs
his ufual walk, the cafe would foon be altered. He
would feel himfelf interrupted in his courfe, and he
would at the fame inftant recognize his wonted fenfa¬
tions of touch. After being twice or thrice thus in¬
terrupted, he would learn from experience that the in¬
terruption or refiftance proceeded from the fame
caufe which in this inftance communicated to him the
fenfation of feeling ; and were he to run his hand along
the furface of the log or ftone, he would perceive the
refiftance and the fenfation continued. As every effect
muft have an adequate caufe, this continued refiftance
would compel him to believe the continuity of fome-
thing external in every diredtion in which he felt his
hand refifted; but fuch continuity of being is all that
is meant by the word extenfion. At the very fame
time, and by the very fame means, he would gradual¬
ly acquire the perception of figure} for by running
his hand in every diredtion over the furface of the ob¬
ftacle which oppofed him, he would foon perceive it
on all lides limited; but the limits of extenfion is a
phrafe of precifely the fame import with figure. It
appears, therefore, that without the power of local
motion, men could never by the fenfe of touch acquire
the notions of extenfion and figure ; and the fame will
be found to be the cafe with refpedt to hardnefs and
foftnefs.
When we prefs our hand ’gently againft a flock or Hardnefs
a ftone, we feel a fenfation which is neither painful and foftnefe,
nor pleafing. When we prefs it more violently, the^owper-
fenfation becomes painful, and we experience in theceived*
objedt a refiftance which we have not power to over¬
come. When we prefs butter or pomatum very gently,
we have a fenfation in all refpedts iimi.lar to that which
we felt when we gently touched the flock or the ftone..
But when we prefs the butter with violence, we feel no
pain, and experience little refiftance ; for the parts of
which it is compofed give way before the hand, though
the parts of the ftock or the ftone remained fixed and
immoveable. That the parts of one body ftiould thus
reiift a preffure to which the parts of another fo readi¬
ly yield, muft proceed from fome difference in the
texture of the two bodies : for by the fenfe of touch
we perceive the effedts to be different; and are there¬
fore certain that they muft. proceed either from diffe¬
rent caufes, or from the fame caufe operating with
different degrees of force. That particular texture
which makes the parts of a ftone relift the preffure of
touch, we call hardnefs; and the texture which makes,
the parts of butter or pomatum give way to touch, we
call foftnefs. But what hardnefs and foftnefs are in
themfelves, touch cannot inform us; for they are nei¬
ther fenfations, nor fimilar to fenfations. We acquire,
however, by experience, fo complete notions of hard¬
nefs and foftnefs, that every one who underftands the
Englifti language perfedtly knows the meaning of thefe
words as foon as he hears them 5 and when he is told
that
Parc I. M E T A F H
? that one feoefy is hard and another foft, he knows with
; abfolute certainty that the meaning of the afl'ertien is,
that the parts of the body which is faid to be hard are
held together by fbme unknown caufe operating for¬
cibly, and that the parts of the other are held toge-
Y S I C S, 493
On the fenfea of tade, fmell, and hearing, it is ObjeA^f
needlefs to fay much. The immediate objects of thefe
areiconfefiedly fenfations which have no exiftence but '* g a<?'
when they are perceived; though experience teaches us ^
to refer them all to external objedts as their, reipedtive Nothing
ther by the fame or a fimilar caufe operating with lefs caufes. With lefpedt to fmell, this has been made fuf.bu^mere
Rougnnefs
andfmooih-
nets.
force.
We acquire the notions of roughnefs and fmooth-
nefs in the very fame way and by the very fame means
that we acquire ideas of extenlion and figure. To de-
feribe the procefs at large would certainly be fuperflu-
Solidity,
what; and
how per¬
ceived.
ficiently evident in the preceding fedfion, audit ii
lefs evident with refpect to tafte and hearing. w of fmeil
Certain bodies applied to the tongue and palate*. 46
and moiileued with the faliva, excite certain fcnfations’T'aiie, and
which wg. call taftes. Thefe feniations, however, are
ous ; for if what we have faid concerning our percep- not in the bodiesnor can they have any exilteuce but
tions of extenfion and figure be juft and intelligible, in a fentient being. They are produced in confequence
everyone will, without farther affiftance, difeover for of impulfes on the nerves of the tongue and palate,,
himfelf how he perceives roughnefs and fmoothnefs. exciting certain agitations in the brain ; but the fen-
.dfo/ifn Ihall be confidered among the adjundts of body; lation icfelf is neither impulfe nor agitation. Some ~
but in order to underftand what body itfelf is, it will fubftances excite tailes which are agreeable, and others-
be rieceffary, before we difmifs the fenfe of touch, to fuch as are difagreeable ; and there are not a few which
inquire how we come by the notion of folidity. excite no tafte at all. Bodies, which applied to the
Solidity is one of thofe notions, or, in the language tongue and palate of one man produce taites that are
of Locke, one of thofe ideas, which are commonly agreeable, applied to the fame organs of another man
faid to be acquired by the fenfe of touch. That touch give him taftes which are dilagreeaide ; and we have all
gives the firft hint towards our notion of folidity, is experienced, that the fame fubftance, which, when the
certainly true; but that hint muft be afterwards im- organs are found, excites a fweet or pleafant taite,,
proved by the intelledl:, or we never could have an ade- has, when the organs were difordered, excited a tafte
quate knowledge of what is meant when any thing is which was bitter or unpleafant. Thefe facts, which
laid to be abfolutely folid. We know by experience, cannot be controverted, afford the fulleft evidence, if
that we can at pleafure open and (hut our empty hand evidence were wanted, that tafte, as we feel it,, is no
without meeting with any refiftance. We know like- quality of bodies, nor has any exiftence out of the.
wile, that when we grafp an ivory ball of three or four mind. 7
inches diameter, no force which we can exert will bring The orgaa of hearing is the ear, and its objedt is-He^ingj,
together the feveral parts of the hand, which were ea- found. It is well known, that found is produced by
fily brought together when we grafped nothing. In certain vibrations of the air ftriking. the tympanum of
this way do w-e acquire our firft notion of folidity ; for the ear, and that thofe vibrations arecaufed by the fo-
that word denotes nothing more in this inftance than norous body. Sound, however, is not vibration, nor
the power or pi-operty of the ball, by which our the idea of found the idea qf vibration. Sound conli-
fingers are excluded from the place which it occupies, dered by itfelf is a mere fenfation, which can have no
Solidity differs from hardnefs in this refpedt, that exiftence but in a fentient being. We know by ex-
hardnefs refults from the ftrong coheiion of the parts perience, that it is caufed by fomething external; but
of a hard body, which renders it difficult to change we know likewife that the effeift has no refemblance.
the places of thofe parts, as they refpedt onfe another; to the caufe. Previous to experience we could not
whereas folidity refpe&s the whole mafs, and is as ef- refer found to any external caufe ; far lefs could we
fential a quality of water as of adamant. A drop of difeern whether it proceeded from an objedt above us
water, indeed, placed between two plane furfaces of or below us, on our right hand or on our left. It ap-
marble, will not like adamant preclude their contaft; pears to us felf-evident, that if a man born deaf were,
becauie the parts of a drop of water, cohering but fuddenly made to hear, he would conlider his firft fen-.
loofely to one another, give way to the preffure, and fation of found as originating wholly within himfelf.
efcape in every lateral diredlion. But if a drop of wa- Between that fenfation and the fenfations of touch,
ter be confined on all fides, as in a globe of gold, we tafte, fmell, and light, there, is no vefemblance ; nor
know from experiment that no force will bring the fides are there any relations among them, which, previous
of the globe together without forcing the water to experience, could induce him to trace them all to
through the pores of the metal ; and hence we infer external objects as their feveral caufes. Our deaf man
folidity to be effential to every corporeal fubftance. might have learned to refer all his other fenfations to
Thus then it appears, that of the objedls perceived their true caufes, in fome fuck way as we have deferh.
by touch not one is immediately perceived except bed under, the fenfe of touch ; but found would be
beat, cold, and other fenfations. The fenfations, as fomething fo new to him, and fo totally different from
they are not excited by any internal energy* of our touch, tafte, and fmell, that he could attribute it to
own, lead us indeed to fomething external as their nothing external. . ^
caufe ; and by comparing the different fenfations with Experience, however, would foon teach him* that ptrience^"
each other, and obferving wdiat effe&s their external the ear is its organ, and the fonorous body its caufe ; that we di-
caufes have upon our own motions, we are- naturally and he would in time learn to diftinguilh one found, ftinguifli
led to conceive thefe caufes as extended, figured, fo- that of a trumpet for inffance, from another, fugpofe^‘^e”t
lid, hard or foft, rough or fmooth, &c.; but it is ob- the found of a bell; and to attribute each to- its pro-^™^
vious that this conception is the refult of experience, per caufe, even when neither the-tmmpet nor the bell their re-
aud a procefs of mental reafoning was perceived by his other fenfes. With refpect to/pe&ive
foundsfoumW
491- M E T A P 1
Objfi^p of “Founds Avtiicdi we have been accuftomed to hear, this
tt trefyec ,‘s done fo inftantaneeufly, that fome philofophers have
itoe jmagjnecj ;t to |)e the effeA of an inftinftive principle in
our nature, totally different from experience, and indepen¬
dent of reafon. But the fadt is not fo. Long before we
are capable of making fenfation and perception objedts
of refledtiori, we have heard the found produced by the
ringing of a bell, and feen the objedt which produced
the found fo often, that, when we hear a limikr found
again, we inffantly refer it to a lell, though we fee
not the bell from which it proceeds : but this is the
<effedt of habit, and not of inftindl. Had we never per¬
ceived a bell while ringing by either of our fenfes of
fjght or touch, we could not by the fenfe of hearing
acquire any notion of the figure or texture of the bo¬
dy from which the caufe of the found proceeds, tho’
we had heard that found every day of our lives. It is,
indeed, by experience only that we learn to diftinguilh
by the ear whether a fonorous body be before or be¬
hind us, on our right hand or on our left; for we find
it always difficult to fay from what precife quarter a
itrange found proceeds ; and this difficulty would be
heightened to impoffibility, had not all founds fome-
thing in common. Dr Sparman relates, that when he
fir ft heard the roaring of a lion, he did not know on
what fide of him to appprehend danger, as the found
feemed to proceed from the ground, and to inclofe a
circle of which he and his companions flood in the cen¬
tre. The fame thing has happened to every man, when
the found was fuch as he had never heard before ; even
though it was neither fo loud nor fo terrific as the
roaring of a lion in a defert wildernefs: but with re-
fpe& to founds which we are daily hearing on each
fide of us, we foon learn to diftinguifh with tolerable
accuracy whether they be before or behind us, above
or below, on our right hand or on our left. All this,
however, is the effect, not of inffindt, but of experi-
ence improved into habit..
Sight ori- Sight is juftly confidered as the nobleft and moft
ginaliy per- comprehenfive of all our fenfes. The reafon is obvi-
thirwbut ous : ^or w^en a man opens his eyes, he
colours perceives houfes, trees, rivers, the earth, fun, and moon,
which are &c. and to each of thefe objedts belong figure, exten-
mere fenfa- f10n, colour, &c. which are all perceived inftantly by
tlUls• means of this fenfe. Yet it is certain, that the lenfe
of fight does not originally communicate to us fo ma¬
ny perceptions ; and there is abundant evidence, that
an infant cannot at firft, or for fome weeks after its
birth, diftihguiffi by vifion one objedt from another.
Colour is the proper objedt of fight, and for fome time
its only objedt; but colour as perceived by us is a mere
fenfation, which can have no exiflence but in a fentient
being. If this propofition flood in need of “proof,
we might obferve that there are men, and even whole
families, who poffefs the fenfe of fight in a degr.ee of
pierfedlion fufficient for all the purpofes of life, and yet
cannot dillinguiffi certain colours from each other;
blue, for inflance, from green, or perhaps from red :
and there is no man who can diflinguifh between fome
particular (hades of blue and green by the feeble light
of a candle. Were colours the real qualities of body,
this miflake of one for another could never be experi¬
enced. No man who poffeffes the fenfe of touch ever
confounded hardnefs with foftnefs, a fphere with a
cube, or an ell with an inch. The reafon is, that
1 Y S I C S. Parti.
hardnefs -and foftnefs, figure and ex tendon, art the Objects of
qualities of things external; whereas colour being a pCs
mere fenfation, is nothing but an affedlion or modui- r ^
cation of the fentient being. But it is obvious, that
fentient beings, according as they differ from one an¬
other, may be differently affedted by the lame exter¬
nal caufe ; fo that one man may perceivejhat to be
green which all other men petceive to be blue. The
immediate external caufe of the fenfation of colour, is
the rays of light reiledled from the body, which in
common language is faid to be coloured, Thefe rays
falling upon the pupil of the eye, are refradled diffe¬
rently, according as their incidence is more or lei's
oblique into points on the retina, where they form
a pidture of the external objedt; and from the pic¬
ture, by means of the optic nerve, is communica¬
ted to the brain fome impulfe or agitation, which pro¬
duces vifion or the perception of colour. As rays of
light are corporeal fubftances, it is obvious that they
can adl upon body only by impulfe ; but between tm-
pulfe and the various fenfations of red, green, blue, 8cc.
there is no referiablance. For the laws of refledlion
and refradtion, and for the flrudture of the eye, fee
Optics and Anatomy. That which we have to in¬
quire into at prefent is, how we learn, by means of
the feufe of fight, to perceive the figure, magnitude,
motion, and diftance of external objedls, or indeed to
diilinguifh one objedt from another.
A ray of light proceding, as all rays do, in a ftraight
line, muff, however great its length, affedt the eye,
retina, and optic nerve, as if it were a (ingle point.
From this obvious andundeniablefadl, Biffiop Berkeley
predidled *, that a man born blind, who (houkl be fud- * E/y
denly made to fee, would at fir ft perceive ncthing-J^!^*
without him, would dillinguiffi neither the diftauce,
fize, figure, nor fituation, of external objedls; that he
would only fee in his eyes themfelves, or, to fpeak
more properly, would only experience new modifica¬
tions in his mind, until joining toueb to Jtght, he form¬
ed thus a communication with the external world,
and learned, by the fimultaneous exercife of the two
fenfes, that natural language in which the vifib/e is the
fign of the tangible. This truth, which was difeover-
ed by the Biffiop meiely by contemplating in his own
mind the nature of fenfation, and the known laws of
optics, after having been laughed at for more than 20
years as one of the many dreams of a vifionary genius,
was completely confirmed by the cafe of the famous
patient whom Chefelden cured of a cataradl; and that
too, though the cataradl does not produce total blind-
nefs which makes it evident, that thefirll vifual per¬
ceptions of the patient after his recovery could not be
wholly new and unmixed. It may indeed be confirm¬
ed at any time by a fimple experiment made upon an
infant. For feveral weeks after birth, a child (huts
not its eyes upon the fudden approach of an objedt
to them, nor (hows the lead fymptom of diftinguiffi-
ing one diftance from another; and it is eafy by a
little attention to obfer^e, how it gradually learns to
diftinguiffi objedls at greater and greater diftances.
Indeed colour, or the immediate objedl of fight, be¬
ing a mere fenfation or affedlion of the mind, caff
have no natural relation whatever to any thing ex¬
ternal.
It is plain, therefore, that diltance is in its own na¬
ture
Part I, M E T A P H
Ohj (Steof ture impereeptiUe to the eye, and yet It la often per-
tl.ersfjfy- eeivcd by light. How is this done ? We think, in
the following manner. Hiftance is one mode of ex-
30 tenfion, which, we have already feen, is perceived by
Perception means of touch. Of Ihort diftances, our iirft ideas are
of diftance donbtlefs acquired by the itretching out and drawing
howacqui ^ac^c our aims> anci thofe ideas are foon foconnec-
red. w‘t*1 certain fenfations which we have in a&ual
vifion., that the latter inftantly fuggefts the former.
Thus, it is a Ta& known by experience, that when
we look at a near objeft with both eyes, according as
it approaches or recedes from us, we alter the difpofi-
tion qf our eyes, by leffening or widening the interval
between the pupils. This difpolkion, or turn of the
eyes, is attended .with a-fenfation of which every man
is confcious at the time of vilion ; and this fenfation
feems to us to he thai which in this cafe fuggefts
the idea of greater or lefs diftance to the mind. Not
that there is any natural or necejfary connexion be¬
tween the fenfation of which we are confcious, and
greater or lefs diftance ; for the fenfation is wholly in¬
ternal, and the diftance is external: But becaufe the
mind has, by conftant experience, found the different
fenfations occafioned by different difpofitionsof the eyes
to correfpond to different degrees of diftance in the
object, there has grown an habitual or cuftomary
connexion between thofe fenfations and the notions
qf greater or lefs diftance. So that the mind no foon-
er perceives the fenfation arifing from the different
turn’ it gives the eyes in order to bring the pupils
nearer or farther afunder, than it is inftantly impreffed
with a certain notion of the diftance which was wont
to be conne&ed with that fenfation. Again, an object
placed at a certain diftance from the eye, to which the
breadth of the pupil bears a fenfible proportion, be¬
ing made to approach nearer, is feen more confufed-
ly ; and the nearer it is brought, the confufion is al¬
ways t}ie greater. The reafon of all this is known
to every optician: but it being conftantly experienced
by thofe who never dipt into optics, there arifes in the
mind of every man an habitual connebtion between the
fcveral degrees of confulion and diftance ; the greater
coofufion ftill implying the lefs diftance, and the lefs
eonfufion the greater diftance. It is of no avail to
ftty, that between confufed viiiqn and diftance, great
or ftnall, there is no neeeffary connection: for there
b as little connexion between a blufh in tne face
and the mental feeling of ftiame ; and yet no fooner
does a man «f obfervation perceive that particular co¬
lour in the face of another, than it fuggefts to him
the notion of that feeling or pafiion with which he
has confiantly obferved it accompanied.
In thefe ways, however, we perceive only fmall di-
ftances. Of diftances more remote our judgment is
formed from other data; and happily thefe data are
not far to feek. It is a fadt known to every man who
is not totally ignorant of the fcience of optics, that a
greater number of rays fall upon the eye when refleft-
ed from a body near at hand, than can fall from the
fame body at a diftance ; and as'thofe rays operate by
impulfe, it is felf-evident that the imprefiron muft be
ftronger, and of courfe the fenfation or colour more
vivid, when the body is near than when it is diftant-
Now having acquired the notion of the true diftance
«£ cbje&s by motion and the fenfe of touch, and lind-
Y S I C 5. 495
ing by uniform experience, that as they are near or far
off, the fenfation or colour which they excite in the
mind through the organ of vifion is more or lefs vivid, ,1.^...
thofe degrees of feniation come to be fo clofely affo-
ciated with the refpeftive diilances of the objedt, that
the one inftantly fuggeftsthe other. 51
It is juft fo that we perceive figure by fight. Ha- Hew lig xe
ving experienced by the fenfe of touch that one fur-^I^^*^
face is a fquare and another a circle, that one body is J
a cube and another a fphere; and finding our fenfe of
fight differently affedled by the fquare and the circle,
by the cube and the fphere; thefe different affedlions
come to be fo clofely connected in our minds with the
figures of the refpective bodies, that long before we
are capable of reafoning on the fubjecfc the one is never
prefent to us without fuggefting the other.- Nay, fo
complete in this cafe is the connexion or affociation,
that we cannot even in idea abftracft the colour from
the figure; though it is certain that colour is a mere
fenfation, and figure an external quality; that colour
alone is immediately perceivable by the eye, and the no-*
tion of figure fuggefted by the colour. We are awaie
that it has been affirmed, and affirmed with great vehe¬
mence, that figures of two dimenfions are immediately
perceived by the eye, and perceived with greater ac¬
curacy than by the fenfe of touch. But they who in-
fift upon this dodtrine affirm likewife, contrary to ex¬
perience and the cleareft reafoning, that the immediate
objedfs of fight are external, and that colour is a qua¬
lity of bodies. In the arguments too- by which they
fopport their hypothefis, they feem. to confound fight,
as an affedlion of the mind, with the pidhire on the
bottom of the eye, as ifthe retina were the fentient be¬
ing ; whereas the retina and pkfture are no more than
inftruments of fenfation. It is indeed a fadt, that the
pidhire has the fame figure nearly with the plane of
the objedk which is prefented to the eye ; as when the
objedi is a fphere, the pidture is a circle varioufly ffia-
ded in colour. It is likewife a fadf, that the pidfure
is enlarged in proportion as the object is brought near,
and diminifhed as it is carried to a diftance. But
thefe fadfs are known only to perfons/killed in optics y
and therefore it is evident, that though calculations
may be raifed from them by mathematicians to deter¬
mine the diftance and figure of external objedts, they
cannot poffibly be the data from which diftance and
figure are inferred by the vulgar, who know not that
fuch pidtures on the retina exift. Befides all this, it
is univerfally known, that a-painter, by laying on his
colours properly, can make a plain fquare furface ap¬
pear to the eye in certain pofitious as an oblong or as
a cube, and a plain circular-furface as a concave or a
convex hefbifphere. But not one of thefe things could
poffibly be done, were figure, or indeed any thing elfe
than colour, the immediate objedt of vifion.
As we fee diftance and figure,-fo we fee magnitude; Magui—
and we fee both in the fame way that -we fee ffiame or tude,
anger in the looks of a man. The impreffion made
upon the bottom of the eye by rays reftedled from a
large magnitude, muft neceffarily be different from the
impreffion made by rays refledfed from a magnitude
that is lefs. This is felf-evident:: and fince the im¬
preffion extra is in fbme way or other the caufe of
that fenfation, which is all of which we are originally
confcious- in vifion, it is obvious that the fenfation,.
8- like.
496 META?
OSjecfts pf like every Other effe&, mufl correfpond to the caufe
tiwe^mif s ^rom which it proceeds. Being therefore confcious of
different fenfationsi and having, at an earlier period
than we diftinftly remember, learned by experience to
refer them to different^magnitudes; no fooner is each
fenfation excited than it fuggefts the notion, or if you
pleafe the perception, of that magnitude with which it
is connefted. So completely is this alfociation fixed
in the mind, that when we look at a known objedt, its
real magnitude appears to be as inllantly obferved as
its colour, whilft we hardly attend at all to the par¬
ticularity of the fenfation by which the magnitude is
fuggefted. It is indeed cuftomary with writers on
optics to diftinguifh between tangible and vifible mag¬
nitude, as if any kind of magnitude were the i mmediate
object of vi.fion: but this is not fo; for magnitude is
fomething external, whereas the immediate objeCt of
vifion is a mere fenfation. What has introduced into
fcience this mode of fpeaking is the following fadt,
that as we^approach a diftant objedt it appears to the
eye larger and larger every ftep, and Ids and lefs as we
recede from it; whereas the tangible magnitude of an
ebjedt is always the fame. The reafon of this apparent
change of .magnitude to the eye,, according to the di-
, fiance at which any particular objedt is viewed, is,
that from a near objedt rays of light fall in greater
numbers and more diverging than from the fame ob¬
jedt viewed at a diftance. This of courfe alters the
nature of the vifible fenfation: each common fenfation
is in the mind clofely linked with a particular notion
of magnitude; and by the exercife of fight and touch
we have learned from experience, that the particular
fenfation caufed by diverging rays muft be referred to
a larger magnitude than that which is caufed by pa-
rallel rays proceeding from the fame diftance.
.Vifible fen- Upon the whole, then, we think ourfelves intitled
fations a to conclude, that the proper and original objedls of
turaltn*~ v'^on conftftute an univerfal language of the Author
kuage. * of Nature, by which we are inftrudted how to regu¬
late our adlions, in order to attain thofe things that
are neceflary to the prefervation and well-being of our
bodies, as alfo to avoid whatever may be hurtful or
deftrudtive to them. It is principally by the informa¬
tion of this language that we are guided in all the tranf-
adiions and concerns of life; And the manner in which
it fignifies and marks to us the objedls which are at a di¬
ftance, is fimilar to ^that of languages and figns.of hu¬
man appointment, which do not fuggeft the things
fignified by any likenefs or identity of nature, but
only by an habitual connedlion, which experience has
made us to obferve, between them. This language
of the eye, like the language of the tongue, fuggefts
by one fenfation what may be refolved into a variety
of perceptions. Atree is compofed of a trunk, branches,
leaves; it has colour, figure, ftze; and all thefe things
are at once fuggefted to the mind by the two words
fpreadmg oak. juft fo it is with refpedl to vifion : the
fenfation received by the eye fuggefts at once the
trunk, branches, leaves, colour, figure, and Jize of the oak,
and fuggefts them all as the qualities of one objedf.
Chap. II, Of Retention and Ideas.
From the experiment with the burning coal men¬
tioned in n°33, it is apparent, that fenfations excited
Nc2i3.
H Y S I C S. Part I.
through,the eye, together with their correfponding Retention
perceptions, remain in the mind for a Ihort time after an,:i ldea8-
the external exciting caufe is removed. The fame ' v J
thing appears from another experiment which was firft Senfaf;on9
made by Sir Ifaac Newton, and which every man may and rercep-
repeatforhisown fatisfadfion. It is univerfallyknown*,'[on r'-
that a proper mixture of the feven original colours, red,m:i!n a
yellow, green, blue. See. conftitutes that uniform appear-^
ance which we call white. But when thefe colours the remo-
are made to pafs in a rapid confecution before the eye, v ! their
they excite the very fame perception as when they are ^
properly mixed; which is a fatisfadtory proof that the
impreflion made by each feparate colour remains in the
brain until a revolution of all the colours be com¬
pleted; for nothing but the impreffion of all the co¬
lours at once can produce the fenfation and perception
of white. Indeed no perfon capable of paying the
proper attention to thefe things, can keep his eye fixed
upon a luminous objedt, and afterwards flmt it, with¬
out experiencing that the fenfation and perception re¬
main for fome time after the external objedt is fhut
out, and that they go off gradually till they leave be¬
hind them the mental appearance, which is properly
called an idea of the object.
The fame continuance of the fenfation after the re¬
moval of its caufe is equally dbfervable in the fenfe of
hearing: for every found which we hear is refledted
, by the neighbouring bodies; and therefore confiits in
reality of a variety of founds fucceeding each other at
different diftances of time, according to the diftances of "
the feveral refledting bodies. Yet this caufes no con-
fufion or apparent complexity of found, unlefs when
the diftance of the refledting bodies is very confider-
able, as in fpacious buildings.
With refpedt to the continuance of the fenfation of
touch, doubts have been ftarted; but for thefe there
is as little room as for doubting the continuance of the
fenfations of feeing and hearing. The continuance of
heat after the heating body is removed, and of the
fmart of a wound after the inftant of inflidtion, are
, proofs that every fenfation of touch does not vaniih
■ with its caufe. A man unufed to the motion of a
ftrip or a coach, after having been a day at fea or on
the road, feels or imagines he feels the rolling of the
fhip or the jolting of the coach after he is in bed and
adtually at reft. Of thefe fadts we know -not what
other account can be given, than that the agitation in
the brain, which is the immediate caufe of the fenfa¬
tion of touch, remains for fome time after the exter¬
nal caufe of the agitation is removed.
As to the fenfes of tafte and fmell, Dr Hartley
feems to think that there is no clear and diredl evi¬
dence for the continuance of their fenfations after their
proper objedls are removed: but in this inftance the
ingenious author does not juftice to his own theory.
Let any man eat onions, garlic, or any other thing of
a very pungent tafte, and immediately wafli his mouth
with frefh water, fo as that he may be fure no part
of the fapid body remains on his tongue or palate.
According to this dodlrine, the tafte of the onion or
garlic Ihould inftantly vanifh with its objedt; but the
fadt is otherwife. Whoever ftiall make the experiment,
will find the fenfation to remain a eonfiderable time;
not indeed in its original force, but weakened no more
than what it muft neceffarily be by the introduction
7 of
Part I. M E T A P
Retention of a new fenfatiotl excited by the water. It is more
ard Ideas, difficult to afcertain the permanency of fmell ; but
analogy inclines us to believe, that in this particular it
refembles the other fenfes, though we know not how
to direft the reader to an experiment which will give
him abfolute conviftion.
H we Whether the caufeof thefe continued fenfations, af-
Have that ter t^ie removal of their objefts, be in the brain alone,
power or in the mind alone confidered as an immaterial being,
faculty cal- or Jn both together, 'is of very little importance ; be-
\t& memory. caufe> taking the mind and its internal organs as one
* See An mttaphyfical whole*, it matters not to our prefent in-
quiry, where this retentive power refides, as long as
*f the Facul- can he proved to exift within us : for it feems evi-
ties ef the dent, that what has the faculty of retaining a fenfa-
Mindy by fion when no longer afted upon by the objeft which
M.Schwab. exc;ted it, mull alfo have a power to preferve the
velliges of that fcnfation even after the fenfation it-
felf lhall be entirely obliterated. This is in fadl the
cafe with the mind. When an objeft which we have
once perceived is moll remote from our thoughts, we
are certain that there is within us a capacity, dvfpo*.
fition, tendency, or power, by which a reprefentation
of that objeit may be at anytime revived and pre-
fented to the intelleft. Thus the fame inherent power
* of the mind and its internal organs, which retains a
fenfation and perception in the abfence of the objeft
by which they were excited, can alfo reproduce that
perception, or bring into the view of the intelledl
fomething exactly fimilar to it. The reproduction
will not indeed be fo lively as the original perception
when accompanied with its correfponding fenfation,
becaufe fenfation and aftual perception are effected by
a double caufe, the aCtion of the external objeCt upon
the organ, nerves, and brain, and the. correfponding
energy of the mind or fentient principle: whereas, in
the reproduction, the mind feems to aCt folely by its
own power, and certainly without the afliftance of ex¬
ternal objeCts. This reproductive power is commonly
called memory. By many of the ancient philofophers,
and by M. Schwab, with one or two others among the
moderns, it is called imagination. We do not choofe
either to revive antiquated modes of expreffion, or to
introduce innovations of our own ; but as we cannot
difapprove of the ancient phrafeology, after the defi¬
nitions which the reader will by and by find of ima¬
gination, memory, and recoiled ion, as given by Mr Har¬
ris, we have prefixed to this chapter the general title
of retention which comprehends them all.
The^opini- When one recals an objeCt of fight by the power of
ons of phi- memory, it appears to him precifely the fame as in the
lofophers original furvey, only lefs diftinCt, and with a convic-
refpe<Shng tion (which is perhaps the refult of experience) that
memory. ^ reaj 0gje(cj. js not Immediately before him. How
is an objeCt recalled by the power of memory ? Does
the man endeavour to form in his mind a picture or
reprefentative image of the objeCt ? Let us liiten to
the anfwers given by different philofophers to this
queftion.
Vol. XI. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 497
The fentiments of the Peripatetics, as expreffed by Retention
Alexander Aphrodifenfis, one of the earlieft commenta- and Ideas*
tors on Jriftotle, are thus tranflated by Mr Harris in
his Hermes.—“ Now, what fancy or imagination is, -pf^Peri-
we may explain as follows: We may'conceive to be patetics and
formed within us, from the operation of the fenfes Idatonifts
about fenfible fubjeCts, fome impreffion (as it were),
or picture in our original fenforium, being a reliCt of
that motion caufed within us by the external objeCt;
a reliCt which, when the external objeCt is no longer
prefent, remains* and is ftill preferred, being as it
were its image ; and which, by being thus preferred,
becomes the caufe of our having memory. Now fuch
a fort of reliCt, and (as it were) impreffion, they call
fancy or imagination (e).” A paffage from Alci-
nous of the doBrines of Plato, as rendered into Eng-
lilh by Dr Reid f, fhows, that in this theory, as in f Efys **
that of. perception, the Platonitts agreed with the t,-'e
Peripatetics. “ When the form or type of things is
imprinted on the mind by the organs of the fenfes, and ^
fo imprinted as not to be deleted by time, but prefer-
ved firm and lading,its prefervation is called memory.”
Mr Harris, who was deeply read in the ancient
philofophy, and who confidered the authority of Ari-
ffotle and Plato as fuperfeding all reafoning and alt
inquiry, after jdftly obferving, that if the foul had no
other faculties than the fenfes it could never acquire
the leall idea of time, thus expreffes hknfelf on the
fubjeCt before us :—“ But happily for us we are not
deferted here. We have, in the firlt place, a faculty
called imagination or fancy; which, however as to its
energies it may be fubfequent to fenfe, yet is truly
prior to it both in dignity and ufe. This it is which
retains the fleeting forms of things, when things themfelves
are gone, and all fenfation is at an end. That this fa¬
culty, however connected with fenfe, is ftill perfectly
different, may be feen from hence. We have an ima¬
gination of things that are gone and extinCt; but no
fuch things can be made objeCts of fenfation. We
have an eafy command over the objeCts of our imagina¬
tion, and can call them forth in almoft what manner we
pleafe ; but our fenfations are neceffary when their ob¬
jeCts are prefent, nor can we control them but by
removing either the objeCts or ourfelves. As wax
would not be adequate to its bufinefs of fignature, had
it not a power to retain as well as receive ; the fame
holds of the soul, with refpeCt 'to fenfe and imagina¬
tion. Sense is its receptive power; imagination its
retentive. Had it fenfe without imagination, it would
not be as wax but as water; where, though all im-
preflions may be inftantly made, yet as foon as made
they are entirely loft. Thus then, from a view of the
two powers taken togethei^we may call sense (if we
pleafe),' a kind of tranfient imagination ; and imagina¬
tion, on the contrary, a kind of permanent fenje.” sg
_ Great part of the office which is here given to ima- ditUnguilh
gination, is in common Engliffi attributed to me-ProPerly
mory ; but betweenjlhefe two faculties, as well as be-^e?wfetl
tween them and recolleCtion, the author accurately Uoifand'
3 P- di-memory,
&c.
(e) The original is as follows : T< to»»u* io-Iiv « fa.Aa.aia. av yvugiaaifitv fu voeik ev n/tet, ann tui utgyuav rfflv jteji ra anrOwTa,
o<ov tutov riva avaHaygapii/tc* ev tu irgcAa aicrSnriifia, iyy.a'laKit/s.fs.a ti r»f viro tov ataSnlov ytvo/ufvue xivnaior, o rat fiirniTi too
euabiTov iragoAoc, vyro/amt re -xat (raftrai, ov aartg eixuv r<f uvlov, o x«i rtif itytix au^ofSAtox aiiiov ymrai to toiqvIq*
tyt.cs.'laixu/j.fs.a, <ctt tov tqiovtm uaictg rvirov, favlatnax x«Xou<riv. Alex Aphrod. de Animit, p. 135. Edit. Aid.
498 M E T A P
Retention difUnguiflies thus :—<c When we view fome rellS of
and Ideas, fenfation repofed within us, ’without thinking of its rife,
''or referring it to anyfenftble ohjeS, this is fancy or ima¬
gination. When we view fome fuch reliB, and re¬
fer it withal to. that fenfihle object which in time pajl was
its caufe and original, this is memory. Laftly, the road
which leads to memory through a feries of ideas however
conneBed, whether rationally or cafually, this is recollec¬
tion.”
Ob’ 'ft' s t^l's theory we only remark, that if we
to their' could underftand the words piBure and form in a meta¬
theory. phorical fenfe, as candor obliges us to underftand
Locke’s images in the mind, the doftrine of Alexan¬
der Aphrodifienfis would be very little wide of the truth.
Experience teaches us that memory as well as percep¬
tion depends upon rhe ftate of the brain ; and as it is
undeniable, that when a man to-day contemplates an
objeft which he perceived yefterday, or at any former
period, he has a view of it in all refpedts fimilar to
the original perception, only fainter and lefs diftindl,
it is extremely probable, that an impreffion ab extra,
w’hich produces a fenfation and perception, leaves be¬
hind it fome tendency \n X\\t brain, to vibrate as in the
adlual fenfation, and that this tendency is carried into
effeB by the internal energy of the mind itfelf. But
in the Peripatetic philofophy, piBures and forms in the
fenforium were confidered as real things, and by no
means as metaphorical expreffions. This is evident
from.their being conftantly compared to the impref¬
fion of a feal upon w.ax, and from their converting the
materia prima from fomething, which can, neither be
feen nor felt, into vifible and tangible body, of which
we (hall treat afterwards. Now it being certain that
on a being immaterial, no corporeal form can be im-
prefied, and repeated diffeftions having fhown that no
fuch forms are in fadt impreffed on the brain, this
whole theory is at once overturned.
[59] Modern philofophers having denied that there are
doctrine rea^ 'tmaSes or forms *n the mind during the imme-
corrcerning diate aft of perception, cannot conliftently with them-
anemory felves. admit fuch images in the aft of retention, or
when thofe things which were formerly objefts of
perception are recalled to, the mind by the power of
memory. Mr Locke’s doftrine is, that “ the mind
retains thefe ftmple ideas which it firft received from
fenfation or refleftion, two ways : firft, by keeping the
idea, which is brought into it, for fome time aftually
in view, which is called conte mplation : and fecond-
ly, by the power which we have to revive again in
o.ur minds thofe ideas, which, after imprinting, have
difappeared, or have been, as it were, laid out of
fight; as when we conceive heat or light, yellow or
fweet, the objeft being removed. This (he fays) is
memory; which is, as it were, the ftore-houfe of o.ur
t F-friy, ideas f.
Book *i. explain this more fully, he immediately adds the
c iap.,ic. f0I]ow!ng obfervation :—“ But our ideas being no¬
thing but aftual perceptions in the mind, which ceafe
to be any thing when there is no perception of them,
this laying up of our ideas in the repofitory of the
memory, fignifies no more but this, that the mind
has a power,, in many cafes, to revive perceptions
which it has once had, with this additional percep¬
tion annexed to them, that it has had" them before.
And in this fenfe it is, that our ideas are faid to be
in our memories, when indeed they are aftually no-
FI Y S I C S. Parti.
where; but only there is an ability in the mind, when Retention
it will, to revive them again, and, as it were, paint and Ideas.
them anew on itfelf, though fome with more fome * ^
with lefs difficulty, fome snore lively and others more
obfeurely. And thus it is, by the affiftance of this
faculty, that we are faid to have all thofe ideas in
our underftandings, which, though we do not aftually
contemplate them, yet we can bring in fight, and
make appear again, and be the objefts of our thoughts,
without the help of thofe fenfible qualities which firft
imprinted them there.”
. To attempt a defence of the accuracy of this lan¬
guage would be vain ; but as the author’s meaning is
Efficiently obvious, his expveffions may be eafily and
certainly correfted. Had Locke faid—“ But our
ideas being nothing but feenes or appearances in the
mind, which ceafe to be any thing when there is no
perception of them, this laying up of our ideas in the
repofitory of the memory fignifies no more but this,
that the mind has a power, in many cafes, to revive
feenes which it has once viewed, with this additional
perception annexed to them, that it has viewed them
before ;” there would have been no room for the many
petulant remarks which have been made upon the paf-
%e- . . .60
But againft this account of memory, a much heavier0bjefted toi.
charge has been brought than that which regards the
propriety of the language. It has been faid, that the
additional perception, which, according to Locke, at¬
tends the revival of our ideas by the power of me¬
mory, “ would be a fallacious perception, if it led
us to believe that we had them before, fince they can¬
not have two beginnings of exiftence: nor can we
believe them to have two beginnings of exiftence ; we
can only believe that we had formerly ideas or per¬
ceptions very like to them, though not identically the
fame.” Let us examine this queftion fomewhat nar¬
rowly : for if it be really true, that in the fenfe in
which the word fame is here ufed, we cannot twice
contemplate the fame idea, all confidence in memory
would feem to be at an end.
Suppofe a man to ftand on fome of the rifing 0bjec».
grounds about Edinburgh, the CaLton bill for inftance, tion obvi-
and from that eminence to view the glorious profpeft a’ecl*
of the coaft of Fife, the ocean, the frith of Forth,,
and the little iflands fcattered in the frith. Let him
go away, and return next day to the fame place, and
look the fame way : we would a(k whether he has
the fame view or perception which he had the day be¬
fore ? The man muft furely be very captious who
would fay that he has not: and yet it is certain that the
energy of mind by which he perceives on one day can¬
not be identically the fame with that by which he
perceived on another; nor are the rays of light which
fall upon his eyes on the fecond day, identically the
fame with thofe which fell upon his eyes and occa-
fionedvifion on the firft day. Let the fame man now
ffiut his eyes, and contemplate the various, objefts at
which he had been juft looking. They will appear
to him in all refpefts the fame as when viewed by
means of his organs of fight, only fainter and lefs di-
ftinft:,. with this additional conviftion, that the imme¬
diate objefts of his prefent contemplation are not real
external things, but ideas or mental reprefentations of
thofe things which had fo lately been the objefts of his
fight. Let him think no more about the. matter for
3. fome
Part T.
Retention fome days, and then exert his power of memory. We
,and l(<-Fa8’ have no hefitation to fay, that in the fenfe of the word
v ~ fame, as ufed by Mr Locke, the very fame ideas will
recur and be prefent to his intelledt which were pre-
fent to it at the former contemplation. The fecond
energy of memory or imagination, or whatever it may
be called, is not indeed identically the fame with the
firft; nor is that agitation or motion, or whatever
other alfeftion of the brain is necafTary to memory,
identically the fame at the fecond time as at the firft :
but the mind exerting itfelf in the very fame manner
at the one time as at the other, produces the fame
kind of agitation in the brain, and is itfelf affefted in
the very fame way at the fecond as at the firft exer¬
tion. Whence it follows, that the fecond idealfcene
will be as much the fame with the firft, as the fecond
a&ualperception is the fame with the firft ; and the two
ideal fcenes, and the two aftual perceptions, are refpec-
tively faid to be the fame with each other, only be-
caufe they imprefs the mind with a conviction that
they were occafioned by the fame external objefts.
But though we think Locke’s doCtrine, with re-
fpcdt to memory, may be thus eafily vindicated from
the charge of fallacioufnefs, we mult acknowledge that
to us it appears not to be of much value. It teaches
nothing, hut that the mind has a power to retain ideas
of thofe objedts which it formerly perceived, and in
many inftances to recal them as occafion may require.
But thefe are truths known to all mankind, to the
clown as well as to the philofopher.
6z Philofophers in general have paid lefs regard to the
idon °fP^ Tetentive faculties of the mind than to its original
JHume. powers of perception. Perhaps they imagined, that
as memory depends upon perception, and in fome re-
fpeCts appears to refemble it, a competent knowledge
of the nature of the former faculty would lead to that
of the fecond. Be this as it may, Mr Hume, who was
at fome pains to detail his notions of perception, has
in his Philofophical Efiays only dropt concerning me¬
mory and imagination a few hints, fo loofely thrown
together, that, if he had not elfewhere expreffed him-
felf with more precifion, it would have been difficult
to difcover his real meaning. According to him, that
which is commonly called the perception of an external
objed, is nothing but a ftrong impreffion upon the
mind ; and that which is called the remembrance of a
pajl object, is nothing but a prefent impreffion or idea
weaker than the former. Imagination is an idea weak¬
er than the idea or impreffion which he calls memory.
This feems to be a wonderful abufe of language. Im-
preffions are not perceptions; and, if poffible, they can
ftill lefs be called ideas, which are but fecondary per¬
ceptions. It is likewife far from being true, that an
idea of imagination has neceffarily lefs vivacity than
an idea of memory. We have feen Mr Hume, and
have at the prefent moment an idea of his form and
drefs: we can likewife imagine to ourfelves a centaur;
499
and though a centaur was never feen, and therefore Retention
cannot be an imprefton repeated by memory, our idea of and ldeas-|
the monfter is much more lively and diftindt than that v
of the philofopher.
Dr Reid having obferved of memory*, that it isbyof ^
it we have an immediate knowledge of things part; Reid.
that it muft have an objeft; that in this refpedt it a-* EJfays on
grees with perception, but differs from fenfation, whicht!je
has no objedt but the feeling itfelf; and that every ‘“f yi™"*
man can diftinguilh the thing remembered from the J
remembrance of it—proceeds to inquire what memory
is? And, u Firft (fays he), I think it appears that
memory is an original faculty given us by the Author
of our being, of which we can give no account but
that we are fo made. The knowledge (continues he)
which I have of things paft by my memory, feems to
me as unaccountable as an immediate knowledge would
be of things to come(F); and I can give no reafon
why I ffiould have the one and not the other, but that
fuch is the will of my Maker. I find in my mind a
diftindl conception and a firm belief of a feries of paft
events; but how this is produced 1 know not. I call
it memory; but this is only giving a name to it ; it is
not an account of its caufe I believe moft firmly what
I diftindtly remember; but I can give no reafon of this
belief. It is the infpiration of the Almighty which
gives me this underftanding. When I believe the truth
of a mathematical axiom or of a mathematical propo-
fition, I fee that it muft be fo: every man who has the
fame conception of it fees the fame. There is a ne-
ceffary and an evident connexion between the fubject
and the predicate of the propofition ; and I have all
the evidence t6 fupport my belief which lean poffibly
conceive. When I believe that I wafhed my hands and
face this morning, there appears no neceffity in the
truth of the propofition. It might be or it might not
be. A man may diftindlly conceive it without be¬
lieving it at all. How then do I come to believe it ?
I remember it diftindtly. This is all I can fay. This
remembrance is an adt of my mind. Is it impoffible
that this aft ftiould be, if the event had not happen¬
ed? I confefs I do not fee any neceffary conneftion
between the one and the other. If any man can Ihow
fuch a neceffary conneftion, then I think that belief
which we have of what we remember will be fairly ac¬
counted for: but if this'cannot be done, that belief is
unaccountable; and we can fay no more but that it is
the refult of our conftitution. Our original faculties
are all unaccountable : Of thefe memory is one. He
only who made them comprehends fully how they are
made, and how they produce in us not only a concep¬
tion, but a firm belief and affurance, of things which
it concerns us to know.”
On this account of memory we {hall make no re¬
marks. There is a certain lenfe of the words, in which
every thing which the author has faid on the fubjeft is
undoubtedly juft; and it would be very uncandid to
3 R 2 take
(f) If memory depends upon the flate of the brain as it has been affefted in paft perceptions, this
appears to us a ftrange pofition. Perhaps the excellent author means nothing more, than that it is as
unaccountable to us, that impreffions on the brain (hould caufe perception, and the veftiges of thofe im-
preffions ffiould caufe remembrance, as how the mind might not perceive things to come without the in¬
tervention of impreffions on the brain. If this be his meaning, no man will controvert it : foi it is im¬
poffible to difegver the nature of that relation which fubfifts between an impreffion and perception; but
that there is fuch a relation, we know from experience.
M £ T A 1> H Y S r C S,
5oo M E T A P
Retention take his words in any other fenfe. But though me-
and Ideas. inoryj as ;t js (.jje refult 0f that conftitution which was
^ given us by God, and not the offspring of habit or
human contrivance, is unqueftionably an original fa¬
culty ; and though it is therefore impoffible to account
for it fo fully as to filence every inquiry which may be
made ; yet we could wifh that Dr Reid had bellowed
a little more pains upon it, in order to difcover if pof-
fible in what refps&s it refembles or differs from per¬
ception. He has well obferved, that there are laws of
nature by which the operations of the mind are regu¬
lated, as well as laws of nature which govern the ma¬
terial fyftem. As the latter are the ultimate conclu-
fions which the human faculties -can reach in the phi-
lofophy of bodies, fo the former are the ultimate con-
clufions which we can reach in the philofophy of
minds. The more general that thefe laws are in both
cafes, the more ufeful they are and the more fatisfac-
tory: for as they are themfelves inexplicable, the
fewer they are in number, and the more comprehenfive
each, the fewer will thofe phenomena be for which we
can give no account. Thus, as we know not what
makes the planets tend to the centre of the fun, or
heavy bodies tend to the centre of the earth, we can
give no other account of thefe phenomena, but that,
as they appear to be of the fame kind, it is reafonable
toconlude that they proceed from limilar caufes. What
the caufe is of this tendency of bodies towards each
other, we know not We call \t gravitation, and em¬
ploy it to account for all phenomena of the fame kind.
In like manner it is univerfally allowed, that as we
know not how mind and matter operate upon each
other, there is fome thing in perception wholly unac¬
countable. That perception follows fenfation; and
that there is no fenfation which is not occafioned by
fome affedlion of the brain, proceeding from fome im-
preflion ab extra; we have the evidence of experience:
but how a particular affeflion of the brain fhould ex¬
cite a fenfation in the mind, we know not; though we
may here, as in the corporeal fyftem, attribute fimilar
effeAs to the fame or fimilar caufes. Thus, if when
we exert an a£t of memory we have the fame appear¬
ance of things as in the original a£l of perception, the.
rules of philofophifing authorife us to refer both phe¬
nomena to the fame general law; juft as they autho¬
rife us to refer the motion of the planets and of pro¬
jectiles to the fame general law. On the other hand,
if we perceive no fimilarity between memory and per¬
ception, we have made no progrefs in the philofophy
of mind; for in that cafe we have difcovered two phe-
> nomena proceeding from two caufes totally different
from each other, and both inexplicable. Although we
fcarcely hope to throw any light upon a fubjedt which
Dr Reid has not attempted to illuftrate, we ftiall ftate
a few fadts refpefting the memory, and fubmit to the
reader the conclufions to which we think thefe fads
lead.
i. Objefts once perceived by the fenfes, when re¬
called to the mind by the power of memory, appear
H Y S I C S. partr,
precifely the fame as in the original perception, only Retention
lefs diftinCl*. For example, having feen yefterday a anc* Ideas,
fpreading oak growing on the bank of a river, and ■•""’■v—
having heard a fhepherd play, and handled a fquare pj,,.
ftone, we endeavour to recal to our minds thefe obje&s pearance of
which are now abfent How is this operation per-feniikle ob-
formed? Do we endeavour to form in our minds P*c‘
tures of them or reprefentative images? or, does our [he^mwe/
intelleft furvey the types or forms which, according of memory,
to Ariftotle, thofe objects left in the imagination when * Append'*:
originally perceived ? Neither of thefe things is done. tof^lem‘r!trs
We conceive ourfelves as Handing in the fame place ^ Cr,tuiJm*
where we ftood yefterday; upon which we have per¬
ceptions of the objeds similar in all refpeds to the
perceptions which we had when we employed our eyes,
our ears, and our hands. The tree appears, as it •. ere,
before us; faint indeed, but attended with all the ob-
jeds which we obferved around it yefterday: we feem
to hear the found of the pipe confufedly, and at a di-
ftance; to move our hands over the ftone, and to feel
the fame furfaces and the fame angles which we felt in
the original perception. In this recolledion we are
not confcious of pidures or images more than in the
original furvey. The perceptions feem to be of the
tree and river themfelves, of the found itfelf, and of
the ftone itfelf, exadly as at the firft; and yet we are
fatisfied that in the ad of remembrance we perceive
no fuch objed as a real tree, pipe, or ftone. That
thefe are fads,t every man mull be convinced who at¬
tends to the energies of his own mind when exerting
the powers of retention : and therefore it is, in our
opinion, with no impropriety that Mr Harris fays, we
may call sense, if wepleafe, a kind of tranftent imagina¬
tion; and imagination, on the contrary, a kind ofper¬
manent fenfe: for if thefe two faculties, as far as the
mind or intelled is concerned, be not the fame, they
feem to referable each other much. 65
2. The primary perception of a vifible objed is more What ideas
complete, lively, and diftind, and remains longer in p"131" ,
the fenforium, than that of any other objed. We the^mem*.
know likewife by experience, that an idea or fecondary ry.
perception of a vifible objed is as much more complete,
lively, and diftind, than the idea of any other objed,
as was the primary perception; and that we remember
things which we have feen for a longer time than
founds which we have heard, or than tangible objeds
which we have only handled. Yet there feems to be
a conftant decay of all our ideas, even of thofe which
are ftruck(G) deepeft and in minds the moft retentive;
fo that if they be not frequently renewed by repeated
exercife of the fenfes, or by refledion on thofe objeds
which at firft occafioned them, the print (g)_ wears
out, and at laft% there remains nothing to be feen.
Concerning ideas, it is eafy to remark, that thofe re¬
main longeft and cleareft in the memory which are
derived from two or more fenfes, efpecially if the fenfe
of fight be one of the number, or which are ofteneft
refrelhed by a return of the objeds which produced
them. Hence a man has a longer and more diftind
remem-
(g) Thefe expreffions, which mention ideas as things which are deep Jlruck, and as prints which wear
out, are the expreffions of Locke. We hope it is needlefs to warn our readers, that they are ufed by
us as they were by him in a metaphorical fenfe. On thefe fubjeds it is impoflible to write without me¬
taphor ; which, while the meaning is obvious, no man will condemn, who rcffeds that the words of lan¬
guage were not invented by metaphyficians, and are for the molt part literally fignificant only of fen«
fible- objeds.
Part I.
66
Memory a
kind of ha¬
bit.
*Re;<r,Ef-
fays on the
JntelleSiual
Toners of
Man,
Lockes Ef
IBr
idea Xug-
gefts ano¬
ther, and
M E T A P
remembrance of what he has feen than of what he has
only heard, of what he has both feen and felt than of
what he has only feen; ahd the ideas which we have
of heat and cold, ofe hunger and third, and of allthofe
things which moft frequently afteft our fenfes, are ex¬
tremely clear, and are never quite loll whilft the mind
retains any ideas at all.
3. Memory appears to be a kind of habit, which is
not always in exercife with regard to things we re¬
member, but is ready to fuggelt them when there is
occafion. The moft perfeft degree of this habit is,
when the thing prefects itfelf to our remembrance
fpontaneoufly, and without labour, as often as there
is occafion. A fecond degree is, when the thing is
forgotten for a longer or Ihorter time, even when there
is occafion to remember it, and yet at laft fome inci¬
dent,' fuch as a violent paffion*, which agital.es the
whole mind and fenforium, tumbles the idea, as it
were, out of its dark corner, and brings it into view
without any fearch. A third degree is, when we call
about and fearch for what we would remember, and
after fome labour find it out. This fearching faculty
of the foul is by Ariftotle called a.^u^n, by Dr Reid
and others remimfcence, and by Mr Harris recolleSian.
Should it be faid, that what we will to remember we
mull already conceive, as we can will nothing of which
we have not a conception ; and that, therefore, a will to
remember a thing, feems to imply that we remember it
already—we anfwer,with Dr Reid, that when we will to
remember a thing, we muft indeed remember fomething
relating to it; but we may have no pofitive idea or con¬
ception of the thing itfelf, but only of the relation which
it bears to that other thing which we do remember.
Thus, one remembers that a friend charged him with
a commiffion to be executed at fuch a place, but he
has forgotten what the commifiion was. He applies
himfelf to difeaver it; and recolleffs that it was given
by fuch a perfosi, upon fuch an occafion, in confequence
of fuch a converfation : and thus by a train of thought
he is led to the very thing which he had forgotten
and wilhed to remember. To this operation it is not
always neceffary that the relations between the various
ideas which the mind turns over be very clofe, or have
their foundation in nature ; for a cafual connexion is
often fuflicient. Thus, from feeing a garment, we think
of its owner; thence of his habitation; thence of woods;
thence of timber; thence of fliips; thence of admirals;
thence of cannons, iron, furnaces, and forges, &c.”
That, in the procefs of recolleftion, one idea Ihould
fuggeft another, may be eafiiy accounted for. When,
in perception, our minds are expofed to the influence
of external olyedls, all the parts and properties, and
even the accidental variable adjunfts of thefe objefts,
are perceived by full-grown men at the fame time ; fo
that the whole group makes but one impreffion upon
our organs of fenfe, and confequently upon the mind.
By thefe means all the parts of the fimultaneous im¬
preffion f, and confequently of the perception occa-
fioned by that impreflion, are fo intimately aflbeiated
or linked together, that the idea of any one of them
H Y S I C S.
recurring at any future period, generally introduces Retention
the ideas of all the reft. But as the neceflary parts an^ h'-eas.^
and properties of any thing are more clofely linked _v
together, and occur more frequently than any parti¬
cular variable adjundts,' it is obvious, that by the idea
of any one of thefe properties, the idea of the reft,
and of the objeffc itfelf, will be more readily introdu¬
ced than by the idea of any variable adjunct. It
feems, however, to be certain, that we have no power
of calling up any idea at pleafure, but only fuch as
have a connexion, either in nature or by means of
former aftociations, with thofe that are at any time
prefent to the mind. Thus the fight, or the idea, of
afiy particular perfon, generally enables us to recoi¬
led! his name, becaufe his name and his perfon have
been conftantly aflbeiated together. If that fail to
introduce the name, we are at a lofs and cannot re-
colledl it at all till fome other affociated circumftance
help us. In naming a number of words in a fentence,
or lines in a poem, the end of each preceding word or
line being connedted with the beginning of the word
or line which fucceeds it, we can ealily repeat them
in that order ; but we are not able to repeat them
backwards with any cafe, nor at all till after many
fruitlefs efforts. By frequent trials, however, we ac¬
quire at laft a facility in doing it, as may be found by
making the experiment on the names of number from
one to twenty. It is, indeed, probable* that in the
wildeft flights of fancy, no Angle idea occurs to us but
fuch as had a connexion with fome other idea, percep-
tion, or notion, previoufly exifting in the mind, as lhall
be fliown more fully in a fubfequent chapter. 68
4. “ Memory appears to depend entirely or chiefly Memory
upon the ftate of the brain *. For difeafes, concuffions
of the brain,fpirituous liquors, and fome poifons, impair the brain,
or deftroy it; and it generally returns again with the * Hartley
return of health, from the ufe of proper medicines andMan.
methods. It is obfervable, too, that in recovering
from concuffions and other diforders of the brain,
it is ufual for the perfon to recover the power of re¬
membering the then prefent common incidents for mi¬
nutes, hours, and days, by degrees; alfo the power
of recalling the events of his life preceding his illnefs.
At length he recovers this laft power perfectly ; and
at the fame time forgets almoft all that paft in his ill¬
nefs, even thofe things which at firft he remembered
for a day or two. Now the reafon of this feems to be,
that upon a perfect recovery the brain recovers its na¬
tural ftate, and all its former affeflions and tendencies;,
but that fuch affedlions or tendencies as took place
during the preternatural ftate, i. e. during the patient’s
illnefs, are obliterated by the return of the natural
ftate.” All this we are induced to believe; becaufe,
though it is a fadl incontrovertible,, that in certain dif¬
eafes the memory is impaired, and recovers its vigour
with the return of health, it is not conceivable that'
the mind itfelf ftiould fuffer any change by difeafes,.
concuffions, or fpirituous liquors, &c.
From thefe fa&s we are ftrongly inclined to con¬
clude, that the power of the mind, or immaterial ( h )prin-
ciple
(h) Thiough the whole of this and the preceding chapters, we have taken it for granted that the fentient
principle in man is not material. This is the cormnon, and, as {hall be ftiown afterwards, the moft probable
opinion ; but whether it be abfolutely certain or not, makes no difference on the theories of fenfation and per¬
ception. Thefe are obvioufly neither figure nor motion, and therefore not fubjed to the laws which govern,
the material world.
;vo'2
METAPHYSICS.
Retention clple, hy which it remembers paft events, differs not
and Idea'. from that by which it perceives prefent objefts. In
perception, impreffions are made upon the organs of
External which are communicated to the brain ; and, by
objetfU ore-fome unknown means, occaiion fenfations which are
ratine on followed by the perception of the external objedt.-
leavefome ^r^en ^7 the power of memory we recal paft objects
permanent ^en^e> the mind has the fame view of them as in the
effefi in the original perception, except that they appear fainter,
brain. lets diftindl, and generally more diftant. We have,
therefore, reafon to conclude, that in the aft of re¬
membrance the brain is affefted in the fame way,
though not fo forcibly, as in perception. That me¬
mory depends as much as perception upon the ftateof
•the brain, is confirmed by daily experience; and
therefore there cannot be a doubt but that external
objefts, operating upon the fenies, nerves, and brain,
leave fome permanent effeft behind them. What that
effeft precifely is we cannot know, and we need not
defire to know; but that they leave fotne effeft we
have as good evidence as that the planets are moved
round the fun by forces of the fame kind with thofe
by which projeftiles are moved on the earth. Could
we fuppofe that they leave real prints or impreffions be¬
hind them, which we confefs to be very little probable,
memory would feem to be nothing but the perceptive
power of the mind turned to thofe imprefiions. If the
permanent effeft of impreffions by external objefts be,
as Dr Hartley fuppofes, only a tendency in the brain
to vibrate as in the original perception, remembrance
will refult from the mind’s operating upon the brain
as in aftual perception and the reafon that ideas of
memory are fainter than perceptions of fenfe, is, that
the former are produced by a iingle, and the latter by
70 a double, operation.
This theory appears to be greatly confirmed by the
following well-known fafts, that children foon com-
perffedion”uut to their memory any thing which they under-
and then ftand, and as foon forget it; that the powers of me-
gradually mory gradually advance to perfeftion, and then gra-
decays. dually decay ; and that old men remember more di-
ftinftly what they perceived in their youth, than what
they perceived a year ago. For if the memory
belonged wholly to the pure intelleft, and had no de¬
pendence upon the brain, it is not eafy to conceive
how it (hould advance towards a ftate of perfeftion
and afterwards decay. . A being which is unexteiided -
and indivifible, can fuffer no change either -in its ef-
fence or in its faculties: the ideas which it had once
retained, it would retain forever. But if memory be
occafioned by fome relift of fenfe left in the brain, it
is eafy to fee how all thofe changes fhould take place:
and therefore, though we have the weight of Dr
Reid’s authority againft us, we cannot help thinking
that Ariftotle was in the right, when he imputed the
ffiortnefs of memory in children to this caufe, that
their brain is too moift and foft to retain impreffions
made upon it; and that he was likewife in the right,
when he imputed the defeft of memory in old men to
the hardnefs and rigidity of the brain, which hinders
it from receiving any datable impreffion.
Another argument to prove, that in remembrance
the mind afts upon fomething left in the brain by
the impreffions of fenfe, is this, that nothing can adt
Why the
memory
ad van i
Part I.
but whete it is 'prefent. The truth of this axiom is Retention
acknowledged by Dr Reid, and we believe by all man- and
kind except Dr Prieftley and one or two others, '””-y
whofe paradoxes we (hall confider afterwards. Now
it is confeffed, that in recolleftion at leaft the mind is
aftive ; and therefore it muft aft, not upon an objeft
which has now perhaps no exiftence, and certainly no
immediate exiftence, but upon fomething left by that
objeft in the brain or fenforium, to which the mind
is intimately prefent. yr
But if this be fo, we may be aflced how it comes By what
to pafs that men never confound memory with per-means we '
ception, nor fancy that they perceive things which foun(j me.
they only remember ? If perception be an inference mory with
drawn from certain fenfations excited by an impref-perception.,]
lion on the brain, and if remembrance refult from the
mind’s operating upon relifts of thofe impreffions, one
would think it natural to fuppofe, that in both cafes
we have aftual perceptions, though in the one cafe
the perception muft be more vivid and diftinft than in
the other. To this we anfwer. That previous to all
experience, perception and memory are very probably
confounded; and that we believe a man brought into
the world with all his faculties in their full natu¬
ral perfeftion, would not inftantiy be able to diftin-
guilh what he remembered from what he perceived.
This we know to be the cafe with refpeft to imagi¬
nation, a faculty which ftrongly refembles memory ;
for in dreams, and fometimes even in waking reveries,
we fancy that we aftually perceive things which it is
certain ive can only imagine. A Very ftrort experi¬
ence, however, would enable this newly created man
to make the proper diftinftion between remembrance
and perception. For let us fuppofe him to be brought
into a dark room, and foon afterwards a candle to be
introduced. The candle would give him a vifible fen-
fatioti, though not at firft the perception of an exter¬
nal objeft. Let the candle after fome time be car¬
ried out: the man would retain a vifible idea> which
he might confound with the aftual fenfation. But if,
whilft this idea remained in his mind, the candle were
brought back, he would inftantiy feel a difference be¬
tween the real fenfation and the idea, when both were
together prefent to his mind. And having, in fome fuch
manner as we have already deferibed, acquired the
power of perceiving external objefts by means of his
ienfes, he would foOn difeover, without any effort of
his own, the difference between aftual perceptions and
the ideas treafured up in his memory'. 7*
The only remaining difficulty which feems to en- The order
cumber this theory of remembrance, is, to account for
the order of fucceffion in which objefts recur to the ol}_-
meihory, and to which we give the name of je&s recur
But this difficulty willivanifir when we have afeertain- to the me¬
ed what time is. At prefent it is fufficient to obferve, moi7‘
that our perceptions of external objefts remain a cer¬
tain fpace of time in the mind ; that this time is diffe¬
rent, according to the ftrength and other circumftan-
ces of the impreffion which occafioned the percep¬
tion ; and that traces of thofe perceptions, e. ideas,
may be recalled after the intervention of other trains
of ideas, and at very different intervals. If one look
upon a houfe, and then (hut his eyes, the impieffion
which it made upon his mind will not inftantiy va-
nilh:
METAPHYSICS.
Part I.
Retention nift : Ju can contemplate the houfe almoft as long as
and Ideas, p]eafes . an<3> by the help of various aflbciated
' circumflances, he may recal the idea feveral years
afterwards, and refer it to the original perception.
_ 73, Before we difmifs the fubieft of retention, it may
Bruteshave . . . ^ i r .n . J
memory, not i^ptoper to ta.-ce notice ot the retentive pow-
and ’ ers of inferior animals. Ariftotle, Loche, Dr Reid,
and aim oft every philofopher of eminence both among
the ancients and moderns, have maintained, that infe-
505
But furely man rememlers what he has feen anA felt as Retention
well as what he has conceived or thought; and if imagi- and I^eas;1.
nation and memory be properly diftinguilhed by Mr
Harris, the reverfe of this writer’s dodtrine muft be
true, viz. that imagination belongs only to and
memory of fenfible objects both to man and brute.—
We can contemplate in imagination the idea of
a centaur or ?lgolden mountain; but we cannot be fail
to remember them, for they were never perceived.
rior animals have memory as well as men ; and indeed That a dog can contemplate in his imagination the
we do not perceive how the fa£t can be denied of the idea of a centaur ox of & golden mountain, we have not
more perfect animals, and thofe with whofe operations
we are beft acquainted. A dog knows his mafter
again after a long abfence ; a horfe will trace back a
road which he has but once travelled, often with more
accuracy than his rider ; and it is well known that
many fpecies of finging birds have a capacity to learn
tunes from the human voice, and that they repeat the
notes again and again, approaching nearer and nearer
to perfedtion, till at laft they fing the tune correftly.
Thefe phenomena can be accounted for only by fup-
pofing, that in the brains of the feveral animals traces
e left by perception, of the fame kind with thofe
the leaft reafon to fuppofe ; but were he not capable
of viewing relidls of fenfe repofed within him, and re¬
ferring them to their K>riginal caufes, he could not
poffibly recognife his mafter after a day’s abfence. 74.
Dr Reid and the fame author agree with Ariftotle, the power'
in thinking it probable that brutes have not reminif-of r'-call®c*
cence, or the power of recolledlion ; but there aretl0IU
many well attefted fafts which feem to prove the con¬
trary. We ftiall mention one which fell under our
own obfervation. One of the perfons concerned in
this work was, when a young man, abfent for five
months from the houfe of his father. Upon his re-
which perception leaves in the brain of man, and which turn, a dog of that fpecies which is commonly called
e the caufe or occalion of his remembrance. With
refpecl to this point, the learned author of Ancient
Metaph’jf.cs differs from his mafter Ariftotle. He al¬
lows that brutes have imagination, but denies that
they have memory : for (fays he) “ memory neceffa-
rily implies a fenfe of time, and what is jirjl and lajl;
but brutes have no idea of time, or of fir, i and laft;
and it is certain that they have not confcioufnefs or
reflection, by which only they could review their own
operations. At the fame time he admits, that imagi¬
nation in the brute ferves the purpofe of memory in
us; for whenever he fees the objedt that is painted on
his phantajia, he knows it again, but without any per¬
ception of the time when he firft faw it.” But that
a brute, when he fees the objedt which is painted on
his phantafia, fhould know it again without referring
it to a former perception, is plainly impoffible. The
recognifance of any thing confifts in a confcioufnefs
of its having been perceived before^ and nothing more
than fuch recognifance is effential to memory. The
author’s miftake feems to lie in fuppofing that me¬
mory neceflarily implies a fenfe of fome determi¬
nate portion of paft time ; but we furely remember
many things of which we can only fay that we have
formerly perceived them, without being able to afeer-
the fhepherd’s cur, and which had been in the poffef-
fion of his father only a few months before his de¬
parture, gazed at him for a few minutes as at any
other ftranger. The animal then began to walk round
him with looks which foon attradled his notice. This
made him call the dog by the name which he bore in -
the family, and ftretch out his hand to carefs him,
when the creature inftantly leaped upon him with all
that appearance of attachment which thofe animals fo
commonly exhibit upon the return of their mafter af¬
ter a few days abfence. If this was not recolledftion,
we ftiould be glad to know what it was, for we cannot
diftinguifti it from recolledlion in men. Indeed, if
dogs and fome other animals poffefs, as Ariftotle,
Locke, and others, allow them to poffefs, the power
of memory, and fohiething of ratiocination ; and if, as
Dr Reid ertprefsty fays (J, “ they expeft events in the * EJfaytonr-
fame order and fucceffion in which they happened In*ellec-~
fore ;” it is not conceivable that they can be wholly '
deftitute of reminifcence, or the power of recolledlion.
That memory is a faculty of the firft importance, Menwrr
cannot be denied ; fince it is obvious, that, without the capable of
power of retainifig the ideas and notions which we improve-
receive by the fenles and other faculties, we never menu,
could make any progrefs in the acquifition of know-
tain the precife period at which we had fuch percep- ledge, but fhould begin. every day, nay every hour,
tions. A child has the ufe of memory fooner than he
acquires the faculty of fpeech ; but he muft have fpo-
ken and even reafoned before he can have an accurate
notion of time; which, as fhall be fhown afterwards,
arifes from comparing the fleeting fucceffion of our,
own ideas with the permanence of aurfelves and other
objedfs. The author’s diftindtion between memory
and imagination feems to be on all accounts impro¬
per. Ariftotle has faid, and faid truly, that there is
memory of ideas as well as of fenfible obje&s ; mean-
ing by ideas general conceptions or propofitions : but
this reviver of his philofophy is inclined'to fay, “ that
memory is only of ideas, confequently belongs only to
man ; and that imagination is only of fenfible objedts,
and. confequently belongs both to man and brute.”—
in the fame ftate of ignorance in which we are born.
That it is a faculty capable of improvement by exer-
cife, and that there are fome methods of exercife bet¬
ter adapted for this purpofe than others, has been-
fhown elfewhere. flee Memory.
Chap.III. Simple Apprehension ani
Conception.
The ideas received into the; mind by the fenfes,
and treafured up in the memory and imagination, arefenfitiorr
the original materials of human knowledge. It is by thcflrh
comparing thofe ideas with one another, or by analy-^tria,s
fing them into their firft principles, that we acquire
all our knowledge in mathematics and philofophy,
aadij
5°4-
M ETAPHYSICS.
Part I>
ftance, the two globes affeft our fenfe of touch !n the 0f
fame way, and our fenfe of feeing differently ; in the ‘^pran^
fecond, the two black fubftances affeft our fenfe of fight Conception
in the fame way, and our fenfe of touch differently. ——v '
From obferving this difference among objects by
means of the different fenfations received from themj.
the mind learns to analyfe its original ideas, which are
copies of thofe fenfations, into their firft principles.
ceived by fome fenfe ; fo that the whole difference be¬
tween complex ideas fabricated by the mind, and
thofe which are the relifts of fenfation, confifts in the
order in which the conftituent Ample ideas of each are'
put together. Thus, no man ever faw a mountain of
pure gold ; and therefore the idea of fuch a mountain
cart be in no human mind as a relift of fenfation : but
we have all feen pieces of gold of different fizes, and
we have all feen mountains; and nothing is more eafy
than to conceive a piece of gold extended on all iidcs
to the fize of a mountain, and rifmg out of the earth.
Again, though no perfon ever faw a centaur, yet it
is eafy to 'conceive the upper parts of a man joined to
the breaft and ihoulders of a horfe. In thefe inftances.
Of simple and indeed all the knowledge which regulates our
Apprehen conc}uft through life. It muff, therefore, be of im-
Gonception Portance t0 trace the Progref5 °f the min.d in her var‘'
■ y ous operations upon thefe materials; beginning, as ffie
certainly begins, with that which is moft Ample, and
proceeding regularly to thofe which are more com¬
plex and difficult.
11 Now the firft operation of the mind about her
Simple ap- {jeas appears plainly to be that which logicians term and to combine thofe principles in fuch a manner as to
of Ideas01 f‘mp^ apprehenjion. Having yefterday obferved a tree form complex ideas of objefts which were never ac-
or any other objeft, if we contemplate the idea of that tually perceived by the fenfes. Of the Ample and un¬
tree to day as it remains in the imagination, without mixed principles which compofe thofe compl x ideas,
comparing it with any other idea, or referring it to there is not indeed one which was not originally
any external objeft, we perform the operation which —;-“J k” c*™- • o. ft.* ’
is called fimple apprehenfion. We confider Ample ap-
prehenfion as an operation, becaufe the mind in the ap¬
prehenfion of her own ideas is certainly aftive ; fhe
turns them, as it were, round and round, and views
them on every fide.
D'fferent Simple apprehenfion is a phrafe which is common-
from con- ly taken to be of the fame import with the word con-
ceptioD. ceplion ; and in the ordinary affairs of life no confufion
can arife from an mdifcriminate ufe of the two words :
but in this article~we think it expedient to employ the
phrafe frmp/e apprehenfion, to denote the view or con¬
templation of thofe ideas only which the mind by fen-
fation has aftually received from external objefts ; and  
the word conception to denote the view, not only of the complex conceptions are of things which it is in the
thofe ideas, but alfo of fuch as the mind fabricates higheft degree probable never had a real exiftence, and
to hcrfelf. Thus, a man may conceive a centaur', but which it is certain we never perceived as exifting : but
we would not choofe to fay that he may apprehend a the fimple ideas of which they are compofed are the.,
centaur : not that there is any impropriety, perhaps, relifts of aftual fenfations; for every one has per-
in this laft expreffion ; but as there is certainly a dif- ceived as really exifting the body of a horfe and the
ference between apprehending idea of what has been upper parts of a man, and when conceiving a centaur
feen or felt, and conceiving that which never exifted, he only perceives them to exift united. That we have
perfpicuity requires that thefe different operations be not in the imagination one fimple and unmixed idea
expreffed by different names. which was not left there as a relift of fenfe, every man
We have faid that the mind may conceive what wiH be convinced who fhall try to conceive a fimple
In what never exifted ; and every man may eafily fatisfy him- colour or tafte which is totally different from all the
fenfe it is felf that what we have faid is true : but though this has colours and taftes, and all the (hades and varieties of
true that freqUently called the creative power of the mind, them, which he has received by fenfation j but his
ceivTob^"" it has in faft no refemblance to creation. The mate- fimple ideas, though all received from without, he may
jefts which rials of all our moft complex and fantaftic conceptions pUt together in numberlefs manners, differing from
never ex- are furnifhed to our hands by fenfation and refleftion ; any order in which he has ever aftually perceived the
nor can we form one fimple idea which was not origi- qualities of external objefts exifting.
nally received by fome of our fenfes from external oh- Tr '   -1- -' r -
jefts, or, as (hall be drown afterwards, one intelleftual
notion which was not acquired by reflefting on the
operations of our own minds. To explain the pro-
cefs of fantaftic conception, it is to be obferved, that
in every fenfible objeft we perceive at once feve-
fal things, fuch as colour, fgure, extenfionr and mo¬
tion or ref, &c. Thefe are the objefts of different
fenfes : but they are not, at leaft by full grown men,
perceived in fuceelfion, but all at once ; whence it
comes to pafs that the memory, or the imagination, re^
Yet even this power of the mind is limited. It isThisj ower
impolfihle to put together a number of contrary and °,f excep-
inconffent ideas, in fuch a manner as to form of them*
one complex conception. No man, for inftance, can cxjft.
conceive a thing to be at once white and black, round ence.
and fquare, hard and foft, in motion and at reft.—
Hence it is a maxim among philofophers almoft uni-
veffally received, that though we can conceive many
things which never aBually exifted, yet we can form
no ideas but of fuch things as might poffibly exift. A
taur never exifted, but it may be conceived ; for it
tains not feveral diftinft and disjointed ideas, but the is by no means impoflible that the head of a man might
idea of one coloured, figured, and extended objeB. But be joined to the body of a horfe : but black fnow can-
when we compare various objefts, or the ideas of va- not be conceived; for in the complex idea denoted by
rious objefts, together, we find that in fome refpefts the word fnow whitencfs is an effential part, and no-
they agree and in others difagree; i.e. that feveral oh- thing can be conceived'to be both black and white at
jefts affeft fome of our fenfes in the fame way, and the' fame time. Irom this undoubted faft, that
other fenfes differently. Thus one globe is black, and we cannot conceive impofiible exiftence, the power
another white; one black fubftance is circular and of conception has by fome writers in certain inftances
hard, and another fquare and foft. In the firft in- been made a teft of truth; “ Id every idea is implied
N° 2ij. i lfaya
Tart I. M E T A P
Of Simple (fays Dr Price*) the pofllbility of the exidence of Its
•Apprehen. object; nothing being clearer, than that there can be
Crnceutionno 1'<^ea an irnP0^1^^ity> or conception of what
» cannot exift.” “ It is an eftablifhed maxim in meta-
• Review e/phyfics (fays Hume), that whatever the mind con-
tle principal ceives, includes the idea of poffible exiftence; or, in
^uejlionsandother' words, that nothing we imagine is abfolutely
In a word, it has been admitted by
all philofophers, from Pythagoras to Dr Retd, to be
i Jay*‘ an axiom as evident and undeniable as any in Euclid,
that whatever we can diftin&ly conceive is poffible,
though many things may be poffible, nay, may really
81 exift, of which we can form no conception.
The lingu- This axiom has been denied by the author of the
far opinion Eff on the Intelie(ftu?] powers Gf Man ; who af-
refpeding- firms, that “ any two fides ot a triangle may be con-
-our power ceived to be .equal to the third/’ as diftindtly as “ any
©f concep- two fides of a triangle may be conceived to be greater
<tl0a than the third.” This affertion from fuch a man fur-
prifed us as much as any paradox which we ever read :
for nothing is more certain, than that we ourfelves can
form no conception of a triangle of which two of the
fides are only equal to the third. We can, indeed, re-
folve the propofition into its different parts, and form
the diftindt and independent ideas of a triangle, two
Jides, and one fide ; and we can likewife form the general
notion of equality : but to combine thefe ideas and this
notion into one individual complex conception, we find
to be abfolutely impoffible. A man who knows no¬
thing of triangles, if fuch a man there be, might be¬
lieve Dr Reid that it is a figure of which one of its
fides is equal to the other two; but fuch a perfon
would have no conception of the figure itfelf, but only a
"Si confidence in the Doftor’s veracity,
eontro- What is it to conceive a corporeal thing to exift ? Ts
■verted. ;t not to fanCy that we view it on all iides, as what
may be feen, or felt, or fmelt, or tailed ? The Dodlor,
indeed, repeatedly reprobates as the fource of much
error the notion of ideas as images in the mind ; and
if ideas be taken as real material figures, he is certain¬
ly in the right: But we appeal to the common fenfe
of mankind, whether every perfon who diftindlly con¬
ceives a triangle, is not at the time confcious that his
mind isaffefted in a manner fimilar, though not fo for¬
cibly, as when he aftually views a triangle with his
eyes ? What other men may fed, they know heft ; but
\ve are as certain that this is the cafe with refpetl to
ourfelves, as we are certain of our own exiftence. That
this affedlion of the mind is occafioned by fome agita¬
tion in the brain, of the fame kind with that which
Vol. XI. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 505
occafions adtual perception, is highly probable ; but °f Simple
whatever be the caufe, the fadl is undeniable. ^Co^and"
The Dodlor’s words indeed, taken by themfelves, Conception
would lead one to think, that by conception he means in  «
this cafe nothing more than the underitanding of the
terms of a propofition : but if that be his meaning,
there was no room for controverfy ; as the great philo¬
fophers Cudworth, Clarke, Price, and Hume, whofe opi¬
nion he is combating, would have been as ready as
himfelf to allow, that when a man is thoroughlymafter
of any language, he will find no difficulty in under-
ftanding the meaning of any particular words in that
language, however abfurdly thefe words may be put
together. When Dr Price fays, that “ in every idea
is implied the poffibility of the exiftence of its objedl,
nothing being clearer than that there can be no idea of
impoffibility or conception of what cannot exift,” his
meaning evidently is, that we cannot mentally contem¬
plate or fancy ourfelves viewing any thing corporeal,
which we might not aftually view with our eyes, or
perceive by fome other fenfe (1). This is the true
meaning of conception, which is fomething very differ¬
ent from underftanding the feparate meaning of each
word in a propofition.
The learned profeffor, however, appeals to the
pradlice of mathematicians for the truth of his opi¬
nion : and if they be on his fide we mull give up the
caufe ; for in no fcience have we fuch clear ideas, or
fuch abfolute certainty, as in mathematical reafonings.
But it is to be obferved, that the word conception is
with no propriety applied to alfiraB truth, but to real
orexiftence; nor can we be faid to conceive
diftindlly a real or poffible objeft, unlefs we be able to
turn it round and round, and view it on all fides.—
The faculties which are converfant about ahfiract truth
are the judgment and the reafon ; and truth itfelf con-
fifts in the agreement, as falfehood does in the difa-
greement, of two or more ideas or terms compared to¬
gether. If thofe ideas about which the judgment is to
be made can be immediately brought together, without
the intervention of a third idea, it is impoffible that we
fhould judge, or, if Dr Reid will have it fo, conceive
that to be true which is ready falfie. If the two ideas
cannot be immediately brought together, it is impof¬
fible that we ffiould form any judgment or conception at
all about their agreement or difiagreement : but we may
Jvppofe or admit, for the fake of argument, that they
agree or difagree ; and if that fuppofition conduit to
a manifeft abfurdity, we then know that the fuppofi¬
tion was falfe. It is, therefore, perfedlly agreeable to
3 S the
(1) Dr Price may be thought by fome to have contradiiled in this paffage what he had afferted in a for¬
mer. He is a ftrenuous advocate for abfttaift and general ideas even of material cbjeils : but thofe among the
moderns who contend the moft zealoufly for thefe, contend for them only as conceptions of the mind which
can have no poffible exiftence out of it. Were this likewife the cqiinion of Dr Price, lie would certainly havte
fallen into a diredl contradiction ; but this is not his opinion. His notion of abftradt ideas feetns to be the
fame with that of Plato, who conflict's ideas, not only as the poffibilities of txiftence, but as things actually
exifting from eternity, uncreated and independent even of the Supreme Mind. That Dr Price carries the
matter thus far, we are unwilling to believe ; but he certainly confiders general ideas as real exiftences indepen¬
dent of our minds, though the immediate objedls of our underftanding. That in this notion he is miftaken,
we fhall endeavour to prove in the next chapter. It is enough for our prefent purpofe to have mown that lie
does not contradidl himfelf; and that he might with great propriety affirm on his own principles, as well as
upon the principles of thofe who admit not of univerlal ideas, that in every idea is implied the poffibility of
its objeil.
5o6 METAPHYSICS. Parti.
Of Simple the max m of Price and Hume, that mathematicians
^fiorTand* ^lou^ *n many cafe8 prove fome things to be pofiibl;
Conceptionan^ others impoflible, which without demonilration
Y—would not have been believed ; becaufe if the ideas
compared cannot be immediately brought together, no
judgment previous to the demoniiration can be^formed
of the truth or falfehood of the propofition ; and if
it concern not real or poffible exifteace, it is a propo¬
fition with -which, conception has nothing to do.
“ But (fays Dr Reid) it is eafy to conceive, that, in
the infinite feries of numbers and intermediate frac¬
tions, fome one number integral or fradlional may
bear the fame ratio to another as the fide of a fquare
bears to its diagonal.” We are fo far from thinking
this an eafy matter, that if the word conceive be taken
in the fenfe in which it is ufed by the philofophers
whofe opinion he is combating, we muft confefs that
we can form no adequate conception at all of an infi¬
nite feries. When we make the trial, we can only
bring ourfelves to conceive the real numerical figures
x, 2, 3, &c. or the fra&ional parts i, &c.;
and even here our conception reaches but a fmall way.—
We have reafon to believe, that minds of a larger
grafp can conceive at once more of the feries than we
can ; and that the Supreme Mind conceives the whole
©f it,if the whole of a mathematical infinity be not a con¬
tradiction in terms : but furely no man will fay that he
can conceive an infinite feries as he conceives a centaur,
and have an adequate and diflinft view of it at once. If,
by conceiving that in an infinite feries fome one num¬
ber may bear the fame ratio to another that the fide
of a fquare bears to its diagonal, the Doftor only
means that fuch a fuppojition may be made, his obfer-
vation is not to the purpofj; for which it is brought;
"for the queftion is not about our power to make fup-
pofkions of this kind, but' about our power to raife in
our imaginations an adequate and diftindt mental view
of pofiible or impoffible exiftence. “ To fuppofe
(fays Johnfon), is to advance by way of argument or
illuftration, without maintaining the truth of the po-
fition.” In this fenfe a man may fuppofe that in an
infinite feries there may be fome one number which
bears the fame ratio to another that the fide of a fquare
bears to its diagonal: but fuch a fuppofition contains
in it nothing that is pofitive, which conception always
does; it is only admitting, for the fake of argument,
a pofition, of the truth or falfehood of which the
perfon who makes the fuppofition knows nothing.—
He is only talking of ratios as a blind man may talk
of colours. A man born blind may be made to com-
.prehend many of the laws of optics, and may make
fuppofitions about colours, and reafon from fuch fup-
pofitions to a certain extent, as clearly andjuftly as
©ne who fees ; but will any perfon fay that a man blind
from his birth can conceive red or green ? It is much
the fame with refpeft to an infinite feries. We can
follow fuch a feries fo far, and may know the ratio by
which it increafes or decresfes, and reafon from what
we know^ith the utmoft certainty : but no man ever
conceived the whole of an infinite feries as he conceives
an individual objeft; nor can any reafonings upon the
nature of it be applied to the queftion of conceiving
impoflible exiftence.
But “ mathematicians often require us (fays Dr
.Re.id) to conceive things that are impoffible, in order
to prove them to be fo. This is the eafe in all their de- Of Simple
moaftrations ad abfurdum. Conceive (fays Euclid) a
right line drawn from one point of the circumference Conception
of a circle to another, to fall without the circle. 1 _—v~—j
conceive this, I reafon from it, until I come to a con-
fequence that is manifcftly abfurd, and from thence
conclude that the thing which I conceived is impof¬
fible.” If it be indeed true, that Euclid defires his -
readers to conceive a mathematical circle with a line
drawn from one point of its circumference to another,
and that line lying without the circle—if he really de¬
fires them to form fuch a complex conception as this,
we have no hefitation to affirm, that he requires them
to do what is manifeftly impoffible. The writer of this
article has not in his cuftody any copy of the elements
in the original Greek, and therefore cannot fay with
certainty what are Euclid’s words, nor is it of much
importance what they be ; for on a queftion which
every man may decide for himfelf, by looking into his
own mind, the authority of Euclid is nothing.—The
propofition to which the Doftor refers, is the fecond
of the third book ; and, in the edition of Simpfon, is
exprefled thus : “ If any two points be taken in the
circumference of a circle, the ftraight line which
joins them fhall fall within the circle.” Every ma¬
thematician who can form an adequate conception of
a circle and a ftraight line, perceives the truth of
this propofition inftantly, for it refults neceflarily
from his conception ; but he who has not an adequate
conception of a circle, may ftand in need of a demon-
ftration to Ihow him the truth : for it is to be ob-
ferved, that demonftration does not make truth ; it on¬
ly points it out to thofe who cannot perceive it intui¬
tively, juft as a microfcope does not make the hairs on
a mite’s back, but only brings them within the field
of vifion.
Were a man who never examined a mite through
a microfcope, and wrha has no adequate ideas of the
infedf kingdom, to beafked whether there be hairs oa
a mite’s back ? he would probaWy anfwer that he did
not know, but he could conceive no fuch hairs. In like
manner, were a man who has no adequate conception of a
mathematical circle, to be allied whether a ftraight line,
which joins any two contiguous points in the circum¬
ference, could lie without the circle ? he would proba¬
bly anfwer that he did not know. Now it is to be
remembered, that the reader of the Elements can have
no very adequate conception of a circle when he comes
to the fecond propofition of the third book. The de¬
finition of a circle was indeed given him in the intro-
duftion to the firft book; but of that definition he has
hitherto had occafion to make very little ufe, fo that
his idea of a circle will be little more accurate than
that of an illiterate clown, who has no other idea of
the figure than what he takes from a half-penny or
a Ihilling. Dr Reid himfelf has elfewhere f well ob- j-ee
ferved, that “ when a youth of moderate parts begins Karnes's
to ftudy Euclid, every thing at firft is new to him. Skeuhcs of
His apprehenfion is unfteady ; his judgment is feeble;^^^1”^
and refts partly^upon the evidence of the thing, and^.pg*^
partly upon the authority of his teacher : bat every to'the firft
time he goes over the definitions, the axioms, the Sketch 9a
elementary propofitions, more light breaks in uponthe S'16®’
him ; the language becomes familiar, and conveys
dear and fteady conceptions,” In this ftate he cer-
4 tainty
Parti. M E T A P
[Of Simple tainly is when he reads for the firfl: time the fecond
Apprehen- pr0pofition of the third boolt: his conception of a
Conceptii n c*rc'e can t.^en ne'ther clear nor fteady. Our young
geometrician, however, muft allow, that the propofition
is either true or falfe ; and if he has read the preceding
bookswith any advantage, he muft have clear and fteady
conceptions of angle and triangles, and be able to de~
monftrate many of their properties. “ Well (fays Eu*
did), though you have no adequate conception ol a
circle, you are well acquainted with plane angles and
triangles, and many of their properties : let us fup-
pofe, if that be poffible, that my propofition' is falfe,
and I will {how you that the fuppofition is abfo-
lutely inconfiftent with what you know to be demon-
ftrable or felf-evident truth.” This is all which Euclid
ean be fuppofed to require, when, in the words of his
excellent tranflator, he fays, “ If it (viz. the ftraight
line) do not fall within (the circle), let it fall, if pof¬
fible, without.” He could not poffibly defire a man
who has an adequate idea of a circle, to form the po-
fitive and complex conception of that figure, with a
ftraight line touching two points of the circumference,
and yet lying on the outfide of the circumference ; be-
caufe all his figures and lines are mere conceptions,
and not real material things ; and fuch a reqUeft would
have been the fame thing as if he had faid, Conceive
what cannot be conceived (k).
We have infifted the longer on this point, becaufe
we think it of the higheft importance : for were it in¬
deed true, that we could conceive impofiible exiftence,
the confequences would be very melancholy. Thefe
eonfequences it is needlefs to enumerate. Our rea¬
ders will perceive, that if we could put together in¬
confiftent ideas of fenfible obje&s, and view them fo
united as one confiftent whole, nothing is clearer than
that our faculties would be contrived to deceive us, and"
wewould be doomed to cheerlefs anduniverfalfcepticifm.
Chap. IV. Of Abstraction and general
Ideas.
S3 Every fenfible objeft is an individual, and differs
Every fen- in many refpecfts from every other object. As fuch
ancfe'vee<^ ^’s Perceived by the fenfes ; and ideas being nothing
idea areTn- more t^an relifts of fenfation preferved in the imagi-
dividual. nation or memory, every idea muft of courfe be an
H Y s I c s. 507
individual, as much as the objeft to which it refers.of Abftrac-
But all fcience, whether mathematical, moral,
taphyfical, is converfant about genelal truths ; and if idea,. K
truth confift, as we have already obferved, and {hall ——y——<
more fully evince afterwards, in the agreement or co¬
incidence of ideas, how, it may be aflced, can gene¬
ral truth refult from the comparifon of particular ideas?
To get rid of this difficulty, many philofophers,. both
ancient and modern, pretend that the mind is furnifti*
ed with general ideas, from a comparifon of which re¬
fult general propofitions applicable to many individu¬
als. Philofopbers, indeed, have differed in opinion
refpefting the fource of thofe ideas; fome of the an¬
cients deriving them immediately from the fupreme
mind to the human, whilft almoft all the moderns fay
that they are framed by abftraftion, and therefore call
them abfiraS ideas.
The doftnne of abjlrafi ideas has been fo fairly The doe*
ftated, and, in our opinion, fo completely overturned,
by Biftiop Berkeley, that we {hall content ourfelves n^ted'and*
with abridging what he has faid on the fubjeft, and
obviating fome cavils which have lately been urged
againft his reafoning. “ It is agreed on all hands
(fays that learned and ingenious prelate f), that the t rntre^uC-
qualities or modes of things do never really exift each »f
of them apart by itfelf and feparated from all others; Human
but are mixed, as it were, and blended together, feve- Knoivlcdgc*
ral in the fame objeft. But, we are told, the mind be¬
ing able to confider each quality fingly, or abftrafted
from thofe other qualities with which it is united,
does by that means frame to itfelf abftraft ideas. For
example: There is perceived by fight an objeft ex¬
tended, coloured, and moved : this mixed or compound
idea, the mind refolving into its fimple conftituent
parts, and viewing each by itfelf exclufive of the
reft, does frame the abftraft ideas of extenfion, colour,
and motion. Not that it is poffible for colour or mo¬
tion to exift without extenfion; but only that the
mind can frame to itfelf by abjlradion the idea of co¬
lour exclufive of extenfion, and of motion exclufive of
both colour and extenfion. Again, the mind having
obferved, that in the particular extenfions perceived by
fenfe, there is fomething common and alike in all,
and fome other things peculiar, as this or that figure
or magnitude, which diftinguiffi them from one ano¬
ther ; it confiders apart, or fingles out by itfelf, that
3 S 2 which
(k) Principal Campbell, treating of the commonly received doftrine of abftraftion, and having {hown,
that though Locke has in one paffage of his immortal work expreffed himfelf on the fubjeft in terms unin.
telligible, his fentiments on the whole differed little from thofe of Berkeley and Hume, adds—“ Some of the
great eft admirers of that eminent philofopher feem to have overlooked entirely the preceding account of his
fentiments on this fubjeft ; and, through I know not what paffion for the paradoxical (I ffiould rather fay the
impofiible and unintelligible), have ffiown an amazing zeal for defending the propriety of the hafty expreflions
which appear in the paffages formerly referred to. Has not the mind of man (fay they) an unlimited power
in moulding and combining its ideas ? The mind, it muft be owned, hath an unlimited power in moulding
and combining its ideas. It often produces wonderful forms of its own out of the materials originally fup-
plied by fenfe; forms indeed of which there is no exemplar to be found in nature centaurs and griffins,
Gorgons and hydras, and chimeras dire.
But ftill it muft not attempt abfolute impofiibilities, by giving to its creature contradiftory qualities. It
muft not attempt to conceive the fame thing to be black and white at the fame time ; to be no more than
three inches lomr, and yet not lefs than three thoufand; to conceive two or more lines to be both equal and
unequal; the fi;me angle to be at once acute, obtufe, and rightok, we may add, the two fides of a tri¬
angle to be not greater than the third. See Philtfoghy oj Rhetoric, vol. ii. p. 108, &c.
5°8
M E T A P
Of Abflrac- which is common, making thereof a moft abftradf idea
tion an.l Q£ extenf10n; which is neither line, furface, nor folid,
Ideas. nor has any figure or magnitude, but is an idea entire-
— ly prefeinded from all thefe. So likewife the mind,
by leaving our of the particular colours perceived by
fenfe that which diftinguifhes them one from another,
and retaining that only which is common to all, makes
an idea of colour in abftradf, which is neither red, nor
blue, nor white, nor any other determinate colour.
And as die mind frames to itfelf abflraft ideas of qua¬
lities or modes, fo does it by the fame precifion or
mental feparation attain ?.bftra& ideas of the more
compounded beings, which include feveral coexifient
qualities. For example : The mind having obferved
that Peter, James, and John, refemble each other in
certain common agreements of firape and other quali¬
ties, leaves out of the complex or compounded idea it
has of Peter, James, and any other particular man,
that which is peculiar to each, retaining only what
is common to all, and fo makes an abract idea
wherein all the particulars equally partake, abllradting
entirely from and cutting oft' all thofe circumftances
and differences which might determine it to any par¬
ticular exiftence. After this manner, it is faid, we
come by the abftraA idea of man, or, if you pleafe,
humanity or human nature : in which, it is true, there
is included colour, becaufe there is no man but has
i'ome colour ; but then it can be neither black nor
•white, nor any particular colour, becaufe there is no
one particular colour wherein all men partake. So
likewife there is included ftature ; but then it is nei¬
ther tall ftature, nor low ftature, nor middle ftature,
but fomething abftrafted from all thefe j and fo of the
reft. Moreover, there being a great variety of other
creatures that partake in fame parts, but not all, of
the complex idea of man j the mind, leaving out thofe.
parts which are peculiar to man, and retaining thofe
only which are common to all the living creatures,
frameth the idea of animal; which abftratts not only
from all particular men, but alfo from all birds, beafts,
fifties, and infefts. .The conftituent.parts of the ab-
ftraft idea of animal, are body, life, fenfe, and fpon-
taneous motion. By body, is meant body without any
particular ihape or figure, there being no one ihape or
figure common to all animals, without covering- either
of hair or feathers or fcaks, &c, and yet not naked ;
hair, feathers, feales, and nakednefs, being the diftin-
gubhing properties of particular animals, and for that
reafon left out of the abjlratl idea. Upon the fame
account, the fpontaneous motion mult be neither
walking, nor flying,.nor creeping: it is neverthelefs
motion; but what that motion is, it is not eafy to con-
gj ceive.
conti o- “Whether others have this wonderful faculty of
verted;and ahjlrailing their ideas {continues the Biftiop), they beft*
can tell '; for myfelf, I find indeed that 1 have a facul¬
ty of imagining or reprefenting to myfelf the ideas
of thofe particular things which 1 have perceived, and
of varioufly compounding and dividing them. 1 can
imagine a man with two heads, or the upper parts of
a man joined to the body of a herfe. 1 can confider
the hand, the eye, the nofe, each by itfelf abftra&ed.
or feparated from the reft of the body. But then,
whatever hand or eye I imagine, it mull have fome
H Y S I C S. Parti.
particular fhape, and fome particular colour.-—Like-Of diftrac--
wife the idea of man that I frame to myfelf, muft t;0:’ 3nd
be either of a white, or a black, or a tawney, a
ftraight or a ^crooked, a tall or a low, or a middle- . v <
fixed man. I cannot by any effort of thought con¬
ceive the abftraft idea above deferibed. To be plain,.
I own myfelf able to abllraft in one fenfe, as when I
confider fome particular parts or qualities feparated
from others with which, though they are united in
fome ohjedls, yet it is poffible they may really exift
without them. But I deny that I can abftracl one -
from another, or conceive feparately thofe qualities
which it is impolfible fhould exift fo feparated ; or
that 1 can frarhe a general notion by abftrabting from
particulars in the manner aforefaid ; and there are
grounds to think moft men will acknowledge them-
felves to be in my cafe.’* 86
To think this, there are indeed fuch good grounds, fhown ro-
that it is probable fome of our readers, little conver- he abfurej
fant with the writings of modern metaphyfieians, are
by this time difpofed to fufpedl, that the Biftiop in
his zeal may have mifreprefented the do&rine of ah-
Jtracllon; as no man in his fenfes, who is not perverted,
by fome darling hypothefis, can fuppofe himfelf ca¬
pable of tagging together fuch monftrous incorififten-
cies, as magnitude which is neither large nor firfall,
and colour which is neither white, red, green, nor
black, &c. But that the ingenious prelate, in his
account of this procefs of lopping and pruning, as Mr
Harris contemptuoufly, but moft properly, terms it,.
has not exaggerated in the fmalleft degree, is apparent
from the following account of abjlrattion given by Mr
Locke. “ Abjlrad ideas (fays that writer; are not fo
obvious or eafy to children, or the yet unexercifed -
mind, as particular ones. If they feem fo to
grown men, it is only becaufe byconftant and familiar
ufe they are made fo: ,for when we nicely reflect
upon them, we (hall find that general ideas are fic¬
tions and contrivances of the mind that carry diffi¬
culty with them, and do not fo eafily offer themfelves
as we are apt to imagine. For example. Does it not
require fome pains and fltill to form the general idea ,
of a triangle (which is yet none of the moft abftradft,
comprehenfive, and difficult) ? for it muft. be neither
oblique nor rectangle, neither equilateral, equicrural,
nor icalenon, but all and none af thefe at once. In ef¬
fect, it is fome thing imperfeft that cannot exift, an idea .
wherein fome parts of feveral different and inconjijlent
ideas are put together.’7 “ Surely (to ufe the words
of principal Campbell *} the bare mention of this hy- • Philofepty.
pothefis is equivalent to a confutation of it, fince \t of Rhetoric*.
really confutes itfelf.” But if any man has the fa¬
culty of framing in his mind fueh an idea of a tri¬
angle as is here deferibed, it would be vain in us ta-
difpute with him ; for we are poffeffed of no fuch fa¬
culty, and therefore would fight-on unequal terms.
All we have to defire is, that the reader would-
fully and certainly inform himfelf whether he has fuch-
an idea or not; and this can be no hard talk to per¬
form. What is more eafy for any one than to look.
a little into his own thoughts, and there try whether
he has, or can attain to have, an idea of colour feparated
from all extenjion ; of extenjion, which is neither nor
fmall j ol tajk, which is neither fweet nor bitter, nor
a
Parti. METAPHYSICS. 509
OfAbHrac- acid, nor cgrseaUe, nor difagreealk; or the general idea perfect eafe be diilinguiflied and disjoined in our con- OfAbflrac'
tior and 0f a triangle, which is neither oblique nor redangle, equl~ ceptiou, v/hich cannot be actually feparated in the fub-
Ideas, crura , equilateral, nor fca/enon, but. all and none cf thefe je61.” They may be fo in his conception, but cer- i^cas
i——~ at once (l) ? tainly not in ours ; for we can conceive nothing which
87 Dr Reid having denied that there are dr can be may not adhially exift. “ Thufe (continues he) I can
AMtradt jn t]ie any ijeas 0f fenfible objedls, rejefts of in a body diftinguifh its folidity from its extenfion,
the fame courfe the dodfrine of abjirati general ideas, whil'd he and its weight from both. In extenlion, 1 can di-
ith ab- maintains in fact the fame thing, only fubitituting i
Cradt ideas, word conception for the word idea. “ What hinders
me (fays he) from attending to the whitenefs of the
paper before me, without applying that colour to
any other cbjedl ?” We know nothing indaed which
can hinder any man from performing this operation,
which is daily and hourly performed by infants ; but
will the Dodtor fay, that he can attend to colour, or
conceive it, abllradted from the paper and every other
fur face? We are perfuaded he will not, though he
immediately adds, “ the' whitenefs of this individual
object is an alfir act conception.” Now we fhouid ra¬
ther have thought, that, confrftent with his own no-
ftinguiOi length, breadth, and thicknefs ; yet none of
thefe can be feparated from the body', or from one
another. It is therefore certain, that attributes, which
in their nature are abfolutely infeparable from their
fubjedl and from one another, may be disjoined in our
conception ; one cannot exijl without the other, but
one can be conceived without the other.” So far is
this from being a matter of certainty, that in every
poffible fenfe in which we can underltand the word
conception, it apppears to us as evidently falfe, as that
three and two are equal to nine. It is indeed not dif¬
ficult to diftinguifh in a body its folidity from its ex¬
tenfion, and its weight from both : but can we diltin-
tions of colour, he would have called the whitenefs of guilh them out of the body ? or, to fpeak in plain
the paper a concrete quality, and his own conception of language, can we conceive folidity as feparated from
it a particular and concrete conception. If he conceives all ex ten ft on and all weight ? Unlefs this, can be done,
the whitenefs as feparated from the paper, it is no and by us it cannot be done, there is no aljlrallion
longer the whitenefs of that individual objedt: and he Jlridiy fo called. It is indeed eafy to conceive folidity
mutt either conceive it as abltradted from all objedts, or extenfion ab it ratted from any one individual objedt:
which is plainly impoffible : or he muft conceive it as but how is it done ? Why, by transferring your at-
inhering in fome other objedt; and then neither the tention to feme other individual oljcQ. Thus, we can
eafily conceive folidity or extenfion feparated from a
guinea, for inftance 5 but it is only by transferring our
thoughts to another body, a piece of fiver, or a ball
of lead, &c. and our conceptions in both cafes are
particular and concrete.
As we think, this opinion of Dr Reid’s refpedting-
asst r act ion both ill-founded and of dangerous con-
fequenees, we have exprefied our difient from it in
ftrong terms; and in doing fo we have only followed
the example fet us by himfelf when difienting from the '
theories of Hume and Berkeley. But we are fo tho-.
roughly convinced that the Dodtor’s acutenefs is
fuperior to our own(i.), that we are not without our
fears that we may have miftaken his meaning. We
are confcious that we have not wilfully mifreprefented -
it; and to enable our readers to judge for themfelves ;
between him and us, we (hall lay before them his defini¬
tion of oeneral conceptions in his own words. gg.
That there are in every language general terms, is Terms,
from him, without conceiving them as the qualities of known to all mankind : for fuch are all fubfiantives,how tlle7
fome other man ; fo that our conceptions are all con- proper names excepted; and all adjedtives. But “ itare
crete and particular. “ It ought likewife to be ob- is impofiible (fays die Dodjor*) that words can have * Ef?y on
ferved (fays the Profefior), that attributes may with a general fignification, unlefs there be conceptions 'n
quality of whitenefs, nor his conception of it, is ab-
ilradf and general, but concrete and particular. He
affirms, however, “ that in abftradlion, (tridtly fo call¬
ed, he can perceive nothing that is difficult either to
be underload or pradtifed.” This is going much,
farther into the dodtrine than Mr Locke went; for
lie owned that there was much difficulty in it. Let
us fee how it becomes fo eafy to Dr Reid. “ What
can be more eafy (fays, he) than to diftinguilh the
different attributes which we know to belong to a
fubjedt ? In a man, for inftance, to diftinguifh his fize,
his complexion, his age, his fortune, his birth, his pro-
feffion, and twenty other things that belong to him.”
All this indeed, and much more, we can do with the
tttmoft eafe ; but this is not abftradtion, ftridtly fo
called, nor any thing like abftradtion. We diilinguilh
the fize, the complexion, the age, &c. of the man, from
one another : but (till we conceive them all as his qua¬
lities ; nor is it poffible, at leaft for us, to aljlracl them
the
of Mae.
(l) “ If inch an extraordinary faculty (ahftradtion) were poffible, I cannot for my part conceive what pur-
pofe it could ferve. An idea hath been defined by fome logicians, the form or refemblance of a thing
in the mind ; and the whole of its power and ufe in thinking is fuppofecL to arife from an exadt con¬
formity to its archetype. What then is the ufe or power of that idea, to which there neither is nor can
be any archetype in nature, which is merely a creature of the brain, a monfier that bears not the like-
nefs of any thing in the univerfe !” Phlofophy of Rhetoric, vol. iLp. no.
(t) Motwithftanding this declaration, which is made with the greateft fincerity, we do not apprehend
that we are guilty of preemption when we examine the Dodtor’s opinions. Berkeley and Hume were
certainly as acute as any metaphyfician who has fucceeded them; yet their opinions have been canvaffecL.
without .ceremony, and to much advantage. Aliguando bonus dormitat Hoimrus,
®f general
Sign: flea
•lion.
510 M E T A P
Of Abftrac-th«s mind of the fpeaker and of the hearer, of things[vi)
11 eneral t^at are Senera^ ^ is to fach that I give the name
^Idea's! of general conceptions: and it ought to be obferved, that
. they take this denomination, not from the aft of the
mind in conceiving, which is an individual aft; but
from the objeft or thing conceived, which is general.”
Now, whatever is conceived, muft be either external to
the mind, or prefent with it. But the Doftor himfelf
acknowledges, “ That all the cbjefts we perceive^ are
individuals. Every objeft of fenfe, of memory, or of
confciou/ne/s, is an individual objeft. All the good
things we enjoy or defire, and all the evils we feel or
fear, muft come from individuals; and I think we may
venture to fay, that every creature which God has
made in the heavens above, or in the earth beneath, or
in the waters under the earth, is an individual.” If this
be fo, and no man can call it in queftion, it is obvious
that we can have no general conception of any thing ex¬
ternal. The a8 of conceiving is an individual a£t; and
therefore the only thing which can be genera’, muft be
fomething prefent with the mind, and different from
the mere ad of conceiving: But what can this be, if not
what Berkeley and others call an idea? and how can
wc have an idea of which we are not conjcious? yet
every thing of which we are eonfeious Dr Reid him-
felf acknowledges to be an individual.
But if the doftrine generally received refpefting ab-
ftraft ideas be fo very abfurd as it has appeared in our
reprefentation, how comes it to be fo prevalent among
the acuteft philofophtrs ? To this we anfvver, that thole
philofophers have certainly in this inftance been im-
pofed upon by the ftrufture of language. Every ad-
jeftive and every fubftantive, proper names excepted,
are words of general fignilication ; and all fcience is
converfant about general truth : but as words are faid
to be iignificant, not of things, but of ideas; and as
truth refults from the agreement or coincidence of
ideas; it has been haftily fuppofed, that without gene¬
ral ideas there could have been neither general terms
nor general truth. This is plaufible, but it is not fo-
lid. Every objeft which affefts our fenfes is an indi¬
vidual objeft ; but we perceive that two or more ob*
jefts which affeft fome of our fenfes very differently,
affeft others of them in precifely the fame way. Thus,
the paper upon which one writes, thp fnow which he
perceives from his wundow, and the milk which he
may ufe at breakfaft, affeft his fenfes of touch and
tafte very differently, but they prefent the fame appear¬
ance to his eye. This diverlity in the one cafe he be¬
lieves to proceed from different powers or qualities in
the feveral objefts ; and the famenefs of appearance in
the other, from fimilar qualities in thefe objefts. To
the limilar qualities, though he can frame no idea of
them abftrafted from every individual objeft, he gives
one common name; and calls every objeft which pre-
fents the fame appearance to his eye that fnow does, a
•white objeft ; where the word •white does not Hand for
an ab^raft idea, but for a quality inherent in one or
more objefts. Hence the origin of adjeftives in lan¬
guage, which denote more than can be expreffed by
any clafs of fubftantives; for every adjeftive, belides the
H Y S I C S. Part I.
power of a name, includes in itfelf the force of a con-Of Abftrac-
junftion. See Grammar. , tion and
The other clafs of general terms comprehends fub-
ftantives: of which'the origin is as follows. The ob- ^ ■»
jefts about which we have occafion to fpeak or write
are fo numerous and fo fluftuating, that if every indi¬
vidual had a proper name, a complete language could
r. ?* er be formed. But as there are not perhaps in na¬
ture two objefts that appear to us fimilar in all re-
fpefts, fo are there not in nature two objefts which
affeft all our fenfes differently. The mind, therefore,
either aftually perceiving two or more objefts at once,
or contemplating the ideas left by two or more objefts
in the memory, perceives, by its intelleftive power, in
what refpefts they agree and in what they difagree.
If the agreement be ffriking, and in more qualities
than one, it combines the feveral individuals into one
clafs or fpecies, giving to the whole a common name,
which equally denotes the fpecies and every individual
belonging to it. Thus, obferving that Peter, James,
and John, agree in having the fame ereft form, in
walking on two legs, in having hands, See. and in be¬
ing endowed with reafon, we combine thefe three, and
all other individuals which we perceive to agree in the
fame ftriking and important qualities, into one fpecies,
to which we give the name of man—a word which
equally denotes the whole fpecies and eveiy individual
of k. Again, contemplating feveral figures, which all
agree in the circumffance of being bounded by three
ftraight lines meeting one another fo as to form three
angles, we call the whole clafs of figures and each indi¬
vidual by the name of triangle—though it may be im-
poffible to contemplate any number of triangles with¬
out perceiving that all the angles of one are acute;
that one angle of another is a right angle; and that in
the third there is one angle obtufe: but the word tri¬
angle, unlefs it is limited in its fignification by the ad¬
dition of an adjeftive, is equally expreffive of an acute-
angled triangle, a right-angled triangle, and an obtufe-
angled triangle. By thus arranging individuals ac*
cording to their moll confpicuous qualities, we may
combine all the objefts exifting into fo many claffes or
fpecies, which ihall be afterwards known by as many
names; but of each fpecies we neither have, nor can
have, any other idea than that of a multitude of fimilar
individuals.
As our acquaintance with nature enlarges, we dif-
cover refemblances ftriking and important between one
fpecies and another, which naturally begets the notion
of a higher clafs called a genus. From comparing man
with beafts, birds, fifties, and reptiles, we perceive that
they are all alike poffeffed of life, or a principle of fen-
fation and aftion, and of an organifed body: hence we
rank them all under a higher clafs or genus, to which
we give the name of animal; which equally denotes the
whole genus, each fpecies comprehended under the ge¬
nus, and every individual of every fpecies. Thus, ani¬
mal is a genus ; man, beajl, bird, are fo many fpecies com¬
prehended under that genus; and Peter, j^mw^and
John, are individuals of the ipecies man. Peter, James,
and John, are proper names, denoting each an indivi¬
dual;
(m) He tells us foon afterwards, that there are no things general. How is the one paffage to be recon¬
ciled with the other?
Bfcda°f
iagns.
Fan I. METAPHYSICS. j.m
©f Abftrac- dual; man, leajl, lircl, arc fpec'tfic terms, denoting each rectilineal triangles, and on that account be denomi-^Of Atft'ac-
tion and a fpecies comprifing many individuals; and animal nated umverfal. _ _ venenai
^Ideas3 a general term, becaufe it denotes a 'whole genus, com- This doCtrine vrefpedting names and ideas being ufed ideas.
prehending under it federal fpccies, of which each con- merely as Jig ns, has been adopted by almolt every fub- ^
fiHs of many individuals; and the general term denotes fequent philofopher; and by Principal Campbell it
v either the whole genus, all the fpecies, or any individual has been illuftrated with perfpieuity and acutenefs
of all the fpecies. This is the whole myilery of ab- every way worthy of the author of the Differtation on
Jlratlion: they are merely terms, that in ftrieftnefs of Miracles. “ In confirmation of this doctrine (fays
fpeech zrt general and abflrad; and even thefe are ge- he*), it may be obferved, that we really think by * Vbihfipby*
neral only as yffnr, of which the full fignification can- Jigns, as well as fpeak by them. All the truths which °f Rb‘tsrlc~
9® not always be reprefented by any conceivable idea. conllitute fcience, which give exercife to reafon, and
Names and “ It is a received opinion (fays Bilhop Berkeley), are difeovered by philofophy, are general; all our
that language has no other end but the communicating ideas, in the flridieft fenfe of the word, are particular,
mere our ideas, and that every fignilicant name Hands for All the particular truths about which we are convcr-
an idea. This being fo; and it being withal certain, fant are properly hillorical, and compofe the furniture
that name.1, which yet are not thought altogether infig- of memory. Nor do I include under the term hijlort-
nificant, do not always mark out particular conceivable cal the truths which belong to natural hillory; for evert
ideas; it is llraight way concluded that they Hand for ab- thefe too are general. Now, beyond particular truth
ftradt notions. That there are many names in ufe a- or hiftorical fadts, firft peroeived and then remembered,
mongft fpeculative men, which do not always fuggeft we firould never be able to proceed one fingle llep in
to others determinate particular ideas, is what nobody thinking any more than in converfing, without the ufe
will deny : and a little attention will difeover, that it of firgns.
is not neceffary, even in the ftridlelt reafonings, that When it is affirmed that the whole is equal to all its
frgnificant names, which Hand for ideas, ffiould every parts, there cannot be an affirmation which is more
time-they are. ufed excite in the underftandihg the ideas perfe&ly intelligible, or which commands a fuller af-
they are made to Hand for. In reading and difeour- fent. If, in order to comprehend this, I recur to
fing, names are for the moft part ufed as letters in al- ideas, all that I can do is to form a notion of fome in-
gebra; in which, though a particular quantity be mark- dividual whole, divided into a certain number of parts
ed by, each letter, yet to proceed right, it is not re- of which it is conffituted ; fuppofe of the year, divided
quifite that in every ftep each letter fuggeft to our into the four feafons. Now all that I can be find
thoughts that particular quantity it was appointed to to difeern here is the relation of equality between this
Hand for.’' The fame thing is true of ideas, which particular whole and its component parts. If I recur
as well as names are often ufed merely as figns repre- to another example, I only perceive another particular
fenting a whole clafs; and on that account they may truth. The fame holds of a third and of a fourth,
be called general, though, every idea is in itfelf ttri&ly But fo far am I, after the perception of ten thoufand
particular. Thus, “ An idea, which cpnfidered in particular fimilar inftances, from the difeovery of the
itfelf is particular, becomes general by being made to univerfal truth, that if the mind had not the power of
reprefent or Hand for all other particular ideas of the confidering things as figns,. or particular ideas as re¬
fame fort. To make this plain by an example, fuppo'fe prefenting an infinity of others, refembling in one cir-
a geometrician is demonftrating the method of cutting cumitance though-totally diffimilar in every other, I
aline in two equal parts: He draws, for inftance, a could not fo much as conceive the meaning of an univer-
black line of an inch in length: this, which in itfelf is fal truth. Hence it is that fome ideas, to adopt the ex-
a particular line, is neverthelefs, with regard’ to its fig- preffion of Berkeley; are particular in their nature, but ge-
nification, general; fince, as it is there ufed, it repre- neral in their reprefentation.” iTri 9r
fents all particular lines whatfoever: fo that what is
demonftrated of it is demonftated of all lines, or, in
other words, of a line in general. And as that parti¬
cular line becomes general by being made a fign ; fo
iho name line, and the idea gf aline in.the imagination,
either of which taken abfofutely is particular, by being
But if in univerfal propofitions, ideas particular in // ut(b•
themfelves be ufed only as.the figns of others; it may
be demanded, how we can know any propofition to be themfelves,,
true of all the ideas which are reprefented by the ferve to de*
fign l For example, having demonftrated that themonitratc
three angles of an ifofceles rectangular triangle are ®llthsa-
figns are made general likewife. And as the former equal to two right ones, how can we conclude that beeaufe.
owes its generality, not to its being the fign of an ab- this affeftion therefore agrees to ah other triangles
ftraft or general line, But of all particular right lines which have neither a right angle nor two equal lides ?
that may poffibly exift; fo the latter, the name and To this queftion Biffiop Berkeley and Principal Camp-
the idea, muft be thought to derive their generality bell give the following anfwer : Though the idea we
fromi the fame caufe, namely, the various particular have in view whilft we make the demonftration be that
lines which each of them indifferently denotes/’ A- of an ifofceles redtangular triangle, whofe fides are of
gain, when one demonftrates any propofition concern- a determinate length, we may yet be certain that the
ing triangles, it is to be fuppofed that he has in view demonftration extends, to all other reftilineal triangles
to demonftrate an univerfal truth ; yet the particular of what fort or bignefs foever; for this plain reafon,
" ‘ 1 ’ ’ 1 ’ ^ " *• *’ " ’ that neither the equality nor determinate length of the
fides, nor the right angle, are at all concerned in the
demonftration. It is true, the idea or diagram we
have in view includes all thefe particulars; but then
there is not the leaft mention made of them in the;
proof).
triangle which he confiders muft be either equilateral,
ifofceles, or fealenon; for a plain triangle, which is
none of thefe, can neither exift nor be conceived. But
whether it be of this or that fort is of no importance,
as any of them may equally Hand for and reprefent all
5.12 M E T A P
• Of AMrac-proof of the propontion. It is not faid the three
tion and angles are equal to two right angles, becaufe one of
^Idea^ them is a right angle, or becaule the iides comprehend-
« —ing it are of equal length ; which fufficiently (hows
that the right angle might have been oblique and the
fades unequal; and for all that the demonftration have
held good. In every one of Euclid’s theorems, a par¬
ticular triangle, and a particular parallelogram, and a
particular circle, are employed as fighs to denote all
triangles, all parallelograms, and all circles. When a
geometrician makes a diagram with chalk upon a
board, and from it demonltrates the property of a
ilraight-lined figure, no fpedfator ever imagines that
he is demonftrating a property of nothing elfe but that
individual while figure, five inches long, which is before
him.—Every one is fatisfied that he is demonftrating
a property of all of that order, whether more or lefs ex-
tenfive, of which it is both an example and a fign;
all the order being underflood to agree with it in cer¬
tain charadlers, however different in other refpefts.
Nay, what is more, the mind with the utmoft facility
extends or contrails the reprefentative power of the
fign as the particular occafion requires. Thus the
fame equilateral triangle will with ..equal propriety
ferve for the demonftration, not only of a property of
all equilateral triangles, but of a . property of all ifo-
feeles triangles, or even of a property of all triangles
whatever. Nay, fo perfectly is this matter underflood,
that if the demonftrator in any part fhould recur to
Tome property belonging to the particular figure he
hath conflruded, but not effential to the kind men¬
tioned in the propofition, and which the particular
figure is folely intended to reprefent, every intelligent
obferver would inftantly deleft the fallacy : So entire-
-ly for all the purpofes of fcience doth a particular ferve
for a whole fpecies or genus. Now, why one vt/ille
individual fhould in our reafonings ferve without the
fmalleft inconvenience as a fign for an infinite number,
-and yet one conceivable individual, or a particular idea
of imagination, ftiould not be adapted to anfwer the
fame end, it will, we imagine, be -utterly impoffible
to fay (n ).
It muft, however, be confefed, that there is a con-
fiderable difference in kind, between ideas ufed as figns
and the general terms of any language. Amongft all
the individuals of a fpecie?, or even of the kigheit ge¬
nus, there is ftill a natural connedlion, as they agree
in the fpecific or generic charadler ; and when the
mind makes ufe of any pofitive idea as the fign of the
fpecies or genus, that idea appears in the imagination
;as an exadl refemblance of fome one individual. But
N° 2x3.
H Y S I C S. Parti.
the connedlion which fubfifts between words and things, OfAbftrae.
or even between words and ideas, is in its origin ar- 1,011 af(.1
bitrary ; and yet its eft’edl upon the mind is much the ijgac.
fame with that of the natural connedlion between ideas y—J
and things. For having often had occafion to obferve
particular words ufed as figns of particular things, and
fpecific terms ufed as figns of a whole fpecies, we cori-
tradl a habit of affociating the fign with the thing fig-
nified, infomuch that either being prefented to the
mind neceffarily introduces or occafions the appre-
henfion of the other. Cuftom in this inftance ope¬
rates precifely in the fame manner as natural refem¬
blance in the other ; fo that certain founds, and the
ideas of things to which they are not naturally rela¬
ted, come to be as thoroughly linked in our concep¬
tions as the ideas of things and things themfelves.
Nay, fo completely are they linked together, that we
often ufe, through long chains of reafoning, certain
founds or words, without attending at all to the ideas
or notions of which they are figns. “ I believe (fays
the author of A Treatife on Human Nature), that every
one who examines the fituation of his mind in reafon¬
ing will agree with me, that we do not annex diftindl
and complete ideas to every term we make ufe of;
and that in talking of government, church, negotiation,
conquejl, we feldom fpread out in our minds all the
fimple ideas of which the compound notions fignified
by thefe terms are compofed. It is, however, obfer-
vable, that notwithftanding this imperfedlion, we may
avoid talking nonfenfe on thefe fubjedls, and may per¬
ceive any repugnance among the ideas as well as if
we had a full comprehenfion of them.” This remark
generally holds true; but thenitistobe obferved, that all
the words ufed as figns, and which yet do not denote
any one conceivable determinate idea, muft be capable
of definition. Thus, in matters that are perfedtly fa¬
miliar, in fimple narration, or in moral obfervations on
the occurrences of life, a man of common underftand-
ing may be deceived by fpecious falxehood, but is hard¬
ly to he gulled by downright nonfenfe or a repug¬
nance of ideas. Almoft all the poffible applications^
of the terms (in other words, all the acquired rela¬
tions of the figns) have become cuftomary to him.
Tire confequence is, that an unufual application of any
of them is inftantly detedled ; this dete&iori breeds
doubt, and this doubt occafions an immediate recourfc
to dejinition ; which, proceeding through fpecies and
genera, refolves complex terms into others lefs com¬
plex, till it ends at lail n fimple ideas and relations,
which can neither be defined nor mifunderftood (o).
See Logic.
Thus
(n) Were it poffible to frame an alJlraBgeneral idea of a triangle, which is neither equilateral, ifofceles, nor
Tcalenon, even that idea mull be ufed merely as a fign as much as any particular triangle whatever : and the
queftion might ftill be alked, How we can know any prepofition to be true of all the triangles reprefented by
the fign ? For example : having demonftrated that the three angles of an ideal triangle, which is neither equi¬
lateral, ifofceles, nor fcalenon, are equal to two right angles, how can we conclude that this affedlion agrees
to triangles which are equilateral, &c. ? To this queftion it is not eafy to conceive what anfwer could be
given other than that of Berkeley and Campbell, in the cafe of ufing particular and conceivable triangles as
ligns.
(o) Since this article was written, fome excellent obfervations on the common doflrine concerning abftrac-
ition have been given to the public by profeffor Dugald Stewart of Edinburgh. See Elements of the Philofo-
jphj of the Human Mind.
Parti METAPHYSICS. $13
Of Abftrac- Thu? then we fee, thst though there are no ideas,
ti<m ftnii properly fpeaking, general and abftraft, a man may
^deas*1 ky term* and particular ideas, ufed asfigns, arrive at the
. knowledge of general truth. In neither cafe is it the
92 matter, if we may be allowed the expreflion, but the
it is not power of the fign, that is regarded by the mind. We
the matter even demonftrative reafonings, figns the
«ewer9fthemo^ arhitrary, or mere fymbols, may be ufed with as
%n that is little danger of error as ideas or natural figns. The
regarded by operations both of the algebraifl and arithmetician are
die maid, ftriftly of the nature of demonftration The one em¬
ploys as f,gns the letters of the alphabet, the other cer¬
tain numerical chara&ers. In neither of thefe arts is
it neceffary to form ideas of the quantities and films
Signified; in fome inftances it is even impofiible without
refolving the quantity or fum into parts, in a manneran-
alogous to definition ; and then the mind comprehends
not the whole quantity or number at once, but the fe-
veral parts of which it is compofed, which it conne&s
(p by the relation of jun&ion or addition. Yet without
this refolution, the equations and calculations carried
on by means of the letters and figures fignificant of
the whole quantity or the whole fum, are not the
lefs accurate or convincing. And fo much for ab-
fraQion, generalization, and the power offgns, whether
natural or artificial.
Chap. V. 0/fA? Association q/'Ideas.
93 . Every man whilft awake is confcious of a conti-
ed train'of* nUed tra'n thought fpontaneoufly arifing in his
thought in mind and palling through it; nor could a fingle now
the mind, or inftant be pitched upon in which fome idea is not
prefent in his memory or imagination. No one idea,
however, unltfs detained by a voluntary exertion of
the mind, or unlefs productive of intenfe pleafure or
pain, remains long in the imagination ; but each ba¬
ttens off the ftage to make way for another, which
takes its turn and is fucceeded by a third, &c. We
are not to imagine that this train of thought is alto¬
gether fortuitous and incoherent. “ It is evident
&Fj[ays' (fays Mr Hume *), that there is a principle of con¬
nexion between different thoughts or ideas of the
mind; and that, in their appearance to the memory
or imagination, they introduce each other with a cer¬
tain degree of method and regularity. In our more
ferious thinking ordifeourfe this is fo obfervable, that
any particular thought which breaks in upon the re¬
gular traft or chain of ideas, is immediately remarked
and rejected. Even in our wildeft and moft wandering
reveries, nay, in our very dreams, we (hall find, if we
reflect, that the imagination ran not altogether at ad¬
ventures, but that there was ffill a connection upheld
among the different ideas which fucceeded each other.
Were the loofeft: and freeft converfation to be tran-
feribed, there would immediately he obferved fome-
thing which conneXed it in all its tranfitions : Or,
where this is wanting, the perfon who broke the
Vol. XL Part II.
thread of difeourfe might ftitl inform you, that there Affnc,stiQu
had fecretly revolved in his mind a fucceffion of ai f
thoughts, which had gradually led him from the fub-
jeX of converfation. Among different languages,
even where we cannot fufpeX the leaft co.nneXion or
communication, it is found, that words expreffive of
ideas the moft compounded, do yet nearly correfpond
to each other ; a certain proof that the fimple ideas .
comprehended in the compound ones, were bound to¬
gether by fome univerfal principle, which had an equal
influence on all mankind.” ^
That thefe obfervations are well founded, every Principle*
man may be fatisfied by looking attentively into his0/
own thoughts ; but when the author reduces the prin-tl0Il“
ciples of this affociation of ideas to three, viz. refem-
blance, contiguity in time and place, and caufe or effeS,,
he certainly contraXs them within too narrow a com-
pafs. That thefe principles often ferve to conneX
ideas, will not indeed be denied. A piXure leads our
thoughts to the original: the mention of one apart¬
ment in a building introduces an inquiry or difeourfe
concerning the others : and if we think of a wound,
we can hardly forbear refleXing on the pain which fol¬
lows it. But furely ideas fometimes fucceed each
other without refemblance, without contiguity in time
or in place, and without being conneXed by the rela¬
tion of a caufe to its effeS. Befides all this, there are
other affociations than of ideas. Ideas are affociated
w ith palfions and emotions, and paffions and emotions
are affociated together. A particular idea is affoci¬
ated with a proper name, and often with the general
name of the fpecies. General conceptions, fuch as thofe
which Mr Locke calls mixed modes (fee Mode), are
Affociated with figns both audible and vifible, and figns
are affociated with each other. Surely virtue, as it
conlifts in aXion and intention, does not referable the
found virtue, is not contiguous to it in time or in place,
and is neither its caufe nor its ejfe£t; nor is it concei¬
vable, that the arbitrary figns of different things
fhould have any natural relation to one another.
But were the enumeration complete, the hare men¬
tion of thefe principles does not account for the phe¬
nomena : For, granting the faX, it may ftill be afk-
ed, Why does a piXure lead our thoughts to the ori¬
ginal ; or the mention of one apartment in a building
introduce an inquiry concerning the others? To thefe
quell ions our author has given no anfwer; nor are wc
acquainted with any writer who can be faid to have
attempted it, except Dr Hartley and his ingenious edi¬
tor. There may be fome of our readers whom the
names of thefe men will prejudice againft their theory;
but, doubtlefs, the greater part are willing to adopt
truth, or to examine an ingenious fpeculation, from
whatever quarter it comes. To fuch as feel them-
felves otherwife difpofed, we beg leave to fay, that if
they, allow the name of Priefley to difguft them at
what follows, they will furnilh him with a new proof
of the truth of the doXrine which they rejeX.
3 T That
(p) No man, we think, will pretend that he can perceive at one view a million of individual men,
or that he can imagine or conceive at once a million of ideal men : yet he may divide the million into
parts, w'hich in the one cafe may he eafily viewed, and in the other may be eafily conceived, in fuc«
cefiion. Thus, ico + loo-f xoo, &c.
5!4
Aff elation
of Ideas.
How they
operate.
M E T A P
That ia*as fhould be affociated together, feems to
be inevitable from the manner in which the mind ac¬
quires them. All our ideas, properly fpeaking, are
of fenfxble objects, and by far the greater part of them
of objedta. But every fenfible objedt conveys
at once various fenfationsand perceptions to the mind,
which appear not only united in fadf, but infeparable
•in imagination. Thus, when a man looks at any par¬
ticular objedd, a tree for inilance, he perceives the
trunk, branches, leaves, fvz,e, jhape, and colour, &c. of
the whole at once: he does not firft perceive the figure
of the trunk, then itsfi-ze., then its cojour, then the
branches, &c. all in fucceffion ; but a perception of the
whole is conveyed to the mind by one fimultaneous
impreffion (q^) We have already feen, that the
fenfes, in fadt, convey nothing to the mind but their
refpedtive fenfatidns ; and that the perception of the
external objedt inflantly follows the fenfation. We
have like wife feen, that fenfation is occafioned by
fome impreflion, concufllon, or vibration, given to
the nerves and brain, and by them communicated to
•the mind or percipient being. We have likewife feen,
that memory depends as much upon the brain as ori¬
ginal fenfation, and is always attended or occafioned
by fimilar concuffions or vibrations, &c. Thefe are
fadls proved by univerfal experience, and which, we
believe, no thinking man has ever called in queftion.
It follows, therefore, that every adtual fenfation muft
leave fome effedf in the brain, either an adhial print,
which feems to be impoffible, or a tendency to vibrate
or be agitated in the fame way as when the original
impreflion was made. This being the cafe, it is na¬
tural to conclude, that when any part of the original
perception is revived in the memory, the whole per¬
ception fhould be revived at once, fo as that we can¬
not have an idea of the trunk of a tree without per¬
ceiving the ideas of the branches affbeiated with it.
This is indeed not merely natural, but the contrary
deems to be impoffible ; for as the original agitation
or vibration was occafioned by the whole tree, it is
evident, that whatever effedl or tendency that agita¬
tion or vibration left behind it, muft be left by the
• whole vibration, and therefore be equally related to
the whole tree.
But no obj-eft ftanda Angle in nature. When we
view a tree, or any thing elfe, we always notice, how¬
ever tranfiently, the field where it grows and the ob-
jedls around it. Thefe too leave effects in the brain
at the fame time that the tree does fo; and therefore
make their appearance with it in the memory or ima-
H Y S I C S. Parti.
gination : but if the tree:was the objedd to which we Affociatioa
principally attended during the actual fenfation, the ^eav
idea of it will be much more vivid than the idea of its
adjun&s, and remain much longer in the imagination
or memory; becaufe the original fenfation by which it
was perceived, was ftruck much deeper than the fen-
fations by which its adjundts were perceived. All
this muft be intelligible to every one who attends to
what we have already faid of fenfation, perception, and
memory.
Thus we fee why a pidture leads our thoughts to '
•the original, and why the mention of one apartment
in a building introduces an inquiry concerning the
others. It is not merely becaufe the picture refembles
the original, and becaufe the apartments of a- building
are contiguous. Between a plain furface, varioufly co-
doured and fhaded, and the contour of the human
face, there is Ccitainly very little real refemblance, as
any man may be convinced who places his eye with-
-in fix inches of a good pidture. But the painter, ha¬
ving by his fkill in perfpedtive, contrived to lay his
colours on the plain canvas in fuch a manner as that
they refledt the fame rays of light with the original,
provided the fpedlator ftand at the proper diftance ;
thefe rays proceeding from the pidlure fall upon the eye
in the fame diredfion, and therefore give to the nerves
and brain the very fame impulfe which was given by
the original. When one apartment of a building is
mentioned, we inquire concerning the others from the
very fame caufe that, when we think of the trunk of
a tree which we have feen, we cannot avoid thinking,
likewife of its branches.
But the principle of aflbeiation takes place among
things, not naturally connedled, as the apartments ofgivesmeau-
a building and a fubftance and its attributes»and ad-mg to the
jundls. It is affociation which is the original fouree'words °f
of all the general or complex conceptions which we‘angu*Se»
have, and which even gives meaning to the words of
every language. Between founds; confidered in thein-
felves, and things, or the ideas of things, every one
knows that there is no natural connedlion ; yet
the idea of every known objedl is in the mind of eve¬
ry man fo ftridtly afibciated with the name that it
bears in his native tongue, that the prefence of the
one always fuggefts the other. It cannot indeed be
otherwife, if we attend to the manner in which a child
learns to affix a meaning to the words which he hears.
—A child knows his mother and nurfe, and indeed
almoft every vifible objedf in the family, long before-
he acquires the power of articulation. The impreflions
made
(O This is certainly the cafe with adults, but it may be doubted whether it be fo with very young
children. It has been fhown already, that the fenfation communicated by the eye from any vifible ob ■
jedt, has not the leaft refemblance to that objedt; and that in looking at a tree or any thing elfe, a full
grown man pays not the leaft attention to the appearance which the tree really makes to his eye ; nay,
that he is not even eonfeious of that appearance, farther than as it confifts in colour. It is by the
Tenfe of touch only that we acquire ideas of figure, even of plain figure; and we imagine that we per¬
ceive them by the eye only, becaufe different figures, as diftinguifhable by touch, are fo clofely affociated
with their correfponding vifible fenfations, that long before we are capable of inquiry, thefe two things
are infeparable in the imagination. It is otherwife with children, who, when they firft begin to diftin-
• guifh objedts by the fenfe of fight, appear to do it with great deliberation, as if they firft felt the pro¬
per fenfation of light and colours fo or fo modified, and afterwards acquired,- by fomething like a mental
inference, a notion of the figure at which they are looking.
5
Part I. M E T A P
Aflbciation made by thefe objefts, and repeated daily and hourly
ot ideas. on p;, brain, every one of which excites a fenfation,
’ muft foon become fo deep as not to be eafily effaced.
Numbers of them too are affbciated together, fo that
the prefence of one introduces the other. It has been
already obferved, that ideas of fight are the moft vi¬
vid and the moll lafting; but the child having the
fame found often repeated, even that found comes in
time to leave in his memory a permanent idea. He
then hears the found nurfe, for inftance, uttered at the,
time when he is looking earneftly at the perfon of the
nurfe, with whom he is well acquainted, and to whom
he is ftrongly attached ; and having the two ideas re¬
peatedly excited together, they foon become fo aflbci-
ated, that the one neceflarily excites the other s the
word nurfe calls into view the idea of the woman trea-
fured up in his imagination.
But we need not have recourfe to children for the
proof of our aflertion. It is obvious that the name of
every fimple and uncompounded idea can be fignificant
only by aflbciation. Of a complex conception the
name may be made intelligible by a definition; but
fimple ideas cannot be defined, and between ideas and
founds there is no natural connedlion, fo as that the
«ne previous to aflbciation fliould fuggeft the other.
Even of complex conceptions and mixed modes, the
meaning of the names is generally acquired by af-
fociation; for though it is certainly true, that all fuch
names are capable of definition, they are yet ufed with
fiifiicient propriety by thoufands who know not what
a definition is. Were a plain unlettered man alked to
define virtue, it is not probable that he could do it fo
as to make himfelf underftood; yet having ideas of
the practice of jujlice, charity, fortitude, &c. ftridtly ‘af-
fociated in his mind with the word virtue,- he may
know the general meaning of that word as well as the
moft acute grammarian or the moft profound philo-
fopher.
An alms is a donation to a poor man ; but a child
who never heard of this definition knows perfedlly
what an alms is, from having often feen his parents
give money to a beggar, and call what they were do¬
ing by the name alms. The found of the word, after
having feen the firft alms given, will excite in his mind
an idea of the individual objetft who received it, and of
the attion of him by whom it was given ; but after ha¬
ving feen feveral poor men relieved, he comes to affb-
ciate with the word alms any thing given to any per¬
fon who needs it or appears to be in want.
So completely does this affociation take place be¬
tween ideas or clufters of ideas, and the words by
which they are exprefied, that even men of letters hear
and underftand perfectly many words without review¬
ing in their minds alt the ideas and relations of which
they are the figns. It has been already obferved, that
in talking of government, church, negotiation, conquefl,
we feldom fpread out in our minds all the fimple ideas
of which the compound notions fignified by thefe terms
are compofed ; and we now add, that the terms may
be ufed with fufficient propriety, and be perfectly un¬
derftood by thofe who never attempted to analyfe the
notions of which they are fignificant into their pri¬
mary and conftituent parts. Every man has read num-
berlefs details of the tranfaftions of one court with
another ; he has heard fuch tranfaftions univerfally
called by the term negotiation. The term and the
H Y S I C S. 5i5
tranfaftions fignified by it are fo clofely aflbeiated’in AfTociation.,
his mind, that they are in a manner infeparable ; and ot ldea\
by this aflbciation he knows the meaning of the term "v——^
better than he could have done by the moft complete
definition ; which, perhaps, he would find it difficult
to give, or even to comprehend. 97
We have faid that the meaning of the word virtue ^rc’*
is acquired by aflbciation, by having often heard that cuTfirft no-
found applied to certain actions; but it is extremely tions of vit*
probable, that the very notion of virtue, fimple andtue>
uncompounded as it appears to be, is acquired in the
very fame manner. The frjl rudiments of the notions,
of right and wrong and obligation feem to be acquired by
a child when he finds himfelf checked and controled
by fuperior power. At firft he feels nothing but mere
force, and confequently has no notion of any kind of
reftraint but that of neceffity. He finds he cr.nnot
have his will, and therefore he fubmits. Afterwards he
attends to many circumftances which diftinguifh the
commands of a father, or of a majhr, from thofe of any
other perfon. Notions of reverence, love, ejleem, and
dependence, are connefted with the idea of him who'
gives thofe commands; and by degrees the child ex¬
periences the peculiar advantages of filial fubjeftion.
He fees alfo that all his companions, who are noticed
and admired by others, obey their parents ; and that
thofe who are of a refraftory difpofition are univerfal¬
ly difliked. Thefe and other circumftances now begin to
alter and modify the notion of mere neceffity, till by de¬
grees he confiders the commands of a parent as fome-
thing that mu/l not be refilled or difputed, even though
he has a power of doing it; and all thefe ideas coa-
lefcing, form the notions of moral right and moral o'-
ligation, which are eafily transferred from the com¬
mands of a parent to thofe of a magiftrate, of God,
and of confcience. This opinion of the gradual for¬
mation of the ideas .of moral right and wrong, from
a great variety of elements affbeiated together, per-
feftly accounts for that prodigious diverfity in the.
fentiments of mankind refpefting the objefts of moral
obligation ; nor do we fee that any other hypothefia-
can account for the fafts. If the notion of moral ob¬
ligation were a fimple uncompounded idea, arifing
from the view of certain aftions or fentiments; or were
it acquired, as it certainly might be, by a chain of
reafoning from the nature of God and the nature of
man ; why fhould it not in the one cafe be as invaria¬
ble as the perception of colours or founds, and in the
other as our judgements of mathematical or phyfical
truths ? But though the lhape and colour of a flow¬
er appear the fame to every human eye ; though eve¬
ry man of common underftanding knows, that if a
billiard ball be ftruck by another, it will move from its
place with a velocity proportioned to the force of the
impulfe ; and though all mankind who have but dipt,
into mathematics, perceive that any two fides of a
triangle muft be greater than the third fide; yet one
man praftifesas amoral duty what another looks upon
with abhorrence, and reflefts on with remorfe. Now
a thing that varies with education and inftruftion, as
moral fentiments are known to do, certainly has the
appearance of being generated by a feries of different
impreflions and aflbeiations in fome fuch manner as
we have endeavoured to deferibe. Let not any man
imagine that this account of the origin of moral fen¬
timents endangers thb caufe of virtue 5 for whether
3 T 2 thofe
METAPHYSICS.
Part I
98
It ought,
therefore,
Jwuth,
thofe lentiments be inftln&ive or acquired, their ope- count which we have given of the manner in which Aff fciatioa
ration is the very fame,and in either cafe their re&itude external objefts are perceived by means of the fenfes, ot lcje ‘» a
muft often be tried by the teft of reafon, fo that the and the ideas of fuch objects retained in the memory. ^
interefts of virtue are equally fafe on this as on any —It has been proved, we think, by arguments un-The princh
other fcheme. See Moral Philofopby. anfwerable, that by the organs of fenfe nothing is-pie of aflb-
This principle of aifociation has fo great an in- conveyed immediately to the mind but fenfacions r|at'on “P6*
fluence over all our actions, paflions, reafonings, and which can have no refemblance. to external objefts, and
judgments, that there is not perhaps any one thing that the perception of an objeft may be refolved into-ot external-,
which deferves more to be looked after in the educa- a procefs of reafoning from effects to caufes.—But objects j.
tion of youth. Some of our ideas—-fuch as tbofe of children, it will be faid, do not reafon from effects
fubftance and its attributes, a genus and the fpecies to caufes, and yet they foon acquire the faculty of
perceiving and diitinguifhing the obje£ts with which
they are furrounded. This is an undoubted truth,
and it can be accounted for only by the principle of
affociation. A child has as much the ufe of his fenfes.
contained under it, a- fpecies and its feveral individuals,
have a real connexion with each other in nature.
Thefe it is the office of our reafon to trace out and
ro hold together in that union and order in which na-
* Lucies
and
his ConduSi
of the Un-
iirfianding.
ture prefencs them to tlve view of the mind for fuch as a full grown man. By his eye he has the fenfa-
aflbeiations conilitute perhaps the greateft part of ne- tion of colour ; by his nofe, that of fmell; by his-
ceffary and of ufeful truths. But there are others ear he has the fenfation of found; and by his hand he
formed by cultom and caprice, which arc too often feels heat and cold, rehftance and bounded refiitance.
the fources of error, fuperftition, vice, and mifery— Every object which is prsfented to him, impreffes his-
of errors the more dangerous, and of vice the more mind with various fenfations : and thefe fenfations
deplorable that if the affociationa have been long combined together are probably all that he perceives
formed without an attempt to diffolve them, they ge- for fome years ; for there is no reafon to imagine that
nerally become at luff too ftrong to be broken by the a boy of one or two years old has the flighted notion
moft vigorous effort of the beft difpofed mind. Thus, of what we mean by folidity, hardnefs, foftneft, or
let a fooliih maid* amufe or rather frighten children indeed of that which is termed JubJiance. Yet when-
with ftories of ghofts appearing in the dark, let her two or more obje&s are prefent, he may eafily diftin-
repeat thefe fiftions till they have made a deep im- guiffr the one from the other,, becaufe the fenfations-
preffion on the young minds, and the notion of ghofts excited by the one muft differ from thofe excited by
will in time become fo clofely affociated with the the other, as much as the real qualities of the one
idea of darknefs, that the one fhall always introduce are different from the real qualities of the other; and’
the other; and it may not be in the power of the by diftinguifliing between his own fenfations, he in
children, after they have become men, and are con- effeft diftinguilhes between the objects which produce-
vinced in their judgments of the falfehood and ab- thefe fenfations. His fenfations too being frequently
furdity of the tales which originally frightened them, excited, leave behind them ideas in his memory or
to feparate entirely the notion of ghofts from the imagination and thofe ideas, from- having been im-
idea of darknefs, or with perfeft eafe to remain alone printed’ together and never feparated, become in time-
i-n a dark room. Again, let the idea, of infallibility be fo clofely affociated,. that whenever one of them is
annexed to any perfon or fociety, and let thefe two called into view, the others neceffarily make their ap-
infeparably united conftantly poffefs the mind ; and pearance with it. Thus a child has a fet of combined
tiien one body in ten thoufand places at once fhall, un- fenfations excited in his. mind by the prefence of his
examined, be fwallowed for an incontrovertible faft, nurfe ; he has a different clufter excited, fuppofe, by
whenever that infallible perfon or fociety diftates or the prefence of his mother. Thefe are often repeated^
demands.affent. without inquiry. and leave deep traces behind them; fo that when the
Some fuch wrong and unnatural combinations of mother or the nurfe makes her appearance, fhe is im.
ideas will be found' to eftabliih. the irreconcileable op- mediately recognifed as a known objeft; or,, to fpeak-
pofition that we And between different fe&s in philo- more correctly, the child feels the very fame fenfa-
fophy and religion ; for we cannot imagine every in- tions which he has felt before, from which he has expe-
dividual of any feft to impofe wilfully on himfelf, and rienced pleafure, and of which he has the ideas trea-
knowingly to rejeft truth offered by plain reafon. fused up in his memory or imagination. A ftranger.
That which leads mem of fincerity and good fenfo on the other hand, muft affedi him with a fet of new*
blindfold, will be found, when inquired into, to be fenfations,, and of courfe will be diftinguilhed from a
fome early and wrong affociation. Ideas independent known object as accurately aa if the child were pof-
and of no alliance to one another, are by. education, feffed of the notions of folidity, fubftance, qualities,,
cuftom, and the conftantdin of their party, fo linked and diftance. A man-born blind, who knew not that
together in their minds,, that they can no more be. fuch things as Are and fnow had ever exifted, would
feparated from each other than if they were but one yet diftinguifh the one from the other the moment
idea; and they operate upon the judgment as if they that he fliould be brought within their influence. He
really ivere but one. This gives fenfe to jargon, the could not indeed apply their names-properly, nor. fay
force of demonftration, to abfurdities, and conflftency which is the Are and which the fnow, nor. would he
to nonfenfe : it is the foundation of the greateft and at Aril have any notion of either of them as a real, ex-
moft dangerous errors in the world; for as far as it ob- ternal, and diftant object.; but, he would certainly di-
tains, it hinders men from feeing and examining. ftinguiih his own fenfations, the fenfation of heat from
Before we difmifslhe fubjefl of affociation, it may that of cold. It is juft fo with a child : At Arft he
fee groper to inquire, how far it is agreeable to the ac* perceives nothing but different fenfations. Thefe he
caa.
Part I.
m cry fro
imagina¬
tion ;
M E T A P H Y S I C S:
ncan cjidinguifti j and as they are caufed by diffe- or fuch an objeft ; but whether I remember or only \ffociation.
rent objects, in diftinguiihing between the fenfations imagine tVc objeft, 1 am very uncertain. Afterwards, Ideas,
he will appear to diftinguifh between the objedts however, by turning the idea over and over in the v
themfelves. In a Ihort time, however, he acquires, mind, he finds other ideas make their appearance, till
by the following procefs, fome inaccurate notions at la!l chillers of them come into view, and affociate
of dillance. He looks, for in fiance, earneftly in his fo clofely with the principal idea, which was the ob-
nurfe’s face, and at the fame time touches her jeft of doubt, as to convince the judgmem. that it is
cheek perhaps by accident. He repeats this opera- an idea of memory. ,0T
tion frequently, till the fenfation communicated by 11 has been afked. Why we believe what we dtftindl-and to ba,
bis eye comes to be aflbeiated with that of his touch, ly remember ? and to that queftion it has been fuppo-lhe Sro“^“
and with the extending of his arm; and being all fed that no anfwer can be given. But it appears to us, e*
treafured up as alTpciated ideas in the memory, the that affociation is the ground of belief in this as it will whit we re*
fight of his nurfe makes him ever afterwards ftretch be found' to be in other inftances ; and that a man be- member*
out his hands with a defire to touch her. AH this lieves he walhed his hands and face in the morning, be-
wh.ile there is not the flighted probability that the caufe the idea of that operation is fo firongly linked
child has any notion offubjiance or qualities., or of any in his mind to the whole train of ideas which have
thing beyond his own fenfaticHS, and the means by arifen in it through the day, that he cannot feparate
which he has experienced, that fenfations which are the firft from the lafi, that which was a fenfation in
pleafant may be obtained, and that fuch as are pain- the morning from the fenfations which are prefent at
ful may be avoided. The precife time at which a the inftant of remembrance. As thofe ideas are
child begins to think of external things we cannot alfociated hy nature, each muft pafs in review
pretend to afeertain ; but we are perfuaded that it is in its proper order; fo that in fo Ihort a fpace of
later than many perfons imagine, and certainly not time there is no danger, and hardly a pofiibility, of
till he has made confiderable progrefs in the exercife taking the firft for the laft, or the laft for the firft.
of reafon. Prior to that period the things which men Nay more, we will venture to hazard an opinion, that
Itnow to be bodies, are known to children only as fen- every pad event of a man’s life, which he diftinftly
fations and ideas ftrongly bound together by the tie remembers, is tied by the chain of aflbeiation to his
of afibciation. prefent perceptions. That this is poffible is certain.
But if affociation be of fuch importance in the a6l fince it is not difficult to conceive how it may be done,
of fenfation, it is of ftill greater in that of retention ; The principal events of a Angle day may furely be fa-
for it feems to conftitute the whole difference that linked together as to- be all diftinctly reviewed in a
n there is between imagination and memory. By many clufter of ideas on the morrow. Of thefe events fome
of the ancients, as well as by fome modern philofo- one or other muff be the moft important, which will
phers, thefe two faculties feem to have been confound- therefore make its appearance as an idea more fre¬
ed with each other; but between them there is cer- quently than the reft, and be more clofely affociated
tainly a great difference, though they likewife refem- with the events of next day. Some event of that day
ble each other in fome refpefts. An idea of memory, will, for the fame reafon, be more clofely affociated
confidered by itfelf, makes the very fame appearance with it than the others ; and thefe two, dropping per-
to the intelleft as an idea of imagination. We con- haps all the reft of their original companions, will pafs>
template both as if they were actual, though faint and on together to the third day, and fo on through weeks,
diftant perceptions t but the one is attended with the and months and years. In the compafs of a. year, fe-
conviftion, that it is the idea of an objeft which has veral things muft occur to make deep impreffions on-
really been perceived at fome period of pall time the mind. Thefe will at firft be affociated together
whilft the other is attended with no convi&ion, except by events of little importance, like the occurrences of
that the idea itfelf is adlually prefent to the mind., a fingle day. Whilit thefe feeble chains, however,
Mr Hume has faid, that ideas of memory differ from continue unbroken, they will be fufficient to link the
fchofe of imagination only in being more vivid and di- one important event to the other, and to bring them
ftintl ; but certainly this is not always the cafe. An both into view at the fame time, till at laft. thefe two,,
idea of imagination has fometimes been taken for a from appearing fo often together, will in time unite
real perception, which an idea of memory can never of themfelves, and the intermediate ideas be complete-
be. The difference between thele two kinds of ideas, ly effaced. Thus may two or three important events
we are perfuaded, arifes chiefly, if not wholly, fron* of one year be affociated with fuch a number of fimi-
affociation. Every idea of memory is affociated with lar events of another year, fo that the ideas of the
many others, and thofe again with others down to one lhall always introduce to the mind the ideas of the
the very moment of the energy of remembrance ; otlier ;• and this chain of affociation may pafs. from the
whereas ideas of imagination are either the voluntary earlieft event, which we dillindlly remember through
creatures of the fancy at the moment of their ap- all the intermediate years of our lives down to the
pearance, in which cafe we fliould call them concep- inftant when memory is exerted.
tions ; or they are ideas which we have adlually recei- To this account of memory it may perhaps be ob-
ved from fenfation, but which, on account of fame jedled, that it gives us no diftindl notion of time,
link being broken in the vaft chain of affociation, we Every thing that is remembered is neqeffariiy believed
cannot refer to any real obje&s. What gives probabi- to have been prefent in fome portion of paft time;,
lity to this conjedlure is, that ideas often appear in.the but affociation brings into view nothing but a feries
mind which we know not whether to refer to the me- of events. This objedlion will be- feen to have no
mory or imagination, nothing being more common than weight when we have inquired into the nature of time, ,
to hear a gerfon fay, I have in my head the idea of fuch and afeertained what kind of a thing it is. It wiit
£18 META P
Aff elation tlien perlnips appear, that duration itfelf, as appre-
Ideas. }!Cnde(i by US} js not diftinguifhable from a feries of
events ; and that if there were no train of thought
palling through our minds, nor any motion among
the objects around us, time could have no exigence.
Meanwhile, whatever become of this opinion, we beg
leave to obferve, that our theory of remembrance is
perfe&ly confident with the commonly received no*
tions refpefting time ; and indeed, that it is th? only
’ theory which can account for numberlefs phenomena
refpedhing pad duration. It is univerfally allowed,
that if motion or a fucqefiion of events do not confti-
tute time, it is the only thing by which time can be
meafured. Now it is a faft which no man will deny,
that the diftance of time from the prefent now or in-
ftant to the earlieft period which he diftindlly remem¬
bers, appears to his view extremely Ihort, much Ihor*
ter than it is faid to be in reality; and that one year,*
when he looks forward, appears longer than two, per¬
haps longer than ten, when he looks backward. Upon
our principles this fadl is eafily accounted for. We
remember nothing which is not linked by a chain of
affociations with the perceptions oUthe prefent mo¬
ment ; and as none but a few of the mod important
events of our lives can be linked together in this man¬
ner, it hence follows, that events which, in the order
of fucceffion, were far dijiant from each other, mud
thus be brought together in the memory, and the whole
chain be contra&ed within very Ihort limits. Eut
when we figure to ourfelves a feries of future events,
we employ the aftive power of fancy indead of the
, pafiive capacity of retention ; and can therefore bring
within the compafs of one periodical revolution of the
fun a longer feries of imaginary events fucceeding
each other, than is preferved of real events in our me¬
mory from the earlied period of our exidence. So
perfectly does our theory accord with this well-known
fa&. On the other hand, if -memory be an original
faculty of the mind totally independent of affbeiation,
and of which no other account is to be given than
that it neceffarily commands our belief, why is it a fa-,
culty which, with regard to duration, thus uniformly
deceives us ? and how comes it to pafs, that to a man
whofe memory is tenacious, who has read much, feen
many countries, and been engaged, in various occur*
rences, any determinate portion of pad time always
appears longer than to another man whole memory is
feeble, and whofe life has‘been waded in eafe and idle*
nefs ? To thefe .quedions we know not what anfwer
can be given upon any other principle than that which
makes the evidence of memory depend upon alfocia-
tion. But if we remember nothing .but what is link¬
ed to the perception or idea which is prefent with us
at the time of remembrance, and if duration be
meafured by the fuccellion of events, it is obvious
that any portion of pad time mud necelTarily appear
longer to him who has many ideas alTociated in his
jqj mind than to him who has but few.
The iwiper- There is not perhaps a lingle fact of greater impor¬
tance ct af- tance in the philofophy of the human mind than the
the phiiofo-
H Y S I C S. Parti.
affbeiation of ideas; which, when thoroughly understood,' Afieclarion
accounts for many of thofe phenomena which fome
late writers of name have, wuth injury to fcience and -
with danger to morality', attributed to a number of
didindl and independent indindts. It is for this rea-
fon that we have confideired it fo minutely, and dwelt
upon it fo long ; and in addition to what we have faid
on the fubjeft, we beg leave to recommend to our
more philofophital readers the diligent dudy of Hart¬
ley’s Obfervations on Man(R). In that work we
think feveral things are taken for granted which re¬
quire proof; and fome which, we are perfuaded, have
no foundation in nature; but, with all its defedts, it
has more merit than any other treatife on the fenfitive-
part of human nature with which we ate acquainted.
Chap. VI. 0/'Conscio»sness <i/7g?Reflection.
Sensation, remembrance, Ample apprehenfion, and Confcfouf-
conception, with every other adlual energy or paffion nets, what
of the mind, is accompanied with an inward feeling d is, and
or perception of that energy or paffion ; and that feel- "|l’akare its
ing or perception is termed confcioufnefs. Gonfcioufnefs J
is the perception of what palfes in a man’s own mind
at the infant of its paffing there ; nor can we ffe, hear,
tafe, fmell, remember, apprehend, conceive, employ our
faculties in any manner, enjoy any -pleafure, or fuffer
any pain, without being confcious of what we are do¬
ing, enjoying, or fullering. Confcioufnefs is only of
things prefent *•} and to apply it to things paf, is to * gjJ's F.f-
Confound confcioufnefs with memory or -refe5tion. One/o" the
cannot fay that he is confcious of what he has feen or
heard and now remembers-: he is only confcious of the ^
adf of remembrance ; which, though it refpefts a pad *
event, is itfelf a prefent energy. It is likewife to he
obferved, that confcioufnefs is only of things in the
mind or confcious being, and not of things external.
It is improper in any perfon to fay that he is confcious
of the table before him : he perceives it, he feesif, and
he may with great propriety fay that he is confcious he
perceives Or fees it; but he cannot fay that he is con¬
fcious of the table itfelf, for it is only his immediate
energy of perception that can be the objeft of con-,
feioufnefs. All the operations of our minds are at¬
tended with confcioufnefs ; which is the only evidence
that we have or can have of their exidence. Should
a man take it into his head to think or to fay that his
Gonfcioufnefs may deceive him, and to require a proof
that it cannot, we know of no proof that can be gi¬
ven hint s he mud be left to himfelf as a man that de¬
nies fird principles, without which there can be no
reafoning. Every attempt to prove this point, or to
fet it in a clearer light, would only ferve to render it
more dark and unintelligible. 1 think, I feel, 1 cxif,
are drd truths, and the balls of all human knowledge. -
This has given rife to the quedion, whether
Cartes did not fall into an abfurdity when, inferring.argUment
his own exidence from his aftual thought, he faid* from con-
Cogito, ergo fum ? This argument has been called a pi- feioufm t's
tiful iophilm, and a petitio principii; becaufe, before a
man
>hy of the .     .         — ,
(r) Since this was written Mr Stewart’s Elements of the Philofophy of the Human Mind have been pub-
lifhed ; in which the reader will find many excellent remarks on the nature and influence of the aflbciatiug
principle. *
Part I.
' Of Confci
oufi.efs ano
Keflafli'*11
* See Buf
fer'sfirjl
Truth.
M E T A P H Y
man take it for granted that he thinks, he muft alfo, and
S I c s.
it is faid, take it for granted that he exifts, fince there
cannot be thought where there is no exiftence. Now
it-mu ft be confeffed, that if Des Cartes pretended by
this argument to give us a frefli convidion of our own
exigence, his endeavours were ufelefs and puerile; be-
caufe a man capable of being convinced by the argu¬
ments of another, muft have a previous convidbion of
his own exiftence : but the argument itfelf is certainly
neither a fophifm nor a petitio principii. Thofe* who
defend Des Cartes affert, and there is no reafon to
doubt the truth of their aflertion, that his only view
urging fuch an argument was not to prove the
(flexion, is like the difference between a fuperScial Of Conk
view of an objeii which prefents itfelf to the eye f’
while we are engaged about fomething elfe, and that Rel,e<ft!0
attentive examination which we give to an objeft when ^
we are wholly employed in furveying it. It is by con-
fcioufnefs that we immediately acquire all the know¬
ledge which we have of mental operations; but atten¬
tive reflexion is neceffary to make that knowledge ac¬
curate and diftinft. Attention is a voluntary a£t ; it
requires fome exertion to begin and continue it ; and
by great exertion it may be continued fora confider-
able time ; but confdoufnefs is involuntary, and of no
continuance, changing with every thought. The
519
truth of our exiftence, but to exhibit the order of power of reflexion upon the operations of their own
* Re;<f
InteUeliual
aZT o/
that procefs by which we arrive at the knowledge of
the fadt; and this he has very clearly done by analy-
ling the truth into its firft principles. A ftone exifts
as well as the human mind; but has the ftone any
knowledge of its own exiftence ? No man will fay that
it has ; neither fhould we have any knowledge of ours,
did we think as little as the ftone. We certainly might
exift without thinking, as it is probable we do in very
found fleep ; and in that ftate our exiftence might be
known to other beings, but it could not poffibly be
known to ourfelves: for the only things of which the
mind is confcious, or has immediate knowledge, are
its own operations. 1 exiji is therefore a legitimate
inference from the propoiition I think ; and the obfer-
vation that it is to may be ufeful to fhow us the pro¬
cedure of the mind in the acquifition of knowledge ;
but it has little merit as an argument, and Rill lefs as
a difcovery, though, being ftridtly true and juft, it
fhould never have been expofed to ridicule.
It is to be obferved, that we are conicious of many
things to which we give very little attention. We
can hardly attend to feveral things at the fame time ;
and our attention is commonly employed about that
which is the objehl of our thought, and rarely about
the thought itfelf. It is in our power, however,
when we come to the years of underftanding, to give
attention to our own thoughts and paffions, and the
various operations of our minds. And when we make
thefe the objecfts of our attention, either while they
are prefent, or when they are recent and frefh in our
memory, we perform an adl of the mind which is pro¬
perly called reflection. This reflation ought to be di-
ftinguiftied from confcioufnefs*, with which it is com-
minds does not at all appear in children. Men muft
have come to fome ripenefs of underftanding before
they are capable of it. Of all the powers of the hu¬
man mind it feems to be the laft that unfolds itfelf.
Moft men fcem incapable of acquiring it in any con-
fiderable degree ; and many circumftances confpire to
make it to all men an exercifeof difficulty. The dif¬
ficulty, however, muft be conquered, or no progrefs
can be made in the fcience of our own or of other
minds.
All the notions which we have of mind and of its jog
operations are got by refle&ion ; and thefe notions are All our no-
by Mr Locke called ideas of refettion. This term we t'ons <.'f
think extremely ill chofen ; and we believe it.has .been uct
the fource of much error and confufion among. Locke’s by re fiec-
followers. A man, by attending to the operations oftftn.
his own mind, may have as diftindb of remem¬
brance, of judgment, of will, of defire, as of any. ob-
je£t whatever: but if the fecondary perception of a
fenfible object, that appearance which it has to the
mind when viewed in the. memory or imagination, be
properly called an idea, it is certain that of the opera¬
tions of. the mind itfelf there can be no ideas ; for
thefe operations, when reflected on, make no appear¬
ance without their objects either in the memory or in
the imagination. Nothing is more evident, in faft,
than that we have no ideas, in the original and pro¬
per meaning of the w'ord,. bat of fenfible ©bje&s,
upon which the mind exerts its firft operations. Of
thefe operations w'e have indeed a confcioufnefs; but
abftradted from their objefts we cannot frame of them
any idea or refemblance. We areeorfcious to ourfelves
of thinking, 'willing, remembering, difcerning, reafoning.
"founded fometimes by Locke, and often by the learn- judging. See. but let any one look into himfelf, and try
ed author of Ancient Metaphyfics. All men are
feious of the operations of their own minds at all times
whether he can there find any idea of thinking or ’will¬
ing, Ike. entirely feparate and abftra6ied from the ob-
while they are awake, nor does it appear that.brutes je3 of thought , or will. Every man who has feem a
can be wholly deftitute of confcioufnefs; but there
are few men who rejlelt upon the operations of their
minds, or make them the objects of thought; and it
is not probable that any fpecies of brutes do fo.
From infancy, till we come to the years of under-
flanding, we are employed folely about fenfible objects.
And although the mind is confcious off its operations,
: does not attend to them ; its attention is turned
tree.or a heufe, .will find in his mind ideas of thefe ob-
jeds, which he can contemplate by- themfelves, inde¬
pendent of every thing elfe ; but no man can contem¬
plate the idea of thinking or defiring without taking
into view the thing thought on or defired. It is plain,
therefore, that the energies of thinking, 'willing, and.
defiring, with all their various modifications, are not
themfelves ideas, or capable of communicating ideas to
folely to the obje&s about which thefe operations are be apprehended, as the ideas of bodies are apprehend-
rvu-'‘'    ;  L- : ed by the pure inteUeft. They are the affions and
•workings of the intelled itfelf upon ideas.which we re¬
ceive from the objeds of fenfe, and which are trea-
iured up in the memory or imagination for the very
purpofe of fufniiaing the intellect with materials to
worki
employed. Thus, when, a man is. angry, he is confc,
of his paffion ; but his attention is turned to the perfon
who offended him and the circumjlances of the. offence,
• while the paffion of anger is not in the leaft the object
of his attention. The difference between confuoufnef
w
METAPHYSICS.
Part I.
Of Cottfei- work upon. Between ideas and the energies of think- fore him, and to the feveral ideas which the diagram of Confci-
‘nZ '3 as great and as obvious a difference as fuggefts. Afterwards, when he has maftered the Pro’ "Rcfleikiea*
_ 6 ^ t(>l> there is between a f.one and the energies of him by whom poiition, he may go over it again, wkh a view to dif- ^ ’
it is caff. Ideas are the pafijve fubjefts; the energies of cover what reafoning is ; but he will not find he has
thinking are the operations of the agents. Ideas are any idea of reafoning as he has of the diagram. He
relicts of fenfation, and have a neceffary relation to will only exert that faculty a fecond time, and perceive
things external; the energies of thinking are relidts ot one truth linked to and depending upon another in
107 nothing, and they are wholly and originally internal. fuch a manner that the whole taken together forms a
-Our know- That we can in no fenfe of the word be faid to have complete demonftration. In a word, the operations
ledge ol the fjcas Qf tjie operations of the intelleft, will be ftill of our own minds, when attention is paid to them, are
onerations ' 1 • f *. ... .
■eilcft more evident if we confider by what means we ac- known immediately by confcioufnefs; and it is as im-
immediate: quire the knowledge which we have of tbofe opera- poffible that we fhould have ideas of them, as that
ana not by tio,ns. It has been already obferved, that when our living man ihould be a picture upon canvas. He who
vtndonvf Noughts are employed upon any fubject, though we attends to what paffes in his own mind when he per-
are confcious of thinking, yet our attention is com- ceives, remembers, reafons, or wills, muff know by
tmonly employed upon the objett of our thought, and confcioufnefs what thefe operations are, and be ca-
not upon the thought itfelf: and that if we would give pable of forming very accurate notions of them, as
attention to our thoughts and paflions, we muff do it connected with their objeAs; and he who does not
by a reflex aft of the mind, whilft the art of think- attend to what pafl’es in his own mind will never ac-
ing is ftill recent and frefh in our memory. Thus, quire any notions of them, though he were to read all
if a man iviihes to know what perception is, it is not that has been written on the fubjeft from the days of
the time to make the inquiry while he is looking at Pythagoras to thofe of Dr Reid. ^
fome rare or beautiful objert ; for though he is confci As we acquire ideas of external ohjefts by means The*° ar8
cus of the energy of perceiving, the objeH of percep- of our fenfes; and notions of perceiving, remember-things
lion employs all his attention. Bnt the time to make ing> reafoning, and willing, &c. by reflefting on the which we
this inquiry is either when the ohjed has become fami- operations of our own minds ; fo are there other
liar to him, or prefently after it is removed from his things of which we acquire notions, partly by fenfa-J^5^1 a
fight. In the former cafe, he can look upon it without partly by refleftion, and partly by means of partly by-
emotion, pay attention to every ftep in the procefs of that faculty of which it is the more peculiar office to reflection,
perception, and be immediately c.onfcious what per- compare ideas and to perceive truth. Such are fub-&c*
ception is. In the latter cafe, by turning his atten- Jlance, body, mind, with their feveral qualities, adjunrts,
tion inwards, and refleding on what he did or felt and relations; the knowledge of which, as has been al-
when the objert was before him, he will find clear and ready obferved, conftitutes what in ftridnefs of fpeech
vivid ideas of every thing which he perceived by his is termed the fcience of metaphyfics. Thefe fliall be
fenfe of fight; but he will find no idea of the art of confidered in order, after we have inveftigated the na-
feeing or perceiving. On the contrary, if he be capable ture of truth, and inquired into the feveral fources of
of fufficient attention, he will obferve that his intellert evidence; but there is one notion, about the origin
is employed in the very fame manner upon the ideas and reality of which there have been fo many difputes,
that it was upon the original fenjations; and of that which in itfelf is of fo great importance, and which
employment, and the manner of it, he will be equal- will be fo intimately connerted with all our fubfe-
ly confcious as he was of the original energy exerted quent inquiries, that it may not be improper to con-
in fenfation. There is indeed this difference between lider it here.—The notion to which wx allude is of
the two, without which reflertion could make no dif- power. . 109
coveries, that the moft vivid ideas being ftill faint when Among the objerts around us we perceive frequent Our notion
compared with aftual fenfations, the intellert is not fo changes, and one event regularly fucceeding another.
wholly engroffed by them as it was by the original -Gold thrown into the fire is changed from a fixed tor"d< 4
objerts, nor is it fo rapidly carried from idea to idea a fluid body. Water expofed to a certain degree ef
as it was from fenfation to fenfation. It is thus at cold is changed from a fluid to a fixed body. Night
leifure to attend to its own operations, and to know fucceeds to day, and fummer fucceeds to winter. We
what they are ; though to form ideas of them as fepa- are confcious of new fenfations in ourfelves every hour,
rate from their objedts, is abfolutely impofiible. Every We are likewife confcious of reafoning, willing, and
man capable of paying attention to what paffes with- defiring ; and we know that by an exertion of will we
in himfelf when he fees, hears, and feels, &c. may have can rile or fit. Hand ftill or walk, call one idea into
very accurate notions of feeing, hearing, and feeling, &c. view, and difmifs others from our contemplation. Ex-
but he cannot have ideas of them as he has of the ob- perience teaches us, that it is not occafionally, but ah
fas of fight, hearing, and touch. ways, that gold is changed into a fluid by being
The fame is the cafe with refpert to the exertion of thrown into the fire, and water into a fixed body by
our reafoning faculties A man muft have diftinrt being expofed to a certain degree of cold; that night
and clear ideas to reafon upon, but he can have no fucceeds to day, and fummer to winter. Thefe changes
idea of reafoning itfelf, though he muft be confcious have regularly taken place fince the creation of the
of it, and by attention may know what it is. When a world ; and it has never once been obferved that wa-
man fits down to ftudy for the fnjl time a propofition ter was fixed by fire, or gold rendered liquid by cold,
in the Elements of Euclid, he certainly employs his Were we not affured by experience that our own vo-
reafoning faculty, and is confcious that he is doing fo; luntary motions are produced by exertions of our
but his attention is wholly turned to the diagram be- minds, of which we are confcious, and that without
N213. hch
parti. M E T A P
Of Confci fucli exertions thofe motions would never-have taken
R* fleft'aiK' P^ace> we probably have conlldered the Hqui*
. e ^ ‘l’n' fa&ion of gold as an event equally independent of fire,
though uniformly conjoined with it, as night is inde¬
pendent of day, and day of night. But having expe¬
rienced that we can move or not move our bodies as
we pleafe ; that when it is our will to fit, we ne¬
ver get up to walk; and that when we wi/h to
walk, we always do it except prevented by ex¬
ternal violence ; having likewife experienced, that by
a thought, by fome internal and inexplicable ex¬
ertion of our minds, we can call up in our memory or
imagination one idea and difmifs others from our men¬
tal view; we are led to believe with the fulleft con-
vi&ion, that all thofe motions of our bodies which in
common language are termed voluntary, and that fuc-
Ceffion of ideas which follows a confcious exertion of
the mind, depend upon ourfelves. In other words,
we are neceffitated to believe that we have a power to
move or not move our bodies in many cafes, and a
power to turn our attention to one idea in preference
to others.
It is thus that we acquire the notion of power in
©urfelves, which we eafily transfer to other objects.
Knowing that the various motions of our bodies thus
effected proceed from power, we are naturally led to
inquire whether the changes which we perceive in
other bodies may not proceed from power likewife, /. e.
from fomething analogous to that power, of the ex¬
ertions of which we are confcious in ourfelves. Now
uniform experience teaching us that gold is liquified
by being thrown into the fire, and that water is fixed
by being expofed to cold; we infer with the utmoft
certainty that there are powers in fire and cold to pro¬
duce thefe changes, and that without the exertion of
fuch powers thefe changes would not be produced.
We cannot indeed fay of extetnal powers, as we can
of our own, in what fubftance they inhere. We
know with the utmoft: certainty that the voluntary
motions of our hands, &c. are produced by a power
not inherent in the handa^but in the mind, for of the
exertion of that power we are confcious ; but we do
not know whether the power which liquifies gold be
inherent in that fenfible object which we cnW jire, or
in fomething elfe to which fire is only an inftrument.
We learn by obfervation, that the minute particles of
fire or heat infinuate themfelves between the particles
of gold, and, if we may ufe the expreffion, tear them
afunder; but whether they do this in confequence of
o. power inherent in themfelves, or only as inftruments
impelled by another power, is a queftion which obfer-
vation cannot enable us to anfwer.
Were we not confcious of the exertion of our own
powers, it feems not conceivable that we could ever
have acquired any notion of power at all; for power
is not an objeft of fenfe, nor, independent of its ope¬
rations, is it indeed an objedt of Gonfcioufnefs. In ex¬
ternal operations, all that we perceive is one thing, in
which we fuppofe the power to refide, followed by
another, which is either the change or that on which
the change is produced ; but the exertion of the pow¬
er itfelf we do not perceiVe. Thus we perceive gold,
after it has been fome time in the fire, converted from
a fixed to a fluid body; but we perceive not by our
■fenfes either the power or the effigy of the power
V-ou. XI. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 521
which operates to this converfion. In the e'sercife Of Confcs-
of our own powers, the cafe is otherwife. When a
man puts his hand to his head, and afterwards thrulls ,
it into his bofom, he not only perceives by his fenfes
the change of pofition, but is alfo confcious of the
energy or exertion by which the change was pro¬
duced.
“ Suppofe (fays Mr Humef) a perfon, though
endowed with the ftrongeft faculties of reafon and re¬
flection, to be brought on a fudden into this world ;
he would indeed immediately obferve a continual fuc-
ceffion of objeCts, and one event following another,
but he would not be able to difeover any thing far*
then He would not at firft by any reafoning be able
to reach the idea of caufe and effe<ft ; fince the parti¬
cular powers by which all natural operations are per¬
formed never appear to the fenfes. The impulfe of
one billiard ball is attended with motion in the fe-
cond. This is the whole that appears to the outward
fenfes. The mind feels no fentiment or inward im-
preffion from this fucceffion of objeCts; confequently
there is not,inany Angle particular inftance of caufe and
effed, any thing which can fuggeft the idea of power
or neceffary connection. From the firft appearance
of an objeCt, we never can conjeCture what effeCt will
refult from it : but, were the power or energy of
any caufe difcoverable by the mind, we could forefee
the efteCt even without experience ; and might at firft
pronounce with certainty concerning it by the mere
dint of thought and reafoning. It is impoffible, there¬
fore, that the idea of power can be derived from the
contemplation of bodies in Angle inftances of their
operations; becaufe no bodies ever difeover any power
which can be the original of this idea.”
There is a fenfe in which this reafoning is unque-
ftionably juft. A man who had never been confcious
of exerting power in himfelf, wonld certainly not ac¬
quire the notion of power from obferving a continual
fucceffion of external objeCts. The impulfe of one
billiard ball being followed by the motion of another,
would no more lead him to the notion of power in the
former, than the fucceffion of night to day would
lead him to the notion of a power in light to produce
darknefs. When Mr Hume fays, “ that from theyfr^
appearance of an objeCl we can never conjeCture what ef¬
fect will refult from it,” he ufes language that is ambi¬
guous, and utters an affertion which is either true of
falfe according to the fenfe in which it is underftood.
If it be meant, that after having reflected on the ope¬
rations of our own minds, and learned by experience,
that motion is communicated by impulfe from one
ball of ivory to another, we could not conjeCture whe¬
ther a fimilar effeCt would be produced by the impu'w*
of balls made of other hard bodies which we had ne¬
ver before feen, the affertion is manifeftly falfe. A
man who had but once feen motion communicated in
this manner from one ivory ball to another, would cer¬
tainly conjeCture that it might be communicated from
one wooden ball to another ; and if he had feen it re¬
peatedly communicated from one ball to another of
different fubflances, he would infer, with the utmoft
confidence, that it might be communicated from ball
to ball of whatever fubftance compofed, provided that
fubftance be hard, or of a fimilar texture with the
balls to the impulfe of which he had formerly paid
3 U attention.
Mr Hume
■ attempts to
prove that
His reafon-
ing fophifti*
M E T A P
attention. If by this ambiguous phrafe the author only
means, as is probably the cafe, that from the firft appear¬
ance of an object to which we had never before obfer-
ved anything in any refpeft limilar,we could not conjec¬
ture what effeft would refult from it ; or if his mean¬
ing be, that a man fuddenly brought into the world,
who had never acquired fuch a notion of power as may
be fiad from attention to the energies and operations
of our own minds, would not, by obferving an effedl
to refult from one body, conjecture from the firft ap¬
pearance of another fimilar body what effeCt would
refult from it; in either of thefe cafes his affertion is
certainly true, and tends to prove, that without the
confcioufnefs of the operations of our own minds
we could never acquire a notion of power from the
changes perceived by our fenfes in external objefts.
But Mr Hume, not contented with denying, which
he might juftly do, that we could ever have derived
the idea of power merely from obferving the conti-
. nual fucceffion of external objefts, labours hard to
prove that we have no notion of power at all, and
that when we ufe the word power, we do nothing
more than utter an infignificant found. To pave the
way for the arguments by which fo extravagant a pa¬
radox is to be fupported, he lays it down as a “ propo-
fition which will not admit of much difpute, that all
©ur ideas are nothing but copies of our impreffions ;
or, in other words, that it is impoffible for us to think
of any thing that we have not antecedently felt either
by our external or internal fenfes.” As this propo-
fition, however, will admit, it feems, of fame difpute,
he takes care, before he applies it to the purpofe of
demoliftiing all power, to fupport it by two argu¬
ments. “ Firft (fays be), when we analyfe our
thoughts or ideas, however compounded or fublime,
we always find that they refolve themfelves into fuch
fimple ideas as were copied from a precedent feeling
or fentiment. Thofe who would affert, that this pofi-
tion is not univerfally true nor without exception, have
only one, and that an eafy, method of refuting it; by
producing that idea, which, in their opinion, is not
derived from this fource. Secondly, If it happen,
from a defeCt of the organ, that a man is not fufcep-
tibk of any fpecies of fenfation, we always find that
he is as little fufceptible of the correfpondent ideas.
A blind man can form no notion of colours, a deaf
xnan of founds. And tho’ there are few or no inftances
of a like deficiency in the mind, where a perfon has
never felt, or is wholly incapable of a fentiment or
paffion that belongs to his fpecies ; yet we find the
fame obfervation to take place in a lefs degree. A
man of mild manners can form no idea of inve¬
terate revenge or cruelty ; nor can a felfilh heart
eafily conceive the heights of friendfhip and gene-
rofity.”
As thefe propofitions are the engines, by which all
power is baniihed from the world, it may not be im¬
proper, before we proceed to inquire by what means
they perform fo arduous a talk, to confider their own
H Y S I C S. Parti.
inherent ftrength ; for if they be weak in themfehres, Of Oonfcbl
their work, however dexteroufiy they may be
ployed, can have no liability. Wc have already no-R _ll0"_,f 1
deed the perverfenefs of this writer’s language, when J
it confounds fenfations with mprejfions ; but here it is
ftill more perverfe, for pafiions, fentiments, and even
confcioufnefs, are ftyled impreffions. When fenfations
are confounded with impreffions, the effect is only mi-
ftaken for the caufe, it being univerfally known that
fenfations proceed from impreffions made upon the
organs of fenfe. When confcioufnefs is confounded
with an impreffion, one thing is miilaken for another,
to which it is univerfally known to have neither re-
femblance nor relation. But, not to wafte time upon
thefe fallacies, which, though dangerous if admitted, ,
are yet too palpable to impofe upon a reader capable of
the flighteft attention, let us examine the propofitions
themfelves. The moil important, and that for the
fake of which alone the others are brought forward,
is, that it is impoffible for us to think of any thing
that we have not immediately felt, either by our exter¬
nal or internal fenfes.” Did Mr Hume then never
think of a mathematical point, or a mathematical line ?
Neither of thefe things is capable of bt\ng felt either
by making an impreffion upon the organs of fenfe or
as an objedl of confeioulhefs i and therefore it is im¬
poffible that he ffiould ever have had ideas of them
fuch as he doubtlefs had of fenlible objects ; yet in
the moll proper feqje of the word think (s), he cer¬
tainly thought of both points and lines j for he appears
to, have made confiderable progrefs in the fcience of
geometry, in which he could not have proceeded a
fingle Hep without a perfect knowledge of thefe things,
on which the whole fcience is built. It is not there¬
fore true, that our thoughts or ideas, when arialyfed,
always refolve themfelves into fuch fimple ideas as
were copied from a precedent feeling or fentiment ;
for every mathematical figure of which we can think
refolves itfelf into a point and motion ; and a point
having no parts and no magnitude, cannot poffibly be
the objedl of feeling to any of our fenfes. If, there¬
fore, ideas alone be the objecls of thought, we have
refuted Mr Hume’s pofition by the very method,
which he himfelf lays down ; for we have produced
an idea which is not derived either from a precedent
feeling or a precedent fentiment. By fentiment, we
fuppoie to be here meant that which by other phi-
lofophers is denominated confcioufnefs; and of con¬
fcioufnefs it is undeniable that nothing is the ob-
je6t but the aftual energies of our own minds. JIt
But ideas are not the only objefts of thought. We Things of
have already given our reafons for reftricting the word which we
idea to that appearance which an object of fenfe, when “J1 ,jjlave
reflected on, makes either in the memory or lmagina-may thetn-
tion. Such was undoubtedly its original fignification;f£iVes he
and had it never been ufed to denote other and very diffe-the objects
rent objects, much error and perplexity would have been thought,
avoided, which now difgrace the fcience of metaphy-
fics. Things may themfelves be the objects of thought;
and
(s) Thinking, in the propriety of the Englilh tongue, fignifies that fort of operation of the mind
about -its ideas wherein the mind is active j where it, with fome degree of voluntary attention, confidera
any thing. Locke.
Parti, M E T A P
Of C'i':rci. and wVn that IS the cafe, to think of their ideas,
wufnefs an i Were [t pofljble to do fo, would be worfe than ufe-
Refleiftioii. |ej-s , |-or we may. certajnly JinoW a man better by-
looking at himfelf than by looking at his picture. Of
things which are themfelves the objects of thought, we
have either a direct or a relative knowledge. We know
directly the actual operations of our own minds by
the mod complete of all evidence, that of confcionf-
nefs; and we have a relative notion of mathematical
points and lines: but neither of mental energies
nor of thefe external things (t) can we polfibly have
lT3 any idea.
We have It is well obferved by Dr Reid f, that our notions
I only rela- both of body and mind are nothing more than rela-
! -“tive. “ What is body? It is, fay philofophers, that
i thf ks which is extended, folid, and divifible. Says the que-
i f EJfiys «n rift, I do not alk what the properties of body are,
I ~t,Je but what is the thing itfelf ? let me firft know dire£i>
i h what body is, and then confider its properties.
To this demand I am afraid the querift will meet
with no fatisfa&ory anfwer; becaufe our notion of
body is not diretl, but relative to its qualities. We
know that it is fomething extended, folid, and divi¬
fible, and we know no more. Again, if it Ihould be
alked, what is mind ? It is that which thinks. I alk
not what it does, or what its properties are, but what
it is? To this I can find no anfwer; our notion of
mind being not direft, but relative to its opera¬
tions, as our notion of body is relative to its quali-
1I4 ties (U).” _
About Our notion of a mathematical point is of the very
which, fame kind. What is a point ? It is, fays Euclid, that
however, which hath no parts and no magnitude. Replies the
Jbn with63 ^uer^» ^ a*k n°t either what it has or what it has not
the utreoft let me firft know what it is ? To this fecond queftion,
precfiLn: it might perhaps be anfwered, that a mathematical
H Y S I C S. 523
point is that which by motion generates a line. But, Of Confci-
rejoins the querift, 1 am not inquiring what it gene'
rates; give me a dire& idea of the point itfelf? or, if ■ <
that cannot be done, as furely it cannot, tell me what
its offspring a line is ? A line, fays Euclid, is length
without breadth. I have no idea, replies the querift,
of length without breadth. I never felt an imprejjion
from a fenfible objedft which did not fuggeft length,
breadth, and thicknefs, as infeparably united; and I
can have no idea which is not the copy of a former im¬
prejjion. To aflift the querift’s conception, it may be
faid that lines are the boundaries of a fuperficies, and
that fuperficies are the boundaries of a folid body;
but of a folid body every man has a clear and diredb
idea, in the moft proper fenfe of the word. Here then
are feveral things, viz. points, lines, and fuperficies, of
not one of which is it polfible to form a diredl notion;
and yet we know them fo thoroughly, from the rela¬
tion which they bear to other obje&s, that we can rea-
fon about them with a precifion and certainty which
only the mathematical fciences admit. It^,
The great advantage of thefe fciences above the And fiicli
moral, Mr Hume himfelf exprefsly admits: but heisl'°wer»
attributes it to a wrong caufe, when he fays it confifts
in this, that the “ ideas of the former being fenfib'g
are always clear and determinate for we fee that the
notion of a point or of a line is merely relative, and
cannot poflibly be the copy of a fenfation, or, in his
language, of a fenfible impreflion. If then we have
clear and determinate notions of points and lines, and
may reafon about them without ambiguity, as he ac¬
knowledges we may, what is there to hinder us from
having an equally clear and determinate notion of
power, or from reafoning about it with as little ambi¬
guity ( v)? Why, fays he, we are not confcious of power.
And to prove this pofition, which needs no proof, he
3 U 2 make*
(t) By calling mathematical points and lines external things, we do not mean to attribute to them
any corporeal exiftence. We know well that they are merely creatures of the mind, and that if there
were no mind, they could have no exiftence. But twenty men may at the fame inftant have a notion
of the fame lines and the fame points; and therefore thefe lines and points have an exiftence independ¬
ent of, and external to, any one mind, at leaft to any one human mind. The objetls, however, of which
a man is confcious, are in no fenfe whatever external, for they are prefent to no human mind but his
own.
(u) The opinions of philofophers concerning corporeal and fpiritual fubftances ftiall be confidered
more fully hereafter. In quoting from Dr Reid on another fubjeft, we have been obliged to anticipate
his opinion, which will be found to be not more modeft than juft.
(v) “ There are feme things of which we can have both a direft and relative conception. 1 can direftly
conceive ten thoufand men, or ten thoufand pounds, becaufe both are objects of fenfe, and may be feen. But
whether I fee fuch an objedl, or direflly conceive it, my notion of it is indiftindt ; it is only that of a great
multitude of men, or of a great heap of money; and a fmall addition or diminution makes no perceptible
change in the notion I form in this way. But 1 can form a relative notion ol the fame number of men or of
pounds by attending to the relations which this number has to other numbers greater or lefs. Then I perceive
that the relative notion is diftindt and fcientific ; for the addition of a Angle man, or a fingle pound, or
even of a penny, is eafily perceived. In like manner, 1 can form a diredt notion of a polygon of a thoufand
equal fides and equal angles. This diredt notion cannot be more diftindt when Conceived in the mind, than
that which I get by fight when the objedt is before me; and I -find it fo indiftindt that it has the fame ap¬
pearance to my eye, or to my direct conception, as a polygon of a thoufand and one, or of nine hundred and
ninety-nine fides. But when I form a relative conception of it, by attending to the relation it bears to poly¬
gons of a greater or lefs number of fides, my notion of it becomes diffindt and fcientific, and I can demon-
Urate the properties by which it is diftinguiftied from all other polygons. From thefe inftances it appears, that
our relative conceptions of things are not always lefs diftindt, nor lefs fit materials for accurate reafoning, than
tliofe that are direct; and that the contrary may happen in-a remarkable degree.”
Reid’s Iff ays on the Active Powers of Man.
;24 METAPHYSICS. Part?.:
Of Confri-makes many okfcrvations that, however juft, might we fay that fire has a power to melt gold, and that gold OfCVnfci-
ReflecftiOTi Certa’n^ ^iave beCn ^Pare^- ^ tliefe one “ a has a power to be‘melted. rl he firft he calls acJivt, the snd
man fuddenly ftruck with a palfy in the leg or arm, or fecond pajive, power. J3ut to fay that the poffibihty 0f Keflttakm.
who had now loft thefe members, frequently endeavours being changed is power, feems to be a very improper
at firft to move them, and employ them in their ufual mode of fpeaking, and fuch as may lead to confequences
offices. Here he is as much confeious of power to which the excellent author certainly held in abhor-
command fuch limbs, as a man in perfect health is rence. It tends to make, unwary readers imagine that
confeious of power to aduate any member which re- the paffive fubjed is as neceffary to the exiilence of
mains in its natural ftate and condition. But confci- power, as the adive being of which power is an at-
oufnefs never deceives. Cenfequently, neither in the tribute; but if the univerfe had a beginning, and if
one cafe nor in the other are we ever confeious of any its Creator be immutable, two propofitions which Mr
power.’' This is true ; we never are confeious of any Locke firmly believed, there certainly was power when
power ; but we are frequently confeious of adual there was no change, nor any thing exifting which
energies: and the man who, after being fuddenly was capable of change. He owns, indeed, that a dive
ftruck with a palfy, endeavours in vain to move his power is more properly called power than the other *
leg or arm, is as confeious of energy as he who in but we fee no propriety at all in paffive power. “ It
health makes the attempt with fuccefs. Nor let it be- is (in the language ©f Dr Reid) a powerlefs power,
imagined that his confcioufnefs deceives him ; for, as and a contradidion in terms.” -
Mr Hume juftly obferves, confcioufnefs never deceives. But though Locke here ufes improper terms, ber^^^y.,.
He is certain of the energy, but finds by experience has other obfervations whh which we have the honour vation? of
that the injlrument of this energy has fuddenly become fully to agree, and which lead to confequences the re-the fame
difordered and unfit for its ufual office. In this and verfe of that impiety which feems to follow from theamho.r re*
this alone confifts the difference between the paralytic notion of pajfive power. He obferves, that “ we havefpe<aing
and the man whofe limbs are found. The one may be from body no idea at all of thinking, nor any idea of belonging
as confeious of energy as the other, and his confci- the beginning of motion. A body at reft affords us to body o*»
oufnefs may be equally infallible. What then is this n° i4ea °f any adive power to move ; and when it is,mUiCb
energy ? Mr Hume will not fay that it is an idea, for fet in motion itfelf, that motion is rather a paffion
it is not the copy of any antecedent impreffion ; be- than an adion in it. For when the ball obeys the
fides, he has fomewhere allowed that ideas ape never ftroke of a billiard ftick, it is not any adion of the ball*
adive. Is it then a fubftance ? Impoifible ! for it is but a paffion : alfo, when by impulfe it fets another
not permanent: and we believe no man will ven- ball in motion that lay in its way, it only communi-
ture to affirm, or even to fuppofe, that the fame fub- cates the motion it had received from another, and
ftance can be repeatedly annihilated, and as often lolcs in itfelf fo much as the other received; which
created. Is it then the occafional exertion of fome gives us but a very obfeure idea of an adive power of
fubftance ? This muft be the truth ; for no other fup- moving in body, whilft we obferve it only to transfer,
pofition remains to be made. If fo, that fubftance but not to produce any motion. So that it feems to
muft be poffeffed of power ; for a capacity of exert- me, we have from the obfervation of the operation of.
ing adual energy is all that is meant by the word power, bodies by our fenfes but a very imperfed obfeure idea
—“ Wherever there is a capability of energy or exer- of adive power, fince they afford us not any idea in.
tion, there muft be power; for though there can be themfelves of the power to begin any adion either of-
pr no exer^1'on without power, there may be power that motion or thought.” He thinks it evident, however,
raR‘L \h/' *3 not exerte^ *• Thus a man may have power to fpeak “ that we find in ourfelves a power to begin or for-
sutwj when he is filent; he may have power to rife and walk bear,, continue or end, feveral adions of our minds and.
Powers of when he fits ftilL But though it be one think to fpeak motions of our bodies, barely by a thought or prefe-
Man. and another to- have the power of fpeaking, we al- rence of the mind ordering, or, as it were, command-
ways conceive of the power as fomething which has a ing, the doing or not doing fuch or fuch a particular
certain relation to the effed;. and of every power we adion. This power which the mind has thus to order,
form our notion by the effed which it is able to pro- the confideration of any idea, or the forbearing to con¬
duce. Nor is it only in fpeaking and moving his fider it, or to prefer the motion- of any part of the
limbs that a man is confeious of energy. There is as body to its reft, and vice verfa in any particular in-
much energy, though of a different kind, in thinking ftance, is that which we call will. The adual exer-
as in aBing. Hence the powers of the human mind cife of that power, by direding any particular adion,
have, been divided into adive and fpeculative. By the or its forbearance, is that which we call volition or
former we move the body; and by the latter we fee,, willing.
hear, remember, diftinguiih, judge, reafon, and per- According to Mr Locke, therefore, the only, clear whence it:
form upon our notions and ideas every other opera- notion or idea we have of power is taken from the fu'lmvi,
tion which is comprehended under the general word power which we find in ourfclves to give certain motionsthat only
■ji6 to think.” to our bodies, or certain diredions to our thoughts;
l.r^ e s paf- Mr Lockef has introduced into his theory of power and this power in ourfelves can be brought into adion an(j
five power another diftindion than that which we have made be- only by willing or volition. This is exadly our doc- ifan.iirg
An im- tween adive and fpeculative powers. Obferving by trine; where we have endeavoured to prove, thatP" P0®***
our fenfes, under which on this occafion memory is without the confcioufnefs of adual energy in ourfelves, realf°'#er'
certainly included, various changes in objeds, we col- we never could have acquired any notion at all of
led, fays he, a poffibility in one objed to be changed, power from obferving the changes which take place
and in another a-poffibility of making that change, among external objds. But if this be fo, if the/ower,.
and fo come by that idea which we call power. Thus of which alone we.know any thing, can be brought
proper ex
predion.
m
•riiap. zt.
Parc I,
OfConfci
cufreis ; n
RefleCtiou
An * c
ted.
* See EJJ'ay.
on the Ac¬
tive Powers
gfMan.
M E T A P
into a$Ion only by willing or volition, and if will ne-
1 ceffarily implies fome degree of underftanding, as in
us it' certainly does, it comes to be a queflion of the
firrt importance, whether any being which pofleffes not
v-ill and underftanding can be pofl’efied of real power,
or be the efficient caufe of any aflion. This queftion
we feel ourfelves compelled to anfwer in the negative.
If <we had not will, and that degree of underftanding
which will necefiarily implies, it is evident that we
could exert no power, and confequently could have
none : for power that cannot be exerted is no power.
It follows alfo, that the power, of which alone we
can have any diftincf notion, can be only in beings
that have underftanding and Will. Power to produce
any effedt, implies power not to produce it; and we
can conceive no way in which power may be determi¬
ned to one of thefe rather than the other in a being
that has not will. We grow from infancy to man¬
hood 5 we digeft our food, our blood circulates, our
heart and arteries beat; we are fometimes fick and
fometimes in health r all thefe things muft be done by
the power of fome agent, but they are not done by
our power. And if it be aftced how we know- this ?
the aafwer is, becaufe they are not fubjeft to our will.
This is the infallible criterion by which we diftinguilh
Vhat is our doing from what is not; what is in our
power from what is not. Pluman power can be ex¬
erted only by will: and we are unable to conceive any
aftive power to be exerted without will. If, therefore,
any man affirms that a being may be the efficient caufe
©f an adtion which that being can neither conceive nor
will, he fpeaks a language which we do not under*
ftand. If he has a meaning, he muft take the words
power and efficiency in a fenfe very different from ours ;
for the only diftindb notion, indeed the only notion
which we can form, of real efficiency, is a relation be¬
tween the caufe and the effedt fimilar to that between
us and our voluntary adtions. It feems therefore moft
probable, that fuch beings only as have fome degree
of urrderftanding and will can poffefs adtive power,
and that inanimate beings muft be merely paffive.
Nothing which we perceive without us affords any
good ground for aferibing adtive power to any inani¬
mate being ; and we can as little conceive fuch a being
poffeffed of power as we can conceive it capable of feed¬
ing pain. On the other hand, every thing which we
difeover ip our own conftitution, leads us to think
that adlive power cannot be exerted without will and
intelligence; and to affirm that it can, is to affirm
what to us at leaftis a contradidfion in terms..
To this reafoning, which is Dr Reid’s*, and which
to us appears unanswerable, we have heard it objected,
that a man born blind has the fame evidence for the
, non-exiftence of colour that is here urged for the im-
poffibility of power being exerted without will and
underftanding. If the objedlion had not been made
by a very acute man, we ffiould have deemed it alto¬
gether unworthy of notice ; for between the two cafes
fuppofed to be fimilar there is hardly any analogy. A
man born blind has no notion whatever of colour. If
you deferibe it to him in the beft manner that you can,
and refer it to any of the fenfes which he poffeffes ;
if you fay that it is the objedt of feeling, and that by
feeling it one may perceive things at the diftance of
many miles j, the blind mas has reafon to fay that you
H Y S I C S. 5
are uttering a propofition which he knows with th^ Of Go:
utmoft certainty cannot poffibiy be true. But if you
tell him that colour is the objedt of the fenfe of fight,
a fenfe which he poffpffes nut j that it has not the leaft
reCemblance to the objedts of the other fenfes; and
that perfons endowed with the fenfe of fight perceive
coloured objedts at the diftance of many miles; the
blind man cannot know whether what you fay be true
or falfe, becaufe he has no idea or conception of the
things of which you fpeak. This is not the cafe with
refpedt to power; for every man who has refleded on
the operations of his own mind has a very diftintt no¬
tion of power, and knows perfedtly, that to tlse adtuab'
exeition of the only power which he can conceive, will
and underftanding are neceflary. Should it be faid-
that there may be power altogether different from thaC"
of which we have a diftind conception, we think if
fufficient to reply, that of a thing which cannot be'
conceived nothing can be either affirmed or denied y
that activity exertetl without will and under Handing,;,
ought not to be called an exertion of power, becauie
power is the name already appropriated to the attri¬
bute of a being by which he can do certain things if
he wills; that as we can form no notion of a real effi--
cient caufe which has not will and underftanding, fp
we have no reafon to believe that fuch a caufe any¬
where exifts 'y and to fay that power, fuch as we cait'
, conceive, may be exerted without will and underltand—
ing, is as great an abfurdity as to fay that there may
be velocity without fpace.
But if a&ive power, in. its proper meaning, x’equires-
a fubjedt endowed with wife and intelligence, what
ffiall we fay of thofe adtive powers which philofophers
teach us to aferibe to matter, the powers of cqrpufeu-
lar attraftion, magnetifm, electricity, gravitation, and
others i Thefe powers, as they are called, (hall be con-
fidered when, we treat of the nature and fource of cor¬
poreal motion. In the mean time, it is fufficient to
obferve, that whatever the agents may be in the ope¬
rations of nature, whatever the manner of their agency
or the extent of their power, they depend upon the.'
firft caufe, and are all under his control.
Ghap. VII. 0/'Truth, and the different
Sources o/'Evide-nce.
Sect. I. Of Truth,
By purfuing thefe inquiries in the order which to¬
ns appears moft natural, we are now led to the.contem-
plation of thofe faculties of the human mind of which.
truth is properly the objedt. But what is truth P This
was a famous queftion among the Greek,fophifts 5
which had been fo often agitated, and to which fo
many abfurd aafwers had been given, that it came at
laft to be doubted by men of the.world whether a
fatisfadtory anfwer could be given, or indeed whether,
the matter was worthy of inveftigation. It is well
known, that among the ancient philofophers there
was a deft called from their principles Sceptics, and from
their founder Pyrrbonians, who openly avowed their
opinion That truth, like virtue, is nothing but a name |
that all things are equally true, or rather equally doubt¬
ful ; and that it is in vain for man to hope for certain¬
ty in any inquiry in which.he ca^. bs engaged. Such,
fcepticifui:
M E T A P
fceptleifm as this no modern philofopher has profefled }
but many have had enough of it to make fober men
hefitate about defining truth, and even infinuate that
of truth no definition can be given. This furely is a
mifiake. If truth cannot be defined, it ftill wanders
at large and in difguife, and vain mufi: be the purfurt
of every man who endeavours to obtain it j he is pur.
fuing he knows not what.
Truth de °hvious and fo folid is this reflexion, that almoft
tuied every philofopher of merit who has lately written on
the nature of evidence has begun his work, if not
with a formal definition, with fomething at leaft equi¬
valent to a definition of the object of his purfuit. To
repeat all thefe definitions could ferve no other pur-
pofe than to fwell this article to a difproportioned
bulk, and to perplex perhaps the-mind of the reader.
We (hall therefore content ourfelves with that which
H Y S I C S. Part F.
is given by Mr Wollafton. Thofe propofitions (fays Of Truth,
he) are true which reprefent things as they are: or, ' f
truth is the conformity of thofe words or figns by
which things are exprelfed to the.things themfelves.”
Notwithftanding the obje&ions of a very learned and
acute writer (w), this is the bell definition of trui/j
which we have met with in any language. It is con.
cife and perfpicuous. It comprehends all kinds of truth,
as well that which is merely mental, the fubjett of filent
contemplation, as that which is communicated either
by written language or by the living voice : and it
makes truth itfelf immutable, as depending not upon
the arbitrary confiitution of this or that individual,
or even of the whole human race (x), but upon the
nature of things as eftablilhed by their Almighty
Creator. ... . rar
According to this definition, every propofition Every pr*-
which pofition ei»
(w) Dr Tatham having alked, with a contemptuous air, How imperfedl and illogical is the definition of
truth given by Wollafton ? proceeds, thougb not to define, to defcribe or charaiierife it himfelf. “Truth
f fays he) is of the nature and effence of God, like him incomprehenftble in the whole, and ineffable in its fub-
limer parts. For thefe and other reafons it cannot admit of an adequate definition. And who, in the beginning
•of his refearches, Ihould prefume to define that which, after all his longeft and bell conducted labours, he
tan only hope partially, and often imperfeflly, to comprehend; and of which an important part can neither
be dircBly exprelfed nor diredly underftood ? We may indeed efteem ourfelves highly favoured by the Author
tind finilher of all truth, if, at the end of our refearches, we lhall be able any way to underftand, to define,
and to apply, a few particular portions and detachments of it, and to guard them from error and corrup.
tion. When upon a folemn occafion the queftion was put to our Lord by a Roman governor, What is truth ?
though it was what he fully and perfedily knew, and what he came purpofely and profeffedly to teach, he did
not define it. He knew that definition was never the bell method of inftrudtion ; and that in its common ufe
and application it was feldom the friend of truth. Philofophically viewed, words do not conllitute truth $
they .are only the vocal inftruments by which it is communicated, or the written figns by which it is recorded.
Ly an inquirer, therefore, things are to be examined rather than words defined. By a teacher, things are to
be conveyed by words in fome form or other, which are doubtlefs to be explained to the underftanding, if
not fulficiently underftood before. But explanation is-one thing, and definition quite another. Explanation is
the yfr/? office of a teacher : Definition, if it be good, is the lajl of the Inquirer, after the truth be found j
and isthen the moll advantageoufiy employed by the teacher, when his previous inftruftions have prepared him for
it. God is a mind, and truth is confequently an attribute of mind. To the sun, declaring at his riling a
marvellous inftrument. He, by whom all things were made, hath delegated the power of enlightening the
material fyftem ; whilft he hath referved to himself the office which is more fuitable to his nature, of gi¬
ving light and knowledge, by his eternal truth, to the mind of man. But whether he acl through the
inJlrumentality of his creatures, or more immediately from himfelf, he is uniform and confiftent in his opera¬
tions; fo that one part of his divine economy is always illuftrative of another. As the sun Iheds his light
over the material creation to be apprehended by the eye, truth is the light filed down from heaven to be
apprehended by the intelledl, given to illumine every fuhjedl, natural and moral, corporeal and fpiritual, fo
far as they are qualified by their different natures to convey it to the human mind, or rather perhaps fo far
as the human mind is qualified to receive it from them.>, The Chart and Scale of Truth, vol. x.
This paffagc, of which fome parts are certainly not remarkable for perfpicuity, feems to be defcriptive.
Dot of truth in the common acceptation of the word, but of all knowledge human and divine, of which indeed
no adequate definition can be given. Truth, as here ufed, feems to be oppofed to ignorance; as ufed by Mr
Wollafton and others it is oppofite to falfehood. ■ In this laft fenfe it may certainly be explained, if not defined :
and if the learned ledlurer will allow that Mr Wollafton has given a good explanation of the word truth as op¬
pofed to falfichood, we lhall not quarrel with him or any man about the propriety of an expreffion. We have
called it a definition of truth ; becaufe it was fo called by the author from whom it is taken.
(x) Dr Beattie, in his elegant effay, has given a definition of truth very different from -this, though it is
poffible that his meaning may be the fame with Mr Woliafton’s. “ I account that to be truth (fays he)
which the conftitution of-our nature determines us to believe} and that to be falfehood which the conllitutioa
■of our nature determines us to dilbelieve.” But if truth be really immutable, as he teaches or wifnes to teach,
it mull depend upon the nature of things, and not upon the inftind.ive impulfe of any particular conftitution.
It is always difficult, often impoffible, to diftinguilh between the conftitution of our nature, as it came from
.the hand of God, and the fame conftitution as it is moulded by arbitrary and capricious affociations of our
own. A fincere member of the Church of Rome certainly believes the doftrine of tranfubllantiation. How
die.may do fo we have already ftiown. Were all mankind fincere members of that church, it would be laid
an
Part T,
M E T A P
Of Truth, which can he exprefTed or apprehended is neceffarily
  either true or falfe, whether its truth or falfehood be
perceived or not either by him who hears or by him
who utters it. All propofitions are either affirmative
or negative ; but before any thing can with certainty
be affirmed or denie4 of another, we muft know thole
things as they are in themfdves, as well as the eltablilh-
ed ufe of the figns by which they are exprefled. He
who affirms or denies without this knowledge, fpeaks
124 at random, and has no diftindt meaning.
Every hu Every faculty which we poffefs is in fome way or
other an inftrument of knowledge ; for we know by
indie™ our fenfes, by our memory, and by our intelleft.
acquifition Every one of our faculties, therefore, is concerned in
oftiuth. the acquifition of truth, and furnilhes the mind with
the materials of propofitions. Thefe propofitions are
indeed of various kinds; but they are all certainly true
or certainly falfe, though the certainty of the truth or
falfehood of every one it is not always in our power to
perceive.
Diverfny of When a man affirms that red is a quality inherent
belief af- in a foldier’s coat,, he utters a propofition which every
fe&s not one of the vulgar firmly believes to be true, but which
oTwhafis every philofopher knows to be falfe. This diverfity
believed. belief, however, affedfs not the truth of the propo¬
fition itfelf. All mankind know that it is either true
or falie, independent of them or their perceptions;
and it is eafy, by a few optical experiments and by an
explanation of terms, to convince them all, that what
they have agreed to call red is no quality inherent in
external objedls, but only a fenfation caufed by the im-
pulfe of certain rays of light refledted from certain ob-
jedts to the eye of the percipient. The contrariety
therefore in this cafirof vulgar to philofophical belief,
does not refult from any ambiguity in the nature of
truth itfelf, but from the different means of perception
which the clown and the philofopher poffefs.
Again, were a man looking at a red and a green ob-
jedt, to affirm that they are both of the fame colour,
he would affirm what in one fenfe may be true, what
in another is undoubtedly falfe, and what in a third
may be either true Or falfe. If it be his meaning that
the two objedfs give to him the fame fenfation, he may
know with the utmott certainty that what he fays is
true; if he mean that they affedt all mankind precife-
ly as they affedt him, he utters what all mankind with
the moft abfolute certainty know to be falfe ; if he
mean that the texture of the two bodies (that parti¬
cular difpofition of parts on their furfaces which makes
them refledt certain rays of light and abforb others) is
ejxadtly fimilar, fo as that the one muft reflect the very
fame kind of rays with the other, he utters what all
mankind muft; lelieve to be falfe, though ftill it is pof-
Jihk that what he affirms may be true. This diverfity
of belief affedts not the truth itfelf. The two objedts
are what they are by whomfoever perceived", or whe¬
ther perceived or not; the rays of light refledted by
H Y s I C s. 5-27
each are what they are, whether they fall upon this, Of 'IVuth.
upon that, or upon any eye; and the fenfation com- -y——*
municated to this Angular man is certainly what he is
confcious it is, as thofe of the reft of mankind are with
equal certainty what they are confcious of. This be¬
ing the cafe, it is obvious and undeniable, that the or¬
gans of fight in this individual of the human race are
fomehow differently formed from thofe of other men :
and the only queftion which can occafion a doubt in
the mind of the fceptic is, whether his or their eyes
be fo formed as to reprefent things falfely? for that
by the one or the other things are falfely reprefented,
is as evident as that two contradidfory propofitions.
cannot both be true. Now, though, for any thing we
know it is certainly poffible, as to us it appears not to
imply any contradidfion, that the eyes of but one man
are formed in a manner fuitable to their objedts, whilft.
the eyes of all other men are formed to deceive them ;
yet the contrary is £0 highly probable, that no man
really doubts of it any more than he doubts whether
three and two be equal to five. 124
This laft propofition is indeed faid to exprefs a truth Why foms.
abfolutely certain, whilft the former exprefles a truth ^ '^re
which is called morally certain : not that there is any ahfolutely
difference or degrees of certainty in the nature of truths arui „• her
themfelves ; the only difference is, in our power of per-morally
ceiving them. That three and two are equal to rive, certa‘a>-
is faid to be an abfolute truth; becaufe we perceive
the whole of it as it is in itfelf, and are convinced that
every intelligence from the higheft to the loweft who.
underftands the terms in which it is expreffed perceives,
it as we do : whereas of moral or phyjlcal truths, as they
are called, we only perceive a part, and may therefore
miftake for want of evidence. Thus, in the cafe of
the two objedfs exhibiting the fame colour to one than*,
whilft they exhibit different colours to all other men,,
could we fee into the objedts themfelves, and compre¬
hend them immediately with our intelledl as we com¬
prehend our own ideas, it might, and no doubt would,
appear as palpable a contradidtion to fay that the par¬
ticular difpofition of the parts on their furfaces, which,
refledt the rays of light, are the fame in both, as it is
now to affirm that three and two are not equal to five.
Between truth and falfehood there is no medium. All'
truths are in themfelves equally certain ; and to the
Supreme Being, who knows the nature of every thing
more fully and intimately than we know our own
ideas, they all appear equally certain : but yet we may
without abfurdity fpeak of probable truth as well as of
certain truth, provided always that we make the diffe-
rence to refult, not fro‘m the nature of things, but from-
the power of our underftauding, which' comprehends
the one kind of truth wholly and. the other only par-
tially- ... . T2<
There, is another divifion made of truth into' thatvyhy tome
which is eternal and neceffary, and that which is tem-truthsaie
porary and contingent. Though we do not approvefau*t0 be
0£eternal and
confideredi
and thought, “ that the conftitution of human nature determines men to believe tranfubftantiation ^ ^ _
trine which, though it is rejedted by millions, Pere Buffier has laboured hard to reconcile with common fenfe. rary and
Yet it is certain that the fame body cannot be in different places at the fame time; and that therefore tranfub-coniingcnfc,
ftantiation muft be falfe, though believed by all mankind. Our believing any thing does not make it true, nor
our di/bclieving any thing make it falfe. We muft, indeed, act according to our belief; but in every inftance
truth and falfehood would have been what they are, though we had n ete 1: exiited.
2‘S M E T A P
Truth. 0f applying the epithets temporary and eternal to any
”v ~‘ thing but real exiftences, yet as this manner of fpeak-
ing has been ufed by all philofophers, we fhall give in-
fiances of each kind of truth, and endeavour to afcer-
tain in what the diftinfition confifts. “ The three
angles of a plain triangle are equal to two right angles,”
Is a propofition expreffive of a necefiary and eternal
truth. “ The world exifts,” is a contingent and tem¬
porary truth. Here it is obvious, that if both thefe
propofitions be true, there is no diftinftion between
them, fo far as mere truth is concerned ; for truth ad¬
mits not of degrees of comparifon. It is however faid,
■that the firft propofition depends not upon time, or
will, or any thing elfe ; and that the Supreme Being
ihimfelf could not make it falfe : whereas it is certainly
poffible, that he who created the world could annihilate
it, and thus reduce what is now a truth to an abfolute
falfehood. This difference between the two propoli-
tions is thought a fufficient ground for calling the
former a necejfary and eternal truth, and the latter a
temporary and contingent truth. But is the difference
itfelf real? In the prefent inftance we cannot think
that it is: for if the right angles and triangles, which
conftitute the materialsof the former ptopofiticn,be real
corporeal things, they may be annihilated as well as the
reft of the world; and then the truth of the propofition
willceafe, forthere can be neither equality nor inequality
between nonentities. If the angles and triangles be
merely ideas in the mind of a rational being, it is not
to be denied that the propofition muft be true, inde¬
pendent of all wi//, whenever tbofe ideas exift, i. e.
whenever right angles and triangles are thought upon ;
but if all reafonable creatures were to be annihilated,
and the Supreme Being never to think of triangles,
the propofition would unqueftionably ceafe to be ei-
•there true or falfe. The world may indeed be anni¬
hilated; but it certainly is not annihilated whilft any
one creature exifts to contemplate even that which is
called necejfary znA. eternal truth: and therefore whilft
any truth exifts in a mind not divine, it muft be necef-
farily true that the world exifts; for the individual
being by which truth is perceived would then confti¬
tute the whole world.
But if in a fomewhat different manner we compare
the former of thefe prdpofitions with this—“ The
folar fyftem confifts of the fun and at leaft feven pri¬
mary planets”—we fhall at once perceive the difference
NJ 214.
H Y S I C S. PartT.
between neceffary and contingent truths. Both pro- Of Trmb.
pofitions we know to be true at this moment: but '-—-n,——^
there is this difference between them, that a plain tri¬
angle can neither adlually exift at any period of dura¬
tion, nor be conceived by any one mind divine or hu¬
man, of which the three internal angles are not pre-
cifely equal to two right angles; whereas the folar
fyftem may eafily be conceived, and might certainly
have been formed, with a fmaller number of primary
planets rolling round the central fire. This needs no
proof; as it is well known, that till very lately we
conceived the fyftem to confift of the fun and only fix
primary planets; and it has been already fhown, that
whatever we can pofitively conceive may pofiibly exift.
Thus, then, every propofition, of which the contrary
is clearly and diftintlly perceived to be impoffible, is a
necejfary truth; and it may likewife be faid to be
nal, becaufe at every period of duration it muft of ne-*
ceffity when thought upon be perceived to be true:
On the other hand, every propofition of which the
contrary may be clearly and diftindtly conceived, is, if
true, only a contingent truth, becaufe its contrary might
have exifted; and it may likewife be called temporary^
becaufe what might have been falfe in time paft may
yet be falfe in time future. I1(5
Though all our faculties (our fenfes, our memory, Truth per-
and our intelle&J furnifti materials for propofitions, cc‘ve l by
and are therefore all fubfervient to the inveftigation facukiess
truth ; yet the perception of truth, as it is in itfelf, is which are
commonly afcribed to our rational faculties-; and thefe commonly
have by Locke and others been reduced to two—rea- t0 ',e
fon and judgment. The former is faid to be conver■^,’•JJ^^,*
fant about certain truths, the latter chiefly about pro- meni
babilities.
Some late philofophers of great merit, diffatisfied To which
with this analyfis of the intellect, have added to rea- i"me phdo-
fon and judgment a third faculty, to which they have
given the name of common fenfe, and of which the pro- 3 third ta¬
per objeft is fuch truths as neither admit nor ftand in eulty, viz.
need of evidence. By common fenfe they mean, “ that
degree of judgment which is common to men with
whom we can converfe and t ran fait bufinefs.” Whe¬
ther the introdudiion of fuch a term into metaphyfics
was proper or improper, we do not think it of impor¬
tance to inquire. According to this definition of it,
which is Dr Reid’s, it differs not from the reafon (x)
zviA judgment of Locke; agreeing with the former when
(x) This is exprefsly acknowledged by Dr Reid. “ It is abfurd (fays that able and candid writer) to
conceive that there can be any oppofition between reafon and common fenfe. It is indeed the firft-born
of reafon ; and as they are commonly joined together in fpeech and in writing, they are infeparahle in their
nature. We aferibe to reafon two offices or two degrees: I’he firft is to judge of things felf-evident; the
second to draw conclufions that are not felf-evident from thofe that are. The firft of thefe is the pro¬
vince, and the foie province, of common fenfe ; and therefore it coincides 'with reafon in its whole extent, and
is only another name for one branch or one degree of reafon.” Pere Buffer talks nearly the fame language;
but Dr Beattie expreffes hitnfelf very differently. “ That there is a real and effentud difference between
thefe two faculties; that common fenfe cannot be accounted for by being called the perfe8ion of reafon,
nor reafon by being refolved into common fenfe; will appear (he thinks) from the following remarks. 1. We
are confcious, from internal feeling, that the energy of underftanding, which perceives intuitive truth, is
different from that other energy which unites a conclufi-on with a firft principle by a gradual chain of
intermediate relations. 2. We cannot difeern any neceffary connexion between reafon and common fenfe.”
jMay, be fays, “ That we often find men endued with the one who are deftitnte of the other:” and he in-
fiances dreams and certain kinds of madnefs where this is the cafe; adding, that a man who believes him-
felf
Parti. METAPHYSICS. 529
Of Intuitive Its objeft is certain truth, and with the latter when it
^kicnce i8 converfant about probabilities-. Nothing indeed is
wsoft ad* n m®re evi^ent’ t^an t^iat ‘n nflent of the mind to
. every proportion, fome energy of the judgment is ex¬
erted ; and upon every propolition not felf-evident,
reafoning of fome kind or other muft be. employed to
procure that aflent. Inftead therefore of perplexing
ourfelves and our readers with various analyfes of the
human underftanding, or rather with various names to
what after all is perhaps but one individual power, it
will furely be of more importance to the caufe of
truth to examine the different fources of evidence by
which the affent of the reafon, or judgment, or com¬
mon fenfe, is determined.
Under the article Logic it was obferved, that in¬
tuition, experience, and tejlimony, are each a fufficient
ground of judgment; but they are not the only grounds.
Confcioufnefs is certainly one fource of evidence, per¬
haps the moil complete of any; and, in a low degree,
analogy is another. Of confcioufnefs we have already
treated, but of analogy we have yet faid nothing : and
though we might (for an account of intuition, experience,
and tejlimony) refer our readers to the article Logic,
where they are accurately though concifely explained,
we lhall, without repeating what has been already faid,
add a few words on each, as well to complete the pre-
fent article as to fupply the deficiencies of the for¬
mer.
Sect. II. Of Intuitive Evidence and Demonjlration.
Intuitive Intuitive evidence is that which arifes from the
evidence, comparifon of two or more ideas or notions when their
what. agreement or difagreement is perceived immediately,
v without the intervention of any third idea or notion.
Of this kind is the evidence of thefe propofitions: One
* CampleWs^nA four, make five*; things equal to “ the fame
Philo/opby of thing are equal to one another ; the whole is greater
Rhetoric. t}jan any 0f parts;” and in a word, all the axioms
in arithmetic and geometry. All thefe are in reality
propofitions in which the. fubjeft and predicate appear
uoon comparifon to be nothing more than the fame
thing taken in different views or expreffed by different
terms. In fadl, they are all in fome refpedt reducible
to this axiom, “ Whatever is, is.” We do not fay
that they are deduced from it; for they have in them-
felves that original and intrinfie evidence which makes
them, as foon as the terms are underftood, to be per-
* ceived intuitively. And if they be not thus perceived,
no deduction of reafon will ever confer on them any
additional evidence. But though not deduced from
Vol.XL Part II.
the general axiom, they may be confidered as particu-Oflnruitive
lar exemplifications of it; inafmueh as they are aH ^d1 De*
implied in this, that the properties and relations of m0nftration
our clear and adequate ideas can be no other than v >
what the mind clearly perceives them to be. ,29
It may perhaps be thought, that if axioms were pro- Every de-
pofitions ptrfe&ly identical, it would be impoffible ^>7
their means to advance a flngle ftep beyond the limple pr”^t°on#
ideas firft perceived by the mind. And k would in- intuitively
deed be true, that if the predicate of the propofltion evident,
were nothing but a repetition of the fubjeft under the
fame afpeil, and in the fame or fynonymous terms, no
Conceivable advantage could be made of it for the fur¬
therance of knowledge. Of fuch propolitions as thefe,
for inftance, “ feven are feven, eight are eight, the
three angles of a triangle are the three angles of a tri¬
angle, two right angles are two right angles,” it isma-
nifell that we could never avail ourfelves for the im¬
provement of fcience : But when the thing, though
in effedt coinciding, is confidered under a different af-
pedt; when that which is Angle in the fubjedl is di¬
vided in the predicate, and converfely j or when what
is a whole in the one is regarded as a part of fome-
thing elfe in the other ; fuch propofitions lead to the
difeovery of innumerable and apparently remote rela¬
tions. It is by the aid of fuch Ample and elementary
principles that the arithmetician and the algebraift pro¬
ceed to the moff aftonifhing difeoveries. Nor are the
operations of the geometrician effentially different j
for to this clafs belong all propofitions relating to
number and quantity ; that is, all which admit of ma¬
thematical demonffration. If the truth of a mathe¬
matical propoAtionbe not felf-evident; in other words,
if the fubjedt and predicate do not appear at Arft fight
to be different names for the fame thing, another term
muft be found that lhall be fynonymous to them both.
Thus, to prove that the three internal angles of a right-
lined triangle are equal to two right angles, I produce
the bafe of the triangle ; and by a very fhort procefs I
difeover that the exterior angle fo formed is equal to
the two interior and oppoAte angles. By a procefs
equally plain and Ihort, I perceive that the exterior
angle and the interior adjacent angle are equal to two
right angles : But I have already feen, that the ex¬
terior angle is neither more nor lefs than the two in¬
terior and oppoAte angles under a different afpedl;
whence it appears that the three internal angles of the
triangle are nothing elfe than two right angles under
a different afpedl. In a word, all demonilration is
founded on Aril principles or primary truths, which
3 X neither
felf made of ^lafs, (hall yet reafon very juftly concerning the means of preferving his fuppofed biittlenef*
from flaws and fradlures.” Surely thefe are ftrange remarks. Dreams and madnefs have hitherto been
fuppofed to originate in the imagination, or, as it was denominated by the ancient philofophers, the
phantnfia: and when the ideas or forms which are there treafared up are difarranged or abfurdly com¬
pounded, a dreaming fane man or a waking madman, if he reafon at all, muft reafon from abfurd prin¬
ciples ; not, however, through any defedl of common fenfe, but from a diforder in that region of the brain,
upon which the phantafla more immediately depends. Of hi\ Arft remark, we can only fay, that to us
it appears to be the reverfe of truth. In every propofltion which admits of demonftration, <we are con-
feious that the concluflon is united with the flrft principle by a repetition of the very fame energy of
the underftanding which perceives intuitive truth. That this is the cafe in every one of Euclid's de-
monftrations, we appeal to every mathematical reader; and why it muft be fo, we lhall by and by en¬
deavour to evince.
530 M E T A P
pf in'uitiveneither admit nor ftand in need of proof, and to which
the mind is compelled to give its affent by a bare in-
mor.ftration tuition of the ideas or terms of which thefe primary
w—y—~ truths are compofed. Nothing is fufceptible of de-
monftiation, in the rigid fenfe of the word, but gene¬
ral, neceffary, and eternal truths ; and every demon-
ftration is built upon intuition, and confifts in a feries
of axioms or propofitions of the very fame kind with
the iirft principle or truth from which the reafoning
proceeds. That propofitions formerly demonftrated
are taken into the feries, doth not in the lead invali¬
date this account; inafmuch as thefe propofitions are
all refolvable into axioms, and are admitted as links in
the chain ; not becaufe neceffary, *b4it merely to avoid
the ufelefs prolixity which frequent and tedious repe¬
titions of proofs formerly given would occafion. But
it is obvious that fuch truths only as refult from the
comparifon of ideas and notions are neceflary ; and of
courfe that fuch truths only are capable of ftri<5t de-
monflration. The truths which relhte to real exift-
ences are all contingent, except that which affirms the
exifience of the Supreme Being, the Parent of all
• truth. . ,
The mathematical fciences, categorical logic, and
that part of mfetaphyfics which demonftrates the being
of God, are therefore the only branches of human
knowledge which admit of ftrift demonttration. The
longed demondration in the mathematical fciences may
be traced to tins general and necedary truth, “ What¬
ever is, is,” or to fome particular exemplidcation of it:
the longed train of categorical fyllogifms terminates in
this general principle, “ What is affirmed or denied of
a whole genus, may be affirmed or denied of all the fpe-
cies and all the individuals belonging to that genus
and the metaphyfical demondration of the being of
God reds upon this foundation, “ Whatever had a be¬
ginning, had a caufe.” That thefe are truths abfo-
lutely certain, which can neither be proved nor called
in quedion, every man may be fatisfied, merely by at¬
tending to the ideas or notions which the terms of
each propofition exprefs. The two fird are merely
identical propofitions, of the truth of which no man
has ever pretended to doubt; and though the lad is
not identical, it is a necedary and felf-evident truth,
as its contrary implies, that in the fame thing there is
power and no power, change and no change, a&ion
j„0 and ina&ion, at the fame indant.
It is by in- Be'fore we difmifs the fubjeft of intuition, it may
tuition tbatnot impr0per to obferve, that it is by this faculty
alTou^r.Q6 or Power t^le m*n£l contemplating its ideas, and com-
tions of re- paring one idea with another, that we acquire all our
Jation. notions of relation ; fuch as identity and diverfity, re-
femblance, cocxiftence, relations of /pace and time, relations
of quantity and number, of a caufe to its effeS, and many
more which it would be ufelefs as well as tedious to
enumerate.
^ ^ Sect. III. Of Experience and Analogy.
Experience, IT been jud obferved, that intuition and demon-
efVe^ere i ^rati°n are applicable only to general and necedary
©bibrva- 6 ptopofitions, of which the contrary are not only falfe,
hobs. but abfurd and impoffible. The great bufinefs of life,
however, is with fafts and contingent truths, which
admit not of demondration, but red upon other evi¬
dence. The fenfes, external and internal, are the in-
H Y S I C S. Part f,
lets to all our knowledge of fadts ; and the memory is Of Expert
the dorehoufe where that knowledge is preferved. Of er,c.e aru*
what a man fees or feels, he can at the indant of fee- ’^rialo^y-|.
ing or feeling entertain no doubt; and whild the ideas
of what he has feen or felt, with all their affociated cir-
cumdances, remain vivid and didindt in his memory,
he is-confcious that he poffeffes fo much real know¬
ledge. But all our knowledge, as it is derived from
the fenfes, is of particular facts or particular truths ;
and the man who has in certain circumdances obferved
one particular phenomenon, for the exidence of which
he perceives no necejfuy, has not fufficient ground ta
conclude, that in fimilar circnmdances fimilar pheno¬
mena will always occur. Milton, who furpafled the
greater part of his contemporaries in philofophical
fcience almod as far as he has furpad'ed all fucceeding
poets in the fnblimity of his genius, reprefents Adam,,
when fird falling afleep, as under apprehenfions that
he was about to fink into his original date of infen-
Ability :
“ Fird found me,.and with foft oppreffion feiz’d
“ My droufed fenfe, untroubled; though I thought
“ I then was paffing to my former date
“ Infenfible, and forthwith to diffolve.”
Apprehenfions fimilar to thefe would take place in his
mind when he drd perceived that darknefs had over-
fpread the earth. In-his circumdances, he could have
no ground to expedt that the fun when once fet would
rife again to relume the world, as he had not then ex¬
perienced the alternate fucceffion of light and dark¬
nefs, and probably knew not whence light proceeds.
After fome time, however, having obferved day and
night regularly to fucceed each other, thefe two ap¬
pearances, or the ideas of them, would be fo affociated
in his mind, that each fetting fun would fugged the "
idea of next fun-rifing, and lead him to expedl that
glorious event with the utmod confidence. He would
then confider the alternate fucceffion 6f day and night
as a law of nature, which might be affirmed in a pro¬
pofition expreffive of a certain truth.
This continued obfervation of the fame event hap- Is the only
pening in the fame or fimilar circumdances, is what e[vi^cnce
we call experience; and it is the only evidence which ajj
we have for all the general truths in phyfics, even for the general
thofe which we are apt to think intuitively certain *. truths in
Thus, that milk is white, and that gold is yellow, are
fuppofedto be univerfal and neceffary truths : but forwjlic}1 we
any thing that we know, they may be particular think in¬
truths ; and they are certainly contingent, as the con-tuitively
trary to either of them.may be fuppofed without ab- ^e^ain‘ ,
furdity. We have indeed always obferved the milk p/fiffply '
of animals of every fpecies vuhite ; and therefore the vf Rhetoric;
idea of auhite becomes a neceffary part of our idea of and Priejt-
the fubdance milk, of which we call whitenefs an ef- tif
fential property. This, however, refpe&s only the milk ^ Spe"j *
of thofe animals with which we are acquainted. But &c.
fince the milk of all the animals with which we are ac¬
quainted, or of which we have heard, is white, we
can have no reafon to fufpeft that the milk of any
new and drange animal is of any other colour. , Alfo,
fince, wherever there has been the fpecific gravity, duc¬
tility, and other properties of gold, the colour has al¬
ways been yellow i we conclude that thefe circumdan-
cet
Part T.
tience of
analogy ir
M E T A P
ces arc ncce0ar!ly united, though by fome unknown
bond of union, and that they will always go toge¬
ther.
The proper proof, therefore, of fuch univerfal pro-
pofiu'ons as “ that milk is white,” “ that gold is yel¬
low,” or “ that a certain degree of cold will freeze wa¬
ter,” confifts in what is called an induftion of parti¬
cularfaBs of precifely the fame nature. Having found,
by much and various experience, that the fame events
never fail to take place in the fame circumftances, the
expeBation of the fame confequences from the fame pre¬
vious circumftances is neceflarilygenerated incur mindsj
and we can have no more fufpicion of a different event
than we can feparate the idea of <whitenefs from that of
the other properties of milk.—When the previous cir¬
cumftances are precifely the fame, we call the pro-
cefs of proof by the name of induBion, and expert the
event from experience : but if they be not precifely the
fame, but only bear a confiderable refemblance to the
circumftances from which any particular appearance
has been found to refult, we call the argument ana-
lo*y; and it is ftronger in proportion to the degree of
refemblance in the previous circumftances. Thus the
milk of all the cows that we have feen, or upon which
we have made the experiment, having been found
nourifhing, we confidently expedft that the milk of all
other cows will prove nourilhing likewife ; and this
confidence of expe&ation is the refult of uniform ex¬
perience. But if, from having found the milk of all
the animals with which we are acquainted to be nou-
rifhing, however different the nature of thefe animals;
we infer that the milk of any ftrange animal will likewife
be nourilhing; the inference is drawn by analogy, and by
no means carries with it the convi&ion of experience.
A proof from real experience can leave no doubt .in
the mind (b) ; an argument from analogy always muft.
In the one cafe, we only infer that two events of pre¬
cifely the fame nature and in precifely the fame cir¬
cumftances have been produced by the fame kind of
caufe; in the other, we infer that two events fimilar
in moft refpe&s, though for any thing that we know
difiimilar in others, have been produced by the fame
kind of caufe ; and it is obvious that between thefe
cafes the difference is great.
Thus, after having obferved that all the proje&iles
to which we have paid any attention—a ftone thrown
H Y S I C S.
from the hand, a ball from a gun, and an arrow from C
a bow - dcfcribe a certain curve, and are impelled in
that curve by two powers acting in different lines of ^
direction which form with each other a certain angle,
we infer that all projectiles which on the furface of
the earth defcribe the fame curve are impelled by the
fame or fimilar powers adding in the fame or fimilar
lines of diredtion. This inference is the refult of ex¬
perience, and carries with it the fulleft convidfion to
the mind. But when, from having obferved that the
curves defcribed by the planets are of the fame kind
with thofe defcribed by projedtiles on the earth, Sir
Ifaac Newton inferred that thefe vaft.bodies are im¬
pelled in their orbits by forces of the very fame kind,
and adling in the fame manner with the forces which
impel a ball from a cannon or an arrow from a bow,
his argument was founded only on analogy; and even
that analogy is very remote. We know by experience
that all projedtiles which fall under our immediate cog-
nifance are of the very fame kind and in the very fame
circumftances; that every one of them has a tenden¬
cy, from whatever caufe, to the centre of the earth,
and is preferved from falling by the force of projec¬
tion ; we know likewife that they are all moved thro’
the medium of the atmofphere, which at the furface
of the earth is confiderably denfe, and that a denfe
medium muft occafion much refiftance : But we dp
not know that the planets have a tendency to the
centre of the fun, that they are preferved from falling
into that luminary by a projedbile force, or whether
they move through a medium or in vacuo : fo that we arc
not certain that the motion of the planets is perfedbly
fimilar to that of terreftrial projedtiles in any other
circumftance than the form of the curve which they
all defcribe; and from this fingle cafe of coincidence
no inference can be drawn which carries to the miud
abfolute convidlion.
When a man reafons from experience, he infers, that
what has uniformly happened hitherto, will happen al¬
ways in the very fame circumftances ; or that what
is known to be the caufe of various phenomena of the
fame kind is the caufe of every other phenomenon in all
refpeBs fimilar to thefe. Such an inference is founded
on the united and complete evidence of fenfe, me¬
mory, and reafon. When a man reafons from analogy,
he infers, that what has generaly happened hitherto,
3 X 2 will
(z) We fay from real experience ; becaufe what is often taken for experience, and to human eyes has that
appearance, is in fadt nothing more than analogy. Thus a phyfician may have preferibed to ninety-nine pa¬
tients labouring under the fame difeafe the fame remedy, and always with the fame fuccefs. If fo, he will
think that he has experience of its utility, and will preferibe it again with the fulleft confidence. Yet in this
cafe he may be difappointed ; for though the medicine be the Eime and the difeafe the fame, there may be
fomething in the conftitution of the hundredth patient fo different from that of the ninety-nine, that what
was falutary to them may be pernicious to him. This does not detradl from the evidence of experience : it
only fhows, that the circumftances of the cafe in which the medicine failed were different from thofe in which
it fucceeded. In fuch conclufions as are founded on a complete indudbion and uniform experience, every man
expedbs the event with the laft degree of affurance, and regards his paft experience as a full proof of the fu¬
ture exilbence of that event: In other cafes, where experience has been variable—or apparently variable—he
knows that the indadbion has been incomplete, and therefore proceeds with caution. He weighs the bppo-
fite experiments; takes as complete a view as he can of the circumftances in which .they were made; con-
fiders which fide is fupported by the greater number of experiments, and inclines to that fide with doubt
and hefitation. And when at laft he fixes his judgment, the evidence exceeds not what is called probability.
All probability, then, fuppofes an oppofition of experiments, and obfervations, where the one fide is found
to overbalance the other, and to produce a degree of evidence proportioned to the fuperiority.
5,32 M E T A P
Of Tefki- w;n happen again in circumftances nearly Jtmilar ; or
. ' , that what is known to be the caufe of various phe¬
nomena of the fame kind, is the caufe of othel, phe¬
nomena in fome refpeils fimilar to thefe. This infe¬
rence is likewife founded on the united evidence of
fenfe, memory, and reafon : but here the evidence of
fenfe is not complete, and it can be ftrengthencd only
by finding more fadls of the fame or of a fimilar na¬
ture.
H Y S I C S.
135
Mankind
ready to
believe the
teftimony
of each
ether.
13*
The reafnn
afligned by
this pro-
penfity
* **
Miracles.
Sect. IV. Of Tijlimony.
The lad fource of evidence which we propofed to
confider is tflimony, or the report of men concerning
events which have fallen under the obfervation of their
fenfes. That we are all ready to believe the informa¬
tion which we receive from the teftimony of our fel¬
low creatures is undeniable ; and indeed without fuch
belief every man’s knowledge of fads and events
would be confined to thofe only of which he himfelf
had been a perfonal witnefs. In that cafe, no man
who had not travelled would believe that there are
fuch cities as Rome and Conftantinoplq; and no man
whatever could now believe that fuch heroes as Han¬
nibal and Cefar had ever exifted.
Between words and things there is no natural con¬
nexion ; and though we are all accuftomed to give
to things the names by which they are known in the
language that we fpeak, and to exprefs their mutual re¬
lations by the words appropriated for that purpofe ;
yet it is obvioufly impoffible to denote one thing by the
name of another, and to exprefs by words relations
that have no exiftence. This being the cafe, it may
be allied upon what principle we give credit to human
teftimony ? To this queftion various anfwers have
been given, which have produced much controverfy
on one of the moft important fubjefts which can em¬
ploy the mind of man.
“We may obferve (fays Mr Hume*), that there is
ho fpecies of reafoning more common, more ufeful,
and even neceflary to human life, than that which is
derived from the teftimony of men ahd the reports of
eye-witnefles and fpeXators. This fpecies of reafon¬
ing perhaph one may deny to be founded on the rela¬
tion of caufe and effeX. I lhall not difpute about *a
word. It will be fufficient to obferve, that our affu-
rance in any argument of this kind is derived from no
other principle than our obfervation of the veracity of
human teftimony, and of the ufual conformity of faXs
to the reports of witneffes. It being a general maxim
that no (a) objeXs have any difcoverable connexion
together, and that all the inferences which we can
draw from one to another are founded merely on our
experience of their conftant and regular conjunXion ;
it is evident that we ought not to make an exception
to this maxim in favour of human teftimony, whofe
connexion with any event feems in itfelf as little ne-
ceffary .as any other. Were not the memory tenaci-
or;: to a certain degree; had not men commonly an
inclination to truth, and a .principle of probity ; were
Part I,
they not fenfible to fhame when deteXed in falfe- Of Tefti-
hood : Were not thefe, I fay, difcovered by experience mony~ ,
to be qualities inherent in human nature, we Ihould ”~v""""
never repofe the leaft confidence in human teftimony.
And as the evidence derived from witneffes and hu¬
man teftimony is founded on paft experience, fo it
varies with the experience, and is regarded either as
a proof or probability, according as the conjunXion be¬
tween any particular kind of report and any kind of ob-
jeX has been found to be conftant or variable. There are
a number of circumftances to be taken into eonfidera.
lion in all judgments of this kind ; and the ultimate
ftandard by which we determine all difputes that may
arife concerning them, is always derived from experi¬
ence and obfervation. The reafon why we place any
credit in witneffes and hiftorians, is not derived from
any connexion which we perceive a priori between tdli-
mony and reality, but becaufe we are accuftomed to
find a conformity between them. But when the faX
attefted is fuch a one as has feldom fallen under our
obfervation, here is a contC ft of two oppofite experi¬
ences ; of which the one deftroys the other as far as
it goes, and the fuperior can only operate on the mind
by the force which remains. The very fame prin¬
ciple of experience which gives us a certain degree of
alfurance in the teftimony of witneffes, gives us alfo,
in this cafe, another degree of affurance againft the
faX which they endeavour to eftablifti; from which
contradiXion there neceffarily arifes a counter-
poife, and mutual deftruXion of belief and autho-
‘rity•,,. . . . . . 117
This account of the origin of faith in teftimony
has been controverted with much fuccefs by the Doc* and
tors Campbell and Reid. “ That the evidence of te¬
ftimony is derived folely from experience (fays the
former of thefe writers §), is at leaft not fo incon-§ Dferta- ]
tellable a truth as Mr Hume fuppofes it; that, on the tion on Mi- j
contrary, teftimony hath a natural and original influ* i
ence on belief antecedent to experience,' will, I i0f0pby of
gine, eafily be conceived. For this purpofe, let it be Abetonc,
remarked, that the earlieft affent which is given to
teftimony by children, and which is previous to all
experience, is, in faX, the moft unlimited; that by a
gradual experience of mankind, it is gradually con¬
tracted, and reduced to narrower bounds. To fay,
therefore, that our diffidence in teftimony is the refult
of experience, is more philofophical, becaufe more
confonant to truth, than to fay that our faith in te¬
ftimony has this foundation. Accordingly, youth,
which is unexperienced, is credulous; age, on the con¬
trary, is diftruftful. ExaXly the reverfe would be the
cafe were this author’s doXrine juft.” This is a
complete confutation of the reafoning of Mr Hume:
but in order to prevent all caviilingj it is to be wilhed
that the very acute author had explained more fully
what he means by faying, that teftimony hath a na¬
tural and original influence on belief; for thefe words
may be taken in different fenfes, in one of which
what he affirms is true, and in another falfe.
Dr
(a) Is there then no difcoverable connexion between a tree and the field in which it grows ; betwe& a
man and his cloaths ; between an author and his work ; between a fceptic and paradoxes l Surely all thefe are
correlates, and neceffarily fuggeft the ideas of each other.
Parti. METAPH YSICS. 533
OfTcfti- Dr Campbell’s omiflion is amply fupplied by Dr cannot be leffened in the prefent inftance, when are OfTeftL
mony. Re;d, who gives (J the following account of tefli- confcious thatgreatpartofwhat he fays isunanfwerable. inor,y' ,
mony, and of the credit whicli it obtains. “The That truth ia always at the door of the lips; that it
into the’Hu- wife and beneficent Author of nature, who intended requires no effort to bring it forth ; that in ordinary
man Mind, that we fhould be focial creatures, and that we fhould cafes men fpeak truth uninfluenced by any motive
fcc. receive the greateft and mod important part of our moral or political; that the greated liars fpeak truth
knowledge by the information of others, hath, for a hundred times where they lie once; and that lying
thefe purpofes, implanted in our nature two principles is never pradifed by the word men without fome temp-
that tally with each other.' The fird of thefe prin- tation, are pofitions which daily experience renders it
j ciples is a propenfity toTpeak truth, and to ufe the impofiible to quedion: But notwithdanding this, we
/ figns of language fo as to convey our real fentiments. do not think that truth is fpoken by^an inJHnclive
This principle has a powerful operation even in the principle-; becaufe it is inconceivable that indindtfhould
greated liars; for whgre they lie once, they fpeak truth teach the ufe of arbitrary and artificial figns, fuch as
a hundred times. Truth is always uppermod, and is the words of every language undoubtedly are ; or that
the natural iflue of the mind. It requires no art or between fuch figns and ideas any infl.nBive connedtiou
training, no inducement or temptation, but only that fhould ever be formed. “ Truth (as we have defined
we yield to a natural impulfe. Lying, on the con- it) is the conformity of thofe words or figns by which
trary, is doing violence to our nature, and is never things are expreffed, to the things themfelves and
pradtifed even by the word men without fome temp- things themfelves are what - they are, independent of
tation. Speaking truth is like ufing our natural food, us, our indindls, and perceptions. When we have
which we would do from appetite, although it an- precife and adequate ideas of objedls, and when thofe
fwered no end; but lying is like taking phyfic, which ideas are related to one another as the objects them-
is naufeous to the tade, and which no man takes but felvcsare related, we are in podefiion of mental truth;
for fome end which he cannot otherwife attain.— and in this cafe there is a real and natural connedtion
When we-are influenced by any motive, we mud be between the figns and the things figniiied: for wc
confcious of that influence, and capable of perceiving cannot frame original and Ample ideas which have no
it upon refledtion. Now, when I reflect upon my archetype in nature ; nor can one object, didindtly
adtions mod attentively, I am not confcious that in perceived, generate in our minds the ideas that are
fpeaking truth I am influenced on ordinary occafions generated by other objedts. Here external things
by any motive moral or political. I find that truth are the objedts, and ideas are the figns, which, when
is alway's at the door of my lips, and goes forth fpon- they are in conformity to the things fignilieu by them,
taneoufly if not held back. It requires neither good conditute truth.
nor bad intention to bring it forth, but only that I But in human tedimony, the ideas in the mind of The true
be artlefs and undefigning. There may indeed be the fpeaker are the things fignified, and the words of reafon ai-
temptations to falfehood, which would be too drong language are figns by which they are exprefled ; and %ned.
- for the natural principle of veracity, unaided by prin- when thefe things and figns are in conformity to each
ciples of honour or virtue ; but where there is no fuch other, the words uttered exprefs fo much truth  
temptation, we fpeak truth by injltnU. By this in- Now, though in this cafe there is no natural connec-
ftiind, a real connection Is formed between our tion between the fign and the thing fignified, yet it
words and our thoughts ; and thereby the former is obvious, that without a violent effort of the fpeaker
become fit to be figns of the latter, which they' to the contrary they mud always be in conformity
could not otherwife be.” with each other ; .becaufe, in every language, there
Such is the account which Dr Reid gives cf the are words appropriated for the purpofe of denoting
truth of human tedimony : and he adds, that there is every idea and relation which can be expreded ; and
another original principle implanted in us by the Su- in the mind of every man thefe ideas, relations, -and
preme Being, to tally with it, viz. a difpofition to words, have been condantly alTociated from the time
confide in the veracity of others, and to believe what that he learned to fpeak. So intimate is this adbcia-
they tell us. “ This (he fays) is the counterpart to tion, and fo impoffible to be broken, that whoever
the former; and as that may be called principle of will pay fufficient attention to the operations of his
veracity, we fhall, for the want of a more proper name, , own mind, will find that he thinks as well as fpeah
call this the principle of credulity. It is unlimited in fome language ; and that in cogitation he fuppofes
in children, until they meet with infiances of deceit and runs over, filently and habitually, thofe founds
and falfehood ; and refains-a very confiderable degree - which in fpeaking he actually utters (b). If thic-
cf drength through life.” be fo, it is impotable that a man without fome effort
It is ever with.extreme relu&ance that we contro- fhould ever fpeak any thing but truth : for the ideas
vu-t the opinions of this able writer; and that reludtance of what he has feen or heard, &c. are not of his ma¬
nufacture ; ;
(b) This fcems to have been Plato's opinion ; for he calls thinking t-oyov o» «v7« xpoc cufinv « st
tltpxircu, mpi ov «v mom, a the language by which the foul explains itfelf to itfefF when it canfiders any
thing.” And Plotinus fays, o ev pa™ tv j.y;i “ the vocal words are an imitation of thofe of
.the foul.” To-fay that vocal words arTan imitation of thofe of the foul, is to fpeak inaccurately, and ;
to reverfe the procefs of affociation; but it affords fuifident evidence, that .in the-opinion of Plotinus-men .
think as well as fpeak.in words..
METAPHYSICS.
Tcfti- mif'a&urc!; tliey arc generated by external objedls: and
till they be effaced from the memory, they muft al¬
ways, by the law of affociation, make their appearance
there with all their mutual relations, and in their proper
drefs. In the very adf of learning to fpeak,we neceffarily
learn to fpeak the for were we not to employ words
exaftly as they are employed by thofe with whom we
converfe, onr language (if language it might be call¬
ed) would be unintelligible ; and we could neither
declare our wants nor afk relief with any hopes of
fuccefs. Children beginning to fpeak, may indeed
utter untruths without any motive, and merely from
iniftake ; becaufe the ideas and words of children have
neither been long nor clofely affociated : but it is im-
poffible that a man, however wicked, fhould habitually
and without motives lie on ordinary occafions, unlefs
the fundamental principles of his nature have been
totally altered; unlefs his brain has been difordered
by difeafe ; unlefs his ideas have been difarranged,
and all his original affociations broken.
We know indeed by woful experience, that immo¬
ral, men occafionally utter falfehoods with a view to
deceive. But on thefe occafions they are influenced by
fome motive either of hope or terror : the falfehood
is always uttered with an effort: and fo ftfong is the
afibciation between words and ideas, that the truth
Will at times break out in fpite of all their endeavours
to fupprefs it; fo that the end or middle of a falfe
narrative, if it be of any length, is commonly incon-
ParcIT,
(blent with the beginning. We entertain a fufpicion Of Teftw
concerning any matter of fa£t, when thofe who relate mony-
it contradidl each other—when they are but few in
number, or of doubtful charadler—when they have
an intereft in what they affirm—when they deliver
their teftimony with hefitation —or, on the contrary,
with too violent afleverations; becaufe thefe are cir-
cumflances which we have generally experienced to ac¬
company falfe witnefs. It is likewife with reludlance
that we admit a narrative of events entirely different
from every thing which hitherto we have feen or heard;
becaufe we may not be certain that the narrator is not
under fome influence to deceive us in matters concern¬
ing which we have nothing but his teftimony on which
to ground our judgment. But in every cafe where the
faift recorded is in itfelf poffible, and attributed to an
adequate caufej where a competent (c) number of wit-
neffes had fufficient means of infoimation, and are cer¬
tainly under no inducement to deceive ; teftimony is
complete evidence, however extraordinary the fail
may be ; becaufe no fadt which is known to have an
adequate caufe can be fo incredible, as that a number of
men of found underftandings fhould ail contrary to the
fundamental-principles of human nature, or be able, if f»
difpofed, to diffolve affociations which had been formed
in the mind of each from his infancy, and form new
ones, all agreein gexadtly with one another, but all con¬
trary to truth.
Part II. Of BODY with its ADJUNCTS.
Chap. I. #/>/)£ Composition c/* Bodies ; or,
cf Matter and Fop.m.
HITHERTO we have cohtempiated only the
powers of our own minds by which wc acquire
a flock of ideas, and the various operations of the Intel•
left vupon thofe ideas, as treafured up in the memory
or imagination. In the courfe of the inquiry \Ve have
found, that every idea and notion which we have was
fuggefled by fomething independent of Us ; and in or¬
der to difeover what thofe things are, We have irtvef-
tigated the nature of each fenfe, as it is by the fenfes
only that we have any communication with the exter¬
nal world. By touch we perceive heat and cold, hard-
nefs and foftnefs, figure, folidity, motion, and exten-
fion ; by the organ of frrtell, We perceive odours j by
the tongue and palate, taftes; by the ear, founds;
and by the fight, colours. We have likewife feen, that
heat and cold, odours, taftes, founds, and colours, are
mere fenfations which have no exiftence but while they
are perceived. On the other hand, hardnefs apd foft¬
nefs, figure and folidity, motion and extenfion, are
neither fenfations’, nor like fenfations ; but are concei¬
ved to by fomething external and independent of us,
and to be the caufes of certain fenfations. Even of heat
and cold, odours, taftes, founds, and colours, we know
with certainty that there is fome caufe independent of
our faculties, which may Operate in a defatt wilder-
nefs as well as in a populous city, though, for Want of
fentient beings to operate upon, it cannot in the
Wildernefs produce the fame effefts as in the city.
Of things perceived by the fenfes we find the great-of thing*
Cr part always united ; for when a man perceives a perceived
piece of fealing-wax, if he makes ufe of all his fenfes, fo' )he
he perceives at once cold, tafte, colour, hardnefs, e
roughnefs or fmoothnefs, figure, folidity, motion or p .rt always
reft, and extenfion. That the powers or qualities, united,
which in this inftance produce the fenfations of heat
or cold, tafte, odour, and colour, are fo united to the
hardnefs, figure, folidity, and extenfion of the wax,
as that they cannot exift alone, is evident ; becaufe it
is impoffible to remove any one of thefe things, or to
conceive it removed, without removing with it all the
(c) Should it be alked what number we call competent, we beg leave to fay, that it will be greater or lefs ac¬
cording to circumftances. In cafes where they are not liable to the deceptions of fenfe, two men of integrity
and intelligence deferve equal credit with two thoufand; but where there is particular occafion for good or¬
gans, whether of fight, hearing, or touch, the greater the number the greater is our feenrity. To this muft:
be added, that as one man is influenced by that which to anothei1 would be no motive, a great numbef
of witneffes concurring in the fame teftimony is always an additional fecurity that they are not under the in¬
fluence of any latent bias. i
Part IT. M E T A P H
Of the reft. What then Is the bond of this union ? Do thefe
Compofi- things neceflarily accompany one another, fo as that
Bodies one t^em cannot ex*ft without bringing' all the reft
. along with it ? No ; there is no neceffary connection
among them : for by the operation of fire'the wax may
be rendered liquid, when the hardne/s and cold are gone,
tho’everything elfe remains the fame,or nearly the fame,
as it was before. By a {till further operation of fire
the appearance may be entirely changed ; and that
which was formerly a piece of hard red wax, may be
reduced to fmoke and allies, in which there is neither
hardnefs, colour, odour, nor figure; at leaft there is
not in the fmoke and afhes fuch hardnefs, colour, odour,
or figure, as was in the wax. The folidity and exten-
fion, however, remain; for we perceive allies and
fmoke to be extended and folid as much as wax or an
adamant; nor is it poffible to do any thing with the wax,
or with any other fenfible objedt, which {hall deprive
it of exienfion or folidity.
Someof Thus, then, extenfion and folidity may exift and
thefe thingsbe perceived when feparated from hardnefs, colour,
termed ac- and odour; but none of thefe can exift, or be con-
cidents, and .ceive.d to exift, independent of extenfion and folidity.
Hardnefs, colour, odour, tafte, and figure, or the
things which fuggeft thefe notions to us, have with
great propriety been termed accidents or qualities ;
becaufe they cannot exift or be conceived to exift by
themfelves, but require for their fupport one common
fubjedt. Extenfion and folidity can exift independent
of them, but they cannot exift independent of folidity
and extenfion.
Things per- Is then folidity the bafis of thefe qualities, fo that
ceived by they neceffarily refult from it ? No ; there are many
the fenfes, things folid and extended which are neither hard, nor
which In- col°ure^> nor odorous, nor fapid ; which could not be
here in a if thefe qualities were the necefiary e fie ft of folidity.
fubjedl call- Befides, all mankind conceive of folidity and exten-
ed matter. flon as qualities of fomething elfe ; for we never fay
that folidity is extended or coloured, or hard or odo¬
rous, but that fomething folid has thefe qualities:
whence it is evident that we confider folidity as a
quality itfelf. In what then does folidity and all the
other fenfible qualities inhere, fince they cannot exift
feparately, and do not fupport each other ? This is
a queftion which modern philofophers pretend not to
anlwer : but fome of the ancients were not fo modeft.
Ariftotle and his followers refolved every bodily fub-
ftance into matter form, making matter the bafis
or fuJfiratum, and under form comprehending all fen¬
fible qualities.
As attempts have been lately made to revive this
philofophy, it may not be improper to give a fhort
view of the doflrine of matter and form, if it were only
to difcover whether the fpeculations of Ariftotle and
his adherents on this fubjeft deferve to be preferred to
thofe of Newton and Eocke.
The mod perfpicuous, and by far the moft elegant
v'riter among the moderns who has adopted the anci¬
ent philofophy, is Mr Harris ; and left we Ihould be
accufed by others of doing injuftice to a fubjeft above
Y s I C S. 535
the reach of ordinary comprehenfion, we {hall tran- Of the
fcribe fo much of what he has faid of matter and firm
in his philofophical arrangements as feems neceftary
to make our readers underftand his meaning as far as ' y— ■«
it is intelligible. 14a
“Matter (fays this writer) is that elementary con-Per
ftituent in compofite fubftances which appertains in
common to them all, without diftinguiftiing them from cerning
one another. Every thing generated or made, whe-matter ^
ther by nature or art, is generated or made out of
fomething elfe ; and this fomething elfe is called its
fubjeft or matter. Such is iron to the faw ; fuch is
timber to the boat. Now this fubjeQ or matter of a thing
being necejfarily previous to that thing’s exillence, is ne-
ceffarily different from it, and not the fame. Thus iron,
as iron, is not a faw' ; and timber, as timber, is not
a boat. Hence, then, one charafter of every fubjeSl
or matter, that is, the character of negation or priva¬
tion. [He means negation or privation of what is to be
made out of it.]
“ Again, though the fubjecl or matter of a thing be tVlrkV I?
not that thing, yet, were it incapable of becoming,defmbed'
fo, it could not be called its fubjeft or matter. Thusas^td‘,u,e
iron is the fubjecl or matter of a faw ; becaufe, though.0^ or
not a faw, it may ftill become a faw. On the contrary, ^1;^
timber is not the fubjeft or matter of a faw ; becaufe4
it not only (as timber) is no faw, but can never be
made one from its very nature and properties. Hence,
then, befides privation, another charafter of every fub¬
jecl or matter, and that is the charafter of aptitude or
capacity. [He means aptitude or capacity to be that
which is made out of it.]
“ Again, when one thing is thz.fubjeft or matter of
many things, it implies a privation of them-a//, and a
capacity to, them all. Thus iron being the fubjeft or
matter of the faw, the axe, and the chiflel, implies
privation and capacity with refpeft to all three. A-
gain, we can change a faw into a chiffel, but not
into a boat; we can change a boat into a box, but
not into a faw. The reafon is, there can be no change
or mutation of one thing into another where the two
changing beings do not participate the fame matter (d).
But even here, were the boat to moulder and turn to
earth, and that earth by natural procefs to metallife
and become iron ; through fuch progreffion as this we
might fuppofe even the boat to become a faw. Hence
therefore it is, that all change is by immediate or me¬
diate participation of the fame matter. Having advan¬
ced thus far, we muft be careful to remember, firft,
that every fuljeft or matter implies, as fuch, privation
and capacity ; and next, tk-c all change or mutation of
beings into one another is by means of their participating
the fame common matter. This we have chofen to illu-
ftrate from works of art, as falling more eafily under
human cognifance and obfervation. It is, however,
no lefs certain as to the produftions of nature, though
the fuperior fubtlety in thefe renders examples more
difficult. The queftion then is, whether in the world
which we inhabit, it be not admitted from experience,
as well as from the confeffion of all philofophers, that
fubftances
(d) In a note he fays; This reafoning has reference to what the ancients called vax the immediate-
matter, in oppofition.to x-pvh, the remote or primary matter.
'53°
Of the
. Compofi
544
And io be
apprehend¬
ed only by
abftradtii'n
and analo¬
gy-
M E T A P
fubilances of every kind (a), whether natural or arti¬
ficial, either immediately or mediately, pafs into one
another; and whether, in that cafe, there mult not be
fome one primary matter common to all things. I fay
feme one primary matter, and that common to all things,
iince without fome J'uch mutter, fich mutation would be
wholly impofiible. But if there be fome one primary
matter, and that common to all things, this matter mull
imply, not (as particular and fufeordinate matters do)
a particular privation and a particular capacity, but, on
the contrary, vniverfal privation and uniwrfal capa¬
city. If the notion of fuch a being appear ilrange
and iiicomprehenfible, we may farther prove the ne~
cejjity of its exiltence from the following confiderations:
Either there is no fuch general change as here fpoken
of; which is contrary to faft, and would deftroy the
fympathy and congeniality of things : Or, if there
be, there mult be a matter of the chara&er here efta-
bliihed; becaufe without it (as we have faid) fuch
change would be impqffible. Add to this, however hard
univerfal privation may appear, yet had the primary
matter, in its proper nature, any one particular attri¬
bute, fo as to prevent its privation from being unli¬
mited and univerfal, fuch attribute would run through
all things, and be confpicuous in all. If it were white,
all things would be white ; if circular, they would be
circular ; and fo as to other attributes; which is con¬
trary to fa&. Add to this, that the oppojite to fuch
attribute could never have exitience, unlefsit were pof-
fible for the fame thing to be at once and in the fame
inftance both white and black, circular and redlilineal,
&c. fince this infeparable attribute would neceflarily
be every where; becaufe the matter, which implies it, is
itfelf every where, at leaft may be found in all things
that are generated and perifhable.
“ Here then we have an idea (fuch as it is) of that
fmgular being ’rp«b’, the primary matter; a being
which thofe philofophers who are immerged in fen-
fible objefts know not well how to adnjit, though they
cannot well do without it; a being which flies the
perception of every fenfe, and which is at beft, even
to the intelleB, but a negative objedf, no otherwife
comprehenjible than either by analogy or abJiraQinn. We
gain a glimpfe of it by abjlradion, when we fay that the
JirJl matter is not the lineaments and complexion which
make the beautiful face ; nor w. the JleJh and blood which
make thofe lineaments and that complexion ; nor yet
the liquid and folid aliments which make that flefh
and blood ; nor yet the Ample bodies of earth and wa¬
ter which make thofe various aliments ; but fomelhing,
which being below all there, arid fupporting them all,
is yet different from them all, and eflential to their ex-
ittence. We obtain a fight of it by analogy, when we
fay, that as is the brafs to the ftatue, the marble to
N° 214.
H Y S I C S. Parc II.
the pillar, the timber to the (hip, or any one fecondary Of the
matter to any one peculiar form ; fo is the JirJl and uti- Compnfi-
ginal matter to ail forms in general.” _ Bodies.
Such is the dodfrine of the Peripatetics concerning < rA -‘1 p
the primary matter, or the bafis of bodily fubftances.
We forbear to make any remarks upon it till we have
feen what they fay of form, the other eflential part
of every body ; for what is meant by matter and form
will be moft completely feen when they are viewed to¬
gether. I45
“ Form (fays the fame elegant writer) is that ele-The penpa-
mentary corflituent in every compofite fubffance, by which it doc*
distinguished,andcsAHJCTEiiissD, and hnown.fromevery]!^^11'
other. But to be more explicit: Thefirfl and moft Ample form.S
of all extenfions is a line; this, when it exifts, united with a
yk-oKfl?extcnfion, makes afuperfeks; and thefe two, exilt-
ing together with a third, make afahd. Now this lafl and
complete extension we call the ffl and fimplejl poem ;
and when this frf and fimplejl form accedes to the fitjl
and fimplejl matter, the union of the two produces body ;
which is for that reafon defined to be matter triply ex¬
tended. And thus we behold the rife of pure and ori¬
ginal body (f). It muft be remembered, however,
that body, under this character, is fomething indefinite
and vague, and fcarcely to be made an objefi of feienti-
fic contemplation. It is neceffary to this end that its
extenfion (honld be bounded; for as yet we have treated
it without fuch regard. Now, the bound or limit of
ftuple body is figure ; and thus it is that figure, with re¬
gard to body, becomes the next form after extenfion. I46
“ But though the boundary of body by figure is The thfec
one ftep towards rendering it definite and knowabie, yet original
is not this fufiicient for the purpofes of nature. It isfony8
neceflary here, that not only its external fhould be duly ^^mat-
bounded, but that a fuitable regard fliould likewife be ter, con ft U
had to its internal. This internal adjufiment, difpofi-mte body
tion, or arrangement (denominate it as you pleafe), isPh>flcal*
called organization, and may be confidered as the
third form which appertains to body. By its acceffion
we behold the rife of body physical or natural ;
for every fuch body is fome way or other organized.
And thus may we affirm, that thefe three, that is to
fay, extenfion, figure, and organization, are the three ori¬
ginal forms to body phyfical or natural; figure having re-
fpeft to its external, organization to its internal, and ex¬
tenfion being common both to one and to the othec.
It is more than probable, that from the variation in
thefe univerfal and (as I may fay) primary forms, arife
moft of thofe fecondary forms ufually called qualities fen-
fibie, becaufe they are the proper obje&s of our feveral
fe«fations. Such are roughnefs andfmoothnefs,hardnefs
and foftnefs ; the tribes of colours, favours, odours;
not to mention thofe powers of character more fubtle,
the powers ele&ric, magnetic (g), medicinal, &c.
2 “ Here
(e) He muft mean only bodily fubftances ; for it is not admitted.by fuch philofophers as make a diftinefion
between mind and body, that the one ever paffes into the other.
(f) - “ Original body (he fays), when we look downward, has reference to the primary matter, its fubftra-
tum : when we look upwards, it becomes itfelf a matter to other things; to the elements, as commonly called, air,
earth, water, &c. and in confequence to all the variety of natural productions.”
(o) That it is from the extenfion, figure, and organization of bodies, that their medicinal powers arife, feems
to be undeniable ; for medicines operate by contaft : but it is not fo clear that the fame forms, to ufe the au¬
thor’s language, are the fource of nagnetical povatrs. If the magnet be furrounded with an atmofphere ex¬
tending to a certain diitance, fuch may be the cafe; but if not, the author’s conje&ure muft be ill founded.
See Magnetism.
'Part II. M E T A P
Of the “ Here therefore we may anfwer the queftion, how
^tion^of* natura^ bodies are chjlmguijhed. Not a fingle one
Bodies, among them confifts of materia's in chaos, but ot ma-
W—y—— terials wrought up after the moil exquifite manner,
and that confpicuous in their organifation, or in their
figure, or in loth.—As therefore every natural body is
diftinguifhed by the differences jull deferibed, and as
thefe differences have nothing to do with the original
matter, which being every where fimilar can afford no
diftin&ion at all; may we not here infer the expe¬
diency of essential forms, that every natural fub-
flance may be effentially charaQerifed ? Thefe forms,
though they differ from matter, can yet never fub-
ffl without it; but united with it, they help to produce
every compofite being, that is to fay, in other words,
every natural fulflance, in the vifible world. It muil
be remembered, however, that it is the form in this
union which is the fource of all diJlinQion. It is by
this that the ox is diftinguifhed from the horfe, not
by that grafs on which they fubfift, the common mat¬
ter to both. To which alfo may be added, that
as figures and fenfible qualities are the only objeSls of
our fenfations, and thefe are all parts of natural form ;
fo therefore (contrary to the fentiment of the vulgar,
who dream of nothing but of matter) it is form, which
is in truth the whole that we either hear, fee, or feel; nor
is mere matter any thing better than an obfeure imper¬
fect being, knowable only to the reafoning faculty by the
two methods already explained, I mean that of ana¬
logy and that of abjlraBion. Here therefore we con¬
clude with refpedt to fenfible forms, that is to fay, forms
mmergeef in matter and ever infeparable from it. In
thefe and matter we place the elements of natural
SUBSTANCE.”
If this extra& appear long, let it be remembered
that it contains the fulleft and moft perfpicuous detail
which is to be found in the Englifh language, of a doc¬
trine of which the author of Ancient Meiaphyfics fup*
pofes Locke to have been ignorant; and for which
ignorance he affefts to treat the Englifh philofopher
Vol. XI. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 537
with fupercilious contempt. Had Locke really been the
ignorant of the ancient doctrine of matter andybm, it
is probable that moft people will be of opinion that Bodies,
the contempt exprefled by his cenfurer might have been
fpared } but if it fhould appear, that, as far as’ this
theory is intelligible, it differs not, except in words,
from the doctrine laid down in the Ffffay concerning hu¬
man underfunding, what fhall we think of that zeal for
ancient phrafes, which had influence fufficient to make
one refpe&able philofopher pour contempt upon ano*
ther who was an ornament to his country ? 147
What Mr Harris has faid of matter and form re-Matter can-
fpe&ing works of art, is fufficiently intelligible,,and
extremely juft. Nor fhould we objedt to the account 1^,.^
which he gives of the origin of natural body, if he
had not divefted his firft matter of every power and
every quality, folidity and extenfion not excepted.
But though we can fuppofe body divefted of any one
particular figure and of every fenfible quality, fuch as
colour, odour-, taftes, &c. and the fubfratum or ba-
fis or matter of it ftill to remain, yet it feems impof*
fible to conceive it divefted of folidity without fuppo-
fing it totally annihilated. Nay, if We have any juft
notion at all of folidity, it is evidently infeparable
from the fubftratum of body, whatever that fubftra-
tum be ; and indeed, though Mr Harris divefts his firft
matter of every attribute, the argument by which he
proves the neceffary exiftence of fuch a being does
not require its puvation to be fo univerfal. “ Had
the primary matter (fays he), in its proper nature, any
one particular attribute, fo as to prevent its privation
from being unlimited and univerfal,ykA attribute would
run through all things and be confpicuous in all.” This
indeed is obvious and undeniable : but folidity and ex¬
tenfion do in faEl run through all things into which the
fubfratum or matter of body is ever formed or ever can
be conceived to.be formed ; and therefore there is no
neceffity for fuppofing the firft matter divefted of thefe
attributes (h).
Mr Harris fays, that both Timaeus and Plato drop
3 Y
(h) Nor does it appear that it was divefted of them by all the ancient philofophers. We learn from Cud-
worth, that “the atomical phyfiology,the moft ancientperhaps of any, teaches that body is nothing elfe but J<ara7o*
«vMv*ov, extended bulk ; and that nothing is to be attributed to it but what is included in the nature and idea
of it, viz. greater or lefs magnitude with divifibility into parts, figure, and pofition, together with motion
or reft, but fo as that no part of body can ever move itfelf. And confequently, this philofophy fuppofes,
that there is no need of any thing elfe befides the Ample elements of magnitude, figure, fite, and motion
(which are all clearly intelligible, or different modes of extended fubftance), to folve the corporeal phenomena
by ; and therefore not of any fubftantial forms diftindt from the matter; nor of any other qualities really ex-
ifting in the bodies without, befides the refults or aggregates of thofe Ample elements, and the difpofition of
the infenfible parts of bodies in refpedl of figure, fite, and motion ; nor of any intentional fpecies pr fews
propagated from the obje&s to our fenfes; nor, laftly, of any other kind of motion or adtion really diftindk
from local motion (fuch as generation and alteration), they being neither intelligible as modes of extended
fubftance, nor any way neceffary : Forafmuch as the forms and qualities of bodies may well be conceived to
be nothing but the refult of thofe Ample elements of magnitude, figure, fite, and motion, varioufly compound¬
ed together ; in the fame manner as fyllables and words in great variety refult from the different combinations
and conjundlions of a few letters, or the Ample elements of fpeech ; and the corporeal part of fenfation, and
particularly that of viAon, may be folved only by local motion of bodies; that is, either by corporeal effluvia
(called fmulacra, membram, and exuviaj, ftreaming continually from the furface of the objedls, or rather,
as the later and more refined atomifts conceived, by preffure made from tlje objedt to the eye, by means of
light in the medium. So that tou T*8;»7of asfof to jSxiTo^(vo» the fenfe taking cogni-
Eance of the objeft by the fubtile interpofed medium, that is tenfe and ftretched (thrufting every way from
it upon the optic nerves), doth by that, as it wage ►y a ftaff, touch it. Again, generation and corruption
may be fufficiently explained by concretion and fecretion, or local motion, without fubftantial forms and qua¬
lities
538 M E T A P H
Of the expreffions as if they confidered matter to be place ;
C-P°?- butplac e, as will be feen afterwards, can be the ba-
Badies. bs of nothing. He likewife quote's a pafiage from
- Ammonias on the predicaments, in which it is faid
“ that there never was in aauatity either matter with¬
out body, or body without qualityand we appeal
to our readers if it be not abfolutely impoffible to
contemplate fuch a being even in idea. To the que-
flion. Whether the firft matter has a feparate exiftence
by itfelf, dillindl from all thfe qualities of body, the
author, of Ancient Metaphyfics anfwers thus: — “ We
have no idea of it exilting feparately, becaufe we find
no fuch thing in nature, from which we draw all our
ideas ; but whether there may not be fuch a thing
exifting in the regions of infinite fpace, as matter with¬
out form and dimaifums, is what I think no man can
take upon him to decide.” But with all fubmiflion,
if a man cannot decide this queftion with the utmoft
certainty, his three ponderous volumes are nothing
better than ufelefs paper : for the fubjeft of them is
things, exifting ; and concerning exiftence we know no¬
thing with greater certainty, than that a being of
which nothing pofitive can be affirmed, cannot pof-
i48 fibly have any exiftence.
Some firft That, in the world which we 'inhabit, bodily fub-
mattercom- ftances of every kind, whether natural or artificial, ei-
kodies0 811 t*ier immediately or mediately pafs into one another,
is a truth which cannot be denied; and therefore it
follows, that there muft be fome one primary matter
common to all things. In modern philofophy this
primary matter is confidered as folid, and as the fubjlra-
Y S I C S. PartIL
turn of all bodies ; and all thofe things which, in the Of the
language of Mr Harris, are comprehended under the Compofi-
appellation of form,, are called qualities : fo that on this
fubjed the ancient and modern philofophy differ in ' >
nothing but in the latter uling the word qualities inftead
of the word form ; and defining the firft matter to be a
“folid fubftance every where the fame,” whilft the
ancient philofophy confiders it as void of folidity. ^
Of the nature of this firft matter all philofophers Of the na«
are equally ignorant: for, as Mr Harris fays, it is inture , f
truth, form; or, as modern ghilofophers would fay, wb|C*1’
they are in truth qualities, which are the whole that wee;jua!iy jg^
either hear, or fee, or feel, or of which we have ei-ncrant.
ther idea or conception. Mr Locke fays exprefsly,
“ That if any one will examine himfelf concerning his
notion of pure fubftance in general, he will find that
he has no other idea of it at all, but only a fuppofition
of he knows not what fupport of fuch qualities as are
capable of producing fimple ideas in us.” I5<5
But how, it has been aiked, cjo we know that the How we
things which we perceive are qualities, and cannot ex.k"ow that
ill without a fubjetl ? We anfwer, Becaufe every one immediate—
of them, except folidity, may be changed or deftroyiy perceive
ed, and the fubjedl in which they inhere ilill remain, are quail.
Thus, though wax may be melted or burnt, and be^-f*.
no longer a hard red fubftance of fuch a figure and
fuch a fmell, the matter which fupported the hardnefs,
figure,.colour, and fmell, ftill remains; for melted wax
or affies is as much a folid fubftance as is that which
may be ufed for the fealing of letters, &c.
It has been faid that folidity (i) is the fubjlratum
of:
Jities. And laftly, thofe fenfible ideas of light and colours, heat and cold, fweet and bitter, as they are di*
flinft things from the figure, fite, and motion of the infenfible parts of bodies, feem plainly to be nothing
elfe but our own fancies, paffions, and fenfations, however they be vulgarly miftaken for qualities in the bo¬
dies without us.” Cudworth’s IntelleSual Syflem, Book i. chap. r.
This, as will be feen by and by, is the philofophy of Newton, Locke, and all their followers: and that
it is the genuine philofophy of the ancient atomifts, we may fafely take the word of the author whom we.
have quoted; for no modern has been more converfant with their writings, more completely mafter of their
language, or has given their fenfe with greater accuracy. Thofe authors, therefore, who in their zeal for
ancient metaphyfics would explode the phyfiology of Newton and Locke, and fubftitute in its place the
Ariftotelian doctrine of matter and form, belie their own pretences; for the theory which they would banilh is
more ancient than that which they wilh to introduce ; and we appeal to our readers if it be. not more intelligible.
(i.) The philofophers of moft eminence who have maintained this opinion are, Dr Watts ; the author of the
Procedure,. Extent, and Limits, of the Human Underflanding; and Dr Law late bifhop of Carlifle, who in a note
upon King’s origin of evil gives the opinion of the triumvirate in the following v ords :—“ We find by expe¬
rience, that a thing will always exhibit the fame appearances in fome refpecls, though it admit of changes in
others : or, in Mr Locke’s language, that certain numbers of fimple ideas go conftantly together, whereas
fome others do not. The former of thefe we call the fubflance, thing, or being, itfelf; the latter are termed
its modes or accidents.. Thus the fubftance of body, as far as we know of it, confifts in folidity and exten-
fion ; which being neceffarily finite, it alfo becomes capable of divifion, figure, and motion. Thefe are its
original infeparable qualities, which conftitute the thing, and feem not to de.pend on any thing elfe as z fobjeS.
But a particular figure, motion, &c. are only accidents or modes of its exiflence ; which do not neceffarily at¬
tend it, though they themfelves cannot be fuppofed to exift without it. The fubftance odfpint confifts in the
powers of thinking and adling, which likewife admit of various modifications. This feems to be all that we
can learn concerning the nature of things from obfervation an^ experience. To inquire into the manner how
thefe, which we call properties,, exift together, or to attempt to explain the caufe, ground, or reafon, of their
Union, is in vain. To afiign the word fubjlance for a reprefentation of it, is faying nothing : it is fetting a
mere word for what we have neither any idea of nor occafion for Indeed if we confider thefe primary qua¬
lities as needing fomething to inhere in, we are obliged to feek for fomething to fupport them: and by the
fame way of reafoning, we may feek for fomething elfe to fupport that other fomething, and fo on ; and at
lall ffiall find no other fupport for the whole but the caufe which produced it.” “ Dr Watts (continues the
biftiop) is of opinion, that it is introducing a needlefs/r^o/^T notion into the real nature of things, and then
fancying ittohavea real exiftence ;” (Logic, p. 14.) The author of the. Procedure, Extent, See. affirms, “ That
as far as we dire&ly know the effential properties of any fubftance, fo far we have a direa knowledge of the
fubftance
IPart H.
M E T A P
§ Reid's
EJays on
the Intel*
Of the of body; and men have been probably led into this
^tioifof not‘on irrorn a convidlion that fuch fubjiratuw, what-
Bodie?. ever it be> is and muft be folid ; but that folidity is
i——v  only a quality infeparable from the firft matter, and
not that matter itftlf, muft be evident from this confi-
deration, that folidity is the fame in all bodies, and
incapable of producing by itfelf any other effedl than
that of excluding from the place occupied by it every
other folid fubftance. It could not of itfelf be the
JuhJlratum of colour, tafte, or fmell, otherwife all bodies
would be coloured, fapid, and odorous; and as, ac¬
cording to all our notions of it, it is incapable of any
change, it could not by itfelf be fo modified as to ex-
151 cite in us thefe fenfations.
Ou" n' tion The things then immediately perceived by us, or of
Tel^ivc arid vve ^lave an7 adequate idea or conception, are
obfcure. only qualities which muft belong to a fubjedt; and all
that we know about this fubjedt is, that it is that to
which fuch qualities belong. From this it is. evident,
that our notion of matter, as diftinguiihed from its
qualities, is a relative^ and obfcure notion, and muft
we remain obfcure till men have other faculties. In this
lettual Ponv- t^ie philofopher feems to have no advantage above the
of Man. vulgar: for as they perceive colour, and figure, and
motion, by their fenfea, as well as he does ; and as both
are equally certain that there is a fubjedl of .thofe qua¬
lities ; fo the notions which both have of this fubjedl
are equally obfcure; or, to fpeak more properly, they
have no pofttive notion of it all. When a philofopher
calls it the /fr/? matter, a fubjlratnm or a Jubjed of inhe-
Jion, thofe learned words convey no meaning but what
every man uhderftands and expreffes, by faying in
common language, that it is a thing extended, folid,
and moveable.
They are therefore qualities, or in the language of
ancient philofophy, forms alone, about which, in cor¬
poreal fubftance, we can reafon with precifion and
certainty ; and it is fufficient for all the purpofes of
life that we have of them an adequate knowledge.
For as the jirjl matter or original fubjlratum of all bo¬
dies feems to be the fame, though we know not what
it is; and as one body is diftinguiihed from another
only by its qualities or powers; a knowledge of the na¬
ture of thefe is all that can be neceffary to diredt our
condudt with refpedl to the various objects with which
n* we are furrounded.
Qualities thus confidered in bodies, are, firft, fuch
as are utterly infeparable from the body, in what ftate
foever it is ; fuch as in all the changes and alterations
which it fuffers, and under all the force which can be
employed upon it, it conftantly keeps. Thus, in the
inftance already given, a ftick of fealing-wax may, by
the operation of fire, be rendered liquid or reduced to
fmoke and afties; and when it has undergone thefe
changes, it has loft many of the fenfible qualities which
it had when a long round fubftance fit for the purpofe
tQualitie*
primary
and
H Y S I C S. 539
of fealing letters ; but other qualities which wdre theft Of the
perceivable in it Hill remain : for not only liquid wax, C0n:ii;ofi*
but every particle of fmoke and allies, is folid and ex-
tended, as well as the hardeft or largeft body ; and ■ ■ t l''S, t
every fuch particle has likewife fame figure, and is ca¬
pable of motion or reft. Again, if a grain of wheat
or any other corporeal fubftance be divided into two
parts, and each part be again divided without end, ftill
the fmalleft particle of it will be folid, extended, of
fome figure, and capable of further divifion. Solidity,
extenfion, divifibilhy, and motion or reft, are therefore
qualities infeparable from body, and have on that ac¬
count been with great propriety called its original or
primary qualities.
There are other qualities, which in truth are nothing Secondary,
in the bodies themfelves, but powers ariling from the
magnitude, figure, texture, and motion, of their infen-
fible parts, to produce in us various fenfations ; fuch
are colours, founds, tajles, and odours. Thefe have been
denominated fecondary qualities ; and to them may be
added a third fort, which are univerfally allowed to be
barely powers, though they are in fad as much real
qualities in the fubjed as thofe wc have juft mention¬
ed. Thus the power in fire to produce by its primary
qualities a new colour or confiftency in wax or clay,
is as much- a quality in the fire as the power which it
has to produce in us a new fenfation of warmth or
burning. That colours, tajles, founds, and odours, as
they are perceived by us, are mere fenfations, has. been
already proved : and that the powers in the bodies
which produce thefe fenfations are not, like folidity and
extenfion, infeparable from the body to which they may
belong, is evident; becaufe a piece oired wax may be
reduced to black afnes 5 and becaufe by pounding art
almond we may change its clear white colour into a
dirty hue, and its pleafant tafte into one that is oily
and rancid; and a fingle rent through the body of a
bell deftroys its found.
The primary qualities of body have a real exiftence,
independent of us and of every other creature. Thus
the particular bulk, number, figure, and motion, of the
parts offire or /now are really in the fire or /now, whe¬
ther any man’s fenfes perceive them or not; and there¬
fore thefe may be called real qualities, becaufe. they
really exift in the bodies ; But tight, heat, nvhtenefs. or
eoW (as they are perceived by us), are no more really
in fire or /now, than ficknefs is in tartar or pain in a
fword. Take away the fenfations of them : let not
the eyes fee light or colours, nor the ears hear founds j
let not the palate tafte nor the nofe fmell; and all co¬
lours, taftes, odours, and founds, as they are fuch par¬
ticular fenfations, vanifh and ceafe, and are reduced to
their caufes, i. e. to the bulk, figure, and motion of
the parts of the body.
The qualities then that are in bodies, rightly con- r. If*
fidered, are of three forts. 1. The bulk,figure, number, li iesTre of
3 ^ 2 fituation, thie; foils.
fubftance itfelf; and if we had a direit knowledge of all the efiential properties of any fubftance, we fnould
have an adequate knowledge of that fubftance ; forfurely, if there be any meaning in words, the knowing any
thing of the efiential properties of a thing is knowing_/o much of its very fubftance.”
That the fubftance of body confifts in folidity and extenficn, and nothing more ; and that thefe depend not'
upon any thing elfe as a fubjed ; cannot be true : for folidity, in our conception, is nothing but impenetrability ;
but whoever ufes the word impenetrability, certainly means that there is fomething impenetrable. That there is
fome real thing or being different from folidity and extenfion* which impreffts us with the notion that it is
folid and extended, is felf-evident to all mankind s if it be not matter, thefe conceptions muft be communf-
cated
METAPHYSICS.
54°
Of the jitnation, and motion or rej}, of their folid parts. Of
Ct£n of* thefe’ as they are in themfelves, we have clear and
Bodies, diflinft notions. We know that they are in the body
- whether we perceive them or not, and we call them
Part IL
and refolve fenfxble qualities into the figures af infen* Of the
fible atoms.” And he adds, that “ the former phyfio- C^rj,°£4’
logifts (without exception) find not well, that there is
no black and white without the fight, nor bitter and
primary or tjfential qualities. 2. The power that is fweet without the tafte.” He elfewhere $ tells U', j De Gen*
that thofe philofophers explained generation and alte- rationt et
ration without forms and qualities, by figures and ^’’ruptione,
1 .■>>*. 1 a- 1 Lb. 1. cap.j.
cal^, motion.” tm/xonfths X*I to. r
o-xynoita. r»v ax\ojn)o-i» xai mv yivecri* sx rovlav xoivm, SiaKpimt
fttv xai auf-ynparu yivemv xai tpbopoit, ra^n Js xai 3-sa.i
“ Democritus and Leucippus having made figures (or
varioufly figured atoms) the firft principles, make ge¬
neration and alteration out of thefe ; namely, genera¬
tion together with corruption from the concretion and
fecretion of them, but alteration from the change of
their order and pofition.” By the atomic phyfiolo*
gifts the name of quality was generally applied only to
thofe things which we have called fecondary qualities.
The primary being confidered m t-Jfential to matter, were
feldom, if ever, called qualities. That the atoms,,
which they held to be the firft principles of bodies,
were figured, folid, extended, and moveable, is appa¬
rent, not only from the Ihort view of their fyftem which
we have given, from Cudworth, but likewife from the
any body, by reafon of its internal texture and
infenfible primary qualities, to operate upon ourfenfes
in a peculiar manner, producing id us the different fen-
fations of colours, founds, tajles, or fmells, Sfc. Thefe
we have called fecondary qualities, but they are often
termed fenftble qualities. 3. The power that is in any
body, by reafon of the particular conftitution of its
primary qualities, to make fuch a change in the bulk,
figure, texture, and motion of another body, as to make it
operate on our fenfes differently from what it did be¬
fore. Thus, the fun has a power to make wax white,
and fire to make lead fluid. Thefe are univerfally
called powers ; but we have no fueh notions of them
as we have of the primary qualities of bodies. We know
that they exift, but we know not what they are. It
has indeed been difcovered, that the fenfation of fmell
^Tleids js occafioned by the effluvia of bodies-)-; that of found,
dnulLstual ky their vibration. The difpofition of bodies to re-
JPoauers of fledf a particular kind of light occafions the fenfation
Man, and of colour; and the operation of the minute parts of paffages which we have juft quoted' from Ariftotle -
Meiers Ef- bodies upon the nerves of the tongue and palate is the but the queftion debated between them and their anta-
c‘ caufe of taftes. Very curious difeoveries have been gonifts was, whether thofe atoms had fmell, tafie, and.
made of the nature of heat and its manner of opera¬
ting, and an ample field ftill remains. We are like¬
wife intuitively certain, that body can operate upon
body only by impulfe ; but how certain impulfes up¬
on certain organs fhould produce fenfations in us to
which there is nothing fimilar in the impelling body,
is equally unknown to the clown and the philofo-
pher.
The doc- Such is the diftin&ion which in modern philofophy
trine of the js made between primary and fecondary qualities ; but
it is a diftin&ion which was likewife well known to
that fed of ancient philofophers who were denominated
atomijh. At the head of thefe were Thales and Py¬
thagoras ( k ) ; and we may infer from Ariftotle, that
the fed comprehended almoft all the phyfiologifts who
taught before him felf and Plato: for he fays*, Ax^oxfI7of
ra ouedoloi airla. Troiovm, xxi tic avayotim rove xut£BVt:
“ Democritus, and mq/l of the phyfologifs, fall into
a great abfurdity ; for they make all fenfe to be touch,
/*>’, &c.
155
atomifts re- ’
fpeCting
qualities.
* Lib. de
SenfuetSen.
fbili, cap. 4.
colour ; or, as it was commonly exprefled, whether they
bad qualities ? Democritus, Leucippus, and the other
atomifts, we fee, maintained that they had not; and>
the following account of the dodrine of Protagoras,
another philofopher of that fchool, fhows, that on this
fubjed at leaft the ancient advocates for the atomic
fyftem reafoned as juftly as any of the moderns, ani
much more juftly than the Peripatetics and Platonifts
by whom they were oppofed. Plato having in his
Theoetetus firft faid in general that the philofophy of
Protagoras made all things to confift of a commixture
of atoms and local motion, reprefents his dodrine
concerning colours in particular, after this manner:
“ Firft, as to that which belongs to the fight, you-
muft conceive what is called a white or black colour,,
not to be any thing abfolutely exifting either without
your eyes or within your eyes; but black and white,
and every other colour, is caufed by different motions
made upon the eye, from objeds differently modified j-
fo that it is nothing either in the agent or patient ab-
fojutely.
cated to us by the immediate agency of the Deity, which feems to have been the real opinion of the Bifhop of
Carlifte. But this differs not from the theory of Berkeley, which we (hall confider by and by.
(k) This is denied by Bifltop Warburton, who thinks nothing better fettled than that Democritus and Leu¬
cippus were the authors of the atomic phyfiology. We highly refped the learning, and ingenuity difplayed
in the Divine Legation of Mofes; but on this point we are convinced that its author is miftaken. Strabo-
exprefsly affirms, that Mochus the Phenician was the author of the atomic phyfiology; and Cudworth has
proved, by arguments which to us are perfedly fatisfadory, that Thales and Pythagoras were both atomifts,,
and that they derived the dodrine from Phoenicia or Egypt. They did not, indeed, fpeculate in phyfics,,
but delivered their dodrines as they had received them from tradition, and they referred all motion to mind
as its caufe. Leucippus and Democritus, we believe, were the firft fpeculative atomifts : but though they
refined upon, and perhaps improved, the mere mechanical part of the phyfiology of their mafters, they un¬
happily dropt the better part of it; and, baniftiing mind from their fyftem of the univerfe, they became ma-
terialifts and atheifts. With the fober and pious part of phijofophers this brought the atomic theory into
difrepute ; and Plato and Ariftotle, who were theifts, when they oppofed that theory, always pointed their
arguments^gainft Leucippus and Democritus, which is probably what led the learned bifhop to confider thefe
stHeifts as the authors of the atomic phyfiology..
Part II. M E T A P H
Of the- folately, but fomething which arifes from between
CornpoQ- them both (l).” From this paffage it is plain that
Bo^ie^ Protagoras thought of colours exactly as Mr Locke
i, . thought, that they are not real qualities exiiling in bo¬
dies, but merely fenfations excited in our minds ; and
indeed he is prefently after reprefented as having call¬
ed them Ti,K £' ».“‘v t*t*n*l*, certain fancies or appearances
in us. But there is in the Theoetetus another paflage,
in which a fuller account is given of the atomic phi-
lofophy, to this purpofe : “ The principle upon which
all thefe things depend is this, That the whole uni-
verfe (m) is motion of atoms and nothing elfe; which
motion is eonfidered two ways, and is accordingly
called by two names, affion and pqflion. From the mu¬
tual congrefs, and, as it were, attrition of thefe to¬
gether, are begotten innumerable offsprings, which,
though infinite in number, yet may be reduced to two
general heads, fenfibles and fenfations, which are both
generated at the fame time. Tfie fenfations are feeing,
hearing, and the like ; and the correfponding fenfibles
are colours, founds, &c. Wherefore, when the eye and
its proper object meet together, both the cofniov and
the aitrSmrif, the fenfble idea of white and black, and
fenfation of feeing, are generated together, neither
of which would have been produced if thofe two had
not met. The like is to be conceived of all otherye«-
fbles, as hot and cold, &c. None of thefe are abfo-
lute things in .themfelves, or real qualities in external
objefts ; but they are begotten from the mutual con¬
grefs of agent and patient, and that by motion. So
that neither the agent has any fuch thing in it before
its congrefs with the patient, nor the patient before
its congrefs with the agent. But the agent and pa¬
tient meeting together, and begetting fenfation and
fenfbles^ both the objett and the fentient are forthwith
Y S I C S. 541
external objeft merely by our tailing it, but only Of the
that the adlual fenfation and the fenfible idea of fweet- Jt'
nefs are produced at once ; juft as hqhad faid before, ‘ ^
that the ienfible idea of white or black, and the fen¬
fation of feeing, are generated together. 'If his words
be thus interpreted, they exprefs a noble truth ; and
the whole paflage fhows, that the ancient Atomic
theory differed not from the theory of Des Cartes,
Newton, and Locke, being the moft rational as well
as the earlieil fyftem of phyfics with which we have
any acquaintance. By divefting body of ejfentialforms
dillindl from matter and motion, and by giving to the
firft matter extenfion and folidity, it renders the cor¬
poreal world intelligible ; and accounts for thofe ap¬
pearances which are called fecondary qualities, in a
manner perfe&ly fatisfaflory. Ariftotle indeed op-
pofedthe Atomic philofophy,and had influence enough
to bring it into difrepute for many ages; but wdien
he infifted that the two conftituent principles of body
are matter and form, both independent of all fentient
beings, and which may be conceived as exifting di-
ftinCl from each other, he fubftituted for a Ample
and fublime theory an abfurd and incomprehenfible
fidlion.
Chap. II. Of the Essences of Bodies.
Having treated of the fubftance, qualities, and The effen-
powers of body, we may feem to have exhaufted this cesof bodiea-
part of our fuBjedt; but there is ftillmoreto be done. refult»
Metaphyficians, ancient and modern, have introduced
another term into the fcience, to denote that which;
diftinguifhes one fpecies or fort of bodies from all
other fpecies or forts ; and this term we fhall briefly
explain. Gold is apparently different from lead, and
made to be fo and fo qualified; as when honey is from every other fpecies of metal; a horfe is appa-
tafted, the fenfation of tailing, and the quality of
fweetnefs, are begotten together, though the fenfation
be vulgarly attributed to the taller, and the quality' of fer from
fweetnefs to the honey.” The conclufion of all which tals.
is fummed up thus, «» ov<*‘ «*** rm am
yiyuricu: N0t one of thefe fenfible things is anything
abfolutely in the objedt without, bqt they are all ge¬
nerated or made relative to the fentient (x).”
The language of ancient philofophy was deftdlive
in precifion ; terms were ufed vaguely and improperly,
fo that the meaning of the author is often to be
colledled only from the context. When Protagoras
mtly different from an ox, and from every other
fpecies of animals ; and all animals apparently dif-
~ vegetables, as vegetables differ from me-
It is only with the bodies, not the minds of animals, According
that we are at prefent concerned ; and we have feento t*1(: *>cn*
that all bodies are compofed of the fame matter piatahifts*
What then is it that makes different bodies exhibit from effen-
to us fuch different appearances ; or, in other words, dal forms;
how come they to be poflefled of fuch different qua¬
lities and powers ? It is (fay the followers of Plato
and Ariffotle) from their having different ejfential
is here made to fay, that when the agent and patient forms, by which every natural fubftance is effentially
meet together, both the object and the fentient are characterifed; for of every animal, vegetable, or me-
forthwith made to b* fo and fo qualifed; as when ho- tal, &c. there is a form conceived, as exifting before
ney is tailed, the fenfation of tailing and the quality the individuals in which it is incorporated, from which
of fweetnefs are begotten together ; it could not be refult all the properties of that animal, vegetable, or
his meaning, that any real change is made upon the metal, fuch as figure, fvsse, colour, and the other quali¬
ties
(l) TVoXa/If Totvvv ovlucri xa7a ra t/jty.ulci irpultv, o ft xa\f<c gpaycc Kivxev pen urai vv'to ilipm n tov it«» oypixluv, yni tv roif
ty.ya.c-t, aAXa yt\etv rt xai Xtuxutr xai otio-uv axxo #poctlo\ric rav oyyalov vrpo; rnv *potry!x.ovaav tpopxv vxvttlca •yeytvn-
yivov xai o tvaclov ttvcti fetytv xpityce, ovlt to ttpne(laK\ov ovlt to orpocixKKoytvov aXXa ytlx^v ti tv.ac'io tStov ytyovof.
( m ) Protagoras was a follower of Leucippus and Democritus in every thing, and of courfe an • atheift.—
This, however, does not hinder him from having been a correft phyfiologift with refpedt to the compofition
of body ) and as fuch only is he quoted by us. It is, indeed, melancholy to think, that there was hardly
a fe£l of ancient philofophers in which there were not many atheifts.
(n) hpyn St <£, i( a vuv Sn iktyoyty vravlx xpTSrai » St aulav, dc to sav ximffif »* xai axxo orxpa tovU vvStv, rtic St tantnoe Su»
ftSvi, TXo'Ju ytv aorttpov tv.artpov, StivayivSt to y,v oroiuv txoy> ro St iroetrx1"* &c.—-See the dheo.Uttu ; fee alfo Cudiaartb't, InttU
tefinal Syftem, Book I. chap. i.
543 M E T A P
Of the ties perceptible by our fenfes: but this inlernal and
^ Bod es°^ eJfenita^ form itfelf, from which all other forms refult,
is not perceptible by our fenfes> nor even by our un-
derftauding direftly and immediately, nor otherwife
than by the analogy formerly mentioned. Thefe ef-
fential forms, wc are told, mean fomething, which,
though different from matter, can yet never fubfift
without it; fomething which, united with it, helps
to produce every compoftte being, that is to fay, in
other words, every natural fubliance in the viable
,58 world..
'Sut thefe This affertion Mr Harris fubmits with deference to
forms have his contemporaties; htcaufe (fays he) “I fpeak perhaps
idnce*1^' fpe&res as Shocking to fomc philofophers as thofe
were to ^Eneas which he met in his way to hell—
Terriliks •vifu form/e.” The elegant author’s unwiliing-
nefs to frighten his contemporaries, was a proof of his
amiable and benevolent difpofition ; but he needed not
to have fuffered from any fuch apprehenfion. Thofe
fpedtres, apparently fodreadful,hadlong before been laid
to reft by the incomparable Cudworth, whohas demon-
ftrated, that ejfentuil forms different from matter and mo¬
tion, as they have no real exiftence, had no place in the
moll ancient philofophy; and that the different appear¬
ances or feniible qualities which different bodies ex¬
hibit, are the refult of the different contexture of
their infenfible paits. Thus, gold and dead are com-
pofed of the fame primary matter, but the atoms or mi¬
nute parts of that matter are in the one fubftance dif¬
ferently combined from what they are in the other ;
and this different combination is the foie caufe that
gold is fpecifically heavier than lead, more ductile,
and of a different colour, &c. For the very fame
. reafon, iron is harder than either gold or lead, fpeci¬
fically lighter, and poffeffed of many other fenfible
qualities which are not found in either of thefe fub-
itances. One vegetable differs from another exter¬
nally in fize, colour, tafte, fmell, rapidity of growth,
and proportion of parts, &c. but all vegetables are
-compofed of the fame matter; and the external dif¬
ference which prevails among them is the refult of a
different ftru&ure and motion of their infenfible parts.
The fame is to be faid of the differences which pre¬
vail among the bodies of animals; they all refult from
internal organization and motion, and from nothing
elfe, whatever be the immediate caufe of that mo-
T59 tion. ... - .
The real ef- This particular internal texture and motion of in-
•fencesofbo-fenffble parts, is that which makes one fort of bodies
known'to ^‘^er externally from every other fort of bodies ; and
jjK3»0VVn t0 1? by modern metaphylicians called the real effence
of bodies. Thus, that internal texture of minute
parts, which makes gold of a bright yellow, extreme¬
ly c’-uCtile, fpecifically heavier than all other metals,
and foluble in aqua regia, is the real effence of gold ;
but what that effence is in itfelf no man can tell, as
we perceive only the qualities which refult from it.
We are, however, certain, that it is different from the
real effences of lead and iron, becaufe it produces
different effects from thofe which are produced by
thefe effences; and different effefts are never pro¬
duced in the fame circumftances by the fame caufe.
We have called the internal texture and motion of
the infenfible parts of bodies their real effences, to di-
H Y S I C S. Part II*
ftinguifh them from other ejfences which are only nom- Of the
nal, and with which we are perfectly acquainted, be-
caufe they are the fabrication of our own minds.— a‘Lter^,
Thus, a beautiful bright yellow, a certain fpecific gra- ,50 ^
vity, extreme du&ility, and folubility in aqua regia, Nominal efil
are the qualities by which we diftinguifh gold from fenSeswhitt
all other metals. Of thefe qualities we frame a fortthejr |
of general conception, which we call the effen e of
gold ; and every fubftance in which we find this ef¬
fence, we clafs under the fpecific name gold. For
though it is obvious that our conceptions cannot be
the real ejfences of things external, yet are they fuffi-
cient guides to thefe effences, as we know that bodies
which, being all formed of the fame matter, have the
very fame fenfible qualities, muft likewife have the
fame internal organization or texture of parts, be¬
caufe it is only in that organization or texture that
one body can differ from another.—And fo much fqr
bodily fubftance, qualities, and effences.
Chap. III. Of the Existence of Matter.
We have endeavoured to prove, that all corporeal Berke’eyat]3
fubftances confiil of minute atoms, folid and extended; tempts to 4
and that the fenfible qualities of every body refult1
from the combination and motion of the atoms of matter has 1
which that body is compofed. The celebrated Ber- no exill- 1
keley, Biihop of Cloyne, however, attempted to de-en«.
monftrate that thefe atoms have no real exiftence ;
and that the very fuppofition of a folid, extend¬
ed, and inert fubftance, being the archetype of our
ideas, involves in it an abfurdity and contradiidion.
It is univerfally allowed, that all our knowledge of
matter is derived through the fenfes, either immedi¬
ately in the very ail of fenfation, or mediately by an
affociation which is refolvable into a procefs of rea-
foning. According to the principles which we have
ftated, and laboured to eftabliih, matter itfelf is no
immediate objedl of the fenfes ; and as thefe are the
principles upon which the Bdhop eredled his demon-
Itration, it will be incumbent upon us to confider his
theory, becaufe it has been reprefented as in the
higheft degree pernicious, and as leading to univerfal
fcepticifm. ^
The author of the EJfay on the Nature and Imrnti-^^ view 1
tahillty of Truth, reprefents Berkeley as teaching us, of his iheo* j
“ that external objects that is, the things which we rY given by j
take for external obje&s) are nothing but ideas in j
our minds ; in other words, that they are in every re-
fpe8 different from what they appear to be ; that mat¬
ter exifts not but in our minds; and that independent
on us and^oar faculties, the earth, the fun, and the
Harry heavens, have no exiftence at all; that a light¬
ed candle hath not one of thofe qualities which it ap¬
pears to have ; that it is not white, nor iuminbus, nor
round, nor divifible, nor extended ; but that, for any
thing we know, or can ever know to the contrary, it
may be an Egyptian pyramid, the king of Pruflia, a
mad dog, the inland of Madagafcar, Saturn’s ring,
one of the Pleiades, or nothing at all.” With refpetl
to the confequences of this theory, he affirms, that “ it
is fubverfive of man’s molt important interefts, as a mo*
ral, intelligent, and percipient being; and not only fo,
but a' fo, that if it were univerfally and ferioufly ad opt-
3 €(1*
flow from Berkeley’s fyftcm? They cerrainly do, if it be conception of fpirits and all fuch obje&s as are not
the aim of that fyftem to prove that a candle has not perceived by fenfe. He likewife affirms, that we can
any one quality which it appears to have, and that it 1 • . - . .  
may be a mad dog; for ffiould all philofophers, by
fome means or other, become converts to the theory
of Berkeley, as we know that the bifhops Sherlock,
Smalridge, and others, aftual'y did, the diflblution
of fociecy and the deftrmftion of mankind would in¬
deed be inevitable. The fcribbling race, by ufing
mad dogs for candles, would all become infefted with
the hydrophobia ; and having their natural irritability
augmented by the canine rabies, they would bite and
tear till not a human being were left alive.
i°- \u^‘crous ftyk, fo unfuitable to - — »!«>,_ nu t*iiLcucc out in a mina
'™hvy PhllofoPhl^1 mveft1gatf» calm inquiry, we beg perceiving them j but fo far is he from fuppofing their
Lnfdf. Iea'T, t0 , m,r fhat .the of Berkeley is here exiftence to depend upon the perception of our minds,
totally and grofsly mifrer.refented, and that not one r~ ,  -
of thofe dangerous confequences which flow from that
mifreprefentation can be fairly deduced from any thing
taught in T/x Principles of Human Knowledge and the
Part If.
METAPH YSICS.
»xhte'he fed’ the diflblution of fociety, and the deftrudUon of ter are the refult of falfe inferences from true fenfa- Of the
"Matter rcank‘nd> woulcl neceflarily enfue within the compafs tions. Exillencei
   of a month.’’ _ The Bilhop makes the fame diftindtion that we have Mltter-
The dmolution of foctety and the deftru&ion of made between ideas and notions; “eftraining the ufe
mkind are indeed difmal confequences—enough to of the former term to denote the reliifts of fenfation
S43
mankind
make
nfequences—enough
i fhudder in his clofet- But do they really
the former term to denote the relids of fenfation,
and employing the latter to denote our knowledge or
have no idea of an external inert fubftance ; becaufe
an idea can be like nothing but another idea, or the
fenfation of which it is a relict: and as all mankind
admit that ideas and fenfations can have no exiftence
but in the mind of a percipient being, he therefore
infers that we can have no idea of any thing exifting
unperceived, and by confequence can have no idea of
matter in the philofophical fenfe of that word. So-
hdity, extenfion, divifibility, motion, figure, colour,
tafte, . and all thofe things which are ufually called
qualities primary and fecondary, being according to
him mere ideas, can have no exiftence but in a mind
that he fays exprefsly, “ When in* broad day-light I
open my eyes, it is not in my power to choofe whe¬
ther I ftiall fee or no, or to determine what particular
~ - -   o  — objects ftiall prefent themfelves to my view; and fo
Dialogues on the Lxijlence of Matter. So far is Berke- likewife as to the hearing and other fenfes, the ideas
ley from teaching that external things are nothing but
ideas in our minds, and that they are in every refpedt
different from what they appear to be, that he teaches
the very reverfe of this in the plaineft language pof-
iible. “ I am of a vulgar call (fays he), fimple enough
to believe my fenfes, and leave things as 1 find them.
It is my opinion, that the real things are thofe very
imprinted on them are not creatures of my will. There
is therefore fome other will or fpirit that produces
them. The queftion between the materialifts and me
is not. Whether things have a real exiftence out of
the mind of this or that perfon ? but, Whether they
have an abfolute exiftence, diftinft from being percei¬
ved by God, and exterior to all minds ? I affert, as well
things I fee and feel and perceive by my fenfes. That as they, that fince we are affbaed from without, we
a thing ffiould really be perceived by. my fenfes, and muft allow powers to be without in a beinir diftind
ar ib, f,™ —- — —‘ ' ' from ourfdves. So far we are agreed. But then we
differ as to the kind of this powerful being. I will -
have it to be fpirit ; they matter, or I know not
what third nature. Thus I prove it to be fpirit;
1'rom the effeas I fee produced, I conclude there are
r • , t • ,  — a&i°ns> and becaufe aaions> volitions (for I have no
tome other mind wherein they exift during the inter- notion of any adion diftffia from volition 1; and be-
vais between the times nf mv -nerneivi'nrr ft vv*  .1 M 1
at the fame time not really exift, is to me a plain con-
tradiaion. When I deny fenfible things an exiftence
out of the mind, I do not mean my mind in particu¬
lar, but all minds. Now it is plain they have an ex¬
iftence exterior to my mind, fince I find them by ex¬
perience to be independent of it. There is therefore
, , . . < . o      — iium vouuon i ; ana oe-
vats between the times of my perceiving them ; as caufe there are volitions, there muft be a will. Asrain.
likewile thev did before mv hir.th. xnA wnult rbo r • _  n i •„ . s ■
likewife they did before my birth, and would do after
my annihilation. And as the fame is true with regard
to all other finite created fpirits, it neceffarily follows-
there is an omnipotent eternal mind,, which knows and
comprehends all things, and exhibits them to our
view in fuch a manner, and according to fuch rulesj
as he bimfelf hath ordained, ,and are by us termed the
laws of nature.”
So far is Berkeley from teaching that, independent
on us and our faculties, the earth, the fun, and the
ftarry heavens* have no exiftence at all, and that a
lighted candle has not one of thofe qualities which it
appears to have, that he over and over affirms the di-
the things I perceive muft have an exiftence, they o
their archetypes, out of my mind : but being ideas, nei¬
ther they nor their archetypes can exift otherwife than
m an underftanding ; there is therefore an uaderftand-
mg. But will and underftanding conftitute in the
ftrifieft fenfe a mind or fpirit. The powerful caufe, ,
therefore, of my ideas is, in ftridl propriety of fpeech,
a fpirit.”
, Bhis is a faithful abftradl of Berkeley’s theory given 7 batcher,.*
in his own words. Matter, according to him, can-ry,h ivever
not be the pattern or ar.hetype of ideas, becaufe an imProhabis^
idea can refemble nothing but another idea, or the c<rl£*1',niy
fenfation of which it- is a relia. Matter, he thinks, ami ’
n tb* in'nrl' f *b ♦ • c • o , • ex’flence cannot be the caufe of ideas ; for every caufe muft be
the mind of that infinite God m whom,.according aftive, and matter is defined to be inert and incapable
reft contrary ; that the univerfe has a real
in the mind of that infinite God in whom, a
rrr b,^ ali me\and m0Ve,’ a"d F™ OUr o£ aaion- He therefore infers, thatdlom-fc'iffaYoTs
... & ’ candle has not only all thofe qua- of what we call the qualities of body are the effeft of
ics which it appears to have, but that, with refpe<a the immediate agency of the Deity upon our minds •
• us, it has nothing elfe ;. that fo far from being con- and that corporeal fubftance has no exiftence, or at
hv'lSm l T fenfes’ wf are never deceiTed leaft that we have no evidence of its exiftence. Thar
by them , and that all our miftakes concerning mat- fuch may, pofilly be the origin of our fenfations, nd
544 METAPHYSICS. Part II,
r the man will ileny who reflects upen the infinite power and anfwer will be perfeftly fatisfa&ory to every reader Of the
wifdom of the Ag-ent from whom they are faid to pro- who attends to the dillinaion. which, after the Ta; Exiftence (
wifdom of the Agent from whom they are faid to pro- who attends to the diftindion, which, after the Exigence oC
ceed. Dr Reid himfelf, the ableft of all Dr Berke- ftiop, we have ftated between ideas and notions. Maner‘J
ley’s opponents, frankly acknowledges that no man Though we believe this dangerous inference from Is; '
“ can (how, by any good argument, that all our fen- Berkeley’s principles is commonly attributed to Hume That au-
fations might not have been as they are, though no as its author, it did not efcape the fagacity of the Bi-thor fore*
body or quality of body had ever exifted.” Ihop himfelf. In the third dialogue, Hylas, who pleadsfaW and
In Its confequences we do not perceive that this for the exigence of matter, thus objeds to the reafon-
theory can be hurtful either to religion, to virtue, ing of his antagonift. “ Notwithftanding all you have
to the bufinefs of common life ; for it only ex- faid, to me it feems, that according to your own way
plodes the notion of a fubftratum, which, though of thinking, and in confequence of your own principles,
s never thought of by it fhould follow, that you are only a fyftem of float-
166
A cenfe-
it may have a real exiftence, was 1 ^ _ , . „ _  
the generality of mankind in any nation under hea- ing ideas, without any fubftance to fupport them,
ven. Dr Beattie indeed affirms, that in “ lefs than a Words are not to be ufed without a meaning. And as
-month after the nonexiftence of matter flrould be uni- there is no more meaning in fpiritual fubftance than
yerfally admitted, he is certain there could not, with- in material fubftance, the one is to be exploded as well
out a miracle, be one human creature alive on the as the other.” , j6g
face of the earth.” But this aftertion muft be the To this Philcnous anfwers : “ How often muft I re-Obviated
confequence of his miftaking Berkeley’s nonexiftence peat, that I know or am confcious of my own being;hut
of matter for the nonexiftence of fenfible objefts, the and that I myfelf am not my ideas, but fomewhat
reality and exiftence of which the Bifliop never denied, elfe ; a thinking adtive principle, that perceives, knows.
On the contrary, he exprefsly fays, “We are fure wills, and operates about ideas ? I know that I, one
that we really fee, hear, feel ; in a word, that we are and the fame felf, perceive both colours and founds j
affefted with fenfible impreffions; and how are we that a colour cannot perceive a found, nor a found
concerned any farther ? I fee this cherry, I feel it, I a colour ; that I am therefore one independent prin-
it; and 1 am fure nothing cannot be feen, or felt, ciple, diftinft from colour and found ; and, for the
fame reafon, from all other fenfible things and inert
ideas. But I am not in like manner confcious either of
the exiftence or effence of matter Farther, I know
what I mean, when I affirm that there is a fpiritual
fubftance or fupport of ideas ; i. e. that a fpirit knows
and perceives ideas. But 1 do not know what is
meant, when it is faid that an unperceiving fubftance
hath inherent in it, and fupports, either ideas or the
archetypes of ideas. In the very notion or definition
of material fubftance there is included a manifeft re-
or tafted : it is therefore real. Take away the fenfa-
tions of foftnefs, moifture, rednefs, tartnefs, and you
take away the cherry.” All this is equally true and
equally conceivable, whether the combined fenfations
which indicate to us the exiftence of the cherry be
the effeft of the immediate agency of God or of the
impulfe of matter upon our minds; and to the lives
of men there is no greater danger in adopting the for¬
mer than the latter opinion.
   But it has been faid, that Berkeley’s doiftrine necef-      ^ ,t.
-quence of farily leads to fcepticifm in religion, as the fame kind of pugnance and ihconfiftency. But this cannot be faid
Berkeleys reafon]ng whith he employs to prove the non-exiftence of the notion of fpirit. That ideas fliould exift in
which ’ °f matter, operates equally againft the exiftence of mind, what doth not perceive, or be produced by what doth
and confequently againft the poffibility of a future ftate not ait, is repugnant. But it is no repugnancy to
of rewards and punifhments. “ The rational iflue of fay, that a perceiving thing fliould be the fubjeft of
this fyftem (we are told) is fcepticifm with regard to ideas, or an aftive being the caufe of them. That
every thing excepting the exiftence of our ideas and
their neceffary relations. For ideas being the only
objects of thought, and having no exiftence but when
we are confcious of them, it neceflarily follows, that
there is no objedt of our thought which can have a
continued and permanent exiftence. Body and fpi-
I, who am a fpirit or thinking fubftance, exift, I
know as certainly as I know that my ideas exift. I
know likewife what I mean by the terms / and
myfelf; and 1 know this immediately or intuitively;
though 1 do not perceive it as I perceive a triangle,
colour, or a found. Ideas are things inaftive and
rit, caufe and effedt, time and fpace, to which we were perceived ; and fpirits a fort of beings altogether dif-
wont to aferibe an exiftence independent of our fereni from them, by which they are perceived. Id©
thought, all are turned out of exiftence by this Ihort not, therefore, fay, that my foul is an idea, or like
dilemma : Either thofe things are ideas of fenfation an idea. However, taking the word idea in a large
or refleftion, or they are not: If they are ideas of fenfe, my foul may be faid to furnifli me with an-idea,
fenfation or refleftion, they ean have no exiftence, that is, an image or likenefs of God, though indeed
but when we are confcious of them : If they are not extremely inadequate. For all the notion I have of
ideas of fenfation or reflection, they are words without God is obtained by reflecting on my own foul,
any meaning.” heightening its powers, and removing its imperfec*
This fophifm was advanced as a confequence from tions. I. have, therefore, though not an inadiive idea,
Berkeley’s principles by Mr Hume ; and upon thefe yet in myfelf fome fort of an active thinking image
principles it has been deemed unanfwerable by fubfe- of the Deity. And though I perceive him not by
quent philofophers of great merit. But is it really fenfe, yet I have a notion of him, or know him, by
a part of Berkeley’s fyftem, or can it be fairly infer- reflection and reafoning. My own mind and my own
red from the principles on which that fyftem is built ? ideas I have an immediate knowledge of; and by the
Thefe queftions it is fit that Berkeley fhould anfwer help of thefe do immediately apprehend the pojftbility
for himfelf; and we fhall feature to affert, that his of the exiftence of other fpirits and ideas. Farther,
N° 214. 4 frena
Part IT, METAPHYSICS. 545
IOi ihe from my 1>ei'ng, and from the dependency I find in
^*’^ence myfclf and my ideas, I do by an a£t of reafon necejfa-
o latter. ^ jnfer tjje exmence Df a God, and of all created
things in the mind of God. It is granted that we
have neither an immediate evidence, nor a demonftra-
tive knowledge, -of the exiftence of other Jinite fpirits ;
but it will not therefore follow, that fuch fpirits are
on a footing with material fubltances: if, to fuppofe
the one be inconfiitent, and if it be not inconfiftent to
fuppofe the other; if the one can be inferred by no
argument, and there is a probability of the other; if
we fee figns and effedts indicating diftindl finite a-
gents like ourfelves, and fee no fign or fymptom what¬
ever that leads to a rational belief of matter. I fay,
Jaftly, that I have a notion of fpirit, though I have
not, ftridlly fpeaking, an idea of it. I do not per¬
ceive it as an idea, or by means of an idea ; but know
it by refleftion. Whereas, I neither perceive matter
-objedtively as I do an idea, nor know it as I do myfelf
by a reflex adt; neither do I mediately apprehend
it by fimilitude of the one or the other, nor yet
colledt it by reafoning from that which I know
immediately. AH which makes the cafe of mat¬
ter widely different from that of the Deity and all
fpirita.”
1 Thus far we think Berkeley’s theory tenible, and
I" tied with* *t8 confequences harmlefs. That by the immediate •
this, he en- agency of the Deity all our fenfations might be what
deavours t > they are though matter had no exiftence, we think he
9 ^aS Pr(^ve^ b>’ arguments unanfwerable; and we are
I matter im- hkewife of opinion, that by. admitting the evidence
] pwiiible, of fenfe, confcioufnefs, and reafon, in their fulleft ex¬
tent, and by diftinguiihing properly between thofe
things of which we have ideas, and thofe of which we
have notions, he has fufficiently fecured the exiftence
of fpirits or percipient beings, and obviated the irre¬
ligious fophiftry of Hume before it was conceived by
that author. But the good Biftiop ftops not here.
Not fatisfied with proving that all our fenfations lead
us immediately to the Deity, and that, for aught we
know, matter, as defined by philofophers, may have
no feparate exiftence, he proceeds farther, and en¬
deavours to prove that matter cannot pofiibly exift.
This appears even in the extra&s which we have quot¬
ed from his book, in which he talks of the repugnance
and inconfiftency of the notion. In this part of his
fyftem, we think he errs greatly, and advances an
opinion altogether inconfiftent with his own juft prin¬
ciples.
,*70 The repugnance of which he fpeaks, arifes folely
His reafon- yrom confjdering folidity and extenfion as relidfs of
1 g fenfation, or ideas of the fame kind with thofe of heat
and cold, taftes and founds. “ Light, and colours,
heat and cold, extenfion and figures; in a word, the
things we fee and feel; what are they (fays his Lord-
ftiip), but fo many fenfations, notions, ideas, or im-
preflions, on fenfe ? and is it pofiible to feparate even
in thought any of thefe from perception ? Some there
are who make a diftindlion httv/wt primary and fe-
condary qualities: by the former, they mean extenfion,
figure, motion, reft, folidity or impenetrability, and
number : by the latter, they denote all other fenfible
qualities, as colours, founds, taftes, and fo forth.—
The ideas we have of thefe they acknowledge not to
be the refemblances of any thing exifting without the
Vol.XI. Part II.
mind, or unperceived ; but they will have out ideas of Of the
the primary qualities to be patterns- or images of 0f
things which exift without the mind, in an unthink-. ^ —
ing fubftance which they call matter. But it is evi¬
dent that extenfion, figure, and motion, are only ideas
exifting in the mind ; that without extenfion folidity
cannot be conceived; that an idea can be like no¬
thing but another idea; and that confequently nei¬
ther they nor their archetypes can exift in an unper¬
ceiving fubftance. Hence it is plain,, that the very
notion of what is called matter or corporeal fubjlance, in¬
volves a coptradiftion in it.” jy,
This account of extenfion and folidity affords a fallacious,
ftriking inftance how much the molt vigorous and up¬
right mind is liable to be warped by prejudice in be¬
half of a darling theory, and how apt the cleareft under-
ftanding is to be blinded by the equivocal ufe of terms.
That Biftiop Berkeley poffeffed a vigorous and per-
fpicacious mind, his moft vehement antagonifts are ea¬
ger to admit; and that his intentions were good, is
known to all Europe. Yet by the equivocal ufe of
the word idea, which the writings of Locke had then
introduced into the language of philofophy, he has here
fuffered himfelf to lofe fight of a veiy proper and accu¬
rate diftinftion, which, fo|far as we know, was among the
moderns firft made by himfelf between ideas and notions.
According to the Bilhop, M we have a notion of power
and a notion of fpirits, but we can have no idea either
of the one or the other ; for all ideas being pafiive and
inert, they cannot reprefent unto usby way of image or
likenefs that which. a<fts. Such is the nature of fpirit or
that which acts, that it cannot be of itfelf perceived,
but only by the effe&s which it produceth. It muft
be owned, however, that we have fome notion of foul,
fpirit, and the operations of the mind, fuch as willing,
loving, hating, inafmuch. as we know or underftand
the meaning of thefe words.”
Now we beg leave to affirm, that what is here faid
of fpirits, and of which we readily admit the truth,
is equally true of material or folid fubftances. We
have no ideas of folidity and extenfion, becaufe
thefe things are not originally impreffed upon the
fenfes; but we have very diftindft though relative no¬
tions of them, for they are clearly perceived by the
eft’e&s which they produce. That this is at leaft pof-
fible, we have the acknowledgment of Biftiop Berke¬
ley himfelf: for he “ freely owns, that from a caufe,
efteft, operation, fign, or other circumftance, there
may reafonably be inferred the exiftence of a thing
not immediately perceived ; and that it were abfurd
for any man ta argue againft the exiftence of that
thing, from his having no direft and pofttive notion of
it.” This is exactly the cafe with refpetl to folid fub¬
ftances. Thefe fubftances we do not immediately per¬
ceive ; but we infer their exiftence from effefts, fign*,
and other circumftances, and we have of them very
clear though relative notions. Thus a man can open
and ihut his empty hand ; but when he grafps an
ivory ball of three or four inches diameter, he feels,
that though the-fame power be exerted, his hand can¬
not then be ftiut. He is confcious that there is no
change in himfelf; and being intuitively certain that
every effedt muft have a caufe, he infers with the ut-
moft confidence, that the caufe which prevents hi*
hand from fluitting is in the ball; or, in other words,
3 Z that
54<>
METAPHYSICS. Part II.
Matter ^at‘on colour, and imprefles upon his hand a fcn-
t, . ^ fatlon of touch, muft be folid or impenetrable. So¬
lidity, however, is not the fenfation itfelf; it is only
the caufe of the fenfation; and therefore it is fo far from
being an idea in our minds, that we are confcious our
notion of it is of a thing totally different from all our
ideas, of a thing external, at leafl to our minds. In¬
deed the notion itfelf is not pofitive; it is only relative,
and inferred from the effects which are produced on
our fenfes. That it is the fame thing which commu¬
nicates to our eye the fenfation of colour, and has
the power of refiftirig the compreffion of our hand, is
evident ; becaufc, when the ball is thrown away, the
refiflance as well as the aftual fenfation vanifh at once.
The^dea or ^'rorn this fadf, which a lefs acute man would think
colour and a Pro°f the reiiftance was not occafioned by the
the notion immediate agency of the Supreme Being, but by the
of fohdiry impenetrability of a folid fubftance of fmall dimen-
not natural fi0nS} the JJifbop argues thus againft the pojfibility of
»aVe. fuch a fubflance : “ They who affert that figure, mo¬
tion, and the reft of the primary or original qualities,
do exift without the mind in unthinking fubftances,
do at the fame time acknowledge, that colours, founds,
heat, cold, and fuch like fecondary qualities, do not;
which they tell us are fenfations exifling in the mind
alone, that depend on and are occaiioned by the dif¬
ferent fixe, texture, and motion, of the minute par¬
ticles of matter. This they take for an undoubted
truth, which they can demonftrate beyond all excep¬
tion. Now if it be certain, that thofe original qua¬
lities are infeparably united with the other fenfible
qualities, and not even in thought capable of being
abftrafted from them, it plainly follows, that they
exift only in the mind. But I defire any one to re-
fleft and try whether he can by any abftra&ion of
thought conceive the extenfion and motion of a body,
without all other fenfible qualities. For my own
part, I fee evidently that it is not in my power to
frame an idea of a body extended and moved, but I
muft withal give it fome colour or other fenfible qua¬
lity, which is acknowledged to exift only in the mind.
In fhort, extenfion, figure, and motion, abftra&ed
from all qualities, are inconceivable. Where, therefore,
the other fenfible qualities are, there muft be thefe
alfo, to wit, in the mind, and no where elfe.”
In this reafoning, though plaufible, there is an un¬
intended fallacy. It is indeed true, that we cannot
t ontemplate in imagination a folid fubftance without
conceiving it to have fome colour ; but there is fuffi-
eient reafon to believe, that this union of colour and
folidity in our minds is not the effeft of nature as it
Operates at firft upon our fenfes, but merely the con-
fequence of early and deep-rooted affociation. Bi-
fhop Berkeley himfelf has taught us, that the objefts
of fight are not at a diftance ; and that if a man born
blind were fuddenly made to fee, he would conceive
tfie objefts of his fight as exifting either in his eye or
>n his mind. This is a truth which no man will con¬
trovert who has dipt into the fcience of optics, or who
has even paid the flighteft attention to the perceptions of
infants ; and if fo, it follows, that to a man born blind
and fuddenly made to fee, colour and folidity would
not appear uniced. Were fuch a perfon to lay hold Of the
of an ivory ball and raife it to the elevation of his eye,
he would perceive whitenefs as a new fenfation exift- ' ‘
ing in his eye or his mind, but he would feel refift-
ance at the extremity of his arm. He would not have
the leaft reafon to conclude, that this whitenefs was
infeparably united to the caufe of this refiftance ; and
he would, in fa£t, draw no fuch conclufion, till ex¬
perience had taught him, that by removing the ball
or caufe of refiftance from his hand, he at the fame
time removed the fenfation from his eye. After re¬
peated experiments, he would indeed difcover, that
the caufe of colour to the eye, was likewife by fome
means or other the caufe of refiftance to the hand ; and
he would fo affociate thefe in his mind, that the ohe
would never afterwards make its appearance as an
idea or a notion without bringing the other along with
it. The whole difficulty, therefore, in this cafe, is
to break an early and deep-rooted affociation ; for
it is plain that the aff’ociated ideas were not origi¬
nally united, and ^hat folidity and colour were at firit
conceived as feparate.
If the reader perceive not the force of this rea¬
foning, we beg leave to recommend t® him the fol¬
lowing experiment, which, if we miftake not, will
carry convi&ion to his judgment, that in the laft
quoted paffage Bifhop Berkeley has argued fallaciouf-
ly, and that extenfion and colour are not infeparably
united as ideas jn the mind. Let him go into a dark
room, containing a number of fpherical bodies of vari¬
ous colours ; let him take one of them into his handj
and he will inftantly feel refiftance, and have a notion
of extenfion and folidity; but will he likewife have
the idea of colour infeparably united with this notion ?
The Biihop fays he will: and if fo, it muft be the idea
of fome particular colour ; for his Lordffiip has taught
us, that the abflraEt and general idea of colour, which
is neither red> nor green, nor blue, &c. cannot poffibly
be formed. The man, then, we (hall fuppofe, whilft
he feels refiftance, conceives the refilling body to be
green ; and holding it ftill in his hand, walks into the
light of day. The refijlance, and confequently the caufe
of refiftance, remains unchanged; but what becomes of
the infeparable union of thofe with colour, when the
body, upon being actually feen, proves to be black, i. e.
to have no colour at all ?—It appears, therefore, un-
deniable, that folidity and colour are not united in na¬
ture ; that the one is an effential quality of fomething;
external to us, of which vre have no idea, but a very
dill in 61 though relative notion ; and that the other is
an a6lual fenlation in our minds, caufed by the impref-
fion of fomething external on the organ of fenfe,
which leaves behind it in the memory or imagination
a pofitive and direct idea that exifts no where elfe.
Solid fubftance, therefore may exift, for though it Matter cx-
is not immediately perceived by the fenfes, and is a jftSj but
thing of which we can have no idea, we acquire a clear
and diftin6t notion of it, by the very fame means which
Bifhop Berkeley thinks fufficient to give us diftindt
notions of power and of fpirits ; and, therefore, that
notion can involve in it no contradtion. Still, how¬
ever, we would not fay with Dr Beattie, “ that we
could as ealily believe,, that two and two are equal to
Part IT, M E T A P
of th« ten ; or. that whatever Is, Is not; as that matter has
^xJ^ence no feparate exigencefor it is certainly pejfible, that
ot ^atter. Supreme Being, without the inftrumentality of
matter, could communicate to our minds all the fen-
fations and notions from which we infer the reality
of fohd fubftance. All that we contend for, as having
the evidence of demonftration, is the pojfibility of folid
and extended fubftance ; and if the thing bepojftble, the
general voice of mankind proclaims its probability.—
We are confcious of our actual fenfations, and we know
by experience that they are caufed by fomething di-
ftindt from ourfelves. When a man grafps an ivory
ball, he feels that he cannot flint his hand, and he
knows that the refiftance which prevents him pro¬
ceeds not from himfelf. Thus far all mankind are a-
greed. But Bifliop Berkeley fays, that the refiftance
proceeds immediately from the Supreme Being or
i'ome other fpirit; whilft we, without pretending that
his fcheme is impofiible, think it more natural to fup-
pofe that the man’s hand is kept from (hutting by
the refiftance of a folid fubftance of four inches dia¬
meter ; of which fubftance, though we have no idea of
it, we have as diftinft a notion as Berkeley had of fpi-
rits. From one or other of thefe caufes this effe<3:
muft proceed; and it is of little importance to life
or happinefs which of them be the true caufe, fince
it is with the efteft only that we are immediately
concerned. Still, however, a philofopher would choofe
to adopt the eafieft and moft natural fide of every
alternative ; which, if our notion of folidity be juft,
is certainly, in the prefent cafe, the exitlence of
174 matter.
is byfome After treating fo largely of the compofition of bo-
philofo- dies, and fliowing the general agreement of metaphy-
Pj1“rs ficians ancient and modern with refpe£t to the notion
jb?id.t0 C tfteir folidity, it will appear ftrange to the lefs phi-
lofophical part of our readers, that we fliould now ex-
prefs a doubt of that notion’s being wellrfounded.—
We have ourfelves no doubt, but on the contrary are
fully convinced,that folidity is eflential to matter. This,
however, has of late been denied by philofophers of
great merit. Dr Prieftley, after Mr Mitchell and Fa¬
ther Bofcovich, affirms that matter is not folid ox im¬
penetrable to other matter ; and that it has, in fad, no
$ Difqu'f- properties but thofe of attraction and repulfon The
tioru on proofs of this pofition, which appears fo paradoxical,
spirit''and draws fro™ optical experiments, from eledrieity,
Correfpon- and from the effeds of heat and cold upon fubftances
dmce ivitb ufually conceived te be folid.
Dr Price. The appearances from which the folidity of matter
The ar i IS i^rred, are nothing more, he fays, than fuperficial
mentTufed appearances, and therefore have led to fuptriicial and
in fupport falfe judgments, which the real appearances will not au-
by- thorife. “ Reffance, on which alone our opinion
concerning the folidity or impenetrability of matter
is founded, is never occafioned by folid matter, but by
fomething of a very different nature, viz. a power of
repulfion, always ading at a real, and in general an
aiiignable diltance, from what we csll the body itfelf.
When I prefs my hand againft the table, I naturally
imagine that the obftacle to its going through the table,
is the felid matter of which it confiits; but a variety of
philofophical confiderations demonftrate that it gene¬
rally requires a much greater power of preffure than I
can exert to bring my fingers into adual contad with
H V S I C S.
the table. Elcdrical appearances ffiow that a confi- 01
-rr • ■ • - ■ Exitlence
547
potheiU
derable weight is requifite to bring into feeming con- f iyence
tad even the links of a chain hanging freely in the ° *lUr,i
air, they being kept afundcr by a repulllve power be¬
longing to a very fmall furface, fv that they do not
adually touch, though they are fupported by each
other. It has been ftiown, from optical confiderations,
that a drop of water rolls upcn a cabbage leaf without
ever coming into adual contad with it; and indeed all
the phenomena of light are moft remarkably unfavour¬
able to the hypothefis of the folidity or impenetrabi¬
lity of matter. When light is refleded back from a
body on which it feems to ftrike, it was natural to fup-
pofe that this was occafioned by its impinging againft
the folid parts of the body ; but it has been demon-
ftrated by Sir Ifaac Newton, that the rays of light
are always refleded by a power of repulfion ading at
fome diftance from the body. Again, when part of a
beam «f light has overcome this power of repulfion,
and has entered any tranfparent fubftance, it goes on
in a right line, provided the medium be of a uniform
denfity, without the leaft interruption, and without
a lingle particle being refleded, till it comes to the
oppofite fide, having met with no folid particles in its
way, not even in the denfeft tranfparent fubftances, as
glais, cryftal, or diamond ; and when it is arrived at
the oppofite fide, it is folely affeded by the laws of
attradion and repulfion.
“ Nay, that the component particles of the hardeft
bodies themfelves do not adually touch one another,
is demonftrable from their being brought nearer toge¬
ther by cold, and by their being removed farther from
each other by heat. The power fufficient to overcome
thefe internal forces of repulfion, by which the ulti¬
mate particles of bodies are prevented from coming
into adual contad, is what no perfon can pretend to
compute. The power requifite to break their cohe-
fion, or to remove them from the fphere of each other’s
attradion, may in fome meafure be eftimated ; but
this affords no data for afcertaining the force that
would be neceffary to bring them into adual contad,
which may exceed the other almoft infinitely.”
From thefe fads. Dr Frieftley infers, that the mu¬
tual refittance of bodies proceeds in all cafes from
powers of repulfion ading at a diftance from each
body : that the fuppofition of the folidity or impenetra¬
bility of matter is deftitute of all fupport whatever; and
that matter itfelf is nothing but powers of attradion
and repulfion, and feveral fpheres of them, one within
another. As other philofophers have faid, “ Take
away folidity, and matter vanifhes';” fo he fays ex-
prefsly, “ Take away attradion and repulfion, and
matter vanifhes.”
To illuftrate this ftrange notion, “ Suppofe (fays
he) that the Divine Being, when he created mattert
only fixed certain centres of various attractions andrepui-
foni, extending indefinitely in all diredions, the whole
effed of them to be upon each other; thefe centres
approaching to, or receding from each other, and con-
fequently carrying their peculiar fpheres of attradion
and repulfion along with them, according to certain
definite circumftances. It cannot be denied that thefe
fpheres may be diverfified infinitely, fo as to corre-
fpond to all the kinds of bodies that we are acquaint¬
ed with, or that are poffible. For all effeds in which
3 Z a bodies
548
Of lie bodies are concerned, and of which we can be fenfible
©f Mat'ter. ^7 our touc^> &c* mi»y be refolved into attrac-
s , „ t tion or repuliion. A compages of thefe centres, placed
within the fpheres of each other’s attradion, will con-
flitute a body that v/e term compact; and two of thefe
bodies will, on their approach, meet with a repulfion or
tefiftance fufficient to prevent one of them from occu-
pying the place of the other, without a much greater
iorce than we are capable of employing ; fo that to us
they will appear perfedly hard.
“ As, in the con ilk u tion of all a&ual bodies that
we are acquainted with, thefe centres are placed fo
near to each other, that in every divifion that we can
make we kill leave parts which contain many of thefe
centres; we, reafoning by analogy, fuppofe that every
particle of matter is infinitely divifible ; and the [pace
it occupies is certainly fo. But, llridly 1'peaking, as
thofe centres which conftitute any body are not abfo-
lutely infinite, it mull be naturally poffible to come by
divifion to one fingle centre, which could not be faid
to be divifible, or even to occupy any portion of
fpace, though its fphere of adion Ihould extend ever
fo far ; and had only one fuch centre of attradion,
&c. exifted, ks exiitence could not have been known,
becaufe there would have been nothing on which its
adion could have been exerted ^ and there being no
cjfccl, there could not have been any ground for hip¬
po fing a caufe.'’
In anfwer to this reafoning againk the folidity of
matter, 13r Priekley was frequently aiked by his can-
did and makerly antagonik*, “ What it is that at-
‘izieTn Dr trac^s an(I repels, and that is attraded and repelled ?”
Price and But to the quekion he was never able to give a fatis-
Jir Vriejt- fadory anfwer. Indeed, how could he have been able ?
for, as Dr Price argues, “ Exclufive of attradion and
repulfion, he affirms matter to be abfolutely nothing;
and therefore, though we were to allow it the power of
attrading and repelling, yet as it is nothing but this
power, it muk be the power of nothing, and the very
idea of it be a contradidion.”
founded oni ^ there be any clafs of truths intuitively certain,
fallacious that clafis comprehends the two following propofitiohs:
appearances Power, canxot be without a subject; and No-
aud contra.THiNG CAN ACT where it is not. If, therefore,
tuidve ami there be powers of attradfion and repulkon, (which
neceflary ffiak he confidered afterwards in the Chapter of mo-
truths. ti-on), there muk be a fubjed of thofe powers ; and
if matter, whether folid or unfolid, be the fubjed, it
cannot poffibly attrad or repel at a dijlance. Sir Ifaac
Newton, in his letters to Dr Bentley, calls the notion
that matter pofleffes an innate power of attradion, or
that it can ad upon matter at a dikance, and attrad
and repel by its own agency, “ an abfurdity into
which, he thought, no one could poffibly fall.” Hence
it follows, that the appearances from which Dr Priek¬
ley infers the penetrability of matter muk be fallaci¬
ous appearances, fince they contradid an intuitive and
neceffary truth. The fads which he inkanees are, in¬
deed, fuch as would make mok other men fufpicious
of fallacy, and in his reafonings from them he fome-
times takes for granted the truth to be proved. The
links of a chain ufed for eledrical purpofes, fuppofing
them to be in contad with each other, can touch only
with very fmall furfaces. The ekdrical fluid is of
confiderable denfity, and incapable of being abforbed
Parc IF,
within a very narrow compafs. This is evident, be- Of the
caufe it paffes not through paper and other porous Edftence
bodies w ithout making a paflage. for itfelf, and leaving. of Macier,.
a vilible aperture behind itand. though it affimilates * ‘ J
with metals, and paffes through them more eaiily than
through, other bodies, yet is it plain that it requires
a certain quantity of metal to condud it ; for when
the condudor falls (hort of the neceflary quantity, it
is melted or diffipated. by the force of the fluid.
This being the cafe, it follows that the links of a
chain may be in adi ual contad (we do not pofitive-
ly affirm that they are'), and yet the fluid become vi-
fible in paffing from link to link ; for if the point of
contad be too fmall to abforb the ‘whole fluid, part
of it muk pafs without any metallic condudor through
the atmofphere, and thus become apparent to the eye
of the fpedator.
With reipedt to light, it is obvious that there can¬
not pofiibly be any demonjtration, in the logical fenfe
of the word, that it is refleded by a power of repul¬
fion ading at fome dillance from the body ; for, in
the opinion of all mankind, the primary and folid
atoms of matter are too minute to fall under the cog-
nifance of our fenfes, however affilled by art; and
therefore, if light appears to be refleded at a dikance
from the furface of the body, we mult conclude, either
that between the point of refledion and the apparent
furface of the body, there are folid atoms unperceived
by us, or that light is rekeded by the agency of fome
other fubkance than matter. One of thefe conclulions,
we fay, mujl be drawn, becaufe they aie both poftble,
and there is no other alternative but to admit one of
them, or to fuppofe that a thing may ad where it is
not; which is as clearly abfurd and imp>0ble as that
•whatever is, is not. Again, when part of a beam of
light has entered any tvanfparent fubkance, how does
Dr Priekley know that it goes on in a right line, with¬
out the leak interruption, till it comes to the oppoffte
fide ? This he can know only by his fenies; but the
beam may meet wfith ten thoufand interruptions from
objects which the fenfes cannot perceive, and may de-
ieribe a zig-zag line, of which the defledions are fo
fmall -as to elude the keenek eye aided by the mott
powerful glafs.
That the component particles of the hardek bodies
do not all adually touch one another, is indeed evi¬
dent from the efFeds of cold and heat upon thofe bo¬
dies : but it does not therefore follow that thofe bo¬
dies have no component particles ; but only, that they
are fewer in number than we are apt to imagine; that
all the folid matter in the univerfe might pofiibly be
compreffed within a very narrow fphere ; and that it
is held together in different bodies and different fy-
kems by a power foreign from itfelf. Thefe are truths
which all philofophers have admitted who have thouglit
fufficienily on the fubjed; but who will admit Dr
Priekley’s propofition, when it is tranflated into com¬
mon Englifli: “ That the component nothings of the
hardek bodies do not aiiually touch one another, is
demonkrable from their being brought nearer toge¬
ther by cold, and by their being removed farther from
each other by heat ?”
Dr Priekley owns, that if matter be folid it could
ad upon other matter by impulfe. We are certain,
that, whatever it be, it can ad upon nothing in the
manner
METAPHYSICS.
Part II. M E T A P
Of the manner which he defcribes; and therefore, to ufe the
Exifti net vyrords of Dr Price, “ matter, if it be any thing at ail,
of iVI.itto. mu^ con,5ft of folid particles or atoms occupying a
I77 certain portion of fpace, and therefore extended, but at
Our moft the Came time fimpk and tmeompounded, and incapable of
adequate being refolved into any other fmaller particles. It
matter mu^ ^^ewl^e t^e different form of thefe primary
particles, and their different combination^ and arrange¬
ment, .that conflitute the different bodies and kinds of
matter in the univerfe.” This is exaftly agreeable to
the doftrines of Newton ; who, after confidering the
queftion in every point of view, concludes, that “ in
the beginning God formed matter in folid, mafiy, hard,
impenetrable, moveable particles, ©f fuch fizes and fi¬
gures, and with fuch other properties, as mofi condu¬
ced to the end for which he formed them ; and that
thofe primary particles being folid, are incomparably
harder than any porous bodies compounded of them ;
even fo very hard as never to wear or break in pieces:
no ordinary power being able to divide what God
himfelf made one in the creation.” To talk, as Dr
PriefUey does, of matter’s being certain centres of vari¬
ous attractions and repulfums extending indefinitely^ in all
diredfions, and to deferibe thefe centres as not being
phyfical points or fol d atoms, is either to fay, that no¬
thing attracts and repels ; or it is to introduce the di¬
vine agency as the immediate caufe of all our fenfa-
tions. The former of thefe alternatives Dr Prieitley
diiclaims ; the latter he feems willing to admit. But
if it be his meaning that all our fenfations are caufed
by the immediate agency of God or created fpirits,
his fcheme differs not from that of Berkeley, except
in being lefs elegantly expreffed and lefs ingenioufly
fupported. Berkeley’s fcheme is evidently po[ftble.
Tiie commonly received fcheme is .likewife poffible.
It remains therefore with the reader, whether he will
adopt the fyflem of the Biihop of Cloyne ; or admit,
with all other philofophers, that matter exifls ; that
it confiits of parts adtually diftindl and feparable ; and
that each of theie parts is a monad or folid atom, which
requires no foreign agency to keep it united.
Chap. IV. cySpACE and its Modes.
Thenecef Having confidered bodies in tbeir fubftance, ef-
fary ad- * fences, and qualities, and proved that they have a
juiufls of real exiilence independent of us and our conceptions,
body, what, we proceed now to inquire into the nature of fpace,
motion, number, and duration. Thefe are commonly
called the adjuncts of body, and are fuppofed to be
abfolutely infeparable from its exiftence. It does not
indeed appear that aBual motion is a neceffary adjunct
of body, confidered as a mere folid, extended, and
" figured fubilance ; but it is certainly neceffary to the
• exigence of organized and animated bodies ; and the
capability of being moved enters into our concep¬
tions of all bodies whatever. Of thefe adjuncts, that
which firll demands our attention is fpace; for without
a knowledge of its nature we could not have an ade¬
quate idea of motion, and without motion we could-
have no idea of time.
_ 179 . Every body is extended ; and between two bodies
of fpace, n°t ln actual contact, we perceive that a third tody
low ac- may be eafily introduced. That which admits of the
quired, introduction of the third body is what we call fpacc,:
H Y S I C S. 549
and if it be totally void of matter, it is called pure Of Space
fpi ce. Whether there be any fpace abfolutcly pure, has
been difputed ; but that fuch fpace is poffible, admits * 1
of ho difpute. Were any one body (a cannon ball for
inftance) to be annihilated, and the circumambient air,
with every other material fubftance, kept from rufli-
iug into the fpace which the hall had occupied, that
portion of fpace, with rcfpedl to matter, would be
empty or pure 'fpace : whether it would neceffarily be
filled with mind fhall be confidered afterwards. Pure
fpace, therefore, is conceivable ; and it is conceived
as having three dimenfions, length, breadth, and depth,
which are generally called the three firnple modes of
fpace. In this refpedf it agrees with body : but the
agreement proceeds no farther; for fpace is conceived
as deftitute of folidity, without which the exiftence of
body is inconceivable. It has been formerly obfervtd,
that whatever may be diftindlly conceived may poffi-
bly exift ; but with refpedt to the exiftence of pure
fpace, whatever is poffible is real : for it fhall be
fhown in the next fedfion, that were there no fpace
abfolutely pure or v©id of matter, there could be no
motion. Qur bufinefs at prefent is to inquire what
the nature of fpace is, and what notion we ought to
have of its exiftence.
Many modern philofophers confider fpace as fome- S[ a1^°
thing entirely diftincl both from body and mind : fome pofed to be
of them aferibe to it no lefs than four of the attributes fomething
of the Deity—eternity, immobility, infinity, and neceffary bffcfer.t
exiftence ; and a few of them have gone fo far as to fr‘\m
call infinite fpace the fenforium of the Deity. “ The ""be*
fuppoial of the exiftence of any thing 'whatever (fays eternal and
Dr Claike * ) neceflarily includes a prefuppofition of theinfinite> &c*
exiftence of fpace. Nothing can poffibly be conceived
to exift without thereby prefuppofing fpace ; which,^
therefore, 1 apprehend to be a property or mode of the and Attfi-
fclf-exiftent Subftance ; and that, by being evidently
neceffary itfelf, it proves, that the fubftance of which
it is a property mull be alfo neceffary.” Elfewhere wUbTcen-
he fays, that “fpace is a property or mode of the tie,nan in
klf-exiffent Subftance, but not of any other fubftances. G/uiw/rr-
AU other fuhltances are in fpace, and are penetrated by
it ; but the felf-exiftent Subftance is not in fpace, nor 1 "
penetrated by it, but is itl'elf (if I may fo fpeak) thefub-
jlratum of fpaee, the ground of the e-xiftenccorypate itfelf.”
He acknowledges, however, that fuch expreffions as
“ the felf-exifteut Subftance is the fubjlratum of fpace,
or fpace is a property of the felf-exiftent Subftance, are
not, perhaps, very proper : but what I mean (fays he),
is this : The idea of fpace (as alfo of time or duration) .
is an abftradt or partial. idea ; an idea of a certain
quality or relation, which we evidently fee. to be need*-
farily exifting ; and yet (which not being jtfelf a fub-
Jlanct) at the fame time neceffarily prefuppofes a fub*
itanee, without which it could not exift.”
Thefe opinions refpecting fpace have been adopted
by fucceedmg philofophers of great merit, and parti¬
cularly by Dr Price ; who fays, that “ it is a maxim
which cannot.be difputed, that time and place are na-
ceftary to the exiftence of all things. Dr Clarke (con.
tinues he.) has made ufe of this maxim, to prove that
infinite fpace and duration are the effentiai properties
of the Deity; and I think he was right.”
Had authority any weight in philofophy, we know
not what modern writers we could oppofe to the cele¬
brated*
5?o METAPHYSICS. PartIT.
Of Spire tnuted names of Clarke and Price, unlefs it were Bi-
Modes* BerkekT> '^r k,aw kifnop of Carlifle, and
. the author of Ancient Metaphyfics. But the queftion
lS)I is not to be decided by authority. Learned and acute
This fuppo- as Dr Clarke was, lus aflertions refpefting fpace are
lit ion con coritradi&ory and inconfiftent. If nothing can pbf-
troverced. fjbly be conceived to exift without thereby prefuppo-
fmg the exiitence of /pace, how can fpace be a pro¬
perty or mode of the felf-exillent Subllance ? Are
properties prior in the order of nature, or even in our
conceptions, to the fubftances in which they inhere ?
Can we frame an abllraft idea of figure, or extenfion,
or folidity, before we conceive the exiitence of any
one figured, extended, or folid fubftance ? Thefe are
queftions which every man is as capable of anfwering
as the Dottors Clarke and Price, provided he can look
attentively into his own mind, and trace his ideas to
their fource in fenfation : and if he be not biafled by
the weight of great names, we are perfuaded he will
find, that if it be indeed true, that the fuppofal of the
e,\iftence of any thing whatever neceffarily includes a
prefuppnfition of the exiitence of fpace, fpace cannot
poffibly be a property or mode of the felf-exiftent fub-
ttance, but mull of neceffity be a fubjlance itfelf.
*; iace rtecef ^ ^S’ kowever» not true> that the fuppofal of the ex-
iary ro the * ‘ftence °f any thing whatever neceffarily includes a pre-
exiftenceof fuppofition of the exiitence of fpace. The idea of
everything, fpace is indeed fo clofely affociated with every vifihle
and molt tangible objeits, that we cannot fee the cue
nor feel the other without conceiving them to occupy
fo much of fpace. But had we never poffeffed the
fenfes of fight and touch, we could not have fuppofed
the exillence of fpace neceffary to the exiltenee of any
thing whatever. The fenfes of fmelling, tailing, and
hearing, together with our internal powers of confciouf-
nefs and intellect, would certainly have compelled us
to believe in our own exiftence, and to fuppofe the ex¬
iitence of other things; but no object either of confci-
cufnefs, fmelling, tailing, or hearing, can be conceived
as occupying fpace. Space and every thing which fills
it are conceived as of three dimenfions ; but who ever
fuppofed or can fuppofe an odour, tajle, or found, to
Live length, breadth, and depth ; or an objedt of confci-
eufnefs to be an ell or an inch long?
Let us fuppofe that body asd all the vifible world
had a beginning, and that once nothing exilted but
that Being which is alone of neceflary as well as eter¬
nal exiftence •, fpace, fay the followers of Dr Clarke,
would then exift likewife without bounds or limits.
But we defire to know of thefe gentlemen what fort
of a being this fpace is. It certainly is not fubjlance;
"neither is it a property; for we have feen that the very
notions of it, which lead men to fuppofe its exiftence
necejfary, render it fmpofiible to be a property of the
felf-exiitent Being. Is it then nothing ?«it “is in one
* Ancient Lnfe* : it is nothing adually exilling ; but it is fome-
Metafhy- thing potentially ; for it has the capacity of receiving
f‘t. body whenever it Ihall exift. It is not, and cannot,
become any thing itfelf, nor hath it any adtual exift¬
ence ; but it is that without which nothing corporeal
could exift.” For this reafon it was that Democritus
■and Epicurus made fpace one of the principles of na¬
ture ; and for the fame reafon Ariftotle has made pri¬
vation one of his three principles of natural things,
matter and form being the other two. But though the
privation of one form be doubtlefa neceffary before Of Space
matter can receive another (for a piece of wax or clay and *t*
cannot receive the form of z globe before it lofe the
form of a fquare), yet Ariftotle never dreamed that ’ ’*
the privation of the fquare was any property of the
globe, or that privation itfelf was to be reckoned a real
being. On the contrary, he exprefsly calls it ro w
or the no being. In this way, if we pleafe, we may
confider fpace, and call it the privation of fulnefs or of
body. We have indeed a pofitive idea of it, as well as
of filence, darknefs, and other privations: but to argue
from fuch an idea of fpace, that fpace itfelf is fome-
thing real, feems altogether as good fenfe as to fay,
that becaufe we have a different idea of darknefs from
that of light, of filence from that of found, of the ab-
fence of any thing from that of its prefence; therefore
darknefs, filence, abfence, muft be real things, and have
as pofitive an exiftence as light, found, and body ; and
to deny that we have any pofitive idea, or, which is the
very fame thing, any idea at all, of the privations above
mentioned, will be to deny what is capable of the molt
complete proof (fee n° 19.), and to contradict com¬
mon fenfe and daily experience. There are therefore
ideas, and fimple ones too, which have nothing ad ex¬
tra correfpondent to them ; no proper idiatum, arche¬
type, or objective reality : und we do not fee why the
idea of fpace may not be reckoned of that number.
To fay that fpace muft have exiftence, becaufe it has
fome properties (for inilance,penetrability, or the capa¬
city of receiving body), feems f to be the fame thing f See Nottt
as to urge that darknefs muft be fomething becaufe iton Kins's
has the capacity of receiving light; filence the property
of admittingyozW,* and abfence the property of being Laf's En-
fupplied by prefence. To reafon in this manner is to quiry into
aflign abfolute negations; and fuch as, in the fametbe Ideas °f
way, may be applied to nothing, and then call them sl‘ace'‘ &c*
pofitive properties; and fo infer that the chimera, thus
cloathed with them, muft needs be fomething.
But it is faid, that as we cannot conceive fpace to snace^no-
be annihilated, it muft be fome real thing of eternal thin? but
and neceffary exiftence. If this argument had not the poflible
been ufed by writers of great merit, and with the bell ?xij*ence
intention, we fliould not have fcrupled to call it the b° y'
moft contemptible fophifm that ever difgraced the page
of philofophy. Whatever now has an actual exiftence,
muft from eternity have had a pofible exiftence in the
ideas of the Divine mind. Body, as an extended fub¬
ftance, has now an actual exiftence ; and therefore it
muft from eternity have had a pojfible exiftence in the
ideas of the Divine mind : but the pojjible exiflence of
body is all that we can conceive by fpace; and there¬
fore this argument, upon which fo much ftreL has
been laid, amounts to nothing more, than that what
has from eternity been pofiible, can at no period have
been impoffible. It is evident that the capacity or po¬
tentiality of every thing exiiling muft have been from
eternity ; but is capacity .or potentiality a real being ?
All the men and women who /hall fucceed the prefent
generation to the end of time, have at this moment
a po/fibility of exiftence, nor can thac poftibility be
conceived as an impoifibility; but is it therefore any
thing actually exifting either as a fubftance or a qua¬
lity ?
It has been urged, that fpace muft be fomething
■more than the mere abfence of matter ; becaufe if no¬
thing
Part IT
Of Space
and its
Modes.
184
The fallacy
which led
to the fup-
pofition
that fpace
is a real
thing.
M E T A P
thing be between bodies, fuch as the walls of a room,
they muft neceffarily touch. But furely it is not fdf~
evident that bodies mull neceflarily touch if nothing be
between them; nor of the truth of this propofxtion
can any thing like a proof be brought. It is indeed
intuitively certain, that “ things, when they are in
contadl, have nothing between them and hence it
has been ralhly inferred, that things, when they have
nothing between them, are in contadl; but this is an
illegitimate converfion of the propolition. Every lo¬
gician knows, that to convert a propoiition, is to infer
from it another whofe fubj -cl is the predicate) and whofe
predicate is the fubjeS, of the propofition to be convert¬
ed : but we are taught by Arillotle and by common
fenfe, that an univerfai affirmative can be converted
only into a particular affirmative. “ Things, when they
are in contadl, have nothing between them,” is an uni-
verfal affirmative propofition ; and therefore it can be
converted only into the following particular affirmative:
“ Some things, when they have nothing between them,
are in contaifla propofition which by no means in¬
cludes in it the contadl of the walls of an empty room.
The reafon why the walls of an empty room do not
touch, is that they are dijlant; but is dijlance, in the
abftradl, any thing really exifting ? Two individuals
differ, or there is a difference between them ; but is
difference itfelf any real external thing ? Bodies are long,
broad, thick, heavy ; but are length, breadth, denfity,
•weight, properly any thing ! Have they any real fepa-
rate archetypes or external idiata ? Or can they exift
but in feme fubflance ?
The reafon wfiy fo many philofophers have confi-
dered fpace as a real external thing, feems to be this:
Every bodily fubftance is extended ; but fpace is con¬
ceived to be that which contains body, and therefme
to fpace we likewife attribute extenfion. Extenfion
is a quality which can have no exiflence but as united
with other qualities in fome fubftance ; and it is that
of which, abftrafted from all fubftances, we can, pro¬
perly fpcaking, form no idea. We underftand the
meaning of the word, however, and can reafon about
that which it denotes, without regarding the particu¬
lar fubftance in which extenfion may inhere; juft as
vve can reafon about whitenefs without regarding any
one white obje£t, though it is felf-evident that white¬
nefs, abftrafted from all objedls, cannot figure in the
mind as an idea. Qualities confidered in this manner
are general and relative notions, the objects of pure in-
telleti, which make no appearance in the imagination,
and are far lefs, if poffible, to be perceived by fenfe :
but it is extremely painful to the mind to dwell upon
fuch notions; and therefore the ever-a£live fancy is
always ready to furnifli them with imaginary fubjlrata,
and to make that which was a general and invi/ible no¬
tion be conceived as a particular ideal cbjefl. In the
cafe of extenfion this is the more eafily done, that the
notion which we have of a real fubfiratum or fubftance,
the fupport of real qualities, is obfeure and relative,
being the notion of fomething we know not what.
Now, by leaving, if we can, folidity and figure out of
our conception, and joining the notion of fomething
with the notion of extenfion, we have at once the ima¬
ginary fubfratum of an imaginary quality, or the general
notion of extenfxon particularifed in an imaginary iiib-
jeift ; and this fubjed vve call fpace, vainly fancying
H Y S I *C S. 55x
that it hhs a real external and independent extftence. Of Space
Whether this be not all that can be faid of fpace, and
whether it be not abfurd to talk of its having any real * j
properties, every man will judge for himfelf, by reftetl-
ing upon his own ideas and the manner in which they
are acquired. We ourfelves have no doubt about the
matter. We confiderpure fpace as a mere notion re¬
lative to the exiftence of corporeal fubftance, as no¬
thing more than the abfence of body, where body is
poffible ; and we think the ufual diftindlion between
abfolute and relative fpace, if taken as real, the groffeft
abfurdity. We do not, however, pretend to didate
to others ; but recommend it to every man to throw
away all refped for great names, to look attentively
into his own thoughts, and on this as on all metaphy-
fical fubjeds to judge for himfelf. 155
Having faid fo much of fpace in general, we needwhat
not wafte much time upon its modes. Indeed the only11 li’
mode of fpace, aftef confidering it with refped to the
three dimenfions of body, which now demands our at¬
tention, is that which we call place. As in the fimplell
mode of fpace we confider the relation of dillance be¬
tween any two bodies or points; fo, in our idea'of
place, we conlider the relation of diftance betwixt any
thing, and any two or more points, which, being cou-
fidered as at reft, keep the fame diftance one from
another. Thus, when we find any thing at the fame
diftance now at which it was yefterday from two or
more points with which it was then compared, and
which have not fince the companion was made changed
their diftance or pofition with refped to each other,,
we fay that the thing hath kept its place, or is in the
fame place; but if it hath fenfibly altered its diftance
from either of thofe points, we then fay that it hath
changed its place.
From this view of the nature of place, we need
not obferve that it is a mere relation ; but it may be
worth while to advert to this circumftance, that a
thing may without falfehood be faid to have continued
in the fame place, and at the fame time to have changed
its place, according to the different objeds with which
it is compared. Thus, if two perfons find a company
of chefs-men {landing each upon the fame fquare of
the chefs-board where they left them, the one may
with truth affirm that they are all in the fame place, or
unmoved ; and the other may with equal truth affirm
that they have all changed p 'ace. The former conli-
ders the men only with refped to their diftances from
the feveral parts of the chcfs-board, which have kept
the fame diflance and pofition with refped to one ano¬
ther. The latter muft confider the men with refped
to their diftance from fomething clfe : and finding that
the chefs-board, with every thing upon it, has been
removed, we fliall fuppofe from one room to another,
he cannot but fay that the chefs-men have changed
their place with refped to the fcveral parts of the
room in which he formerly faw them.
This modification of diftance, however, which we
call place, being made by men for their common ufe,
that by it they may delign the particular pofition of
objeds where they have occafion for fuch defignation,
they determine this place by reference to fuch adjacent
things as beft ferve their prefent purpofe, without re¬
garding other things which, for a different purpofe,
would better determine the place of the fame objed.
Thus
55^
"Of Space
The uni-
verfe ha»
*io place.
187
Mobility
eflential
to every
corporeal
fubftance,
The Peri¬
patetic defi¬
nitions of
notion
M F- T A P H Y S I C S. Part IF
Tints in the chefs-board, the ufe of the defignation of from one thing to another ; adds, that this change is Of Mo-
the place of e ch chefs-man being determined only with- motion. Motion, therefore, according to him, is a lio"’
in that cheqnered piece of wood, it would crofs that change or progtefs to the end propofed, or to that
purpofe to meafure it by any thing elfe : but when ftate of perfe&ion or completion which Ariltotle calls
thefe very chefs-men are put up in a box, if any one It is not enough, however, that we know
fhould aik where the black king is, it would be proper to what the change or prog refs is made : to have an
to determine the place by reference to fomething elfe adequate idea of motion, we mull likewife know from
than the chefs-board ; fuch as the parts of the room what it proceeds. Now it is evident that every thing
or clofet which contain the box. exifting, whether by nature or art, was, before it ex-
That our idea of place is nothing but fuch a rela- ilted, poflible to exilt; and therefore, adds the fame
tive pofition of things as we have mentioned, will be author, things do in fome fort exift even before they
readily admitted, when it is confidered that we can exill. This former kind of exiltence is faid by Ari-
have no idea of the place of the un'merfe. Every part ftotle to be !V that is, in power or capacity. In
of the univerfe has place ; becaufe it may be compared this way, plants exift in their feeds; animals in the
with refpeft to its diftance from other parts fuppofed embryo ; works of art in the idea of the artifts and
to be fixed. Thus the earth and every planet of our the materials of which they are made; and, in gene-
fvftem has a place which may be determined by afeer- ral, every thing inthe caufes which produce it. From
taining its diftance from the fun and from the orbits this power or capacity there is a progrefs to energy or
of the other planets; and the place of the fyftem it- actual exiftence ; fo that we are now able to anfwer
felf may be afeertained by comparing it with two or the queftion, “from what, and to what, motion is a
more fixed ftars : but all the fyftems taken as one whole change ?” for it is univerfally true of all motion, that
can have no place; becaufe there is nothing elfe to it is a change from capacity to energy.
which the diftance and pofition of that whole can be “ Having thus difeovered that motion lies betwixt
referred. It is indeed true, that the word //are is fome- capacity and energy, it is evident (he fays) that it mull
times nfed, we think improperly, to denote that^are have a conne&ion with each of them : and from thi*
or portion of ^>are which any particular body occu- double connexion Ariftotle has given us two definitions
pies; and in this fenfe, no doubt, the ciniverfe has of it; one of them taken from the energy, or end to
place, as well as the earth or folar fyftem : but to which it tends ; the other from the capacity from which
talk of the place of the univerfe in the other and pro- it begins. The firft is expreffed in two words, viz.
per fenfe of the word, is the gtoffeft nonfenfe. tvipyu* ari^c, or imperfedt energy ; the other is
too iv JW.ttd i tv iova.fv.il; which may be tranfiated thus.
Chap. V. Of Motion. -Ti&r perfection of what is in capacity, confidered merely as
in capacity. The meaning of the laft words is, that
Mobility, or a capacity of being moved, is effen- nothing is confidered in the thing that is moved but
tial to every corporeal fubftance ; and by aftual mo- merely its,.capacity; fo that motion is the perfection
tion are all the operations of nature performed. Mo- of that capacity, but not of the thing itfelf. Jt is
tion, therefore, if it maybe called an adjundl of body, fomething more (adds the learned author) than mere
is certainly the moft important of allots adjuncts t and capacity ; for it is capacity exerted, which when it has
to afeertain its nature and origin demands the dofeft attained its end, fo that the thing has arrived at that
•attention of the.metaphyfician, as well as of the me- ftate to which it is deftined by nature or art, ceafes,
.chanic and aftronomer. With the laws of motion, as and the thing begins to exift ivipyua, 0r aflually.” „
difeovered by experience, we have at prefent no con- By all the admirers of Ariftotle, this latter defini-un;ntfnj,
cern : they are explained and fully eftablifhed in other tion has been preferred to the former ; for what rea-gible.
articles of this work (fee Mechanics, Motion, &c.). fon, it is difficult to fay. They both involve in the
The principal quellions which we have to confider are, thickeft obfeurity that which, viewed through the
“ What is motion ? and. By what power is it carried fenfes, is very eaiily underftood; and on this, as on
.on?” many other occalions, Ariftotle was certainly guilty
For an anfwer to the firft of thefe queftions, the of darkening counfel by words without knowledge,
modern metaphyfician refers every man to his own The author, whofe comment on this wonderful deiini-
fenfes; becaufe, in his apprehenfion, the word mo- tion we have faithfully abridged, admits that it is not
tion denotes a fimple idea which cannot be defined, intelligible till we know what change and progrefs are ;
Among the ancients, the Peripatetics were of a diffe- but is it poffible to conceive any change to take place
rent opinion ; and Ariftotle, whofe love of dialectic in bodily fubftances without motion P or, if we were
made him define every thing, has attempted to give called upon to explain what progrefs is, could we do
two definitions of motion. As fome learned men are it better than by faying that it is motion from fome¬
nt prefent labouring to revive this fyftem, we (hall, thing to fomething ? It is likewife very obvious, that
out of refpedl to them, mention thofe definitions, before we can have an adequate idea of motion, we
and make upon them fuch remarks as to us appear muft, according to this definition, know perfeclly
proper. what the words capacity, energy, and perfection denote ;
The author of Ancient Metaphyfics having obferved, and yet nothing can be more true than that perfection
i- that both nature and art propofe fome end in all their denotes a complex conception, which may be eafily
operations; that when the end is obtained, the thing defined by refolving it into the fimple ideas and no-
operated upon is in a ftate of perfection or comple- tions of which it is compounded, whilft motion is fuf-
tion ; and that in the operations of both nature and ccptible of no fuch refalution. The perfection of a
art there is a progrefs, and by confequence a change, knife is compounded of the temper of the fteel and
N°2i4. 5
Parc If. M E T A F
Of vfo- the Hiarpnefs of the edge : the perfection of a fyftem
^'>n- of philofophy confifts of the iinportance of the fub-
N v jeCts treated, the ftrength of the author’s arguments,
and the perfpicuity of his ftyle and manner; but of
what is the motion of a ball, or an atom, or any thing
elfe, compounded? We are aware that to this queftion
the modern Peripatetics will reply, that it is not the
motion of a ball, or an atom, or any one thing, that
their mafter has fo learnedly defined, but motion ab-
llrafted from alt individuals, and made an objeCt of
pure intelleft; and they will likewife affirm, that by
the word perfeBion ufed in the definition, he does not
mean any one kind of perfection as adapted to any pan*
ticular oljetd or end, but perfection abftraCted from
all objects and all erids. The perfection of nothing and
the motion of nothing, for fuch furely are that motion
and that perfection which are abftraCted from all ob~
jefts and ends, are ftrange expreffions. To us they
convey no meaning ; and we have reafon to think that
they are equally unintelligible to men of greater acute-
nefs (o). In a word, motion mu ft be feen or felt; for
it cannot be defined. To call it the a8 of changing
place, or a pajfage from one place to another, gives no in¬
formation ; for change and pajfage cannot be conceived
*9° without previoufly conceiving motion (p).
Tke The Peripatetics having idly attempted to defne mo-
EV t’on» proceed next to divide it into four kinds or claf-
motion ab- fes. This divifion was by the father of the fchool
ffurd. pretended to be made from the effeCts which it pro¬
duces, and was faid by him to belong to three cate¬
gories, viz. quality, quantity, and 'where (fee Catego¬
ry). The firft kind is that well known motion from
place to place, which falls under the category laft men¬
tioned 5 the fecond is alteration, by which the quality
©f any thing is changed, the fubftance remaining the
fame. This belongs to the category of quality. The
third is increafe, and the fourth diminution, both be¬
longing to the category of quantity. The ancient
Von. XL Part II.
H Y S I C S. m
atomifts, and all the modern metaphyficians of emi-
nence, have with great propriety rejected this divifion , tltm' .
as being nothing but a collection of abfurd diftinCtions
where there is in nature no difference. It has been
already fhown, that body has no other real qualities
than folidity, extenfion, and figure : but of thefe the
firft cannot be altered without deftroying the fubftance;
for every thing which is material is equally folid. The
extenfion of a body may indeed be enlarged, and its
figure may be altered, while the fubftance remains the
fame ; but that alteration can be made only by-moving
from their places the folid atoms of which the body is
compofed. Ariftotle’s fecond kind of motion there¬
fore differs not from the firft; nor do the third and
fourth differ from thefe two. For a body cannot be
increafed without acquiring new matter, nor diminifii-
ed without lofing fome of the matter of which it was
originally compofed : but matter can neither be added
nor taken away without motion from place to place ;
for there is now no creation de novo ; and we have no
reafon to imagine that, fince the original creation, a
Angle atom has been ever annihilated. It is therefore
paft difpute, that local motion is the only motion con¬
ceivable; and indeed, as far as we are capable of judging
from what we know of body, it is the only motion
poffible. *9*
This has given rife to a queftion which has been
debated among modern philofophers, though, as far ^dy exift-
as we know, it was never agitated among the an- e<l, there
cients, viz. “ Whether if there were but one folid rould he
body exifting, that body could poffibly be moved.” mot‘on *
Biftiop Berkeley feems to be of opinion that it could
not; becaufe no motion can be conceived but what
has a direction towards fome place, and the relation of
place neceffarily fuppofes the exiftence of two or more
bodies. Were all bodies, therefore, annihilated ex¬
cept one globe, it would be impoffible (he thinks) to
conceive that globe in motion (qj With refpedt to
4 A the
(o) “ Nunc dicendum de natura motus. Atque is quidem, cum fenfibus clare percipiatur, non tarn natu-
ra fua, quam doftis philofophorum commentis obfcuratus eft. Motus nunquam in fenfus noftros incurrit fine
mole corporea, fpatio et tempore. Sunt tamen qui motum, tanquam ideam quandam fimplicem et abftradam,
atque ab omnibus aids rebus fejunciam, contemplari ftudent. Verum idea ilia tenuiffima et fubtiliffima intelledus
aciem eludit: id quod quilibet fecum meditando experiri poteft. Hinc nafcuntur magnas difficultates de natu¬
ra motus, et definitiones, ipfa re quam illuftrare debent longe obfcuriores. Hujufmodi funt definitiones iliac
Ariftotelis et fcholafticorum, qui motum dicunt effe a£lum mobilis quatenus ejl mobile, vel, actum ends in potentia
quatenus in petentia. Hujufmodi etiam eft illud viri inter recentiores Celebris, qui afferit nihil in motu ejfe reale
prater momentaneum illud quod in vi ad mutationem nitente conjlitui debet. Porro conftat, horum et fimilium defini-
tionum au&ores in aniido habuiffe abftra&am motus naturam, feclufa omni temporis et fpatii confideratione,
explicare: fed qua ratione abftrafta ilia motus quintefl’entia (ut ita dicam) intelligi poffit non video.”
Berkeley de Motu.
(p) “ Multi etiam per tranfitum motum definiunt, obliti fcilicet tranfitum ipfum fine motu intelligi non
poffe, et per motum definiri opportere: Veriffimum adeo eft definitiones, ficut nonnullis rebus lucem, ita
vk-iffim aliis tenebras afferre. Et profcdto, quafcumque res fenfu percipimus, eas clariores aut notiores de-
finiendo efficere vix quifquam potuerit. Cujus rei vana fpe allefti res faciles difficillimas reddiderunt philofo-
phi, mentefque fuas difficultatibus, quas ut plurimum ipfi peperiffent, implicavere.” Id. ibid.
(qJ' Having proved that place, in the proper fenfe of the word, is merely relative, and affirmed that all mo¬
tion is relative likewife, the Biftiop proceeds thus : “ Veruntamen ut hoc clarius apparent, animadvertendum
eft, motum nullum intelligi poffe fine determinatione aliqua feu direftione, quae quidem intelligi nequit, nifi
prseter corpus motum, noftrum etiam corpus, aut aliud aliquid, fimul intelligatur exiftere. Nam furfum,
deorfum, finiftrorfum, dextrorfum, omBefque plagze et regiones in relatione aliqua fundantur, et neceffario corpus
a moio diverfum connotant et fupponunt. Adeo ut, fi, reliquis corporibus in nihilum reda&is, globus,
exempli gratia, unicus exiftere fupponatur; in illo motus nullus concipi poffit: ufque adeo neceffe eft, ut
detur
554 M E T A P 1
Of Mo- the origin of our ideas of motion, his reafoning appears
, tlon' ; unanfwerable ; but we do not perceive how it con-
v eludes againft the poffibility of motion itfelf as exift-
ing in ajingle body. It has been already (hown in
the chapter of fun pie apprehenfon and conception, that
though nothing can be conceived which may not pof-
fibly exift, yet many things may be pofiible which we
have not faculties or means to conceive. In the pre*
fent inftance, were this folitary globe animated as our
bodies are, were it endowed with all our fenfes and
mental powers, it certainly would not acquire any idea
of motion though impelled by the greateil force. The
reafon is obvious ; it would have no objefts with which
to compare its place and fituation at different periods
of time ; and the experience of a fhip at fea in calm
weather, affords fufficient proof that motion which is
equable cannot be perceived by any other means than
by fuch a comparifon. When the waves fwell and
the drip pitches, it is indeed impoffible that thofe
who are on board (hould not perceive that they are
actually in motion ; but even this perception arifes from
comparing their poiition with that of the waves riling
and falling around them: whereas in the regions of empty
fpace the animated globe could compare its pofition
with nothing; and therefore, whether impelled by
equal or unequal forces, it could never acquire the idea
of motion. It may perhaps be thought, that if this
folitary globe were a feIf-mo\\ng animal, it might ac¬
quire the idea of motion by inferring its exiftence from
the energy which produced it. But how, we would
afk, could an animal in fuch circumftances be felf-mo-
ving ? Motion is the effe& of fome caufe ; and it has
been already Ihown (fee n° 118. of this article), that
we have no reafon to fuppofe that any being can be
the real and.primary caufe of any effeft which that be¬
ing can neither conceive nor will: but as motion can
be perceived only by the fenfes, a folitary animal could
have no idea of motion previous ta its own exertions;
* and therefore could neither conceive, nor will, an exer¬
tion to produce it. Let us, however, fuppofe, that
without any end in view it might fpontaneoufly exert
itfelf in fuch a manner as would produce fenfible mo¬
tion, were it furrounded with other corporeal objefts;
ftill we may venture to affirm, that fo long as it Ihould
remain in abfolute folitude, the being itfelf would ac¬
quire no idea of motion. It would indeed be confcious
of the mental energy, but it could not infer the exiftence
of motion as a confequence of that energy; for the idea
of motion can be acquired only by fenfe, and by the
fuppofition there are no ohjedis from which the fenfes
pf this fpherical animal could receive thofe impreffions,
without which there can be no perception, and of
courfe no ideas.
3 Y S I C S. PartH.
Let us now fuppofe, that, while this animated globe Of Mo.
is under the influence either of external impulfe or its tlon~
own fpontaneous energy, other bodies are fuddenly r;)2
brought into exiftence: would it then acquire the idea ^nfwered
of motion? It certainly would, from perceiving its >n the affir*
own change of place with refpeft to thofe bodies ;
and though at firft it would not perhaps be able to
determine whether itfelf or the bodies around it were
moving, yet a little experience would decide this que-
ftion likewife, and convince it that the motion was
the effeft either of its own mental energy, or that ex¬
ternal impulfe which it had felt before the other bo¬
dies were prefented to its view. But it is obvious,
that the creation of new bodies at a diftance, can
make no real alteration in the ftate of a body which
had exifted before them : and therefore, as this ani¬
mated globe would now perceive itfelf to be moving,
we may infer with the utmoft certainty that it
was moving before; and that the motion of a Angle
body, though not perceivable by the fenfes, might
poffibly be produced in empty fpace. 193
Having thus feen that a Angle body is capable of Whether
motion in empty fpace, the next queftion that occurs
on this fubjeft is. Whether it would be poffftfle to ^le ;n
move a body in fpace that is abfolutely full ? Such rpace abfo-
are the terms in which this queftion L ufually put; lutety AdH
and by being thus expreffed, it has given rife to the
difpute among natural philofophers about the exiftence
of a vacuum. Perhaps the difpute might have been
avoided had the queftion been more accurately ftated.
For inftance, had it been aiked, Whether motion would
be poffible, could matter be fuppofed abfolutely in¬
finite without any the leaft interface or vacuity among
its folid parts ? we apprehend that every reflecting
man would have anfwered in the negative. At any
rate, the queftion ought to be thus ftated in meta-
phyfics ; becaufe we have feen that fpace, though a
pofitive term, denotes nothing really exifting. Now it
being of the very effence of every folid fubftance to ex¬
clude from the place which it occupies every other folid
fubftance, it follows undeniably, that not one particle
of an infinite folid could be moved from its place
without the previous annihilation of another particle
of equal extent; but that annihilation would deftroy
the infinity. Were matter extended to any degree
lefs than infinity, the motion of its parts would un¬
doubtedly be poffible, becaufe a fufficient force could
feparate thofe parts and introduce among them va¬
cuities of any extent; but without vacuities capable '
of containing the body to be moved, it is obvious
that no force whatever could produce motion. This
being the cafe, it follows, that however far we fup¬
pofe the material univerfe extended, there muft be
vacuities
detur aliud corpus, cujus fitu motus determinari intelligtaur. Hujus fententia: veritas clarifixma elucebit, mo-
do corporum omnium tam noftri quam aliorum, praeter globum iftum unicum, annihilationem retie fuppo-
fuerimus.
“ Concipiantnr porro duo globi, et praeterea nihil corporeum, exiftere. Concipiantur deinde vires, quo-
modocunque applicari: quicquid tandem per applicationem virium intelligamus, motus circularis -duorum
globorum circa commune centrum nequit per imaginationem concipi. Supponamus deinde coelum fixarum
creari: fubito ex concepto appulfu globorum ad diverfas coeli iftius partes motus concipietur. Scilicet 'cum <
motus natura fua fit relativus, concipi non potuit priufquam darentur corpora correlata. Quemadmoduni
ulla relatio alia fine correlatis concipi poteft.55 De Motu.
Part II. META P E
Of, Mo- vacuities in it fufficient to permit the motion of the
tion. planets and all the other heavenly bodies, which we
u ’ » plainly perceive to revolve round a centre : and if fo,
the next queftion to be determined is. What can in
vacuo operate upon fuch immenfe bodies, fo as to pro-
194 duce a regular and continued motion ?
Bodies«- That all bodies are equally capable of motion or
qimlly m-^ re^ ha3 by natural philofophers been as completely
motion ai d Proved as any thing can be proved by obfervation
reft. and experience. It is indeed a fa6t obvious to
the molt fuperticial obferver ; for if either of thefe
ftates were efiential to matter, the other would be
abfolutely impoffible. If reft were effential, no¬
thing could be moved ; if motion were effential, no¬
thing could be at reft, but every the minuteft atom
would have a motion of its own, which is contrary to
univerfal experience. With refpeit to motion and
reft, matter is ,wholly paflive. No man ever perceived
a body inanimated begin to move, or when in motion
flop without refiftance. A billiard ball laid at reft
on the fmootheft lurface, would continue at reft to
the end of time, unlefs moved by fome force extrinfic
to itfelf. If fuch a ball were ftruck by another ball,
it would indeed be moved with a velocity proportioned
to the impetus with which it was ftruck; but the impel¬
ling ball would lofe as much of its own motion as was
communicated to that upon which the impulfe was
made. It is evident, therefore, that in this inftance
there is no beginning of motion, but only the communi¬
cation of motion from one body to another; and we may
Hill aflc, Where had the motion its origin ? If the impel¬
ling ball was thrown from the hand of a man, or ftruck
with a racket, it is plain that by a volition of the
man’s mind the motion was firft given to his own
arm, whence it proceeded through -the racket from
one ball to another; fo that,the ball, racket, and arm,
were mere inftruments, and the mind of the man the
only agent or firft mover. That motion can be begun
by any being which is not poffeffed of life, confciouf-
nefs, and will, or what is analogous to thefe, is to us
altogether inconceivable. Mere matter or inanimated
body can operate upon body only by impulfe : but
impulfe, though from the poverty of language we
are fometimes obliged to talk of its agency, is itfelf
merely an effect ; for it is nothing more than the con¬
tact of two bodies, of which one at leaft is in motion.
An infinite feries of effects without a caufe is the
groffeft abfurdity ; and therefore motion cannot have
been communicated from eternity by the impulfe of
body upon body, but muft have been originally pro-
[ Y S I C S.
duced by a being who ads in a manner afialogous to Of Mo-
the energies of the human will. tl0n' .
Eut though motion could not have been begun
but by the energy of mind, it is generally believed Motion
that it might be continued by the mere paffvity ofp oduced
body ; and it is a law of the Newtonian philofophy, by impulfe
that a body proje&ed in empty fpace would continue^".
to move in a ftraight line for ever. The only reafon ~
which can be affigned for this law is, that fince body line,
continues to move at all after the impetus of projec¬
tion has ceafed, it could not of itfelf ceafe to move
without becoming adive; becaufe as much force is
required to ftop a body in motion as to communicate
motion to the fame body at reft. Many objedions
have been made to this argument, and to the law of
which it is the foundation ; but as we do not perceive
their ftrength, we ftrall not fill our page with a formal
examination of them (a). If a fingle body could ex-
ift and have motion communicated to it in vacuo by the
force of projedion, we are perfuaded, that from the
very paffivity of matter, that motion would never have
an end ; but it is obvious that it could be moved only
in a ftraight line, for an impulfe can be given in no
other diredion. 196
The heavenly bodies, however, are not moved in I’ff New*
ftraight lines, but in curves round a centre ; and there- '0.nidn doc“
fore their motion cannot have been originally com-
municated merely by an impreffed force of projedion. caufes of
This is admitted by all philofophers; and thereforethe niotion
tin Newtonians fuppofe that the planets are moved
in elliptical orbits by the joint agency of two forces
ading in different diredions. One of thefe forces
makes the planet tend oiredly to the centre about
which it revolves; the other impels it to fly off in a
tangent to the curve deferibed. The former they call
gravitation, which fome of them have affirmed to be a
property inherent in all matter ; and the latter, which
is a projedile force, they confider as impreffed ah ex¬
tra Ey the joint agency of fuch forces, duly propor¬
tioned to each other, Sir Kaac Newton has demon-
ftrated, that the planets muft neceffarily deferibe fuch
orbits as by obfervation and experience they are found
adually to deferibe. But the queftion with the meta-
phylician is, Whether fuch forces be real ?
With refped to projedion, there is no difficulty; but
that bodies ihould mutually add upon each other at a 197
diftance, and through an immenfe vacuum, feems at Minual at-'
firft fight altogether impqffible. If the planets are ^
moved by the forces of gravitation and projedion* heTvtnly
they muft neceffarily move in vacuo ; for the continual bodies im-
4 A 2 refiftance p^ffible.
(r) By much the ftrongeft and heft urged of thefe objedions which we have feen, is made by Dr Horfely,
a man equally learned in mathematics and in ancient and modern philofophy. “ I believe with the author
of Ancient Metaphylics .fays he), that fome adive principle is neceffary for the continuance as well as for
the beginning of motion. I kno» that many Newtonians will not allow this: I believe they are mille 1. as I
myfelf have formerly been milled, by the expreffion a (late of motion. Motion is a change; a continuance of
motion is a farther change ; a farther change is a repeated effed; a repeated effed requires a repeating caufe.
State implies the contrary of change ; and motion being change, a Jlate of motion is a contradidion in terms/*
See Ancient Metaphxfics, Vol II.
If our readers think this reafoning conclufive, they mav be in the right 5 and in that cafe they will fee the
tieceffity of admitting, even for the continuance of redilineal motion, the plajlic nature, or fomething equiva¬
lent to it, without which we have endeavoured to prove that the heavenly bodies could not revolve round their
jrefpedive centres in elliptical curves.
556 M E T A P
of Mo. refiflance of even the rare ft medium would in time
tlon- overcome the force of the greateft impetus: but if
” *' ' they move in vacuo, how can they be attracted by the
fun or by one another ? It is a felf-evident truth, that
nothing can a6t but where it is prefent, either imme¬
diately or mediately ; becaufe every thing which ope¬
rates upon another, muft perform that operation either
by its own immediate agency or by means of fome in-
ftrument. The fun and planets are not in contadt;
nor, if the motion of thefe bodies be in vacuo, can any
thing material pafs as an inftrument from the one to
the other. We know indeed by experience, that every
particle of unorganifed matter within our reach has a
tendency to move towards the centre of the earth ;
and we are intuitively certain, that fuch a tendency
muft have fome caufe : but when we infer that caufe
to be a power of attra&ion inherent in all matter,
which mutually a<fts upon bodies at a diftance, draw¬
ing them towards each other, we talk a language which
is perfecily unintelligible (s). Nay more, we may
venture to affirm that fuch an inference is contrary to
fadt. The particles of every elaftic fluid fly from each
other ; the flame of a fire darts upwards with a velo¬
city for which the weight of the circumambient air
cannot account j and the motion of the particles of a
plant when growing, is fo far from tending toward
the centre of the earth, that when a flowerpot is in¬
verted, every vegetable in it, as foon as it is arrived at
a fufficient length, bends itfelf over the fide of the
19® pot, and grows with its top in the natural pofition.
"^en* hbo Senfible of the force of thefe arguments againft the
dies cannot poffibility of an attradiive power in matter which ope-
be moved rates at a diftance, other philofophers have fuppofed
by two for¬
ces impref.
fed ab ex~        
H Y S I C S, Part II.
that the heavenly bodies are moved in elliptical orbits Of vto.
by means of two forces originally imprefled upon each tien
planet impelling it in different diredHons at the fame
time. But if the tendency of the planets towards the
centre of the fun be of the fame kind with that of
heavy bodies towards the centre of the earth (and if
there be fuch a tendency at all, we have no reafon to
fuppofe it different), it cannot poffibly be the effedt of
impulfe. A body impelled or projedled in vacuo would
continue to be moved with an equable velocity, nei¬
ther accelerated nor retarded as it approached the ob¬
ject towards which it was diredted; but the velocity
of a body tending towards the centre of the earth is
continually accelerated : and as we cannot doubt but
that the fame thing takes place in the motion of a
body tending towards the centre of the fun, that mo¬
tion cannot be the effeft of impulfe or projection. ^
Some of the Newtonians therefore have fuppofed* Nor by the
“ That all kinds of attradtion confift in fine imper-agency of
ceptible particles or invifible effluvia, which Proceed j
from every point in the furface of the attracting body,ua U1
in all right-lined directions every way ; which in their
progrefs lighting on other bodies, urge and folicit them
towards the fuperior attradting body ; and therefore
(fay they> the force or intenfity of the attracting
power in general muft always decreafe as the fquares
of the diftances increafe.” The inference is fairly drawn
from the fadt, provided the fadt itfelf were real or pof-
fible : but it is obvious, that if fine imperceptible par¬
ticles or invifible effluvia were thus iffued from every
point in the furface of the fun, the earth and other
planets could not move in vacuo ; and therefore the
projectile motion would in time be Hopped by the refin¬
ance
(s) Since this article was finifhed for the prefs, Profeffor Stewart’s Elements of the Philofophy of the Human
Mind have been given to the public ; a work of which the merit is fuch as to make it painful to us to differ
in any important opinion from the ingenious author. We (hall, however, claim the fame liberty of diffenting
occafionally from him that he has claimed of diffenting from Newton, Locke, Clarke, and Cudworth, from
whom he differs widely in thinking it as eafy to conceive how bodies can adk upon each other at a diftance,
as how one body can communicate motion to another by impulfe. “ I allow \fays he, p. 79.), that it is
impoffible to conceive in what manner one body adfs upon another at a diftance through a vacuum ; but I
cannot admit that it removes the difficulty to fuppofe, that the two bodies are in adkual contadk. That one
body may be the efficient caufe of the motion of another body placed at a diftance from it, 1 do by no means
affert; but only that we have as good reafon to believe that this may be poffible, as to believe that any one
natural event is the efficient caufe of another.”
If by efficient caufe be here meant the JirJl and original caufe of motion, we have the honour to agree with
the learned Profeffor ; for we are perfuaded that body inanimated is not, in this fenfe of the word, the caufe
ef motion either at hand or at a diftance: but if he mean (and we think he muft, becaufe fuch was the
meaning of Newton, from whom he profeffes to differ), that we can as eafily conceive one body to be the in-
ftrumental caufe of the motion of another from which it is diftant, as we can conceive it to communicate mo¬
tion by impulfe, we cannot help thinking him greatly miftaken. We will not indeed affirm, with the writer
whom he quotes, “ that although the experiment had never been made, the communication of motion by
impulfe might have been predicted by reafoning a/Ww-ibecaufe we are not certain, that without fome
fuch experiment we fhould ever have acquired adequate notions of the folidity of matter : But if all corporeal
fubftances be allowed to be folid and poffeffed of that negative power to which philofophers have given the
name of vis inert ice, we think it may be eafily proved a priori, that a fufficient impulfe of one hard body upon
another mufl communicate motion to that other; for when the vis inertia, by which alone the One body is kept
in its place, is lefs than the vis impetus with which the other ruflies to take poffeffion of that place, it is evi¬
dent that the former body mujl give way to the latter, which it can do only by motion, otherwife the two
bodie: would occupy one and the fame place, which is inconfiftent with their folidity. But that a fubftance
pofleffed of a vis inertia fhould make another fubftance poffefled of the fame negative power quit a place to
which itfelf has no tendency, is to us not only inconceivable, but apparently impoffible, as implying a dired con-
tradidiou. 7
300
The hypo-
thefis of
Plato, Vri-
ftot!e, and
CuJworth,
METAPHYSICS.
anee of this powerful medium. Befides, is it not alto- the operations of nature, fuch as the formation of Of
gether inconceivable, nay impoffibk, that particles monfters, dec. which could never be were things tlt'n' ^
iffuing from the fun fhouid draw the planets towards formed by the immediate hand of God. He is there- ’ >
that centre ? would they not rather of neceflity drive fore of opinion, that, after the creation of matter, God
them to a greater diftance ? To fay, that after they employed an inferior agent to give it motion and form,,
have reached the planets, they change their motion and to carry on all thofe operations which have been
and return to the place whence they fet out, is to en- continued in it fince the beginning of the world. This
due them with the powers of intelligence and will, agent he calls plajlic nature; and confiders it as a being
and to transform them from pafiive matter to adfive incorporeal, which penetrates the mail folid fubltance,
mind. and, in a manner which he pretends not to explain
Thefe difficulties in the theories of attra&ion and otherwife than by analogy, actuates the univerfe. He
impulfe have fet philofophers upon fabricating num- does not look upon it as a being endued with percep-
berlefs hypothefes: and Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf, tion, confcioufnefs, or intelligence ; but merely as an
who never confidered gravitation as any thing more inftrument which afts under divine wifdom according
than an effedf, conjedfured that there might be a very to certain laws. He compares it to art embodied ;
fubtle fluid or ether pervading all bodies, and produ- and quoting from Ariftotle, fays, Hi £»»v tv ra n voi¬
cing not only the motion of the planets, and the fall av tb If the art of the JVipwright
of heavy bodies to the earth, but even the mecha- were in the timber itfelf, operatively and ejfeftttally, it would
nical part of mufcular motion and fenfation. O- there a8 juft as nature doth. He calls it a certain lower
thers (t) again have fuppofed fire, or light, or the life than the animal, which adls regularly and artifi-
eledtric fluid, to be the univerfal agent ; and fome cialiy for ends of which it knows nothing. It may be,,
few (u) have acknowledged, that nothing is fufficient he fays, either a lower faculty of fome confcious foul,
to produce the phenomena but the immediate agency or elfe an inferior kind of life or foul by itfelf, but
of mind. depending in either cafe upon a higher intelledf. He
With refpedl to the interpofition of any material is aware with what difficulty fuch a principle will be
fluid, whether ether, fire, light, or ele&ricity, it is admitted by thofe philofophers who have divided all
fufficient to fay that it does not remove any one dif- being into fuch as is extended and fuch as is cogita-
ficulty which encumbers the theory of innate attrac- tive : but he thinks this divifion improper. He would
tion. All thefe fluids are elaftic ; and of courfe the divide beings into thofe which are folid and extended,
particles of which they are compofed are diilant from and thofe which have life or internal energy. Thofe
each other. Whatever motion, therefore, we may beings which have life or internal energy he would
fuppofe to be given to one particle or fet of particles, again divide into fuch as aft with confcioufnefs, and
the queftion it ill recurs, How is it communicated fuch as aft without it: the latter of which is this
from them to others ? If one body can aft upon an- plaftic life of nature. To prove that fuch an inftru-
other at the diilance of the ten-thoufandth part of an ment is poffible, or that a being may be capable of
inch, we can perceive nothing to hinder its aftion operating for ends of which it knows nothing, he in-
from extending to the diltance of ten thoufand milli- fiances bees and other animals, who are impelled by
ons of miles. In the one cafe as well as the other, the injlind to do many things neceffary to their own pre-
body is afting where it is not prefent; and if that be fervation, without having the leaft notion of the pur-
admitted to be poffible, all our notions of aftion are pofe for which they work. (See Instinct.) He oh-
fubverted, and it is vain to reafon about the caufe of ferves, that there is an eflential difference between rea-
any phenomenon in nature. fon and inftinft, though they are. both the attributes
This theoryofthe intermediate agencyofa fubtle fluid of mind or incorporeal fubftance : and that therefore,
differs not effentialiy from the vortices of Des Cartes; as we know of two kinds of mind differing fo widely,
which appeared fo very abfurd to Cudworth, that with there is nothing to hinder us from inferring a third,
a boldnefs becoming a man of the firft genius and with powers differing as much from inftinft as inftinft:
learning, he rejefted it, and adopted the plaftic nature differs from reafon. Mankind are confcious of their
of Plato, Ariftotle, and other Greek philofophers. own operations, know for what purpofe they generally
That incomparable fcholar oi ferves, that matter be- aft, and can by the power of reflection take a retrofpec-
ing purely paffive, the motion of the heavenly bodies, tive view of their aftions and thoughts, making as it
the growth of vegetables, and even the formation of were the mind its own objeft. Brutes are confcious of
animal bodies, muff be the effeft either of the immediate their own operations, but they are ignorant of the pur~
agency of God, or the agency of a plqjlic nature ufed pofes for which they operate, and altogether incapable of
as an inftrument by divine wifdom. That they are rifle ding either upon their paft conduit or paftthoughts.
not the effeft of God’s immediate agency, bethinks Between their intelleftual powers and thofe of man,
obvious from feveral circumftances. In the firft place, there is a much greater difference than there is be-
they are performed ffowly and by degrees, which is tween them and a plaftic nature, which afts as an in-
not fuitable to our notions of the agency of almighty ftrument of divine wifdom without any confcioufnefs of
Power* Secondly, Many blunders are committed in its own operations. Ariftotle, from whom principally
the
(t) The feveral followers of Mr Hutchinfon.
(u) Cudworth, Berkeley, and the author of Ancient Metaphyfics.
2^
JLib
/diap.
ihown t
jfiS M E T A P
Of Mo- the learned author takes his notion of this plaftlc na-
. timi‘ ture, compares it, with refpeft to the divine Wii’dom
r which direfts and fuperintends its operations, to a
mere builder or mechanic working under an archi-
teft, for the purpofe of which the mechanic himfelf
knows nothing. The words of the Stagyrite are:
Touf a.fsx.t1iihva.( mgi s'xarav rtptuUgovi r.at pccKMv uSitai
£(Vttv twj xupohyuv, Y.OU o-op»Tipovc Hi TKf otihu; r«» xoiov-
Metaphyf. tov Uccs-ov mv; ie ^!ifoT£^v«f Si iQoc *. <« We account the
architeds in every thing more honourable than the
mere workmen, becaufe they underftand the reafon of
the things done ; whereas the other, as fome inanimate
things, only work, not knowing what they do, juft
as the fire burns: the difference betwen them being
only this, that inanimate thingsby a certain na¬
ture in them, but the workman by habit:”
Still further to prove that a being may be endow-
feepoiiible. ed with fome vital energy of a fubordinate kind, and
yet be deftitute of ccnfcioufnefs and perception, the
learned author obferves, that there is no reafon to
think that the fouls of men in found deep, lethargies,
or apoplexies, are confcious of any thing; and ftill lefs,
if poflible, to fuppofe that the fouls of embryos in
the womb are from the very firft moment of their ar¬
rival there intelligent and confcious beings : neither
can we fay, how we come to be fo differently affeded
in our fouls by the different motions made upon our
bodies, nor are we confcious always of thofe energies
by which we imprefs fantaftic ideas on the imagina¬
tion. But if it be poffible for the fouls of men to be
for one inftant void of confcioufnefs and intelligence,
it follows, that confcioufnefs is not abfolutely neceffary
to thofe energies and motions by which life is preferved.
$ Gregory's To this it may be added, upon the beft authority “that
jPhilofop'hi where animal orvegetablelifeisconcerned, there isin eve-
cal andLi- ry cafe a different relation between the caufe and effed,
tnary / an(j feenj{ngiy defending upon the concurrence or in-
^ ' fluence of fome farther principle of change in the
fubjed, than what fubfifts in inanimate matter, or in
the caufes and effeds that are the objeds of mecha-
nichal and chemical philofophy.” Now to this prin-
H Y S I C S. Part II.
ciple of vegetable life, without which, in a feed or in Of Mo-
a plant, vegetation will neither begin nor continue, , tl' n- .
tho’ light, heat, air, earth, and water, fhould concur in
the utmoft perfedion, Cudworth exprefsly compares
his plaftic nature in the univerfe. It is fo far (fays
he) from being the firft or higheft life, that it is in- y
deed the laft and loweft of all lives, being really the
fame thing with the vegetative.
Thefe arguments, if the phenomena of eledive at- Argument,
tradions in chemiftry be added to them, demonftrate, foritstruthjl
we think, the poJJJAlity of fuch a principle : and to hut
thofe who are inclined to affirm that no fuch thing
can exift, becaufe, according to the defeription of it
given by Cudworth and the ancients, it is neither
body nor fpirit, in the proper fenfe of the words ; we
beg leave to alk in the words of Locke, “ Who told
them that there is and can be nothing but folid be¬
ings which cannot think, and thinking beings that
are not extended ? which is all that they mean by the
terms body and fpirit.” All the Greek philofophers
who were not materialifts, and even the infpired wri- • (
ters of the Old and New Teftaments, conftantly di-
ftinguifh between the Jpirit and the /W of a man, call¬
ing the former fometimes » and fometimes
and the latter ■y'>xr; and St Paul, who before he was
a Chriftian was learned in philofophy, deferibes the
conhituent parts of man as three, *vtuua, auy.a-,
fpirit, foul, and body. This diftin&ion, fetting afide
the authority w ith which it comes to us, feems to be
well founded ; for there are many operations carried
on in the human body without any confcious exer¬
tion of ours, and which yet cannot be accounted for
by the laws of mechanifm. Of thefe, Cudworth in-
itahees the motion of the diaphragm and other
mufcles which caufes refpiration, and the fyftole and
diaftole of the heart; neither of which, he thinks, can
be the effedl of mere mechanifm. But, as we are not
confcious of any energy of foul'from which they pro¬
ceed, even while we are awake, and ftill lefs, if pof¬
fible, while we are alleep ; he attributes them, not to
the intelledl or rational mind, but to this inferior vital
principle called ^X” (v) ; which, in his opinion, adts
the
(v) The exiftence of this plaftic nature was warmly debated between Monfieur Le Clerc and Mon-
fieur Bayle. Moiheim, who was inclined himfelf to admit fuch a principle, gives the following view of Le
Clerc’s fentiments from Bibl\otheque choifie, tom. ii. p. i 3. “ Refpirat-'o inquit et motus cordis, aftiones
funt, quorum ‘nihil ad animam pertinet. Interim meehanice eas fieri, nullo modo probabile eft. In volun-
tariis commotionibus nefeiunt animi noftri, quid fadto opus fit,.ut membra commoveantur: imperant illi tan-
tum. Eft vero aliud nefcio quid, quod fideliter, fi modo organa redle fint affeita, mandata ejus exfequitur.
Quidni igitur fufpicernur, effe naturam in corpore noftro vireniem, praster animam noftram, cujus fit animac
praeceptis et juffis morem gerere ? quamquam potentia ejus ita fit definita, ut obedire nequeat animo, nifi rede
fefe habcant organa. Eadem forte natura, corporis noftri motibus impulfa, animam edocet, quid faftum
fit, ut ille poffit prascipere, quas ad confervationem corporis neceffaria judicat. Anima, pergit, fi hsec vera
effe putes, fimilis erit domino, fibimet ipfi fervire nefcio, nec ulla facultate alia, quam imperandi et jubendi
inftrufto. Haec vero natura ft rix non diffimilis erii mancipii cui nihil eorum, quae dominus meditatur,
notum eft, quodque nihil aliud facit, quam ut juffis pareat, et dominum de illis rebus admoneat, quae ad
falutem ipfius pertinent.” Moftieim proceeds,—Si quis huic loco fic occurrat, Haec ratione tria fingi in
homine principia ; refpondet vir doctus : “ Nullis conftares argumentis, binis tantum hominem partibns
conftare. Eos, qui hominem ex binis tantum partibus component, nulla ratione expficare poffe nattiram
conjundlionis animi et corporis, nifi ipfum Deum ftatuant cun is a . ionibus haminum intervenire : hoc vero
Divina Majeftate prorfus indignum effe. Lefinitionem accuratam mediae hujus naturae poftulantibus fefe
talem dare non poffe definitionem refpondet: Hoc unum fefe feire: effe earn naturam interiori agendi
virlute inftructam, quae ex fe et animam et corpus afficere queat; naturam, quae doceat animam quid
g rerum
Partir,
Of Mo-
the heaven¬
ly bodies
fried on by
the con
flant agen¬
cy of fom e-
thing in-
toryoreal.
M E T A P
tfie fame part In the fyftena of the human body which
the plaftic nature in the fyftem of the world—.
To make the refemblance more ftriking, he obferves,
that even the voluntary motion of our limbs, thoifgh
it proceeds ultimately from an energy of will, feem*
to be the effect of that energy employing fome injlru-
rnent which pervades the iinews, nerves, and mufcles
of the body ; and if the human fpirit or em.
ploy the inftrumentality of a plaftic nature or in
moving the fmall machine of the body, it feems to
be far from incredible that the Divine Wifdom
ftrould employ the inftrumentality of a plaftic na¬
ture in moving the great machine of the uni-
verfe.
But we need not infift further on the pojfih'dity of
fuch an inftrument. Whatever may be thought of
the arguments of Cudwofth, of which fome are, to
■ fay the leaft of them, plaufible, though others appear
to us to have very little ftrength, Dr Clarke has
proved, with a force of reafoning not inferior to ma¬
thematical demonftration, that the motions of the
heavenly bodies are carried on by the agency of fome-
thing very different from matter, under every poffible
form, “ For, not to fay that, feeing matter is ut¬
terly incapable of obeying any avus in the proper
fenfe of the word, the very original laws of motion
themfelves cannot continue to take place, but by
fomething fuperior to matter, continually exerting on
it a certain force or power according to fuch certain
and determinate laws it is now evident beyond que-
ftion, that the bodies of all plants and animals could
not pofiibly .-have been formed by mere matter ac¬
cording to any general laws of motion. And not
only fo, but that mod univerfal principle of gravita¬
tion itfelf, the fpring of almoft all the great and regu-
H Y S I C S. 5J9
lar inanimate motions in the world, anfwering not at
all the furfaces of bodies, by which alone they can aft ,
upon one another, but entirely to their folid contents, J
cannot poffibly be the refult of any motion originally
impreffed upon matter.” For though it is true, that
the moft folid bodies with which we are acquainted
are all very porous ; and that, therefore, a fubtle ma¬
terial fluid might penetrate the bodies of the planets,
and operate upon them with a force exerted inter¬
nally ; ftill it is felf-evident, that the greatejl quanti¬
ties of fuch a fluid could not enter into thofe bodies
which are leajl porous, and where the greateft force
of gravitation refides : “ and, therefore, this motion
muft of neceffity be caufed by fomething which pene¬
trates the very folid fubjlance of all bodies, and conti¬
nually puts forth in them a force or power entirely
different from that by which matter afts upon mat¬
ter f.” Which is, as the fame able writer obferves, an f- EviJemer
evident demonftration, not only of the world’s being0/Nat.onJ
originally made by a fupreme intelligent Caufe ; but
moreover, that it depends every moment upon fome “W”'
fuperior Being, for the prefervation of its frame ; and
that all the great motions in it are caufed by fome
immaterial power perpetually and aSually exerting it¬
felf every moment in every part of the corporeal uni-
verfe. This preferving and governing^ power, whe¬
ther it be the immediate power and aftion of the
fame Supreme Caufe that created the world, or the
aftion of fome fubordinate inftruments appointed by
him to direft and preflde refpeftively over certain
parts thereof, gives us equally in either way a very
noble idea of Providence. We know with certainty,
that real and original power can belong only to a be¬
ing endowed with intelligence and will; and, there¬
fore, if the exiftence of Cudworth’s (w) plaftic nature
be
rerum geratur in corpore ; naturam denique, quae animi mandatis, quorum tamen cauffas nefeiat, fideliter
obtemperet.” Reliqua, quae illuftrandae hujus rei cauffa Clericus affert, praetereo. Satis copiofa eft in
illis, quae produximus, meditandi materia. Mojheim. ed. Syjl. IntelleB. p. 173.
Such a principle actuating the univerfe, if it be divefted of intelligence, and confidered as a fecond
or inferior eaufe, under the direftion of the Supreme, is acknowledged by a very able judge to be a rational
feypothefis ; and fuch, if properly purfued, would certainly open a moft entertaining feene of natural phi-
lofophy. See Jones’s Xtrifwer to an Effay on Spirit.
(w) Befides Cudworth, we have mentioned Berkeley and the author of Ancient Metaphyfics, as holding all
motion to be an effeft of the immediate agency of mind or incorporeal fubftance. The opinion of the laft of
thefe philofophers is not effentially different from Cudworth’s ; and therefore it is needlefs to quote from him :
Berkeley was better acquainted with the principles of the Newtonian philofophy, as well as an abler mathe¬
matician, than either of thefe pupils of the ancients ; and being likewife a man who on all fubjefts thought
for himfelf, it may be worth while to lay before our readers a ftiort abftraft of his reafoning refpefting the
origin of motion. His words are: “ Totum id quod novimus, cui pCmen corpus indidimus, nihil in fe con-
tinet quod motus principium feu caufa efficiens effe poffit. Vis, gravitas, atlradio, et hujufmodi voces, utiles
font ad ratiocinia et computationes de motu et corporibus metis; fed non ad intelligendam fimplicem ipfius motus ■
riaturam, vel ad qualitates totidem diftinftas defignandas. Attraftionem certe quod attinet, patet illam ab New-
tono adhiberi, non tanquam qualitatem veram et phyficam, fed folummodo ut hypothefin mathematicam.
Quin et Leibnitius, nifum elementarem feu folicitationem ab impetu diftinguens, fatetur ilia entia non re ipfa
inveniri in rerum natura, fed abftraftione facienda effe. Similis ratio eft compofrtionis et refolutionis virium
quarumeunque direftarum in quafeunque obliquas, per diagonalem et latere parallelogrammi. Hasc me-
chanices et computation! inferviunt: fed aliud eft computationi et demonftrationibus mathematicis infervire,
aliud rerum naturam exhibere. Revera corpus aeque perfeverat in utrovis ftatu, vel motus vel quietis. Ifta
vero perfeverantia non magis dicenda eft ac. io corporis, quam exiftentia ejufdem afiio diceretur. Casterum re-
liftentiam, quam experimur in fiftendo corpore moto, ejus actionem effe fingimus vana fpecie delufi. Revera
enim ifta reiiftentia quam fentiums, paflio eft in nobis, neque arguit corpus agere, fed nos pati: conftat uti*
que nos idem paffuros fuiffe, five corpus illud a fe moveatur, five ab alio principio impellatur.—Aftio et reac-
tio dicuntur effe in corporibusnee incommode ad demouftrationes mechanicas. Sed cavendvun, ne piopterea-
fuppo-
5fc> METAPHYSICS.
Of Mo- be admitted, (and we fee not (x) why it ibould be
| called in quettion), it can be conlidered only aa an
' inftrument employed by Divine Wifdom, as a chiz*
zel or a faw is employed by the wifdom of the me-
204 chanic. o _ r.      
Tills theory Nor let it be imagined, that this ancient theory of their real exiftent caufes (v). It is fufficient for the
ri-t inconr root;on ;s Jn any degree inconfiftent with the mathe- analogy, on which the whole philofophy is founded,
matical principles of Sir Ifaac Newton’s aftronomy, or -1  -1 ' - - r
elple^of with the calculations raifed from thofe principles,
JJcwton. Having founded his aftronomy on analogy between the
phenomena of projectile and planetary motions, he af-
figned the fame or fimilar forces exiiling in nature as
the efficient caufes of both. And indeed, both in
the aft of deriving his principles from the projeftile
phenomena, and afterwards for the purpofe of apply¬
ing them to the planetary, it was neceffary to analyze
the elliptical motion of the heavenly bodies into a com¬
pound of two fimple motions in right lines, produced
by the aftion of thefe different forces 5 and this might
Part U.
tried in thofe diftant regions 5 and the nftronomy o! Of Mo-
Newton, which is only the application of his mathe- ,
matical principles to their meniuration from their ana-
logy<a projeftile motions, does not at all require that
the forces of gravitation and projeftion be affigned as
their redf exiftent caufes (y). It ^ ^ ■'
analogy, on which the whole phi
that the phenomena of motion are known from ex¬
periments and obfervations to be the fame in both in-
flances ; that the principles or general laws mathemati¬
cally eftablifhed from the forces of the one are tranf-
ferred to the phenomena of the other ; and that the proofs
and operations deduced from thefe principles in the
latter cafe, are confirmed by fails and experience, the
firft and final teft of truth. * * Latham's
Chart and
Chap. VI. ©/"Number. yvJif
“ Amongst all the ideas that we have, as there Unityfas
alfo be ufeful for the purpofes of teaching and demon- is none (fays Mr Locked) fuggefted to the mind by an idea,
ftration, juft as we find it neceffary, in all parts of
fcience, to feparate what in nature is infeparable, for
the convenience and affiftance of the underftanding.
The planetary motions, however, are very probably
dimple and uncompounded, for no experiments can be
N0 214.
more ways, fo there is none more fimple than that ofcannot
unitv or one. It has no fhadow of variety ©r com-t Rfay,
pofition in it. Every objeft our fenfes are employed®00^”*
about, every idea in our underftandings, every thought cha*>’ I”‘
of our minds, brings this idea along with it: and
there-
fupponamus virtutem aliquam realem, quae motus caufa five principium fit, effe in iis. Etenim voces ill* eo-
ftem modo intelligendas funt ac vox attraBio: et quemadmodum haec eft hypothefis folummodo mathematica,
n on autem qualitas phyfica; idem etiam de illis intelligi debet, et ob eandem rationem.
“ Auferantur ex idea corporis extenfio, foliditas, figura, remanebit nihil. Sed qualitates iftae funt ad mo-
tum indifferentes, nec in fe quidquam habent, quod motus principium dici poffit. Hoc ex ipfis ideis noftris
perfpicuum eft. Si igitur voce corpus fignificatur id quod concipimus, plane conftat inde non peti pofle prin¬
cipium motus : pars fcilicet nulla aut attributum illus caufa efficiens vera eft, quse motum producat. Vocem
aute'm proferre, et nihil concipere, id demum indignum eflet philofopho.
“ Prseter res corporeas, alterum eft genus rerum cogitantium: in iis autem potentiam ineffe corpora tno-
vendi, propria experientia didicimus, quando quidem anima noftra pro lubitu poffit ciere et fiftere membrorum
motus, quacunque tandem ratione id fiat. Hoc certe conftat, corpora mover! ad nutum animae, pamque
proin de baud inepte dici pofle principium motus ; particulare quidem et fubordinatum, quodque ipfum de¬
pendent, a primo et univerfali principio.
“ Ex diftis manifeftum eft eos qui vim aftivam, aftionem, motus principium, in corporibus revera inefle
affirmant, fententiam nulla experientia fundatam amplefti, eamque terminis obfcuris et generalibus adftruere,
nec quid fibi velint fatis intelligere. E contrario, qui mentem die principium motus volunt, fententiam
propria experientia munitam preferunt, hominumque omni sevo doftiffimorum fuffragiis comprobatam.
“ Primus Anaxagoras 701 introduxit, qui motum inerti materi* imprimeret: quam quidem fententiam
probat etiam Ariftoteles, pluribufque confirmat, aperte pronuncians primum mo- ens efle immobile, indivifibile, et
nullum habens magnitudinem. Dicere autem, omne motivum effe mobile, refte animadvertit idem effe ac
fiquis diceret, omne aedificativum effe sedificabile. Plato infuper in Timseo tradit machinam hanc corpoream,
feu mundum vifibilem, agitari et animari a mente, quse fenfum omnem fugiat. Et Newtonus paffim nec ob-
fcure innuit, non folummodo motum ab initio a numine pvofeftum efle, verum adhuc fyftema mundanum ab
eodem aftu moveri. Hoc facris literisconfonum efts hoc fcholafticorum calculo comprobatur.,’
De Motu, paffim.
(x) This we fay upon the received opinion, that there are being" wholly incorporeal. The truth of the
opinion itfelf will be confidered in a fubfequent chapter.
(y) Indeed Sir Ifaac himfelf is very far from pofitively affigning them as the real caufes of the phenomena.
The purpofe for which they were introduced into his philofophy he clearly explains in the following words:
“ Eadem ratione qua projeftile vi gravitatis in orbem flefti poffet et terram totam circumire, poteft et luna,
vel vi gravitatis, ft modo gravis fit, vel alia quacunque vi qua in terram urgeatur, retrahi Temper a curfu refti-
lineo terram verfus et in orbem fuum flefti: et abfque tali vi luna in orbe fuo retineri non poteft. H*c vis,
itjufomim or eflet, non fatis flefteret lunam a curfu reftilineo: fi jujlo major, plus latis flefteret, ac de orbe
terram verfus deduceret. Requiritur quippe ut i\X.jufla magnitudinis : et mathematicorum eft invenire vim, qua
corpus in dato quovis orbe data cum velocitate accurate retineri poffit; et viciflim invenire viam curvili-
ceam, in quam corpus e dato quovis loco data cum velocitate egreffuKi data vi fleftatur.” Principles
Matbem. Def. V.
Part IT. M E T A P
Of Num- therefore It Is the moft; intimate to our thoughts, as
1ie'‘ well as it is, in its agreement to all other things, the
Vj v 1 1 ' moil univerfal idea we have ; or number applies itfelf
to men, angels, adlions, thoughts, every thing that ei¬
ther doth exift or can be imagined. “ He feems like-
wife to be of opinion that we have the idea of unity
before that of many; and that it is by repeating the
fimple idea of unity in our own minds that we come
by the complex ideas of two, three, &c.” In- this opinion
he is joined by Pere Buffier * ; who obferves that it is
Truths. impoffible to explain the nature of unity, becaufe it
is the moft fimple idea, and that which perhaps firjl
occurred to the mind.
That unity is a fimple idea, muft be granted ; but it
.certainly did not firft occur to the mind, nor can it be
abftradled from all individuals, and apprehended in
* Locke’s fenfe of the word as a general idea. Let any
man look into his own mind, and then fay whether
4og he has a general idea of one or unity as abftrafted from
be abftrad-every individual objeft mental and corporeal. In par-
■ed from ticular, when he thinks he has completely abftradled
viduL^*11’ frorn hody and mind, fenfations, ideas, adtions, and
paffions, &c. let him be fure, before he pronounce it
"a general aljlract idea, that he is not all the while
. contemplating the idea of its name, or of that nume-
r\c.tdXJigure by which it is marked in the operations of
arithmetic. Both thefe ideas are in themfelves par¬
ticular ; and become general in their import, only as
reprefenting every individual objedl to which unity is
in any fenfe applicable. But in the chapter of abjlrac-
tion, we have faid enough to convince every perfon ca¬
pable of conviction that they are ufed as figns for
whole clafles of objedts.
Inftead of being an abftradl general idea, unity, as
the bafis of number, is in fadt nothing but a
mere relation, which cannot be conceived without
the related objedls; and fo far is it from being the
JirJl idea that occurred to the mind, that it is certain¬
ly the refult of a comparifon, made by the intelledt,
of two or more objedts. The ideas which firft occur
to the mind are, beyond all doubt, thofe which are
called ideas of fenfation ; and many filch ideas every
child receives before he is capable of comparing ob-
TJnity.a je&s an<^ forming to himfelf notions of number. U-
particular nity, or the idea of one, is indeed the element of the
tela ion. fcience of arithmetic, juft as a mathematical point
is the element of the fcience of geometry ; but accurate
notions of thefe elements are, in the progrefs of know¬
ledge, fubfequent to ideas of many and of furfaces.
There is reafon to believe that perfons totally illiterate
have no notion at all of mathematical points; and we
think it pofiible to conceive an intelligent and con-
fcious being in fuch a fituation as that he could not
acquire a notion of unity or one. Were a child never
to fee or feel two obje&s of the fame kind, we doubt
if he would think of numbering them, or of making
fuch a comparifon of the one with the other as would
fuggeft to his mind the relations of one and two ; for
thefe relations imply both a famenefs and a difference
of the objedls beyond the power of a child to afcer-
tain. The difference indeed would be perceptible to
the fenfes, but the fenfes would perceive no famenefs
or agreement. A guinea, a ihilling, and a ball of lead,
imprefs upon the mind different fenfations: and there-
Von. XL Part II.
H Y S I C S. 561
fore a child undoubtedly diftinguilhes thefe dbjefts Of Num-
from one another : but what could make him derive >°'' f
from them his firft idea of the relation- of number?
A guinsa, a ihilling, and a ball of lead, are not one,
two, three, in any fenfe which a child can comprehend.
To be convinced of this, let any man throw a guinea,
a ihilling, and a ball of lead upon a table, and a(k a
clown what is their number. From being accuftomed
to retail the names of number as figns, without affix¬
ing to them any idea of the things fignified, he will
probably anfvver with quicknefs three, or perhaps one,
two, three : but if he be further aiked in what refpeft
they are one, two, three, we believe his anfwer will not
be fo ready : They are not one, two, three guineas, or
Jhillings, or halls of lead. A philofopher knows them
to be three pieces of the fame firft matter under dif¬
ferent forms, and can therefore apply to them the
relation of number with truth and propriety ; but
of the firft matter a clown is entirely ignorant, and
of courfe cannot call them one, two, three, in any fenfe
which is at once true and to him intelligible.
To make it ftill more evident, that it is only by com¬
paring together things of the fame kind that oar firjl
ideas of unity and number are formed, let us fuppofe
no created being to have hitherto exifted except the
animated and intelligent globe mentioned in the laft
chapter, and we think it will be granted that, fuch
a being in folitude could never acquire the idea of unity.
Let us next fuppofe a cubical body to be created and
exhibited to the fenfes of this fpherical man ; the con-
fequence would be a fenfation or feeling entirely new:
but that feeling would not be of unity ; for, as the au¬
thor of Ancient Metaphyfics has fomewhere well ob-
ferved, unity is no objeft of fenfation. The fenfation
would be of colour, hardnefs, foftnefs, roughnefs or
fmoothnefs, &c. for beyond thefe the empire of the
fenfes does not reach. Again, let another body be
created of a colour and figure totally different from
the colour and figure of the cube, and the fpherical
man would then experience new fenfations having no -
agreement with thofe which he had formerly felt.
Thefe different kinds of fenfations might be compared
together; but the refult of the comparifon would not
be the ideas which are denoted by the words one and
two, but merely that which is expreffed by difference
or dfimilarity. Were another cube, however, of ex-
atftly the fame fixe and colour wdth the former to be
brought into exiftence, and both to be at once pre-
fented to the view of the fpherical man, the rudiments
of the idea of number would then be generated in his
mind, becaufe he could not but perceive the cubes to
be in one refpedl different and in another the fame ;
different as being diftindl from each other, and agree ¬
ing in their effedts upon the organs of fenfation. 2°S
It appears, therefore, that mankind muft have made have made
fome progrefs in claffing things according to their fome pro_
genera and fpecies, before they acquired any corredl tjrefs in
ideas of the relation of number, or thought of ufing claffing
numerical names or figures as general and diferimi-* In.?s ac*
nating figns : for we fay one, two, three. Sec. only with eenera’and
refpedl to the fpecies or genus of which each of the fiiecie?, ba¬
things denoted by thefe numbers is an individual; andfo,'e ?hey
if there be any thing which has no genus or fpecies,
neither number nor unity can, in the original fenfe oi. 0f number.
4 B the
562 M E T A P
Of Num. the words, be predicated of it (z}. We fay indeed that
, ker' there is one God; but perhaps we do not always at-
’ tend to the meaning of the expreffion. Language
was formed to anfwer the common purpofes of life ;
and thofe purpofes are beft anfvvered by denoting in¬
dividuals by the name of the fpecies or genus to which
they belong : but God belongs to no fpecies or genus,
unlefs he be faid improperly (a) to be of the univer-
fal genus of Being ; and therefore the true meaning of
the word one, when joined to the verb is, and trans¬
ferred from the creature to the Creator, in fuch a
fentencc as—“ there is one God”—feems to be nothing
more than an affirmation that God exifts, and that
to him the relation of number cannot be applied. In
a word, unity and number are merely relations between
the individuals of the fame fpecies or genus of being ;
and men acquire ideas of thefe relations at the fame
time and by the fame means that they are led to clafs
things into fpecies and genera. As to the proceffes
®f addition and fubtra&ion, and the various purpofes
to which number is applied, thefe things belong to
the fcience of arithmetic, and fall not under the pro¬
vince of the metaphyfician, whofe foie objedt is to
afcertain the real nature and caufes of things. It
may, however, be worth while to obferve, that Locke,
whofe notions of number feem to have been different
from ours, owns, that a man can hardly have any
ideas of numbers of which his language does not fur-
niffi him with names. But if units were either real
things, or even pofitive ideas, we fee not how names could
be neceffary to their exiftence ; whereas, if they be
nothing more than mere relations, it is obvious that
they cannot be conceived but as relative either to be¬
ings actually exilting, or to names^which are the figns
of adtual beings.
Chap. VII. O/'Time.
Time0'a When St Auguftine was hiked what time is ? he
moie of du- replied, “ Si non roges, intelligo.” An anfwer from which
ration in it may be inferred, that he thought the nature of time
ft'ndUorfto cou^ not explai'ned by a logical definition. Time
eternity1 ° eternity are commonly confidered as the two modes
of duration ; and if duration be taken in what Locke
thinks its true and original fenfe, to denote permanence
of exiitence with a kind of refiftanct to any deftrudtive
force, the diftinCtion feems to be Efficiently proper.
It is indeed the bell that we can make or compre-
H Y S I C S. Part II.
hend; for duration, time, and eternity, are ftibjedb Of Time,
which have perplexed philofophical minds in all ages, —y——
and of which if we have adequate notions, it is
very difficult to exprefs thefe notions in language. In-
ftead of attempting it by previous definitions, the me¬
thod in which the ancients generally began their in¬
quiries, we (hall purfue the better courfe of indu&ion
recommended by Lord Bacon, and endeavour to fhow
by what means we acquire the notion of that mode
of duration which is called time in contradiftin&ion
to eternity. We begin with time; becaufe we our-
felves exift in it, and it is in fome fenfe familiar to us.
If we be able to trace our notions of this mode of du¬
ration to their fource, we may then give a definition
of it founded on faft and univerfal experience, .and
afterwards proceed to confider the other mode in con-
junftion with infinity, to which it is nearly allied.
It has been already obferved (fee n° 93 of this ar¬
ticle), that every man, while awake, has a train of
fenfations and ideas conftantly palling through his
mind, in fuch a manner as that the one fucceeds the
other in a regular order. It is not poffible, either, by
detaining in the mind one idea to the exclufion of
all others, to Hop the courfe of this fucceffisn en¬
tirely ; or, by hurrying fome ideas off the ftage, and
calling others in their place, to quicken its progrefs
beyond a certain degree. One man indeed has naturally
a quicker fucceffion of ideas than another; and all
men can, by great exertions, accelerate or retard in
a fmall degree the natural flow of their thoughts. A
ftudious man lays hold, as it were, of a particular
idea, which he wilhes to contemplate, and detains it
in the imagination, to the exclufion of all others ; a
man of wit calls remote ideas into view with a rapidi-Wh?1Jl°the
ty of which a cool and phlegmatic reafoner can form m;rKi js oc_
no conception ; and a forcible fenfation takes full pof- cupied by
feffion of the mind, to the exclufion of all ideas what-one,idea C5r
ever. Whilft the attention is wholly occupied by one n9
idea, or by one fenfation, the mind has no notion perception
whatever of time ; and were it poffible to detain fuch of time;
idea or fenfation alone in the mind till the hand of awh‘ch
clock, Ihould move from the number of one hour
to that of another, the hour, as marked on the dial-
plate and meafured by the motion of the hand, would
appear but as one inilant abfolutely void of duration.
For the truth of this affertion we appeal to the expe¬
rience of our readers. Such of them as have ever
been engaged in deep lludy muff often have had their
attention
(z) We are happy to find our notions on this fubjeft confirmed by an authority fo refpe&able as that
of Profeffor Stewart. “ Without the power of attending feparately to things which our fenfes prefent to us
in a rtate of union, we never (fays this able writer) could have had any idea of number: for before we can
confider different objects as forming a multitude, it is neceffary that we ffiould be able to apply to all of
them one common name ;. or, in. other words, that we fliould reduce them all to the fame genus. The va¬
rious objefts, for example, animate and inanimate, which are at this moment before me, I may clafs and
number in a variety of different ways, according to the view of them that I choofe to take. I may reckon
fucceffively the number offfieep, of cows, of horfes, of elms, of oaks, of Beeches; or I may firft reckon the
number of animals, and then the number of trees ; or, I may at once reckon the number of all the organized
fubftances which my fenfes prefent to me. But whatever be the principle on which my claffification proceeds,
it is evident that the objects numbered together muff be confidered in thofe refpedts only in which they
agree with each other; and that if I had no power of feparating the combinations of fenfe, I never could
have conceived them as forming a plurality.” Elements of the Philofophy of the Human Mind, chap. iv.
(a) We fay improperly, becaufe beings which were created can have nothing in common with that being-
which isfelf-exijlent, and upon, whofe will and power all other things depend..
Partll. M E T A P
Of Time, attention fo fixed upon one objeA, that large portions
u~~v of time, as meafured by the clock, have palled away
wholly unheeded ; and every man who has feen a very
ftriking and uncommon object, muft remember, that
when the fenfation was firft. imprefled upon his mind,
all other objedls, ideas, and notions, and among the
reft the notion of time, were for awhile excluded.
No fenfation, however, keeps polfelfion of the whole
mind after it has ceafed to be new ; nor can the moft
vigorous exertions long preferve any one idea from be¬
ing driven off the ftage by the fucceeding train. Now
an this fucceffion of ideas appearing and difappcaring in
arifes from their turns, is that which, when compared with the
the'fiuxef- Permanency °f ourfelves and other things, gives us
fion of our our firft and jufteft notion of time : for whilft we are
ideas with thinking, or whilft a feries of ideas is fucceffively paf-
the perma- flng through our minds and vanifliing, we know that
other ob-^ we our^ves an<l the things around us cxift ; and this
jedts. exiftence, or continuation of exiftence, commenfurate
with the train of our fleeting ideas, is what we call
the duration of ourfelves and the things around us.
We are aware that our firft'notions of time have
been often faid to be derived from motion as perceived
by our fenfes in the objedts around us. It is obferved
by Euclid, that “ if there were no motion, there could
be no found, nor any fenfe of hearing.” “ He might
have added (fays the author of Ancient Metaphyfics),
nor any other perception of fenfe. Further, without
motion there would have been no vifible world, nor
generation or production of any kind here below;
. and, among other things, time could have had no ex¬
iftence.” All this is certainly true ; but that corpo¬
real motion, though the original fource of all our
ideas, is not that which immediately fuggefts to us the
notion of time, will be readily granted by him who
confiders that motion itfelf is perceived by us only
when it excites or accompanies a conftant fucceflion of
perceptions and ideas. Motion, when equable and
very flow, fuch as that of the hour-hand of a com¬
mon watch, is not perceived by us in its courfe ; nor
can we difeover that the thing has moved at all, till
after we have been fenfible of the lapfe of a confider-
able portion of what is commonly called time; when
we difeover that the hand of the watch has changed
its place with refpedf to other objedls which we knoW
to be fixed. The fame is true of motion remarkably
quick : “ Let a cannon-ball (fays Locke) pafs through
a room, and in its way take with it any limb or fleihy
parts of a man; it is as clear as any demonftratioh
can be,' that it muft ftrike fucceffively the two fides of
the room : it is alfo evident that it muft touch one
part of the flelh firft, and another after, and fo in
fucceffion : and yet I believe nobody who ever felt the
pain of fuch a ftiot, or heard the blow againft the
two diftant walls, could perceive any fucceffion either
in the pain or found of fa fwift a ftroke.”
Of thefe two phenomena a fatisfa6lory account may
be eafily given; from which we think it will at the
fame time be apparent, that the fucceffion of the train
of ideas in the mind is the meafure and ftandard of
The fuccef- ah other fucceffions. We know that the energy of
fionot ideas mind which reviews a train of fenfible ideas is of the
the meaiure very fame kind with that which attends to a feries of
fiu-rf/TW^rpafimg fenfations (fee n” 69) ; and therefore it is na-
’ tural to fuppofe that we can pay atte*tioa to fenfations
H Y S I C S. 563
and ideas palling with nearly equal velocities. But it Of Time,
has been ftiown, that every fenfation remains in the “——
mind or fenforium for a very fhort fpace after the
objeft which excited it is taken away : whence it
follows, that a body communicating to the organs of
fenfe a feries of fimilar impreffions fucceeding each
* other with remarkable rapidity, cannot excite a train
of fimilar and diftinft fenfations; becaufe the effefts
of the firft and fecond impreffions not having vaniihed
when thofe of the third and fourth arrive, the whole
train of effefts muft neceflarily coalefce into-one uni¬
form fenfation. This reafoning is confirmed by expe¬
rience. Similar founds fucceeding each other at con-
fiderable intervals, are all diftin&ly perceived ; and if
the motion be accelerated gradually, it may be carried
to a great degree of velocity before the founds be con¬
founded and coalefce irito one. “ Mr Herfehel having,-
by means of a clock, produced founds or clicking
noifes, which fucceeded each other with fuch rapidity
that the intervals between them were, as far as could
be judged, the fmalleft poffible, found that he could
evidently diftinguilh one hundred and fixty of them in
a fecond of time; but beyond that he could by no
effort of attention diftinguifh one found from another.
The fame philofopher tried another experiment on vi¬
fible fenfations. By means of the fame handle and
work of the clock, he caufed a wheel in it to turn
till it acquired the velocity of once, in a fecond. He
continued to increafe the velocity, and obferved it
while revolving at the rate of twenty times round in
thirteen feconds, and could ftill diftinguifti the teeth
and fpaces from each other ; whence it appears (by a
computation given at length), that he had two hun^-
dred and forty-fix diftindl vifible fenfations generated
by equable motion in a fecond of time. The teeth
of the wheel, he owns, were not fo far vifible aS to fliow
their lhape diftin&ly, much lefs could they have been
counted : but he very plainly diftinguiflied the circum¬
ference to be divided into teeth and fpaces; and he
fuppofes that the fame divifion- might ftill have been
feen though the motion had been a little fafter, as far
perhaps as two turns in a fecond, equal to three hun¬
dred and twenty fenfations*.” The reafon that the * Watfon't
divifion could not be feen whilft the wheel moved more ‘]'r_eat'fe m
rapidly than twice round in a fecond of time, was doubt- tmc'
lefs the continuance of that agitation in the brain from
which each fenfation proceeded, until a new impreffion
caufed a new agitation, which coalefced with the for¬
mer and removed all diftin&ion. Hence it is plain,
that no external fucceffion can be perceived which
moves with a greater velocity than that of which the
internal train of fenfations and ideas is capable. On
the other hand, an external fucceffion which moves
with lefs rapidity than that to which the internal flow
of ideas may be reduced, either has not fufficient force
to generate fenfations at all, or the fucceffive impref¬
fions from which the fenfations proceed follow one
another at fuch diftances as to permit the natural train
of ideas to intervene between them, and thus deftroy
the perception of the fucceffion entirely.
To us, therefore, it feems evident, that the con¬
ftant and regular fucceffion of ideas in the mind of %
waking man, is the meafure and ftandard of all other
fucceffions ; of which, if any one either exceeds the
pace of which our ideas are capable, or falls Ihort of
A B z it.
564 METAPHYSICS. PartIL
Of Time it, the fenfe of a condant and continued fucceffion is man in found deep. From having notions of time, Of Time,
v— loft, and we perceive it not but with certain intervals fuch as they are, formed in our minds, we never in- f
of reft between. So that it is not motion, but the deed fuppofe, however foundly we have flept, that the
conftant train of ideas in our minds, that fuggefts to us moment at which we awake in the morning is conti-
our firft notion of time ; of whioh motion no other- guous to that in which we fell afleep at night. The
wife gives us any conception, than as it caufes in our reafon is obvious ; every man has been awake whilft
minds a conftant fucceffion of fenfations: and we others were fleeping, and has known by experience,
have as clear a notion of time by attending to the that if they had been awake likewife a train of ideas
train of ideas fucceeding each other in our minds, as would have paffed through their minds which muft
by a train of fenfations excited by conftant and per- have fuggefted to them the notions of time. Moll
ceptible motion. men, too, have been frequently awake whole nights.
That it is merely by comparing the permanent ex- and have thus acquired a notion of time as going on
iftence of things with the fleeting fucceffion of ideas inceffantly, whether perceived by them or not; and
in our own minds that we acquire our notions of this notion being clofely affociated with our ideas of
time, may perhaps be ftill more evident from the fol- night and morning, we inevitably fuppofe a portion
* Efiy *n lowing narrative quoted by Dr Beattie *, from L'Hi- of time to have elapfed between them, though unper-
'Xruth. Jioire de VHcademie Royal des Sciences four I’annee 1719* ceived by us in our fleep. But were a man to fleep
“ A nobleman of Laufanne, as he was giving orders without dreaming from Sunday night till Tuefday
to a fervant, fuddenly loft his fpeech and all his fenfes. morning, and then to awake at his ufual hour as
Different remedies were tried without effedl. At marked on the clock, there are numberlefs inftances
laft, after fome chirurgical operations, at the end of on record to convince us, that he would not of him-.
fix months, during all which time he had appeared to felf fuppofe, npr perhaps be very eafily perfuaded,
be in a deep fleep or deliquium, his fpeech and fenfes that more than one night had elapfed between his
were fuddenly reftored. When he recovered, the fer- falling afteep and the moment at which he awoke,
vant to whom he had been giving orders wrhen he It being thus evident, that our notion of time is
was firft feized with the diftemper, happening to be fuggefted by that comparifon which we inevitably
in the room, he afked whether he had executed his make of the exiftence of things' permanent with the
commiffion, not being fenfible, it feems, that any in- train of ideas inceffantly palling through our minds;
terval of time, except perhaps a very ftiort one, had we may now perhaps be able to anfwer the queftion,
elapfed during his illnefs.” If this ftory be true, here “ What is time?” It muft of neceffity be one of three
was a man, who, by the train of ideas vanilhing at things, viz. either the ideal fucceffion itfelf; a certain
once from his mind, loft the perception of what was quality inherent in all objects ; or merely the relation
to others fix months of time; and had all mankind of co-exiftence between things that are permanent and
been in his ftate, the fame portion of time would the trains of fleeting ideas which fucceed each other
have been irrecoverably loft even to the annals of chro- on the theatre of the imagination. It is not the firft
nology. of thefe; for in every train of thought, the appearance
We are aware of an objeftion to any inference of any one idea in the mind occupies no more of the
which may be drawn refpefting the prefent queftion extenlion of time, than a mathematical point occupies
from the cafe of this tiobleman. It may be faid, that of the extenfion of diftance. Ten thoufand mathe-
he had loft, together with the perception of time, the matical points added together would make no part of
perception of every thing befides ; and that, therefore, aline; and ten thoufand ideas made to coalefce, if
motion may ftill be the caufe from which a waking that were poffible, would occupy no part of that mode
man derives his notions of time. But in reply to this of duration which is called time. A point is the
obje&ion, we beg leave to alk, Whether if a ball had boundary of a line, but no part of it: the appearance
been put in motion on a table, and the nobleman had of an idea in the mind is inftantaneous; and an inftant
been told, that a body moved with the velocity of that is the boundary, but no part of time. Hence it fol-
ball would have been carried over fo many thoufand lows, that were every thing inftantaneous like ideas in
miles of diftance during the time that he lay in a ftate a train, there could be no fuch thing as time, fince
of infenfibility, he could from fuch information alone nothing could be faid to have in that fenfe of the
have formed any tolerable notion of the length of word any duration. That time is not a quality inhe-
time in which he was infenfible ? He certainly could rent in all objefts, is likewife plain ; for we have feen,
not, for want of a ftandard by which to meafure the that were ideas as permanent as objefts, the notion
rapidity of the motion. He would, indeed, have of time could never have been acquired. Succeffion,
known inftantly that he had been infenfible for a con- though it does not itfelf conftitute time, is eflential
fiderable length of time, becaufe he had the evidence of to its exiftence ; and were all motion to ceafe, and
former experience that a body carried by perceptible the attention of men to be immoveably fixed upon one
motion over a great extent of diftance would have invariable objedt or clufter of objects, time would ceafe
generated in his mind a vaft train of fucceffive fenfa- likewife. It remains, therefore, that time can be no- mere re;a.
tions ; but till he had attended this ball during part thing elfe than the relation of co-exiftence appre- lion of co-
of its courfe, and compared with the permanency of hended between things that are permanent and thofe exiftence.
other objefts the feries of fenfations which it gene- trains of fleeting ideas which inceffantly fucceed each
rated in his mind, he would not have been able to other on the theatre of the imagination. Thus whilft
guefs with any thing near to accuracy the length of a man is fteadily looking at one objedl, which, from
time it would take to pafs over a thoufand miles.— its being common, does not occupy his whole mind.
The fame infeufibility of duration happens to every he may be confcious of a thoufand ideas ftarting up
Part II. M E T A P
Of Time, in his imagination, and each in its turn vaniihing the
*“■—Y*~' inftant in which it appeared. Every one of thefe
ideas had an exiftence as well as the objedl at which
he is looking ; but the exiftence of each of them was
inftantaneous and in fucceffion, whilft the exiltence
of the external objedl is permanent. The objedt,
therefore, as contrafted with the train of ideas, is
. faid to endure or to exift in time, whilft each idea is
deftitute of duration, and exifts in no time.
To this theory fome objeftions occur, which it will
anfwered. incumbent upon us to obviate. It may be faid,
that though each idea confidered by itfelf is inftanta-
neous, and occupies no time ; yet the whole train
when taken together, without being compared with
any thing external, is perceived to occupy a confider-
able portion of that mode of duration; and that,
therefore, time itfelf mutt be fomething more than a
mere relation between a fleeting fucceffion of ideas
and objedts of more permanent exifter.ee. But how,
we beg leave to afk, is the whole train perceived to
occupy any portion of time ? Is it not by being com¬
pared with our own exiftence ? A man, whilft a train
of ideas is paffing through his mind, may be fuddenly
deprived of all his external fenfes, and then indeed it
will be impoffible for him to compare the fleeting ex¬
iftence of this internal fucceffion with the more per¬
manent exiftence of external things ; but, whilft he
thinks at all, he muft be confcious of his own exiftence,
and cannot avoid perceiving, that whilft his ideas pafs
in conftant fucceffion, each making an inftantaneous
appearance in his mind, he himfelf remains unchanged.
Now, what is it that this perception fuggefts to the
mind ? Evidently nothing more than the relation of
co-exiftence between a fleeting fucceffion and a per¬
manent objedf ; for were it poffible that the man could
be deprived of memory as well as of his fenfes, and
« ftill have ideas fucceeding each other in his mind, he
would then think all objedts equally fleeting ; he would
indeed be himfelf a mere fucceffion of inftantaneous
diftindt perfons, and could have no notion whatever of
time. His exiftence, though it fliould feem to en¬
dure half a century as eftimated by others, muft to
himfelf appear to pafs away like a flafh of lighten¬
ing.
It may be ftill further objedted to our theory, that
time is meafured by motion ; and that it feems very
abfurd to talk of meafuring a relation, efpecially a
mere ideal relation, by a real external thing. In an-
fwer to this objedlion, which at firft light appears for¬
midable, we beg leave to obferve, that all relations are
equally ideal; and that yet many of them may be faid
to be meafured by real external things, with as much
propriety as time can be faid to be meafured by mo¬
tion. When a man wiffies to afeertain the relation of
quantity which one body bears to another, though he
knows that fuch a relation has no other than an ideal
exiftence, and cannot be conceived but in conjundb’on
with the related bodies, he applies to them fucceffively
fome common ftandard ; and having difeovered the
relation which each bears to that, he compares the
one relation with the other, and thus afeertains the
relation fought. Juft fo it is with refpedt to motion
meafuring time. That which to each individual con-
ftitutes real time, is the relation of co-exiftence be¬
tween the fleeting fuceeffion of his own ideas and other
H Y S I C S.
things of a more permanent nature. But a man has Of
often occafion to afeertain the time of things exter- v—"
nal which fall not under the infpedtion of his fenfes;
and in focietyall men have tranfadlions with one ano¬
ther to be performed in fome determinate portion of
time, though there are not, perhaps, two men exifting
whofe ordinary trains of thought flow with precifely
the fame rapidity. To remedy.thefe inconveniences,
it was neceflary to invent fome common ftandard, by
means of which men might afeertain the duration of
aftions performed at a diftafice, and be able to keep
appointments made with each other. The only
ftandard proper for thefe purpofes is fuch a conftant
and equable motion as has fuggefted a flux of per¬
ceptions common to all men in all ages and countries;
and hence the motions of the heavenly bodies have
been uniyerfally made ufe of for the common regulators
of time. Thefe motions, however, do not conftitute
real and natural time, any more than a foot or a yard
applied to two diftant bodies .conftitutes the relation
of quantity which thefe bodies bear to each other.
They are merely ftated meafures, to be differently
applied according to the different purpofes which
we have in view.
Thus, if a man in Europe wiflies to know what
would to him have been the real and natural time of
an aftion performed in the Eatt Indies, he has only
to be told, that it was co-exiftent, we lhall fuppofe,
with a diurnal revolution of the earth ; and by com¬
paring this common meafure with his ufual flow off
thought, he can form fome notion of the extent off
that train of ideas, which, had he been prefent, would
to him have been fucceffively co-exiftent with the a&ion
in queftion. But when perfons have an appointment to
keep, this common meafure of motion muft be diffe¬
rently, or rather partially, applied. In fuch cafes, it
is no part of their intention to compare their own ex¬
iftence with that of the whole train of ideas which
may pafs in the mind of each ; for the refult of fuch
a comparifon, which alone conftitutes true and natu¬
ral time, would not be the fame in perhaps any two
men: but their purpofe is, to compare their own perma¬
nent exiftence only with that train offenfations which
ftiall be excited in the mind by the perceptible mo¬
tion of the fun, or any other body fixed upon which
moves equably; and fuch a train muft conlift of an
equal number of inftants in all men. Neither the
fun, nor the hour-hand of a common watch, moves
with fuch apparent rapidity as to keep pace jivith the
internal flow of thought of which the moft phlegma¬
tic man is confcious. That thefe bodies move at all,
is known only by their vifible change of place during
the lapfe of a cotifiderable portion of real time ; and
as there is in their courfe a certain number of places
diftindfly marked, to which alone it is agreed that
the attention is to be turned, it is impoffible that of
time fo computed two men can have different notions.
Such time, however, is but partial; and the method
of afeertaining it, when compared with that by wffiich
we afeertain real time, has a ftriking refemblance to
that by which we afeertain the relation of partial
quantity between two diftant bodies. When it is
our purpofe to afeertain the relation of real quantity
which one body bears to another, we apply the com¬
mon ftandard to each in every dimenfion of length,
breadth*
566 M E T A P
Of Time, breadth, and depth ; but when we have no other view
l-—Y—* than to afcertain Ihe relation of length which the one
bears to the other, we apply the common ftandard to
each in that dimenfion only. Juft fo it is with regard
to real and partial time. When an individual wiihes
to afcertain what would to him have been the dura¬
tion of any adlion which he did not fee performed,
he applies the common ftandard to the exiftence of
that aclion, and to the ufual flow of his own thoughts;
but when two men talk of the duration of any ac¬
tion, or agree to meet on fuch a day, they compare
the exiftence of the aftion, or the diftance interve¬
ning between the prefent moment and the day of
meeting, only with that partial train of fenfations
which by the common ftandard is generated in an
equal number, and in the fame order, in the minds
of both.
Time muft ■*-t w'^ be faid, that if time be nothing more than a
-have had a mere relation fubfifting between trains of ideas or
^beginning, other fleeting objefts, and things of a more permq-
nent exiftence ; and if the univerfe had a beginning;
either time muft have had a beginning likewife, or
the Deity cannot be immutable. We allow the
force of the argument; but inftead of an objedfion,
we confider it as a confirmation of the truth of our
theory. The Deity, who is immutable, exifts not
v in time, but in eternity ; and that thefe, though
from the poverty of language they are both call¬
ed modes of duration, are yet very different from
each other, we fhall endeavour to prove in the next
chapter.
Chap. VIII. Of Infinity and Eternity.
As corporeal fubftance is certainly not infinite, and
treat of in- 38 the prefent material fyftem has in itfelf every evi-
/iinity and dence of its not being eternal, it may feem ftrange,
eternity perhaps, to the reader, that we fhould treat of infinity
aTundts^of anc^ eternity among the adjuncts of body. But in
body. modern metaphyfics thefe words are ufed in a vague
fenfe to denote the extent of fpace and time ; and in
this chapter it is our intention t© do little more than
afcertain their meaning, and to fhow, in oppofition to
fome celebrated names, of what fubjedls they may not
be predicated. There is a mathematical and a meta-
phyfical infinity, which, though often confounded,
ought to be kept diftinft. In mathematics, exteniion
is faid to be divifible ad infinitum, and number is fome-
times confidered as infinite : but in metaphyfics thefe
modes of expreffion are extremely improper. A pofi-
tive and metaphyfical infinite is that which has no li¬
mits, and to which no addition can be made ; but it is
obvious that there is no number which may not be en¬
larged, nor any pofitive idea of extenfion which has not
limits, and which may not be either increafed or dimi-
niflied. The infinity of the mathematician is termed
infinity in power, and that of the metaphyfician abfolute
infinity. The firft confifts in this, that a being, how¬
ever great or fmall it be fuppofed, may ftill be con¬
ceived to poffefs more greatnefs or minutenefs than we
can form an idea of, even after the utmoft ftretch of
human thought. Thus when it is faid that all exten-
H Y S I C S. Part II.
fion as fuch is infinitely divifible, it is not meant that Of Infinity
every extended fubftance contains an infinite number aad Eter~
of real parts ; for then the parts of an inch would be mty' f
equal to thofe of a league : but the meaning is, that
in ideal extenfion we can never reach the end of ideal
divifion and fubdivifion. In like manner, when it is
faid that number is infinite, the meaning is not that
any pofitive number is without limits, or the poffibir
lity of increafe, but that we might go on for ever,
adding unit to unit, without approaching nearer to
the end of the procefs. If, therefore, the mathema¬
tician would fpeak properly, and without the affe&a-
tion of paradox, he ought to fay that all extenfion as
fuch is indefinitely divifible, and that unit might be
added to unit without end ; but thefe .phrafes fuggeft
notions very different from that of a metaphyfical in¬
finite, which is fomething pofitive to which nothing
can be added, (b)
That there is fomething pofitively infinite, has been Space and
very feldom queftioned ; but it has been warmly dif-f™e f,Jppo" 1
puted among metaphyficians what fubjeefts are infinite. the one infi-
Dr Clarke and his adherents have contended that fpace nite, and
and time are real things; that they are both of necef-the other
fary exiftence ; that the former impreffes us with theecernal;
idea of its infinity, and that the latter is pofitively
eternal. “ Time and fpace (fays the Docftor*) are *
the fine qua non of all other things, and of all oihtrf ration of the
ideas. To fuppofe either of them finite, is an exprefs SeinX and
contrachaion in the idea itfelf. No man does or can /fitribuU* "f
poffibly imagine either of them to be finite; but only Cowfpon-
either by non-attention or by choice he attends perhaps itence with a
to part of his idea, and. forbears attending to the remain- Gentleman of
der. They who fuppofe fpace to be nothing but a
relation between two bodies are guilty of the abfurdity
fuppofing that which is nothing to have real qualities :
For the fpace which is between two bodies h always unalter¬
ably juft what it was, and has the very fame dimenfions,
quantity, and figure, whether thefe or any other bodies be
there or any where elfe, or not at all. Juft as time
or duration is the fame, whether you turn your hour-
glafs or no, or whether the fun moves or ftands ftill,
or whether there was or was not any fun, or any ma¬
terial world at all. To fet bounds to fpace is to fup¬
pofe it bounded by fomething which itfelf takes up fpace,
and that’s a contradiBion ; or elfe that it is bounded by
nothing, which is another contradiction. To fuppofe - ,
fpace removed, defrayed, or taken away, amounts to
the abfurd fuppofition of removing a thing away from
if elf; that is, if in your imagination you annihilate :the
whole of infinite fpace, the whole of infinite fpace will
ftill remain ; and if you annihilate any part of it, that
part will ftill necejfarily remain, as appears by the un¬
moved fituatiqn of the refi; and to fuppofe it divided
or divifible amounts to the fame contradiction,”
The abfurdity of confidering fpace as a real exter¬
nal thing has been already evinced in chap. 4th, p.549,
where it was Ihown how we acquire the notion, and what
kind of notion it is. Space, as was there obferved, may
be conceived either as the mere abfence and poflibili-
ty of body ; or as ideal extenfion, united to, and in¬
hering in, an ideal fubftratum. Taken in the former
fenfe, it is an objedl of pure intellect; in the latter, it
is
(b) Cu yug la ij.ihv i%o «XX 91
iSju w7<, Tci/?a «5rfijov
Atfi. JPbyf. Aufcult. fib. 9. cap. 9. page 492, eTm. I. Oper.
[Part II.
METAPHYSICS.
5^7
" i Sfd Iter7 rS an ,dla °\form ,n the. '^agination. That the ab- Infinite generations contain an infinitely greater infi- Of Infinity
.-I nky. ’ fence of body or matter IS the flne <lua non of a11 other nit7 of particular men. An infinite number of men c'"
^ things, and all other ideas, Dr Clarke was not dif- muft have twice as fnany hands, and ten times as many
pofed to affirm, when he made the divine fubftance, to fingers, and fo on. Infinite time has an infinity of
axs Penrade cvery material atom in the univerfe : and to ages; thefe a much greater infinity of years, days, hours
butimpro- talk of the abfence of body being infinite is a palpable &c. Space likewife (according to Dr Clarke) has
perly. contradiction, unlefs Tterkelev’s doCtrine he true, that three ^imenkenr „n r. n .
contradiction, unlefs Berkeley’s dodtrine be true, that three dimenfions, all infinite. “ It muft, therefore
the material world has no exillence. To fay that the contain an infinity of furfaces, an infinitely greater
pojjlbihty of matter is infinite, is to ufe language which infinity of lines, and a ftill infinitely greater infinity of
U  “ phyfical points. The cafe is the fame in number it-
Neither
fpace nor
has no other meaning than that, however far the ma¬
terial world be on all fides extended, its extenfion may
ftill be conceived greater and greater ad infinitum. This
is a pofition which no philofopher ancient or modern
has ever denied; but it is fo far from implying that
we have a pofitive idea of the infinity of the material
world, or of any adjunCt of the material world, that
it is abfolutely inconfiftent with fuch infinity. What¬
ever is capable of perpetual increafe muft certainly
have limits, and every new addition is the limit of that
to which the addition was made.
Taken in the fecond acceptation as an ideal extenfion
united with an ideal fubjlratum, fpacc is fo far from
being infinite in any fenfe of the word, that we will
venture to aflert no man ever contemplated fuch aform
felt, which, if we fuppofe it to contain an abfolute
infinity of thoufands (and we may as well do that as
imagine it to comprehend an infinity of units), it will
contain ten times as many hundreds, fifty times as
many fcores, and fo on. All this is only the indtfi-
nitenefs of number, which we in vain attempt to turn
into a pofitive infinite with which it is totally incom¬
patible. For let us add one to any of thefe infinite
feries of generations, ages, lines, or numbers, which
we know to be always in our power, and if it was ab-
folutely infinite before, here is one more than infinite.
If it only becomes infinite now, then one finite added
to another finite makes infinity. If it be no larger af-
ter the addition than it was before, then one part
his own imagination, without conceiving it to be added to another adds nothing; all which are abfu^di-
bounded. Of this, at leaft, we are certain, that when ties. The fame will appear, if we fubftraft a part from
we have attempted to frame a pofitive idea of pure this fuppofed abfolute infinite, which may be done in
Ipace, it has^not been in our power to diveft that idea any of the formentioned fubjefts, as well as in every
ot limits. Thofe who can frame in their minds real thing which admits of parts, or may be taken in
and pofitive ideas wholly abftrafted from every indi- pieces by the mind.”
vidua! objea, may indeed perform in this way many f, To this kind of reafoning Dr Clarke replies as foI-Thfufual
teats above our abilities ; but as we poffefs no fuch lows : “ To endeavour to prove that there cannot pof tot!l©-
powers of abitrachon, every thing which we can call fibly be any fuch thing as infinite time or fbace from fore/°ing
an idea is limited in the fame manner that the objea the impoffibility of an addition of finite partf ever com-mown ^
itfdf is limited from which the idea was derived.— pofing or exhaufting an infinite; or from the imagi-
1 bus, the large ft expanfion that ever we beheld is the nary inequality of the number of years, days, and hours
concave hemifphere; and when we try to form the that would be contained in the one; or of the miles*
largeft pofitive idea of pure fpace, all that we can do yards, and feet, that would be contained in the other’
is to figure to ourfelves that concave empty of body, is fuppofing infinites to be made up of numbers of
W e may, indeed, fuppofe its diameter to be either a fimtes; that is, it is fuppofing finite quantities to be
million or ten thoufand millions of miles ; and we may aliquot or confiituent parts of infinite, when indeed they
go on enlarging it admfr.t urn: but when we return from are not fo, but do all equally,- whether great or fmall
this procefs of intellect to the contemplation of the ideal whether many or few, bear the very fame proportion
forms in the imagination, none of thefe forms appear to an infinite, as mathematical points do to a line or
rvar^ 0,: .m°re.erxterndcdjthan hemifphere, lines to a fuperficies, or as.moments do to time, that
which is the objea of fenfe, and they all appear to be is, none at all. No given number or quantity can be
b With ’ 3fnd nded in th.e ^ry fame way. any aliquot or cQnJiltuent part of infinite^ or be compa-*
With refpeft to the eternity of time, we think Dr red at all with it, or bear any kind of proportion to^t
Clarke equally mrftaken as with refpea to the infinity or be the foundation of any argumentimany queftion '
of fpace. Of time, indeed, we cannot properly fpeak- concerning it.”
ing have any idea or mental form. Time, as we have - - - -
If it be indeed true, and it is that for which we -
contend, that ho given number or quantity can Be any
aliquot or conftituent part of infinite, or be compa¬
red at all with it ; then it undeniably follows, not that
miles, yards, and feet, are no conllituent parts of fpace;
or years, days, and hours, conftituent parts of time ;;
but that fpace and time cannot poffibly be pofitive in-
finites.. ibis, we fay, follows undeniably: for no¬
thing is more evident, than that all quantities of the
fame kind, from the largeft to the lcaft,hear a certain >
proportion to each other; and upon the fuppofition
"\ r . i’A- r , 0 J ” that fpaee is a real extended thing, miles, yards, and
mfla-exprefs contradiftion fince the greater muft neceffari- feet are included in it, and bear to it the^elation of
TJfon. y bound the lefs, and exceed its limits by fo much as parts to a whole. The fame is true of time days
£/« d'Lvil. greater, than it; that is, muft make it not infinite, and hours. To affirm (for no proof is offered), .that
all.
, a mere relation, and is in itfelf the creature of
uufitivelv >e *be mmd which has no external idiatum. It is fuggeft-
mfmite;anded» bow<jver, by the fleeting fucceffion of our ideas,
why. compared with the more permanent exiitence of other
* Dr Law’*objeds ; and therefore fucceffion is effential to it. But
Jj^nothing which has parts, whether co-exiftent or in
Space, ‘Time, ^ceffion, can be pofitively infinite. For, “ in an in-
Jmmenfity, finite feries of fucceffive generations of men, for in-
W Etc - ftance, there will be feveral infinites that are parts of
fo^theTme' °T another> and bY confequence one greater than an-
i. othcr : which (as has been well argued *) is an
^68
to bea peti-
tin princjpii.
META P H Y S I C S. Part IT.
alt finite quantities, whether great or fmall, whether and he may fnppofe the inch taken away from the foot Of [nfioity
many or few, do equally bear the very fame propor- or the yard, and thele ideal quantities fo much leflen- ai,d Eter.
tiou to an infinite, as mathematical points do to a line, ed by the fubtra&ion. But if the Doftor be here ni6y .
or as moments do to time, is plainly to beg the que- again confounding the powers of the mind with the ^
ftion—“ that confidered as a real extended thing pofitive ideas of fpace, the fentence when explained
is infinite;n and to beg it, too, in oppofition to the com- will be feen to contain nothing to his purpofe. Every
mon fenfe and reafon of mankind. Mathematical man has the power of contemplating in idea millions
points we all know to be nothing real, but merely ne- of miles, and millions of ages, and of adding mile to
gations of extenfion ; but fuppohng fpace to be iofne- mile, and age to age, without end ; and if he try to
thing real and extended, can any man perfuade him- deprive himfelf of any part of this power, or to fix
felf that a mile or a million of miles of this fpace is a limit to the mental procefs of addition, he will find
likewife a mere negation of extenfion r With him that in fplte of himfelf his imagination will ramble be-
who can bring himfelf to this perfnafion, we pretend not yond the limit affigned, and that he has attempted an
to argue. He is poffeffed of faculties, whether true impofiibility. This, however, is fo far from being a
or falfe, of which we are deftitute. proof that his ideas of.fpace and time are pofitively
That finite quantities, whether great or fmall, do infinite, that, as we have already obferved, it is a proof
all equally bear the- fame proportion to an infinite in of the contrary.
•potuer, is indeed true ; but it is no great difeovery : for But (fay this great man and his followers) “fpace Space and
inch an infinite, as we have feen, is nothing but the and time are the fine qua non of all other things and time are
continued pofiibility of repeating the fame mental pre- all other ideas. The fuppofal of the exiltence of any,ai<1 ^.0 be
cefs of addition or multiplication ; and he who can go thing whatever includes neceffarily a prefuppcfitwn of the ofail**
en for ever adding, in his own imagination,- foot to exigence of and fcWand therefore, if there be other
foot, or hour to hour, will find it equally eafy to add, any thing infinite and eternal, fpace and time muft'hings; but
in the fame manner, league to league, or age'to age. likewife be fo.
If he can perform the one operation, he mull like- To every corporeal fubfiance, and every idea of fuch
wife have power to perform the other ; and he cannot fubftance, fpace and time are indeed neceffary : for
but perceive that it is as impoffible to come to an end every body has extenfion and duration ; and every idea
of adding league to league, or age to age, as of add- of a particular body, being nothing but a fecondary
iiig foot to foot, or hour to hour; but then he muft perception in the jmagination or memory, muft have the
know that thefe leagues, feet, ages, and hours, are not lame relation to imaginary extenfion, that the objedl
real external things, but mere ideas and notions in his from which it was derived has to extenfion which is real,
mind. If fuch powers of ideal multiplication and ad- Every idea, too, which remains in the imagination
dition be what Dr Clarke means by the ideas of fpace whilft a train of other ideas palfes fucceffively in view,
and time, it is indeed a contradi&ion to fuppofe either or whilft external things are perceived to change, has 424
of them limited; for that is to fuppofe our powers real time. But will any man fay \\\dXconfcioufnefs, our^fre are
different fi'om what we know them to be by confciouf- notion of power, our acts of willing, or even tajles, have
nefs and experience. But to confound powers with the founds, and fmells, are extended, or that the fuppofal of no relation
olfids of thofe powers, is certainly very inacurate ; and their exiftence neceffarily implies a prefuppofition of whatever t«
to fuppofe, becaufe we can go on for ever adding one the exifience of fpace ? We acquire our ideas of ex-1i,ace> or
portion of ideal fpace or time to another, that therefore tenfion and fpace by means of our fenfes of touch and
our ideas of fpace and time are in themfelves pofitively fight; and we learn from experience, that things ex¬
infinite, is a contradidtion : for to an idea pofitively ternal and extended are the caufes of our fenfations of
infinite, it is obvious that nothing can be added. Ei- tafte, found, and fmell. The effedls are in our minds
ther, therefore, fpace and time do not imprefs us with clofely affociated with the ideas of their caufes; and
the ideas of their pofitive infinity ; or we cannot have it is not perhaps eafy to think of a particular
the power of adding league to league, and age to age, found, tafte* or fmell, without at the fame time
without end. thinking of the objedt by which it was at firft excited
“ But (fays the Dodtor), to fuppofe fpace removed, in the mind: but had we been originally formed with
deftroyed, or taken wholly away, amounts to the ab- the powers of confcioufnefs, thinking, and willing,
furd fuppofition of removing a thing from itfelf; that and with no other fenfes than thofe of tailing, fmell-
is, if in your imagination you remove the whole of fpace, ing, and hearing, it is obvious that we'never-could
the whole of fpace will ftill remain.” True, every have had the idea of fpace; and therefore, that idea
man has ideas of fpace treafured up in his imagination, cannot poffibly be neceffary to the prefuppofition of
which the found of the very word fpace will at all every thing elfe. To confcioufnefs, thinking, and will-
times bring into his immediate view ; and whilft he ing, fpace is fo far from being neceffary, that we
has fuch ideas, it is impoffible that he fliould not have cannot perceive any the molt diltant relation between
them ; which is all the myftery of the matter, and them. It is not more difficult to conceive a part
amounts to nothing more than that a thing cannot be greater than the whole, than it is to conceive an dlof
and not be at the fame inftant. When the Dodtor confcioufnefs, of thought, or of will; nor is it in the
affirms, that if “ you annihilate any part of fpace, that power of any man to make fpace and fiweetnefs coalefce
part will neceffariiy remain, as appears by the unmoved in his mind fo as to form of the two fimple ideas one
iituation of the relt”, we are not certain that we per- complex conception. The very reverfe is the cafe
ftdlly underftand him. A man may furely think of with refpedl to the objedls of fight and touch. The
a cubical inch without thinking of a foot or a yard; idea of every thing which we fee and handle neceffari-
N°2i5. ly
Part II. M E T A P
Infinity Jy coalefces in the mind with the idea of fpace, nor
Ete-nity. can we P°flihiy feparate the one from the other; but
t. y the things which we fee and handle are neither infi-
nite nor capable of infinity.
So time. With refpeft to time, the fame obfervations will be
found to be juft as with refpedt to fpace. Whatever
is liable to change, exifts in time and cannot be eter¬
nal ; but if there be any being immutable, and who
views at once all things which to us are paft, prefent,
and to come, the exiftence of that being is not com-
menfurable with time. That fuch a being is poffible
no man can doubt, who reflefts, that if we had one
permanent idea invariably in the mind, we fhould ne¬
ver have acquired the notion bi fucceffion or of time 5 and
that if there were attually no change in nature there
could not poflibly in nature be any fuch thing as time.
Every man, therefore, who can conceive exiftence
without change, muft be convinced, that “ the fup-
pofal of the exiftence of any thing whatever does not
neceflarily include the prefuppofition of the exiftence
of time ; and that there may be an eternity diftinft
from time) as well as an infinity diftinft from fpace ;
nay that nothing which is properly infinite and eternal
tig can pofiibly occupy either fpace or time.
Infinity and If it be aiked, what kind of infinity and eternity
«ternjt>, tpey are wh|ch have no relation to fpace and time ?
they cucjworj.}1> treading in the footfteps of the ancients,
has long ago anfwered, that they are “ abfolute per¬
fection, and neceflary exiftence. For (fays he), in-
Jinite underjlanding and knowledge is nothing elfe but
perfeB knowledge,which hath in it no defeft or mixture
of ignorance, hut knows whatfoever is knowable. In
like manner, infinite potver is-nothing elie but perfect
power, which hath in it no defeCt or mixture of im-
potency—a power which can do every thing which is
poflible or conceivable. Laftly, infinity of duration, eft
eternity, is really nothing elfe but pt'fiction, as inclu¬
ding in it r.ecejfary exifience and immutability ; fo that it
is a contradiction to fuppofe fuch a being to have had
a beginning, to ceafe to be, or to fuffer or be affeCted
by any change whatever. And becaufe infinity is
perfection, therefore nothing which includes in its
idea or efience any thing of imperfieEtion, as every pofi-
tive idea of number, corporeal magnitude, and fuc-
H Y S I C S. 569
ceflive duration evidently does, can be truly and pro- Infinity
perly infinite.” * Etenfit
It muft indeed be confefled, that the idea of fuccef- ^ 'f
fion fo infinuates itfelf into our ufual ideas of exiftence,* Inullec-
and is fo clofely connected with the exiftence of .allf»^
finite beings, that -we find it extremely difficult to ima¬
gine the eternal exiftence of God, any otherwife than
as an eternally continued feries or fucceffion. Our
conftant converfation with material objeCts, and the
afibciations thence arifing, make it almoft impoffihle
for us to confider things abftraCted from time and
fpace ; yet we have the evidence of experience and
conicioufiiefs, that an idea may be conceived without
relation to fpace and time, and that fpace and time
cannot be made to coalefce with fome of oiir notions.
The fame muft be true with refpeCt to infinity and
eternity ; for we have feen that neither fpace, time,
nor any thing elfe which confifts of parts, whether
continuous orTucceffive, can be fuppofed to be pofi-
tively infinite, as the fuppofition implies the moft pal¬
pable contradiction. But that there may be perfeft
power, perfeCt knowledge, and permanent invariable
exiftence, is fo far from implying any contradiction,
that even we, whofe faculties are fo very narrow, can
yet make fome advances towards the conception of
fuch perfections. Thus, every man of common un-
derftanding knows that fome tilings are in themfelves
poffible, and others impoffible, to be performed by
any power. Of thefe poffibilities and impoffibilities
a philofopher knows more than an illiterate man ; and
one philofopher knows more than another. An intel¬
lect more perfeCt knows more of them than any man |
and that intellect which knows them all muft be abfo-
lutely perfeCt, and incapable of improvement, becaufe
it knows every thing which is to be known. The
fame is true of perfeCt power :—but we ffiall trect of
real infinity and eternity more at large when we come
to demonftrate the being and attributes of God. At
prefent it is fufficient to have ffiown, that nothing can
be pofitively infinite but a being abfolutely perfeCt;
which never was not, which can produce all things
poffible and conceivable, and upon which all other
things muft depend.
Part III. Of MINDS and their POWERS.
Chap. I. Of Mind in General.
THE faience of metapliyfics comprehends every
thing into the exiftence, nature, or caufcs, of
which any inquiry may be made. But all things of
which we haVe any notion or idea may be divided in¬
to mind and body, with their Various powers, qualities,
and adjunCts. By body is meant that which is folid,.
127 extended, inert, and divifible; and its feveral adjunCts
Mind cii- are fpace, motion, number, and time. The only mind
ftinguifted w:th wp;ch
we 'are intimately acquainted is our own ;
rom 0 y. know that it is poffeffed of the powers of fen-
Tation, perception, retention, confcioufnefs, reflection,
reafon, and will. Thefe are totally different from ex-
tenfion, folidity, divifibility, and motion; and there-
Vol. XI. Part II.
fore it is proper to diftinguiih the being of which they
are powers by another name than that of body.
Of bodies there are various kinds poffeffing various Probably
fenfible qualities; and from analogy it is reafonable tom'ndsolf
conclude, that there may be various claffes of minds^^'”4
endowed with different kinds or degrees of power.'r e'S‘
For this indeed we have ftfonger evidence than that of
analogy. Brute animals evidently poffefs the powers
of perception and fpontaneity with fome degree of
confcioufhefs ; but as they appear not to refleCt upon
their own conduCt, c r to have their aCtions influenced
by motives, their minds are inferior to ours, though
ftill perfectly diftiuCl from mere extended, inert,' and
divifible fubitances. Mind, therefore, confidered with
•relpeCt to its powers, is evidently different from body
confidered with refpeCt to its qualities. This is indeed
57®
METAPHYSICS.
PartHI
Of Mmd a truth which has feldom if ever been controverted; fubjeft of thought from his external organs of fenfe, Of Min jlli
but it has been long and warmly difputed, Whether and agree to call it by the name of mind; though the
mind and body be not both compofed of the fame firll
matter ?
The abfin'd Hobbes fuppofed, that every material atom is en-
hypothefis dowed with the faculty of fenfation(c); but that for
of want of memory each fenfation is momentaneous, be-
•Dind ^ in^antly and wholly effaced as foon as its caufe is
removed. Though this hypothefis is too abfurd to re¬
quire a formal and laboured confutation, it may not be
one confiders it as compoftd of the Xame firft matter
with the duft: @f the ground ; whilft the other believes
it to have no property whatever in common with that
matter..
Were we to adopt fome of the ancient methods of
philofophifing, this important queftion might be foon
decided. A molt refpe&able writer, who has labour¬
ed to reftore the metaphyfics of Plato and Ariftotle,
improper to obferve, that, if it were true, the hairs of hopes to confute the materialifts, by laying down what
they muff think arbitrary definitions of mind and mat¬
ter, and then Ihowing that the one is not the other.
In all the parts of the material world (fays he) there
is a perpetual motion: For the celeftial bodies move
Others have fuppofed that each atom of matter has conftantly in one refpeft or another ; and all here be¬
low is in a continual viciffitude of generation and cor¬
ruption, which cannot be without motion. Now, where
i tendencies pro- there is motion., there mull be fomething that moves :
What is moved 1 call body; what moves I call mind.”
From this definition he undertakes to prove, that mind
mull be immaterial. “ That there is a relation be¬
tween moving and being moved (fays he), nobody <
a man’s head would feel extreme pain when pinched
by the hot iron of the hair-dreffer ; and that the nails
of his fingers would be feverely tortured wdien under
4,j0 the operation of the knife or the rafp.
Other ab-
find hypo- a tendency towards fenfation and perception ; and that
tneles. when a fufficient number of thefe atoms are brought
together in a certain order, the
duce the actual powers' which dillinguilh mind from
grofs body. This fuppofition is if pofiible' more ab-
furd than that of Hobbes. Senfation and perception
are of fuch a nature, that a mere tendency towards them
is inconceivable. A thing muff either be fenfible and deny ; and the relation is no other than that of adion
percipient, or infenfible and inert: there is evidently
no medium. Or if we could fuppofe each individual
atom to have a tendency, towards fenfation, it would by
no means follow that a number of fuch atoms brought
together in any poffible order would become one fen-
tient, thinking, and adtive being. A number of bodies
and pajfion. But the nature of relation is fuch, that
it mull neceffarily be between two things at lead; and
it is further neceffary, that the two things related
Ihould exill together. Hence, if there be that which
moves, there mult be a different thing that, is moved ;
and wherever the one is, the other mull neceffarily be;
laid upon an inclined plain have each a tendency to roll fo that nothing can move itfelf. This being dlablilh-
downwards; but if the declivity of the plain be not
fuch as that their feparate tendencies may overcome
the refiilance oppofed to each individual body by fric¬
tion, the united tendencies of all the bodies when brought
together will not be able to overpower the refillance
of their united fri&ions. Juft fo is it with refpedl to
fenfation and perception : If the tendency of one atom
cannot overcome one degree of inertnefs, the tendency
of a thoufand atoms will not overcome a thoufand de¬
grees of the fame inertnefs.
We have juft mentioned thefe abfurd fuppofitions
that our article might be complete : but it is proper
to inform the reader, that, fo far as we know, neither
the fubje<5t. 0£ tjiem j^g for tl]efe many years been maintained by
any philofopher of eminence either at home or abroad.
The opinions on this fubjedl, which at prefent divide
the republic of letters, are ti£o ; and thefe alone are
v'orthy of examination. One party maintains, That
perception, memory, reafon, and will, See. are the
powers of a being which mull be immaterial and indi-
Only two
opinions a
ed, I fay that what moves mull be either material or
immaterial: for the one of thefe being the negation
of the other, there can be no middle betwixt them ;
becaufe a thing mull neceffarily be, or not be. If then
it be immaterial, there is an end of the queftion : but
if it be faid to be material, then I fay that it mull be
moved itfelf before it can move any thing elfe ; for it
is only in that way that body can move body. If
then it mull be firft moved itfelf, but cannot itfelf
move itfelf, what is it that moves it ? If it be an-
fwered, That it is another material mover) then I re¬
peat the fame queftion, to which the fame anfwer mull
be given : and fo we have an infinite feries of material
movers, without any beginning or principle of motion.
Now this is abfurd, and contradictory to this firft
principle of natural philofophy, admitted by all philo-
fophers ancient and modern, That nothing can be produced
without a caufe%.” _ f AmUxt
For the immateriality of the human mind, and of Metaphy
every being endowed with the powers of perceptioar"
vifible : The other alleges, That as wc know nothing and thought, the learned writer has Letter argumen
of thefe powers but from our own confcioufnefs, and
as we can trace them in ourfelves to the brain and no
farther, we have no reafon to fuppofe that they are
the powers of any fubftance diftinft from matter. Both
parties, however, diftinguilh that which in man is the
but it is upon this chicily that he refts his perfuafion,
that mind is the only mover in the, univerfe. It is
needlefs to obferve, that in the very definitions and
axioms upon which this reafoning is built, the thing to
be proved is taken for granted: for if it be felf-evi-
3 - dent.
(c) Scio fuiffe philofophos quofdam, eofdemque viros doBos, qui corpora omnia fenfu praedita effe fuftinu-.
crunt: Nec video, fi natura fenfionis in reactione fola.collocaretur, quomodo refutan pojjint. Std etli ex re-
atUone etiam corporum aliorum, phantafma aliquod nafeeretur ; illnd tamen, remote objefto, llatim cellarer.
Nam nifi ad retinendum motum impreffum, etiam remoto objeiftq, apta habeant organa, ut habent animalia ;
ita tantum fentient, ut nunquam feofiffe fe recordentur. Senfioni ergo, qhse vulgo ita appellatur, necefftui©
adhsret inemcria aliqua. Hobbes'i Phyfcl cap. 25. fed. 5.
Partlll. METAPHYSICS. 57*
Of Mind dent, that U’hat Is, in the author’s fenfe of the philofophUing above mentioned, we mud; neceflarilyOf the .rj’>
conclude, that thefe powers alfo may belong to the
fame fubftance that has alfo the properties of attrac- Mind-
tion, repullion, and extenfion( d), which I as well as y-—»
others call by the name of matter. The reafon of the
conclufion is limply this, that the powers of fefifation
or perception and thought, as belonging to man, have
never been found but in conjunction with a certain
organifed fyjlem of matter; and therefore that thofe
tn general. wor(]} mind, that what is moved is body, and that nothing
v ~ can move itfelf, all reafoning on the fubjeft is fuper-
fluous. This, however, is fo far from being felf-evi-
dent, that a materialift. may reply, “ every animal
moves itfelf, and yet every animal is nothing more
than a fyftem of matter.” This pofition, whether
true or falfe, can neither be proved nor confuted by
arguments « priori founded on general definitions. v ^  
That animals move themfelves, and that to the fenfes powers neceflarily exift in and depend upon Jack a
they appear to be nothing elfe than fyltems of matter, fyftem. This at leaft muft be our conclufion, till it
are faCts which cannot be controverted. If we would can be Ihown that thefe powers are incompatible with
know whether they have in them a principle of motion the other known properties of the fame fubftance; and
Th’pro- which is not material, we muft fubmit to the laws of for this I fee no fort of pretence.”
per method induction (fee Lode); and by inveftigating the ef- This is what Dr Prieftley calls the proper and di-
of iiwfli- fential qualities of matter, endeavour to afcertain whe- reft proof that the fentient principle in man is the ma-
nature oF t^ier 3 matena^ fy^em can be rendered aftive. That terial fubftance of the brain ; and he enforces it by the
• ■ we ourfelves have aftive powers, we know by the moft following obfervations; “ Had we formed a judgment
complete of all evidence, viz. confcioufnefs of their
energies; and it has been already fhown, that fuch
powers as we experience in ourfelves cannot exift but
in a fubjeft poffdfed of will and underftanding. The
queftion therefore to be firft decided between the ma-
‘ Had v
concerning the neceffary feat of thought by the cir-
cumftances that nniverfally accompany it, which is out
rule in all other cafes, we could not but have conclu¬
ded that in man it is a property of the nervous fyjlem,
or rather of the brain ; becaufe, as far as we can judge,
terialifts and immaterialifts is, Whether the powers of the faculty of thinking, and a certain ftate of the brain.
confcioufnefs, underftanding, and will, can refult from
the particular^organifation of a fyftem of matter? If
they can, we have no reafon to attribute them in man
to any other fource: If thefe powers appear necefla-
rily to require an immaterial principle for their fup-
port, it will probably be granted, that an immaterial
always accompany and correfpond to one another ;
which is the very reafon why we believe that any pro¬
perty is inherent in any fubftance whatever. There
is no inftance of any man retaining the faculty of
thinking when his brain was deftroyed ; and whenever
that faculty is impeded or injured, there is fufficient
principle is the fource of every power and every mo- reafon to believe that the brain is difordered in pro-
tion in the univerfe ; and the doftrine of mind, in the portion; and therefore we are necdfarily led to con-
ftrifteft fenfe of the word, will be fufficiently efta-
blilhed.
Chap. II. Substance Human
Mind.
fider the latter as the feat of the former. Moreover,
as the faculty of thinking in general ripens and comes
to maturity with the body, it is alfo obferved to decay
with it; and if, in fome cafes, the mental faculties
continue vigorous when the body in general is en¬
feebled, it is evidently becaufe in thofe particular cafes
The moft celebrated materialift of this or perhaps the brain is not much affefted by the general caufe of
of any other age is Dr Prieftley; who having in his weaknefs. But, on the other hand, if the brain alone
Arguments own imagination divefted matter of folidity, and re- be affefted, as by a blow on the head, by aftual pref-
■or the im- duced it to mere centres of attraftion and repulfion, fure within the Ikull, by fleep, of by inflammation,
Materiality obferves, that “ if one kind of fubjlance be capable of the mental faculties are univerfally affefted in propor-
i«ui mind fuPPorting known properties of man ; that is, if tion._ Likcwife, as the mind is affefted in confequetice
’ thofe properties have nothing in them that is abfolute- of the affeftions of the body and brain, fo the body is
ly incompatible with one another; we fhall be obliged liable to be reciprocally affefted by the affeftions of
to conclude (unlefs we openly violate the rules of phi- the mind, as is evident in the vilible effefts of all ftrong
lofophifing, which will not authorife us to mhltiply pafiions, hope or fear, love or anger, joy or forrow,
caufes or kinds of fubftance without neceffity), that no exultation or defpair. Thefe are certainly irrefragable
other kind of fubftance enters into his compofition ; arguments, that it is properly no other than one and
the fuppofition being manifeftly unnecejfary, in order to the fame thing that is fubjeft to thefe affeftions, and
account for any appearance whatever.—All the pro- that they are neceffarily dependent upon one another,
perties that hav£ hitherto been attributed to matter, In faft, there is juft the fame reafon to conclude, that
may be comprifed under thofe of attraftion and repul- the powers of fenfation and thought are the neceffary
fion. Befides thefe, man is poffeffed of the powers of refult of a particular organization, as that found is
fenfation or perception, and thought. But if, without gi- the neceffary refult of a particular concuffion of the
ving the reins to our imaginations, we fuffer ourfelves air. For ip both cafes equally the one conftantly ac-
to be guided in our inquiries by the Ample rules of companies the other; and there is not in nature a
4 C 2 ftronger
(d) When Dr Prieftley mentions the exten/ion of corporeal fubftance, it muft be remembered that he does
not mean the extenfion of any real thing poffeffed of an independent exiftence. The extenfion belongs wholly
to the fphere or the combination of fpheres of attradion and repujfion. The centre itfelf, which attrafts and re¬
pels, he repeatedly affirms not to have the dimenfions even of a phyfical point; and he fometimes feems to
'entertain a doubt whether it be any thing more than a mere relative notion.
572
Of the Sub-
ftance of
the Human
Mind.
]S/latter and
Spirit.
METAPHYSICS.
Parc II
ftronger argument for a neceffary conneftion or any
caufe and any effeft. To adopt an opinion different
from this, is to form an hypcthefis without a fmgle
fa£l to fupport it.” *
Though the ingenious author thinks, that if there
be any foundation for the eftablifhed rules of philofo-
phifing, this reafoning ought to be conclufive, he yet
fubjoins, for the greater fatisfaftion of his readers,
fome additional arguments, or rather, as he fays, di-
flinft illuftrations of the great argument. They are
as follows:
i “ That the faculty of thinking neceffarily de¬
pends, for its exercife at leaft, upon a flock of ideas,
about which it is always converfant, will hardly be
queflioned by any perfon. But there is not a fingle
idea of which the mind is poffeffed but what may be
proved to have come to it from the bodily fenfes, or to
have been confequent upon the perceptions of fenfe.
The notion, therefore, of the pojjibility of thinking in
man, without an organized body, is hot only deftitute
of all evidence from aclual appearances, but is direbtly
contrary to them ; and yet thefe . appearances ought
alone to guide the judgment of philofophers.
2. “ The only reafon why it has been fo ear-
neflly contended fur, that there is fome principle
in man that is not material, is, that it might fubfift,
and be capable of fenfation and acftion, when the body
is dead. But if the mind was naturally fo independ¬
ent of the body, as to be capable of fubfifling by it-
felf, and even of appearing to more advantage, after
the death of the body; it might be expe&ed to dif-
cover fome figns of its independence before death, and
eipecially when the organs of the body were obttrudl-
ed, fo as to leave the foul more at liberty to exert
itfelf; as in a ftate of Jleep or fwoonmg, which mull re¬
ferable the ftate of death; in which it is pretended
that the foul is moft of all alive, moil adlive, and vi¬
gorous. But judging by appearances, the reverfe of
all this is the cafe.
3. “If the mental principle was, in its own nature, im¬
material and immortal, all its particular faculties would
be fo too ; whereas we fee that every faculty of the
mind without exception is liable to be impaired, and
even to become wholly extindl, before death. Since,
therefore, all the faculties of the mind, feparately taken,
appear to be mortal, the fubftance or principle inwhich
they exift muft be pronounced to be mortal too.
4. “ If the fentient principle in man be immaterial,
it can have no extetjion; it can neither have length,
breadth, nor thicknefs; and confequently every thing
within it, or properly belonging to it, muft be fimple
and indiivfibh. Let us now confider how this notion
agrees with the phenomena of fenfation and ideas. It
will not be denied, but that fenfations or ideas pro¬
perly exift in tlx foul, becaufe it could not otherwife
retain them,, fo as to continue to perceive and think
after its feparatioo from the body. Now, whatever
ideas are in themfelves, they are evidently produced
by external objects, and muft therefore correfpond to
them; and fince many of the objedts or archetypes
of ideas are divifible, it neceffarily follows, that the
ideas themfelves are divifible alfo. But, how is it pof-
fible that a thing (be the nature of it what it may)
that is di'oifihk, Ihould be contained in a fubftance, be
the nature of it like wife what it may, that is indivfibk?
If the archetypes of ideas have extenfion, the ideas Of the Su
which are expreffive of them, and are adtnally produ-^an|cent
ced by them according to certain mechanical laws,
muft have extenfion likewife; and therefore the mind  
in which they exift, whether it be material or imma¬
terial, muft have extenfion alfo. But how any thing
can have extenfion and yet be imrtiaterial, without coin¬
ciding with our idea of mere empty /pace, 1 know not.”
To the argument, which is here chiefly infifted on
as being agreeable to the eftabliihed rules of philofo-
phiiing, a very able reply has been made, which we
fhall give in the words of its elegant and fpirited au¬
thor. But before we attempt to dig up the founda¬
tion of the Dodtor’s fyftem, it may not be improper
to demoliih, if poflible, the additional buttreffes by
which it is ftrengthened. An experienced general,
before he ftorm a citadel which he knows to be ftrong-
ly fortified and fkilfully defended, will take care to {
raze every lefs important redoubt from which the
enemy might annoy him in his rear. 1
Becaufe the faculty of thinking in general ripens, Anfwered!
comes to maturity, and -decays with the body, and
the body on the other hand is affedted by the affec¬
tions of the mind, the Dodtor affirms that we have
the fame reafon to' conclude, that thg powers of fen¬
fation and thought are the neceffary refult of a par¬
ticular organifation, as that found is the neceffary re¬
fult of a particular concuffion of the air. This argu¬
ment is conclufive only upon the fuppoiition that there-
is no pofttive evidence whatever for the immateriality
of the being which is the fubjedl of thought. If the
other reafonings for the materiality and immateriality
of the mind be of equal weight, this argument ought
doubtlefs to turn the balance ; but if there be the
fmalleft preponderancy in behalf of the immaterialifts,
it is a mere begging of the queftion to attempt to
counteradt it by any inference which can be drawn
from the mutual affedlions of the body and mind. If
two fuch heterogeneous beings as an immaterial mind
and an organifed body can be fuppofed united in one
perfon, they muft neceffarily affedl each .other; and
to affirm, on account of this reciprocal affedlion, that
they are one and the fame, is equally abfurd as to fay
that an eledtrician and his apparatus are one and the
fame. Dr Prieftley himfelf did not at firft perform
his eledlrical experiments with fo much eafe as after
he had acquired -facility by long practice, nor could
he even yet perform them fo neatly with a bad as with
a good apparatus.
That which the Dodlor calls the firft illuftration
of his argument might be admitted, and the force of
the argument itfelf be confidently denied. Some kind
of orgaffifed body may be neceffary to the mind as an
inftrument without which it could not exert its fa¬
culties ; but it would certainly be rafti to infer that,
the mind muft therefore be a fyftem of matter. An
anvil and a hammer are neceffary to the exercife of
the blackfmith’s art; but what would be thought of
him who (hould from this fail conclude, that the
blackfmith himfelf muft be a fyftem of iron ? This,
therefore, inftead of illuftrating the great argument,
feems to be wholly foreign from the queftion in de-#
bate ; and it has in fadl been admitted by Dr Price*,
and thoufands of others who reject the doctrine of with Dw
aieterialifin, as an impious abfurdity. The fecond il-
UiftratioQ
I Part IIL METAPHYSICS. J73
4 Of the Sub-luftration, however, is more to the purpofe ; and as thor’s notions of mind and idsas differ in fume refpedls Of the Su^-
j| ftance of jt js not new, we fliall give it an old anfwcr. from our own, wre fhall examine this objeftton to the t]ieajjCHen"an
Why do not we perceive external obje&s in our doftrine of the immaterialifts upon principles which Mind.
. v ^ Jleep or in a fivoon ? “ Becaufe (fays Mr Wollafton), we believe Dr Prieftley more inclined to admit.
\ Religion +the pajfages are become impracticable, the 'windows That the fentient principle in man, if it be imma-
»f Suture flint, and the nernes being obftruCted, or fomehow ren- terial, can have no extenlion, is a truth which we
Delineated dered for the time ufelefs, can tranfmit no informa- think cannot be controverted ; and if lo, every thing
tion to it. Why, however, does it not reafon and in that principle muft be Jimple and indivijible. Thus
think about fomgtking or other? Becaufe, all the marks far we agree with Dr Pricftley ; but with refpeft to
by which things are remembered, being for the pre- what follows we differ from him entirely. The agi-
fent choked up or difordered, the remembrance of tation in the brain, which is the immediate caufe of
thofe oljefls about which it is wont to employ itfelf, fenfation, muff indeed correfpond to the imprdfion
and even of the words (or ether figns) in which it ufes ab extra by which it is produced, and therefore muft
to reafon, and to preferve the dedu&ions and conclu- have the property of extenlion ; but that agitation,
lions it makes, is all fufpended at leaft for the time ; whatever it be, is not itfelf fenfation any.more than
and fo its tables being covered, its books clofed, and a bludgeon is a blow or a fword is a wound. Dr
its tools locked up, the requifites for reafoning are Prieltley, indeed, in anfwer to Dr Price, affirms, that,
wanting, and no fubjedi offers itfelf to exercife its according to Hartley’s theory, ideas are only vibra-
thoughts, it having yet had little or no opportunity tions in the brain ; but whoever fliall take the trouble
to take in higher oljecls and more ref red matter fer to examine that theory himfelf, will not find that its
contemplation. And, to conclude, if it be demand- author ever advances fuch an opinion, or confiders
ed, Why any one fliould imagine that the foul may vibrations as any thing more than the inftruments by
think, perceive, aft, after death, when it doth not do which fenfations and . ideas are excited in the fentient
this in fleep, &e. ? the anfwer is, Becaufe thofe inclo~ principle. A real and proper idea, as we have often
fares and impediments which occafioned the foremen- repeated, is nothing elfe than a fainter fenfation: but
tinned intermiffions, and thofe great limitations under no fenfation, from whatever caufe it may proceed, is it-
which it labours at all times, will be removed with its felf extended j nor could we, without memory, the
enlargement out of the body. When it fliall in its proper reafoning faculty, and the power of local motion, have
vehicle be let go, and take its flight into the open acquired from mere fenfe any notion of extenfion at
fields of heaven, it will then be bare to the immediate all: (See feft. 3. chap. i. Part I.) Senfations and ideas
impreffions of objefts: And why fliould not thofe im- are thofe appearances if we may fo fay), which vibra-
preffions wdiich affefted the nerves, that moved and tions or fome other motion in the brain excite in the
affefted the vehicle and foul in it, ajfeld the vehicle im- mind ; but a half appearance is an abfurdity. A man
mediately when they are immediately made upon it, may view half a tree with his eyes, and he may con-
without the interpofition of the nerves? The hand template the idea of Iree in his mind ; but he can-
which feels an objeft at the end of afaff, may cer- not have half a view or half an idea of any thing. Sen-
tainly be allowed to feel the fame much better by im- fations and ideas refult from the mutual agency of the
mediate contaH without the ftaff.” brain and fentient principle upon each other; and if
The opinion, that the foul is united to fome fine ve- the agency of the brain be vibration, more of it may
hide, which dwells with it in the brain, and goes off vibrate at one time than at another : but furely the
with it at death, was not peculiar to Mr Wollafton. mere relation between its agency at any time and the
It was thought extremely probable by Dr Hartley, agency of the mind, can neither have extenfion nor
•and fliall be ftiown afterwards to have been a very an- be divifible ; for who ever thought of extending or
dent opinion; but we do not quote it at prefent as dividing relations ? On this fubjeft it is extremely
either well or ill founded, but only as fuffiejent, in difficult to write with perfpicuity and precifion; and
conjunftion with the reafoning of its author, to ob- what we have faid may very poffibly be mifunderflood.
date the force of Dr Prkftley’s fecond illuftration of Our notion is to ourfelves clear and determinate • but
his argument for the materiality of mind, provided language which was not invented by metaphyficians,
the argument itfelf be not more powerful than any wants words in which it may be properly expreffed!
which the immaterialifts can bring againft it. Perhaps the reader may underliand what we mean
_ The Doftor’s third illuftration we have already ob- when we fay that a fenfation or an idea is the inftanta-
viated, when we accounted for the mind and the body neous effeft of the mutual agency of the brain and
mutually affefting each other ; and we might refer to fentient principle. Of this we think every man, by
Dr Price’s anfwer (e) to the fourth, as being, in our a little attention, may be perfeftly convinced, tho’ugh
opinion, a full _ confutation of it. But as that au- it may be impoffible ever to difeover the precife na-
3 ture
^ (e) In Bifquif tions, p. 37 and 102, it is afferted, that ideas are certainly divifible. “ This feems to me very
abfurd. It would be as proper to affert ideas to be hard or round. The idea of an objeft is the apprehen-
fion, view, or notion of it; and how can this be divifible? Perception is a Angle and indivi Able aft. The
objeft perceived may be diviiible ; but the perception of it by the mind cannot he fo. It is laid in page 95, that
if ideas are not things dfin ft from the mind, a mind with ideas and a mind without ideas would be thefame. 1 main¬
tain, that ideas are not diitinft from the mind, but its conceptions^ or not things themfelves, but notions of
things. How does it follow from hence, that a mind with or without ideas is the lame ? It would feem.-thafc*
this follows much more from the contrary affertion.” Cor ref pan deuce- between Dr Price and Dr Priefley.
574
Of the Snb-ture of this agency; and if fo, it is plain that fenfa-
tl^Human t‘ons and ideas cannot be divided, for no inftantaneous
Mind, effedlofanykind is diviiible. A fenfationjand of courfe
u ■■ y-—' a iimple and original idea, neither has extenfion itfelf,
nor fuggefts the notion of extenfion al extra. By
running the hand or any other member along a folid
body, we feel continued refiftance : this feeling, or
the idea of this feeling, becomes in time fo clofely affo-
ciated with all our fenfations of touch and light, that
the one cannot be feparated from the other; and thefe
affociations are what Dr Prieftley calls extended ideas.
Upon the whole then, we think it apparent, that our
fenfations, and the relifts of our fenfati^ns, are unex¬
tended and indivilible, (f) ; and that though they fug¬
ged; to us the exidence of extended things ab extrat
the fentient being may be unextended and indivifible.
Having thus examined Dr Priedley’s auxiliary ar¬
guments for the materiality of mind, we now proceed
to confider his main and direft proof. To this, as we
have obferved, fo able a reply has been made, that it
would be injudice to our readers not to lay it before
Part TIL
them, in the words of its author. “ I readily ac-OftheSub.
knowledge (fays this fpirited effayid*), that the power
of fenfation or perception never having been found but Mind,
in conjunftion with a certain organifed fydem of matter,
we ought, as philofophers, to conclude that this power RJfays
rieceflarily exids in, and refults from, that organized fy- PbiUfophi-
dem, unlefs it can be (hown to be incompatible with calj .
other known properties of the fame fubdance. On the
other hand, it mud be admitted, that condant con- *
junftion implies necejj'ary conneftion only when reafons
cannot be difcovered to prove the conjunftion to be ac¬
cidental and arbitrary. In the prefent indance, it is
alleged, that difcerptibility is a property of matter ab-
folutely incompatible with the property of fenfation
or perception ; or in other words, that fenfation is a
power or property incapable of divifion. But as the 23S
power of the entire fydem is clearly nothing more than n/Jof that |
the fum or aggregate of the powers of all the parts, the fentient J
it necelfarly follows, that the primary particles of which principle in .
the fydem is compofed mud, upon the material hypo- ' |
thefis, poffefs didinft powers of fenfation; and that„£|
thofe
METAPHYSICS.
(f) We affirm this only of human fenfations and ideas, becaufe thefe are the only fenfations and ideas
■of which we are confcious, and about which we can reafon. Other animals are fentrient as well as man,
and appear to have their fenfations excited by impreffions ab extra ; but whether in every fpecies of animals
a Angle impreffion excites but one fenfation common to the whole animal, or different fenfations which are
felt each by a different faculty or fentient principle, is a quedion which we are not able to anfwer. We
make this remark, beeaufe from the phenomena of fenfation in the earth-worm and other reptiles, feme
philofophers of eminence having fuppofed, that in thefe creatures the fentient faculty belongs to the mate¬
rial fydem, and is divifible with it; have thence concluded, we think rafhly, that all arguments for the
immateriality of the human mind are founded merely on our ignorance. We call this conclufion raflit; be¬
caufe, though we know perfeftly what a human fenfation is, we have fo little knowledge of the nature of
fenfation in worms, that what may be true of the one principle of fenfation may be faife of the other. In¬
deed, if we are to judge from the phenomena, this is aftually the cafe. It appears from experiments made
by Abbe Spallanzani and others, that if a certain number of rings be cut off either from the anterior of
poderior part of a worm, or even from both, the remainder will not only continue to live and be fentient,
but will alfo regenerate a new head and a new tail, and become again a complete worm. Nothing like this takes
place in man or in the higher orders of animals ; and therefore, were it certain that the fentient principle in
the worm is diffufed through the whole fydem and divifible with it, we could not infer that the principle
of fuch fenfations as We are confcious of, is likewife extended and divifible. It is, however, fo far from being
certain that the fentient principle is diffufed through the whole worm, that nothing neceffarily follows from
this faft, but that its feat is at fome didance from either extremity. Nay, were it true, as 'perhaps it is,
that a worm may be fo divided, as that each of the two feftions lhall retain life, fenfation, and this repro-
duftive power, we would not therefore be authorifed to conclude that the fentient principle is one, co-ex-
tended and diviiible with the material fydem. The earth wmrm, like many other reptiles, being an herma¬
phrodite, which unites in itfelf both fexes, may poffibly confid of two animated fydems; which though
united by fome bond of conneftion, by which fenfation is communicated from the one to the other, arc
yet in themfelves perfeftly didinft. Should this, upon proper invedigation, be found to be the cafe; and
Ihould it likewife be found; that when a worm is divided into three or more parts, only one or two of thefe
parts continue to live, there would be no room whatever for fuppofing that even in thef« creatures the
principle of fenfation is extended and divifible. In the mere power of reproducing amputated parts,
when that power is confidered by itfelf, there is nothing more wonderful than in the growing of the
nails of our fingers or the hairs of our heads. The only thing which feems to militate againd the fimpli-
city of the principle of fenfation in worms, is the continuance of life, &c. with both parts of a worm when cut
into two by a knife or pair of feiffars; but if a worm be found to have two feats of fenfation analogous to the brain
in higher animals, and if it be likewife found that life continues only in fuch feftions as retain at lead one
feat of fenfation, the fentient principle in the worm may be as timple and indivifible as in any animal
whatever. We neither wiffi nor expeft much drefs to be laid upon theft hints and conjeftures. Should they
induce any of our phyfiological readers, who have, leifure, and are at the fame time fkilkd in philofophy,
properly fo called, to inditute a fet of experiments upon worms, and luch reptiles, and to trace apparent
effefts to their heigher caufes, they might eventually lead to important dife-'veries. In the mean time, it is
fufficient for our purpofe to obferve, that whatever, be the fentient principle or principles in the earth-worm,
it is obvious that the whole animal cannot in any cafe be confcious, as man undoubtedly is, oi one individual
fenfation; and that therefore no arguments built upon the phenomena accompanying fenlation in wormsj
can be of any importance in the controverfy about the materiality or immateriality of the human mind.
uPart III. METAPHYSICS.
of'1 r0|e P°'vers''ombincd confhtuic the indii/ifiblc power propornion, the whole and all the- parts being terms
the Humanot 1^nlatl0n belonging to the fyftem ; or, in other precifely fynonymous. Whoever, therefore, calls in
Mind. t“at l*16 'tndivijillt power of fenfation is a dim- queftion the truth of this axiom, mull maintain that
y we power, nay, an infinitely divifible power, if mat- the power of the whole is fomething different from the
1 10!0^erS in Seneral allow, an infinitely di- power of all the paits, i. e. that the power of the
vifible fubftance a conclufion obvioufiy and grofsly ri- whole is not the power of the whole,
dicinous. We are then compelled to acknowledge, “ It will be eafy to demonllrate the correfpondence
that ienfation or perception is not the property of a ef fa&s with this plain and fimple theory. For this
material lubltance ; i.. e. if the common mode of ex- purpofe, it is neceffary to obferve, that the properties
preilion be retained, it is the property of an immate- of matter, or what are generally denominated fueh,
rial lubltance ; or, to avoid verbal contention, it is a may be divided into real and nominal, which Locke
not re. °r neceflarJ1y connedled and others have called primary and fecondary qualities.
57.5T
OftheSub-
flance of
the Human
Mind.
, r . '  j r > “■*“ ••*-**«. ^ ngure, magnitude, and motion. There are
themielves warranted to pronounce that organized fy- alfo powers, or qualities, vulgarly coniidered as inhe-
Items of matter aftually do poffefs, powers effentially rent properties of matter organically difpofed, which
di erent from thofe which inhere in the feveral parts, are really and truly qualities or affections of the men-
Amongit various familiar though ftriking illuflrationsof tal or percipient principle, and have no exigence when
tuis tru-th, it has been faid, that a rofe poffefTes the not perceived. Thus the fweetnefs or fragrance of the
property of fweetnefs or fragrance, a globe the pro- rofe, confidered as mere fweetnefs and fragrance, can
perty of fphericity, a harpfichord the property or. be nothing but an affc-aion of the mind ; confidered
power of producing harmony, aqua regia the proper- as a quality of the rofe, they can mean nothing more
ty ot diiiolving gold, See. though the component par- than a certain arrangement, configuration, and motion
ticles of theie different organized fyflems are them- of parts, which In fome inexplicable manner produces
e ves totally deflitute of the powers and properties the fenfation of fweetnefs. In this inftance, therefore,
ere enumerated. . the power of the whole is plainly the aggregate of the
. he ^material!Its, in reply, affert, that it is not powers refiding in the parts, by the motion and or-
n y a e in Lft, but a direft contradiction, and an ganization of which a certain effedl is produced upon
abfolutermpoflibihty in .the nature of things, that a a foreign and percipient fubftance.
iyitem fhould poffefs any property which does not “ But a globe, we are told, poffeffes the property
’f tT TF°aeDi Prns- T° affert that the of fPheHcity» though not a particle amongll
power of the whole is the fum or aggregate of the that infinite number of which the globe is con-
of all the parts, is an identical and felf-evident ftituted is itfelf of a fpherical form. The fallacy
of
pewei
powers
our rea^s mag n tni! ^ ^ W-S i°ng ag° Urged ^ D'r CIarke affa>'nft Mr Dodwell; and fome of
be JaterL? T fle u Pfeafed it0 fe * by f° maflerly 3 reafoner: “ That the foul cannot poffibly
divS^ft ^ o^ frim thC crg e c°nflderatIon Qf bare ^nfe or confeioufnefs. For matter being a
kfs it tere efthntLfi °,f .feParable’ nah of fePara^ and diflinCt parts, it is plain that un-
-md dillinA ^ r ^ tr^^^r’a Wnicrh.ca^e evcry partk-le of matter muft confift of innumerable feparate
feioust int fP0 fyften} of ^ - any Poffible compofition or divifion, ean be an individual con-
Lom ano hf; > tkree ‘^ee hundred particles of matter, at a mile or any given diftance one
SnoDofe ten all ,t, 7ffible tbat a11 thefe fePar^ P^ts fhould in that ftate be one individual confcious being ?
bnppofe then all thefe particles brought together into one fyftem, fo as to touch one another, will they there-
V ^by anj or compohtion whatfoever, become one whit lefs truly diftir.a beings than they were
^itoifT* tTf'e H?7 thei> fan their being difpofed in any poffible fyftem make them onl indi-
paticles vet ftill thffe nt fT T ' fUPP°H G°t by ^ infinitC P°Wer fuPeradding confeioufnefs to the united
particleo, yet ftill thefe particles being really and neceffanly as diftincl beings as ever, cannot be themfelves the
fubjea m which that individual confc.oufnefs inheres ; but the confeioufnefs can only be fuperadded by the ad-
ition of fomething, which m all the particles muft ftill itfelf be but one individual being. The find, there-
flance.”i0 C ^ClTrkfs ^ P^y ^ ^
an 7a-4 the fame rn0de 0f wa6 known to the ancients, Cudworth has ffiown by numerous quotations-
» kr I»vl„g occurred to .hinkingTe’TdZt
itbn,uTb ^ 7 before our readers two paffages from Plotinus, of which the extraft from Clarke's letter
The fame argument it Air
h edvvalu tn trojutTMt fa, ,ty*Zyrtot x« ym«, r« E». IV,
576 M E T A P
Of the Suit- of tin's illiiflration is, however, as eafily demonftrable
th^Hrmau as t^e f°rmer* The fphcricity of a globe is
Mind, evidently the fum or aggregate of the curvilinear or
t«—y  convex parts which compofe its furface ; and the pro¬
perty of the whole is neither more nor lefs than the
combined properties of all its parts. No one doubts,
that by new compofitions or arrangement of material
particles poflt'fhng magnitude, figure, and motion, an
endlefs diverfity of phenomena may be produced, to
which it may be necefiary to apply new names. New
names, however, do not conllitute new properties ;
and though we give to a globe the appellation of an
entire fyftem, and aferibe to it the property of fpheri-
city, we know at the fame time that it is really nothing
more than a colle&ion of thoufands of millions of par¬
ticles, actually feparate and diftinft, arranged in that
particular form which we denominate fpherical. But
this can never be regarded as in the remoteft manner
analogous to the creation of the power of perception,
in confequence of a certain organical arrangement or
difpofition of impercipient particles. Though fphe-
ricity is, indeed, the property of the entire fphere,
yet every part of the fphere, if divided, pofiefles its
fhare of fphericity. But if the percipient principle
be divided, what would become of the power of per¬
ception ? A fphere equally divided becomes two he-
mifpheres ; does a perception, when divided in like
manner, become two demi-perceptions ?
“ The fame reafonings may eafily be transferred, and
applied to the harpfichord. Can any one be abfurd
enough to affirm that the power of harmony refides
in the harpfichord, as the power of perception does
in the mind ? After the utmoft Hull of the artificer
has been exerted, we difeover nothing more in the
harpfichord than new modifications of the old proper¬
ties of figure, magnitude, and motion, by means of
■which certain vibrations are communicated to the air,
which, conveyed by the medium of the auditory
nerves to the fenforium, produce the fenfation of har¬
monic founds. Thefe new modifications are therefore
attended, indeed, vtdth new and very wonderful ef¬
fects ; but then thofe effedts are produced upon, and
-are themfelves modifications of, the fentient or perci¬
pient faculty. And though it is wholly incomprehen-
fible to us in what manner thefe effedts, that is, thefe
Jenfations, are produced, we well know, and perfectly
.comprehend, that they are not new powers belonging
to any organized fyftem of matter; that they have no
,exiftence but in a mind perceiving them; and that they
are far from militating againft that grand and univer-
fal axiom, that the power of the whole is nothing
more than the united powers of all the parts.
“ As to the left inftance adduced, of the power of
.aqva regia to diffolve gold, though neither the fpirit cf
fait, nor the fpirit of nitre of which it is compounded,
fepatately poftefies that power, it is plain, that from
the union of thefe two fubftances, certain new modes
■ of configuration and motion refult; and the folution
^of gold is the confequenee of this new arrangement
and motion of the parts. But the particles of which
the menftruum is compofed were always poflefted of
the properties of figure and motion ; and what is fty-
led a new property, is clearly nothing more than a
-new effedl of the old properties differently modified.
2n a word, the advocates for materialifm may fafely
‘ N° .215.
H Y S I G S. Part III,
be challenged to produce, in the whole compafs ofof th-e Suh-
nature, a cafe which bears the leaft analogy to that t
which thefe inftances are moft unphilofophically ad- Mind,
duced to prove and to illuftrate. ft is an abfurdity ^—^—4
which tranfubftantiation itfelf does not exceed, to
maintain that a whole is in reality any thing different
from its component parts ; and all nature rifes up in
confutation of an affertion fo monftrous and extrava¬
gant. To affirm that perception can arife from any
combination of impercipient particles, is as truly ridi¬
culous, as to affirm that a combination of the feven
primary colours with the four cardinal virtues may
conftitute a planet. It is equivalent to an affertion,
that an epic poem might be compofed of parallelo¬
grams, cones, and triangles. In a word, it is an ab¬
furdity not lefs real, and little lefs obvious', than that
of the blind man who thought that the idea of a fear-
let coldur refembled the found of a trumpet.”
If matter be taken in the common acceptation, to
be a folid, extended, and inert fubftance, this reafoning
for the immateriality of the fentient principle in man
appears to us to have the force of demonftration,
which no difficulties or partial objections, arifingfrom ,
our inability to conceive the bond of union between Repiy ^7
two fuch heterogeneous fubftances as mind and body, the mate-
can ever weaken, and far lefs overturn. But the mo-'ri,'hts
dern materialifts deny that matter is either folid or f'Q0vvn
inert. “ All thofe faifts (fay' they) which led philo-
fophers to fuppofe that matter is impenetrable to other
matter, later and more accurate obfervations have
Ihown to be owing to fomething elfe than folidity and
impenetrability, viz. a' power of repulfton, which for
that reafon they would lubftitute in its place. The
property of attraBion or repulfion (fays Dr Prieftley)
appears to me not to be properly what is imparted to
matter, but what really makes it to be what it is ; info-
much, that without it, it would be nothing at all;
and as other philofopliers have faid,—‘ Take away
folidity, and matter vanifties,’ fo I fay, ‘ Take away
attraction and repulfion, and matter vanifties.” If
this be admitted, the ingenious author hopes that
we (hail not confider matter with that contempt and
difguft with which it has generally been treated,
there being nothing in its real nature that can juftify
fuch fentiments refpeCting it.
We know not why, upon any hypothefis, mat- j
ter fhould be viewed with contempt and difguft.— mbeafr* I
Whether penetrable or impenetrable, every confiftent furd.
theift cpnfiders it as one of the Creatures of God per¬
fectly fitted to anfwer all the purpofes for which it
was intended : but were it really deftitute of folidity,
and endowed with the powers of attraction and repul¬
fion, we fnould ftill be obliged to confider it as inca¬
pable of the powers of fenfation and thought. If we
have any notion at all of what is meant by centres of
attraction and repulfion (of which indeed we are far
from being confident), it appears to us to be intui¬
tively certain, that nothing can be the refult of any
poffible combination of fuen centres, but new and more
enlarged fpheres of attraction and repulfion. But
furely confcioufnefs, fenfation, and will, are as diffe¬
rent from attraction and repulfion, as a cube is from
the found of a trumpet, or as the fenfations of a felon
in the agonies of death are from the attraction of the
rope by which he is hanged. If this be admitted,
and
PartlH. M E T A P
t9f the Sub-and we are perfuaded it will fee denied by no man
the3 Hum an w^0^"e undcrftanding is not clouded by an undue at-
M;nj> tachment to paradoxes, the fentient principle cannot
u i--/——' poffibly be matter : for if, when the powers of attrac¬
tion and repulfion are taken away, matter vanilhes ;
and if confpioufnefs and fenfation are not attra&ion
and repulfion ; it is not more evident that three and
two are not nine, thaiT that the fubftance which at-
trafts and repels cannot be that which is confcious and
238 percipient.
Locke’s ©- Locke, who was certainly no materialift, as he re-
pe^tedly affirmed, and indeed demonftrated, that
founded thought could never be the refult of any combinations
of figure, magnitude, and motion, was yet of opinion,
that God by his almighty power might endow fome
fyftcms of matter with the faculties of thinking
and willing. It is always with relu&ance that we
controvert the opinions of fo great a man ; and it is
vuth fome degree of horror that we venture in any
cafe to call in queftion the power of Omnipotence.—
But Omnipotence itfelf cannot work conti adiftions ;
and it appears to us nothing firort of a contradi&ion,
to fuppofe the individual power of perception inhe¬
ring in a fyftem which is itfelf extended and made up
of a number of feparate and diftinft fubftances. For
let us fuppofe fuch a fyftem to be fix feet long, three
feet broad, and two feet deep (and we may as well fup¬
pofe a fyftem of thefe dimenfions to be percipient, as one
that is fmaller), then it is plain, that every idea muft
be extended, and that part of it muft be in one place,
and part in another. If fo, the idea of a fquare inch
unll be fix feet long, three feet broad, and two
feet deep; and what is ftill harder to be digeft-
ed, the feveral parts of this idea will be at a great
diftance from each other, without any bond of
union among them. The being which apprehends
one extremity of the idea, is, by the fuppofition, fix
feet diftant from the being which apprehends the other
extremity ; and though thefe two diftinft beings be¬
long to one fyftem, they are not only feparable, but
a&ually feparated from each other as all the particles of
matter are. What is it then that apprehends as one the
whole of 1* is extended idea ? Part of it may be appre¬
hended by one particle of matter, and part of it by ano¬
ther ; but there is nothing which apprehends, or can
apprehend, the whole. Perhaps it will be faid, the
power of apprehenfion is not divided into parts, but
is the power of the one fyftem, and therefore appre¬
hends at once the whole idea. But a power or facul¬
ty cannot be feparated from its fubjecft, power which
inheres in nothing being confefledly impoffible ; and
a material fyftem is not one fubjeS in which any indi¬
vidual power or faculty can inhere. There muft,
Von. XI. Part II.
H Y S r C S. 577
therefore, be united to the fyftem fome one being, Of the Sul>.
which is the fubjeft of thought, and which is unex- ,fta!\ce'of
tended as well as indivifible. This, we fay, follows the^^an
undeniably. For, let us fuppofe, that an extended ' ^ <
being without feparable parts is pqffible, and that
fuch a being is percipient; it is obv ous, that the
whole of any one of its perceptions could not be in one
place. Now, though we fhould grant to Dr Prieft-
ley and other materialifts, that every' idea of an ex¬
tended fubftance has itfelf three dimeniions, and is in¬
corporated and commenfurate with the whole perci¬
pient, fyftem; what, upon this fuppofition, fhall we
think of confcioufnefs and of the perception of truth ?
Is confcioufnefs or truth extended ? If fo, one fide or
fuperficies of confcioufnefs, or of a truth, may be greater
or lefs than another, above or below, to the right or
to the left; and it will be very proper and philofophical
to fpeak of the length, breadth, and depth, of con¬
fcioufnefs or of truth. But furely to talk of the
place, or the extenfion of thefe things, is as abfurd
as to talk of the colour of found, or the found of
a triangle; and we might as well fay, that confci¬
oufnefs is green or red, as that it is an ell or an inch
long ; and that truth is blue, as that it has three
dimenfions.
This reafoning is fomewhat differently ftated by Cud- becaufe the
worth ; who obferves, that if the foul be an extended fentient be-
fubftance, “it muft of neceflity be either a phyfical
point (/. e. the haft extenfion pofiible, if there be any gj,
fuch haft extenfion), or elfe it muft confift of more
fuch phyfical points joined together. As for the for¬
mer of thefe, it is impofiible that one Jingle atom, or
fmallejl point of extenfion, fhould be able to perceive
diftin&ly all the variety of things, i. e. take notice of
all the dyiincl and dijferent parts of an extended ob'jedt,
and have a defcription or delineation of the whole of
them upon itfelf (for that would be to make it the
leaft, and not the haft, poflible extenfion at the fame
time Befides, to fuppofe every foul to be but one
phyjical point, or the fmalleft poffible extenfton, is to fup¬
pofe fuch an effential difference in matter or exten¬
fion, as that fome of the points thereof ftiould be natu¬
rally devoid of all life, fenfe, and underjlanding; and
others, again, naturally fenfitive and rational. And
even (hould this abfurdity be admitted, it would yet
be utterly inconceivable how there ftiould be one, and
but one, fenjifive and rational atom in every man ; how
this atom of fo /mail dimenfions (hould arftuate the
whole fyftem ; and how it (hould conftantly remain
the fame from infancy to old age, whilft all the other
parts of the fyftem tranfpire perpetually, and are fuc-
ceeded by new matter (h).
“ But if, according to the fecond hypothefis, fouls
4 D» be
(h) Should it be faid, that this effential difference between the atoms of matter is not fortuitous; that
fome of them are created intelligent for the exprefs purpofe of animating fyftems of others which are
unintelligent; and that thefe intelligent atoms do not operate upon the fyftems with which they are
united, by the vis inertia, foddity, or extenfion, of matter, but by the energies of underftanding and will :
Should this (we fay) be alleged, furely it may be alkcd, for what purpofe they are conceived to have
the quality of extenlion ? It is evidently of no ufe; and it has been already (hown, and (hall be more
fully ftiown afterwards, that by our notions of confcioufnefs and underftanding, we are fo far from being
led to fuppofe the fubjeft of thefe powers extended, that we cannot fuppofe any relation whatever be¬
tween them and extenfion. But if thefe intelligent atoms be divefted of their quality of extenfion,
they will be transformed from matter to mind, and become the very things for the extftence of which we plead.
578 META PHYSIC S. Part IIIv
Of the Sub be extended fubflances confifting of many points one
the^Huiran w,t^out ano^tr> and all concurring in every fenfa-
M;nd’ tion; then muft every one of thefe points perceive
U—y—«. either a point only of the objeft, or elfe the wholes
Now, if every point of the extended foul perceives only
a point of the objeS, then is there no- one thing in us
that perceives the whole, or that can compare one
part of the objeft with another. On the other hand,
if every paint of the extended foul perceive the whole
objeft at once, then would there be innumerable percep¬
tions of the fame objeft in every fenfation ; as many,
indeed, as there are points in the extended foul.—
And from both thefe fuppofitions it would alike fol¬
low, that no man is one fngle percipient or perfon,
but that in every man there are innumerable di-
ftinft percipients or perfons ; a conclufion direftly con¬
trary to the infallible evidence of confcioufhefs (i).”
Cogent as thefe arguments for the immateriality
of the fentient principle appear to be,, they have
been lately treated with the moft fovereign contempt
by a writer who profeffes to be a difciple of Dr
Prieftley’s, but who feems not to have learned the
modefty or the candor of his mafter. Dr Prieftley
labours to prove, that to account for the phenomena
of perception and volition, &c. it is not necelfary to
fuppofe an immaterial' principle in mam Mr Cooper
with greater boldnefs affirms, and undertakes to de*
monftrate with all the parade of mathematical preci-
i ’Traiu fion:(;, that fuch a principle is impoffible. Though
Ethic,il, the authority of this philofopher in fnch inquiries as
’Theological, 1 r 1
and Politi¬
cal, Wall.   
depend not immediately upon the retort and the fur-Of the Su'j.
nace, is certainly not great, he yet utters his dogmas HJnce
with fuch confidence, that it may not be imProper an
to examine the chief arguments upon which they ^
reft. 24,0 i
“ Suppofe (fays he) the foul to have no common An attempt
property with matter ; then, nothing can a£l upont0 Prove j
any other but by means of fome common property, "onln*
Of this we have not only all the proof that induftion of material
known and acknowledged cafes can furnifti, but that fubitance ■;
additional proof alfo- which arifes from the impoffibi-
lity of conceiving how the oppofite propofition can
be true. But by the fuppofition, the foul has no
property in common with matter ; and therefore the
foul cannot aft upon matter. But by the fuppofition
of every fyftem of immaterialifm (except thofe of
Malbranche, Berkeley, and Leibnitz), it is deemed
an effential property of the foul, that it afts upon the
body, or upon matter; therefore the foul can and
cannot aft upon matter at the fame time, and in the
fame refpeft. But this is a contradiftion in terms;
and as two contradiftions cannot both be true at
the fame time, the fuppofition of the exiftence of an
immaterial foul cannot be true ; that is, the foul does
not exift.” ajr
This reafoning, the reader will obferve, is carried fliown t©
on with all the pomp of mode and figure. The pro-be futile,
pofitions hang upon each other like the feveral fteps
of an algebraic procefs : but as in fuch proceffes one
error unwarily admitted produces a falfe refult, fo in
demon-
(1) As the materialifts endeavour to prejudice the public againft the notion of an unextended foul,,
by reprefenting it as a fiftion of Des Cartes, altogether unknown to the ancients, it may not be impro¬
per to give our readers an opportunity of judging for themfelves how far this reprefentation is juft.—
Plotinus, reafoning about the nature of the foul from its energies of fenfation, expreffes himfelf in thefe
Words /CIWII euafimiahui rivof, £v uvlo he Siva;, xai tu avlu yravhs avIiKa/uCuvurSat x.cu it ha voWov aio-S>j7i?flov yrKuo
■ra itatovla, 0 rowae TttfU it votOTmti xa< h fvof jroixiXov, eiov Trpoauwov’ou yap ahXo pci, pivo; a>,\o h ophakuav, aXXa tolvIo*
opcov vavlaV »ai ft to put h opcpcaTOiv to h h axouj, iv ti hi uiat tie 0 apepa’ » vac a* <‘Vot Sit ihpx TUula, put uc to avh
Speov rav ato-Botriov exSo* tuv. “ That which perceives in us, muft of neceffity be one thing, and by one and the
fame indivifible perceive all; and that whether they be more things entering through feveral organs of'
fenfe, as the many qualities of one fubftance, or one various and multiform thing, entering through the
fame organ, as the countenance and pifture of a man. For it is not one thing in us that perceives the
nofe, and another thing the eyes; but it is one and the felf-fame thing that perceiveth all. And when
one thing enters through the eyes, another through the ears, both thefe alfo muft of neeeffity come at
laft to one indivifible ^ otherwife they could not be compared together, nor one of them be affirmed to
be different from the other, the feveral ideas of them meeting no where in one place." Purfuing the
fame argument, and having obferved, that if what perceiveth in us be extended, then one of thefe three
things muft of neceffity be affirmed, that either every part of this extended foul perceives a parf only
of the objeft, or every part of it the whole objeft; or elfe, that all comes to fome one point, which
alone perceives both the feveral parts of the objeft and the whole: he obferves of the firft of thefe fup.
pofitions, pciyeSf oyh roi/la, {v/epiigtlotlo av utrlt aWo a.\\uv piipoe, xai piohyi ipeon oXou tovxiaSn'lcv a 'h?,t:^iv e^eiv* uavip
uv it tya pm, uxxov ov Si a\\ovatoSoto: “ If the foul be a magnitude, then muft it be divided, together with
the fenfible objeft, fo that one part of the foul muft perceive one part of the objeft, and another ano¬
ther ; and nothing in it, the whole fenfible; juft as I fhould have the fenfe of one thing, and you of
another." Of the fecond fuppofition,. he writes in this manner : £< Si or tow vathc ottabootlur u; avitpa. Statpuaia,
TOV piiyiBovc vipvxohf, avitpovc y.at utaBoaiie x«8 Exaff7ov ataMcn ovpiCotriUt yiynoBat Uacla dtov tod auhv arnpovc iv tu
iyipcoyovvlt, ipioy Eixova?; “ But if every part of the extended foul perceive the whole fenfible objeft, fince
magnitude is infinitely divifible, there muft be in every man infinite fenfations and images of one objeft."
—And as for the third and laft part of this disjunftion, Plotinus by afferting the infinite divifibility
of body, here fhows that the fuppofition of any one phyfical point is in itfelf an abfurdity. But if it
were not, he agrees with Ariftotle in afking vac tu upetpu to papiahv—thereby plainly indicating, that the
fentient principle is totally feparated from extenfion, and can neither be confidered as extended like a fu-
perficies or folid, nor unextended as a phyfical point.
Van HI. M E T A P
Of the Sub-demonftrative reafonings one unfound argument admit-
of ted into the premifles is neceflarily produftive of error
eMinT.an ‘n conclufion. When the author affirms, “ that
nothing can aft upon any other but by means offome
common property,” he affirms without the fhadow of
proof what is certainly not felf-evident. He fays, in¬
deed, that of this we have all the proof that induc¬
tion of known and acknowledged cafes can furnifh 5
but unlefs confcioufnefs be calculated to deceive us,
this is unqueftionably a miftake. Matter, he repeat¬
edly affirms, has no other properties than thofe of at-
traftion and repulfion : but a man moves his arm by
a mere energy of will; and therefore, according to
this demonflrator, an energy of will muft be either
material attraftion or material repulfion. If fo, it is
reafonable to conclude, that when a man draws his
hand towards his head, the centre of his brain exerts
its power of attraflion ; and that when he extends his
arm at full length before^ him, the fame Centre exerts
its power of repulfion. We beg pardon of our readers for
detaining them one moment upon fuch abfurdities as
thefe: yet we cannot difmifs the argument without ta¬
king the liberty to afk our all-knowing author, How it
comes to pafs that the fame centre fometimes attrafts
and fometimes repels the fame fubftance at the fame
difiance ; nay, that it both attrafts and repels fubftan-
ces of the fame kind, at equal diftances, and at the
very fame inftant of time ? This muft be the cafe,
when a man puts one hand to his head, and thrufts
another from him ; and therefore, if thefe operations
be the effeft of attraftion and repulfion, it muft be
of attraftion and repulfion, to which induftion of
known and acknowledged cafes furniihes nothing fimi-
lar or analogous, i. e. of fuch attraftion and tepulfion
as, according to Mr Cooper’s mode of reafoning, does
not exift. The truth is, that we are not more certain
that we ourfelves exift, than that an energy of will is
neither attraftion nor repulfion ; and therefore, unlefs
all matter be endued with will, it is undeniable, that,
whatever be the fubftance of the foul, one thing afts
upon another by a property not common to them both.
In what manner it thus afts, we pretend not to know :
but our ignorance of the manner of any operation is
no argument againft the reality of the operation itfelf,
when we have for it the evidence of confcioufnefs and
daily experience ; and when the author fhall have ex¬
plained to general fatisfaftion how material centres at-
traft and repel each other at a diftance, we ftiall un¬
dertake to explain how one thing afts upon another
with which it has no common properties.
A fecond Sufpicious, as it ihould feem, that this reafoning has
attempt of not the complete force of mathematical demonftration,
tha fame the author fupports his opinion by other arguments,
kind «< Whatever we know (fays he), we know by means
of its properties, nor do we in any cafe whatever cer¬
tainly know any thing but thefe j and we infer in all
cafes the exiftence of any thing which we fuppofe to
exift from the exiftence of its properties. In fhort,
our idea of any thing is made up of a combination of
our ideas of its properties. Gold is heavy, duftile,
tenacious, opake, yellow, foluble in aqua regia, &c.
Now, let any one fuppofe for an inftant that gold is
deprived of all thefe, and becomes neither heavy, duc¬
tile, tenacious, opake, yellow, foluble, &c. what re¬
mains, will it be gold ? Certainly not. If it have other
H Y S I C S. 579
properties, it is another fubftance. If it have no pro- Of the Suh-
perties remaining, it is nothing. For nothing is that jjj/pjumatt;
which hath no properties. Therefore, if any thing Mind,
lofe all its properties, it becomes nothing ; that is, it ——y——s
lofes its exiftence. Now, the-exiftence of the foul is
inferred, like the exiftence of every thing elfe, from its
fuppofed properties, which are the phenomena of
thinking, fuch as perception, recolleftion, judgment^
and volition. But in all cafes of perfed fleep, of the
operation of a ftrong narcotic, of apoplexy, of fwoon-
ing, of drowning where the vital powers are not ex-
tinguiihed, of the effefts of a violent blow on the
back part of the head, and all other leipothymic af-
feftions, there is neither perception, recolleftion,
judgment, nor volition; that is, all the properties of
the foul are gone, are extinguilhed. Therefore, the
foul itfelf lofes its exiftence for the time. If any man
fhall fay, that thefe properties are only fufpended for
the time, I would defire him to examine what idea he
annexes to this fufpenfion ; whether it be not neither
more nor lefs than that they are made not to exijl for the
time. Either no more is meant, or it is contradic¬
tory to matter of faft ; and moreover, if more be
meant, it may eafily be perceived to involve the arche¬
typal exiftence of abftraft ideas, and to contradift the
axiom, impojfibile ejl idem ejfe et non <$?.” _ _ 143
For the benefit of fliort-fighted inquirers, it is to be fhown to
wiftied that the author had favoured the public with be ^ually
this proof which might have been fo eafily brought;we
for we can difcern no conneftion whatever between
the fufpenfion of the exercife of the powers of the
mind, and the archetypal exiftence of abftraft ideas,
or the abfurd propofition that it is pojfible for the fame
thing to be and not be. We think, however, that we un-
derftand enough of this reafoning which he has given
us to be able to pronounce with fome confidence that
it is nothing to the purpofe. For, in the firji place,
we beg leave to obferve, that betv/een the properties
of gold and the powers of thinking, &c. there is no
fimilarity ; and that what may be true when affirmed
of the one, may be falfe when affirmed of the other.
The powers of the mind are all more or lefs aftive ;
the enumerated properties of gold are all paffive. We
know by the moft complete of all evidence, that the
exercife of power may be fufpended, and the power it¬
felf remain unimpaired ; but to talk of the fufpenfion
of the energies of what was never energetic, if it be
not to contradift the axiom impojjibile ejl idem ejfe et non
ejfe, is certainly to employ words which have no mean¬
ing. Yet even this argument from the properties of
gold might have led the author to fufpeft that fome-
thing elfe may be meant by the fufpenfion of the ex¬
ercife of powers, than that thofe powers are made not to
exijl for the time. In a room perfeftly dark gold is not
yellow ; but does it lofe any of its eifential properties,
and become a different fubftance, merely by being car¬
ried from light to darknefs ? Is a man while in a dark
room deprived of the faculty of fight, and one of the
powers of his mind made not to exift for the time ?
The author will riot affirm that either of thefe events
takes place. He will tell us that gold exhibits not its
yellow appearance, merely becaufe the proper medium
of light pafles not from it to the eye of the percipi¬
ent, and that it is only for want of the fame medium
that nothing is feen by us in perfeft darknefs. Here,
4 D 2 then,
M
^ then, by his own confeffion,
and a property of an external objeft, both fnfpended
“in their energie?, without being annihilated ; and no
. proof has yet been brought that all the powers of the
mind may not in the fame manner be fufpended in
their energies without being made not to exiil. As
light is neeefl’ary to vifion, but is not itfelf either the
thing which fees or the thing which is feen ; fo may
the brain be neceffary to the phenomena of thinking,
without being either that which thinks, or that which
is thought upon: and asadhualviiion ceafes when light
is withdrawn, though the eye and the object both con¬
tinue to exilt ; fo may the energy of thinking ceafe
when the brain is rendered unfit for its ufual office.
144
A third a
the fame
kind
ETAPHYSICS. Parc I IF.
a power of the mind, fion, whilft we may venture to afiert that no man Of the Stib«
knows precifely what corpufcular attraction and repul- fiance of
fion are, fuppofing the exiltence of fuch powers to befhe^.“||,8n
poffible. When we fpeak of attra&ion and repulfion, .
we have feme obfciire notion of bodies a&ing upon
each other at a difiance ; and this is all that we know
of the matter. But when we think of an energy of
the human will, the idea of diftance neither enters nor
can enter into our notion of fuch an energy-. Thefe
are fails which we pretend not to prove by a mathe¬
matical or a chemical procefs. Every man mult be
convinced of their truth by evidence more complete
than any proof, viz. immediate confcioufnefs of his
thoughts and volitions. This being the cafe,
though the being which thinks, and the power of may turn Mr Cooper’s artillery againit himfelf, and,
thought, continue to exift, and to exilt unimpaired.
That this is aitually the cafe every man mutt be con¬
vinced who believes that in thinking he exerts the
fame powers to-day that he exerted yefterday ; and
therefore our author’s fecond demonttration of the
non-exiftence of mind is, like his firtt, founded upon
afl'ertions which cannot be granted.
Another of thefe pretended demonftrations is as
follows: “ If the foul exift at all, it mutt exift fome-
where ; for it is impoffible to frame to one’s felf an
idea of any thing exifting, which exifts no where.
But if the foul exift fomewhere, by the terms it oc¬
cupies fpace, and therefore is extended ; but whatever
has extenfion, has figure in confequence ’thereof. The
foul then, if it exift, hath the properties ©f extenfion
and figure in common with matter. Moreover, by the
fuppolition of every immaterial hypothefis (except
beeaufe mind a£ts upon body by powers different from
attraction and repuliion, argue that body neither at¬
tracts nor repels ; and were it true, as it is certainly
falfe, that nothing could aCt upon another but by
means of fome property common to both, we might
infer that every atom of matter is endowed with the
powers of volitiog and intelligence, and by confequence
that every man is not one but ten thoufand confcious
beings, a conclufion which our philofopher feems not
inclined to admit. ^
Having finifhed his the author ftates Oajedtions.
otherobjeftionsto the doCtrine of immaterialifm, which, to the doc-
as they are not his own nor new, have greater weight, mine of im-
“ It appears no more than reafonable (fays he),
if the doftrine of materialifm be rejected as inadequate anfweretj;>
to explain the phenomena, thefe latter flroukl at leaft
be explained in fome manner or other better upon
hole of Malbranche, Berkeley, and Leibnitz), it the fubjlituted than the rejetted hypothefis ; fo that
aCts upon body, /. e. upon matter ; that is, it attracts
and repels, and is attracted and repelled, for there is
no conceivable affeCtion of matter but what is founded
it is reafonablcito require of an immaterialift that his
fuppofition of a diftinCt foul ffiould explain the ra¬
tionale of the phenomena of thinking. But, llrange
on its properties of attraction and repulfion ; and if to fay, fo far from attempting to explain thefe phe-
i——j -...a -t- nomena on the immaterial hypothefis, it is acknow¬
ledged on all hands that even on this hypothefis the
phenomena are inexplicable.” This objection it would
certainly be no difficult talk to obviate; but from that
trouble, fmall as it is, we are happily exempted by
the objeCtor. “ I would have it underltood (fays he)*
that no materialill ever undertook to fay honv percep¬
tion refults from our organization. What a mate-
rialift undertakes to affert is, that perception, whatever
it be attraCIed and repelled, its re-aCtion muft be at¬
traction and repulfion. The foul then has the pro¬
perties of extenfion, figure, attraction, and re¬
pulfion, or fplidity. But thefe comprife every pro¬
perty which matter, as fuch, has ever been fuppo-
ied to poffefs. Therefore the foul is matter, or
material. But by the fuppofition it is immaterial;
therefore it does not exift. For nothing can exill
whofe exiftence implies a contradiction.”
to Mr Cooper, we fee, Hill proceeds in the direCt road it be, or however it refults from, does actually refult
of mathematical demonftration ; but in the prefent
fiance we beg leave to Hop him in the very beginning
of his course, and to alk whire the univerfe exifts?
When he (hall have given fuch an anfwer to this quef-
tion as men of common fenfe may be ablcto compre¬
hend, we may pgrhaps attempt to tell him where an
unextended foul exifts. If this demonftration be not
a collection of words without meaning, the exiftence
of fpace as a real thing is taken for granted. Space,
therefore, has extenfion, and of courfe figure t but
we believe Mr Cooper will find fome difficulty in afeer-.
tnining the figure of infinite fpace. The mind certainly
aCts upon body. For this we have the evidence of
from our organization.” According to Mr Cooper*
then, the rationale of thinking is equally inexplicable by
materialifts and immaterialifis ; and the truth is, that
we know the rationale of hardly any one operation in
nature. We fee that the ftroke of a racket produces
motion in a billiard ball; but how it does fo, we be¬
lieve no man can fay. Of the fad, however, we are-
certain ; and know that the motion is produced by
fome power, about the effeft-s of which we can rea-
fon with precifion. In like manner we know with the
utmoft certainty, that we ourfelves have the powers o£
perception and volition; and that thefe powers can-
be conceived as either an ell or an inch long. How-
confcioufnefs and experience ; but we have no evidence they refult from the mutual agency of an immaterial
whatever that it muft therefore attract and repel, and and material fubftance upon each other, we are in-
be attraded and repelled. It has been already ob- deed profoundly ignorant; but that fuch is the fad.
ferved, that the mind, whatever be its fubftance, ads
upon the body by energies of will. What thefe are
every man knows with the utmoft certainty and preci*
and that they are not the refult of mere organifatio
we muft neceffarily believe, fo long as it is true that
the power of the entire fyftexn is nothing more tham
6 the
Part IlC. M E T A P
Of the S^b-the Aim or aggregate of the powers of all its parts.
ftance of immaterial hypothefis contains in it fomething
* <Mind'ai1 ,nexP^ca^e ^ man: The piaterial hypothefis ILke-
i wife contains, by the confeffion of its advocates, fome¬
thing that is equally inexplicable; and is over and
above burdened with this contradiction, that the whole
is fomething different from all its parts. It is there¬
fore no “ Angular phenomenon in literary hiflory,
that one hypothefis fhould be rejected as indequate
to account for appearances, and that the hypotheAs
fubflituted fhould, even by the acknowledgement
of its abettors, be fuch as not only not to ex¬
plain the rationale of the appearances, but, from
the nature of it, to preclude all hopes of fuch.
an explanation.” This is exactly the cafe with re-
fpedt to a vacuum in aftronomy. That hypotheAs
does not in the leaft tend to explain the rationale of
the motions of the planets ; but yet it muft be ad¬
mitted in preference to a plenum, becaufe upon this
laft hypotheAs motion is impofiible.
'Wheiher ax “ SuppoAng the exiftehce of the foul, it is an un-
jnanythmgsfortunate circumflance (fays Mr Cooper), that v/e
may be af- cannot properly affert poAtively any thing of it at
*f“e^s0|^ieall.” Were this the cafe, it would indeed be a very
the body, unfortunate circumftance ; but can we not afiert po-
Atively as many things of the foul as we can of the
body ? Can we not fey with as much propriety and
•certainty, that the foul has the powers of perception
and volition, &c. as that the body is folid and extend¬
ed, or as that matter has the powers of attradlion
and repulAon ? We know perfectly what perception
and volition are, though we cannot have ideas or men¬
tal images of them ; and if our author knows what
attraction and repulAon are, we believe he will not
pretend to have of them ideas entirely abftraCted from
their objeCts. “ But granting the foul’s exiftence, it
may be afleed (fays he), Of what ufe is an hypotheAs
of which no more can be afferted than its exiltence
We have juft obferved, that much more can be aflerted
of the foul than its exiftence, viz. that it is fomething
t>f which perception and will are properties ; and he
himfelf afferts nothing of matter but that it is fome¬
thing of which attraction and repulAon are proper¬
ties.
“ This foul, of which thefe gentlemen (the imma-
terialifts) are confcious, is immaterial effentiahy. Now,
I deny (fays our author), that we can have any idea
at all of a fnbftance purely immaterial.” He elfe-
where fays, that nothing can exift which is not extend¬
ed, or that extenfion is infeparable- from our notions
of exiftence. Taking the word idea in its proper
fenfe, to denote that appearance which external ob¬
jects make in the imagination, it is certainly true that
we can have no idea of an immaterial fubftance ; but
neither have we, in that fenfe, any idea of matter
abftraCted from its qualities. Has Mr Cooper any
idea of that which attraCts and repels, or of attraction
and repulAon, abftraCted from their objeCts ? He may,
perhaps, have, though we have not, very adequate
ideas of bodies aCting upon each other at a diflance ;
but as he takes the liberty to fubftitute aflertions for
arguments, we beg leave in our turn to affert, that
thofe ideas neither are, nor can be, more clear and
adequate than our notion of perception, confciouf-
nefs, and will, united in one being*.
That exteafion is no othervvife infeparable from our
H Y S I C S. 58.
notions of exiftence than by the power of an early Of the Sub-
End perpetual affociation, is evident from this circum- of
ftance, that, had we never poffefled the fenfes of ftght1
and touch, we never could have acquired any idea at 
all of extenAon. No man, who has thought on the *48
fubjeCt, will venture to affirm, that it is abfolutely im- Exjenfion
poffible for an intelligent being to exift with
fenfes than thofe of fmell, tafte, and hearing. Now ail noti n»
it is obvious that fuch a being muft acquire fome no-of exift-
tion of exiftence from his own confcioufnefs : but in-ente‘
to that notion extenAon could not poflibly enter ; fer
neither founds, taftes, fmells, nor confcioufnefs, are
extended ; and it is a fundamental article of the ma-
terialifls creed, that all our ideas are reliCts of fenfa-
tion. Since then exiftence may be conceived without
extenAon, it may be inferred that they are not infe-
parable from eacli other; and Ance cogitation cannot
be conceived with extenAon, we may reafonably con¬
clude that the being which thinks is not extended.
Mr Cooper indeed with his mailer talks of extend¬
ed ideas and extended thoughts: but we muft affert, in
the words of Cudworth, that “ we cannot conceive a
thought to be of fuch a certain length, breadth, and thick-
nefs, meafurable by inches, feet, zx\<Lyards; that we cannot
conceive the half, or third, or twentieth part of a thought;
and that we cannot conceive every thought to be of
fome determinate figure, fuch as round or angular, fphe-
rical, cubical, cylindrical, or the like. Whereas if extenAon
were infeparable from exiftence, thoughts rouft either be
mtexe.non-entities,or extended into length, breadth, and thick,
nefs ; and confequently all truths in us (being nothing
but complex thoughts) muft be long, broad, and thick,
and of fome determinate Agure. The fame muft like-
wife be affirmed of volitions, appetites, ■ and paffions,
and of all ot,her things belonging to cogitative beings;
fuch as knowledge and ignorance, wifdom and folly,
virtue and vice, &c. that thefe are either all of them ab-
folute non-entities, or elfe extended into three dimenAons,
and meafurable not only by inches and feet, but alfo by
folid meafures, fuch as pints and quarts. But if tin's
be abfurd, and if thefe things belonging to foul and
mind (though doubtlefs as great realities at leaft as
the things which belong to body) be unextended, then
muft the fubftances of fouls or minds be themfelves
unextended, according to that of Plotinus, ttcU( oU
tr'jac acf; tuvlov, and therefore the human foul cannot be
material.”
Mr Cooper employs many other arguments to prove That the -
the mateiiality of the fentient principle in man ; buthu,1'ian
the force of them extends no farther than to make itmmd can'
in the higheft degree probable, that the mind cannot "ts^acukLa
exert its faculties but in union with fome organifed but in n-
corporeal fyftem. This is an opinion which we feeln'011 wAh
not ourfelves inclined to controvert; and therefore we f°a’eajC°r'
fhail not make any particular remarks upon that part (hT-iTan o-
of our author’s reafonings. That an immaterial and pin on pr >-
indifcerptible being, fuch as the foul, is not liable to153^31^
be diffolved with the body, is a fad which cannot be
controverted : for what has no parts can perifti only
by annihilation ; and of annihilation the annals of the
world afford no inftance. That an immaterial being,
endowed with the powers of perception and volition,
&c. may be capable of exerting thefe powers in a ftate
of feparation from all body, and that at leaft one im¬
material Being does adually fo exert them, or other
powers analogous to them, are truths which no man
whofSe
jB! M E T A P H
Of the SubvW}j0fe arrogance does not furpafs his Judgment will
•'th^Hurnaiiventure todeny j but the queftion at prefeat between
Mind, the moft rigid immaterialifts and their opponents, is,
w—v—■.“/ whether there is ground to think that the human foul
is fuch a being ?
Now, when Mr Baxter and his followers confident¬
ly affirm, that human perception muft necejfarily fubfift
after the diffolution of the prefent mortal and perifhable
fyftem ; and that the foul, when difencumbered of
ail body, will have its faculties greatly enlarged; they
affirm what to us appears incapable of proof. That
a difembodied foul may perceive, and think, and
aft, and that its powers of intelleftion may have a
wider range than when they were circumfcribed by a
corporeal fyftem, which permitted their aftion upon
external objefts only through five organs of fenfe, is
certainlypojjible ; and the argument by which the ma-
terialifts pretend to prove it not poffible, is one of the
in oft contemptible fophifms that ever difgraced the
page of philofophy. To affirm, that becaufe our in-
telleftual powers, in their embodied ftate, feem to de¬
cay with the fyftem to which they are united, the
mind, when fet free, muft therefore have nofuch pow¬
ers at all, is equally abfurd as to fay, that becaufe a
man ffiut up in a room which has but one .window
fees objefts lefs and lefs diftinftly as the glafs becomes
more and more dimmed, he muft in the open air be
deprived of the power of vifion. But becaufe the hu¬
man foul may, for any thing that we fee to the con¬
trary, fubfift, and think, and aft, in a feparate ftate,
it does not therefore neceflarily follow that it will do
fo ; and every thing that we know of its nature and
its energies leads us to think, that without fome kind
of body by which to aft as by an inftrument, all its
powers would continue dormant. There is not the (ha-
dow of a reafon to fuppofethat it exifted and wascon-
feious in a prior ftate ; and as its memory at prefent
unqueftionably depends upon the ftate of the brain,
there is all the evidence of which the cafe will admit,
that if it ffiould fubfift in a future ftate divefted of all
body, though it might be endowed with new and en¬
larged powers of perception, it could have no recol-
leBion of what it did and fuffered in this world, and
therefore would not be a fit objeft either of reward
or of punilhment. This confideration has compelled
many thinking men, both Pagans and Chriftians, to
fuppofe that at death the foul carries with it a fine
material vehicle, which is its immediate fenforium in
this world, and continues to be the feat of its recol-
leftion in the next Such, we have feen, was the opi¬
nion of Mr Wollafton and Dr Hartley ; it was like-
wife the opinion of Cudworth and Locke, who held
that the fupreme Being alone is the only mind wholly
feparated fiom matter; and it is an opinion which
even Dr Clarke, one of the ableft advocates for imma-
terialifm, would not venture pofitively to deny.
Ancient, Nor is this opinion peculiar to a few moderns. Cud-
worth, after giving a vaft number of quotations from
Pythagoreans and Platonifts, which prove to a demon-
ftration that they held the Deity to be the only mind
which perceives and acts without the inftrumentality
of matter, obferves, that “ from what hath been faid,
it appeareth, that the moft ancient affertors of the
incorporeity and immortality of the human foul, yet
Y S I C S, PartllT.
fuppofed it to be always conjoined with fome body, of the Sub-
Thus U'terocles plainly * owi* wupwt <?«,«<*, fta'ice of
ovla ■Xttpa. rou tx/Aioupyov ut ts tivoti irapnkSiv, vs y.nTt to cufj,n
!<»«( avlnv, ptun avfu irvualof' a\\ «u1»v /ttv arv/tarov, uvonpa ‘
tovtScc, Si U( <rvfi* to o'wv kv1„( iiSot. ffhe rational nature
having always a kindred body, fo proceeded from the de-
miurgus, as that neither itfelf is body, nor yet can it be with¬
out body } but though itfelf be incorporeal, yet its whole
form is terminated in a body. Agreeably to this the defini¬
tion which he gives of a man is, hoyiw .ptU cv^-
fovs a:amhv <ray.ct1os,' a rational foul, together with a kin¬
dred immortal body; and he affirms, that our prefent
animated terreftrial body, or mortal man, is nothing
but fVwxov ccvSpvrov, the^ image of the true man, or an ac-
ceffion from which it may be feparated. Neither
does he affirm this only of human fouls, but alfo of
all other rational beings whatfoever below the fu¬
preme Deity, that they always naturally aftuate fome
body. Wherefore a demon or angel (which by Hie-
roc/es are ufed as fynonymous words), is alfo defined
by him after the fame manner, puU palavou
<ra poxlos a rational foul, together with a lucid body. And
accordingly Proclus upon Plato's Timaus ajfrmeth, xowU
Sxiftovz rav b/uthpvv npulava xocfyotpav 4-o^.v, o^n-
fsa calcpiov; That every demon, fuperior to human fouls, hath
'both an intelleftual foul and an cetherial vehicle, the entire-
nefs thereof being made up or compounded of thefe two things.
So that there is hardly any other difference left be¬
tween demons or angels, and men, according to thefe
philofophers, but only this, that the former are lap-
fable into aerial bodies only, and no further ; but the
latter into terreftrial alfo. Now, Hierocles pofitively af¬
firms this to have been the true cabala, and genuine
doftrine of the ancient Pythagoreans, entertained af¬
terwards by Plato : *«< touts rm rtolayoptiav »v Soypus, o Si
nxaru* vshpov t^ipnviv, aTtinaea; typupoTU Svvoifiti uroTlcpou ^tu-
yovs re k«i nvioyou ; xavav 6{<av rs v.ou avSpaTivwv And this
was the doBrine of the Pythagoreans, which Plato after-
’wards declared; he refembling every both human 'and di¬
vine foul (i. e. in our modern language, every created
rational being) to a winged chariot, and a driver or cha¬
rioteer both together s meaning by the chariot, an ani¬
mated body; and by the charioteer, the incorporeal
foul aftuating it.
That this Pythagorean opinion of the Deity’s be¬
ing the only mind which thinks and afts without ma¬
terial organs was very generally received by the an¬
cient Chriftians, might be proved by a thoufand quo¬
tations : We fhall content ourfelves with producing
two from the learned Origen. “ Sdlius Dei Taith this
philofophic father ®f the church), id eft, Patris, Filii,
et Spiritus Sanfti, naturse id proprium eft, ut fine
materiali fubftantia, et abfque ulla corporese adjeftio-
nis focietate, intelligatur fubfiftere f.” “ Materialem ^ pef{ ^
fubftantiam opinione quidem et intelleftu folum fepa-^0„ lib. i.
ran, a naturis rationalibus, et pro ipfis, vel poft ipfis cap. 6.
affeftam videri; fed nunquam fine ipfa eas vel vixiffe,
vel vivere : Solius namque Trinitatis incorporea vita
exiftere putabiturj.” Should Mr Cooper and his } Lib. j,
friends affi, What is the ufe of a foul which cannot aft cap. %,
without the inftrumentality of matter ? or why we
fliould fuppofe the exiftence of fuch a fubftance ? we
beg leave, in our turn, to alk thefe gentlemen, What
is the ufe of a brain which cannot fee without eyes ?
5 and
Tart III. METAPHYSICS. 583,
Of perfona) and why they fHould fuppofe all our fenfations to ter-
Identity. m;nate in fuch an internal fyftem, fince the vulgar
1_ • certainly fuppofe their fenfations to fubfift in their re-
fpe£live organs ? How this ancient notion, which
makes body fo eflential a part of man, is confident
with the immortality of the human foul, we (hall in¬
quire in a fubfequent chapter ; in which we (hall en¬
deavour to afcertain what kind of immortality we have
reafon to expedt, and upon what evidence our expecta¬
tion muft reft. Previous to this inquiry, however, it
is neceffary to enter upon. another, which is of the
firft importance, and which every materialift has en¬
deavoured to perplex ; we mean that which concerns
perfonal identity ; for if, as has been often faid, no man
is the fame perfon two days fucceffively, it is of' no
importance to us whether the foul be mortal or im¬
mortal.
Chap. III. (^Personal Identity.
Perfonal Whether we are to live in a future ftate, as it is
identity, the moft important queftioh which can poflibly be
alked, fo is it the moft intelligible one which can be
expreffed in language. Yet ftrange perplexities have
been raifed about the meaning of that identity or fame-
nefs of perfon, which is implied in the notion of our li¬
ving now and hereafter, or indeed in any two fucceffive
moments; and the folution of thefe difficulties hath been
ftranger than the difficulties themfelves. To repeat all
that has been faid on the fuhject would fwell this chap¬
ter to a difproportionate bulk. We (hall therefore con¬
tent ourfelves with laying before our readers the fenti-
ments of Biffiop Butler, and the fancies and demon-
ftrations of the philofopher of Manchefter. We are
induced to adopt this courfe, becaufe we think the il-
luftrious Biffiop of Durham has exhaufted the fubjeCt,
by dating fairly the opinions which he controverts,
and by eftabliffiing his own upon a foundation which
cannnt be ffiaken, and which are certainly not injured,
by the objections of Mr Cooper,
though it When it is affied (fays this philofophical prelate-}-)
cannot be in what perfonal identity confifts ? the anfwer (hould
defined, ea-be the fame as if it were affied in what, confifts fimilk
fily under- tu(je 0r equality ?—that all attempts to define would
afcertalned ^ut PerP^exYet there is no difficulty at all in af-
by confci- certaining the idea or notion : For as, upon two tri-
oufnefs and angles being compared or viewed together, there arifes
me™°ry- to the mind the notion of fimilitude ; or, upon twice
tion ijl fub two and four, the notion of equality : fo like wife, up-
jaintd to the on comparing the confcioufnefs of one’s felf or one’s
Analogy of own exiftence in any two moments, there as immedi-
Meligion, ately arifes to the mind the notion of perfonal identity.
c' And as the two former comparifons not only give us
the notions of fimilitude and equality, but alfo (how
us that two triangles are fimilar, and that twice two
and four are equal; fo the latter comparifon. not only
gives us the notion of perfonal identity, but alfo (hows
us the Identity of ourfelves in thefe two moments—
the prefent, fuppofe, and that immediately paft, or
the prefent and that a month, a year; or twenty years
paft. In other words; by refiefting upon that which
is myfelf now, and that which was myfelf twenty
years ago, I difcern they are not two, but one and
the fame felf.
“ But though confcioufnefs of what is prefent and
remembrance of what is paft do thus afcertain our per-Of Perfonal
fonal identity to .ourfelves; yet, to fay that remem- ldcntliy- _
brance makes perfonal identity, or is neceftary to our
being the fame perfons, is to (ay that a perfon has not-j-hefe3
exifted a (ingle moment, nor done one aftion, but however,
what he can remember; indeed none but what he re-do not
fleets upon; And one ffiould really think it felf-evi-W^.Pe^
dent, that confcioufnefs of perfonal identity prefup-tity_
pofes and therefore cannot conftitute perfonal identity ;
any more than knowledge, in any other cafe, can con¬
ftitute truth, which it prefuppofes.
“ The inquiry, what makes vegetables the fame in
the common acceptation of the word, does not ap¬
pear to have any relation to this of perfonal identity ;
becaufe the word fame, when applied to them and to
perfon, is not only applied to different fubje&s, but
is alfo ufed in different fenfes. When a man fwears
to the fame tree, as having flood fifty years in the
fame place, he means only the fame as to all the pur-
pofes of property and ufes of common life, and not
that the tree has been all that time the fame in the
drift philofophical fenfe of the word: For he does
not know whether any one particle of the prefent tree
be the fame with any one particle of the tree which
flood in the fame place fifty years ago. And if they
have not one common particle of matter, they can¬
not be the fame tree in the proper and philofophic
fenfe of the word fame ; it being evidently a contra-
diftion in terms to fay they are, when no part of their
fubftance and no one of their properties is the fame;
no part of their fubftance, by the fuppofition ; no one
of their properties, becaufe it is allowed that the fame
property cannot be transferred from one fubftance to
another: And therefore, when we fay that the iden¬
tity or famenefs of a plant conlifts in a continuation
of the fame life, communicated under the fame or¬
ganization to a number of particles of matter, whe¬
ther the fame or not; the word fame, when applied
to life and to organifation, cannot poffibly be under-
ftood to fignify what it fignifies in this very fentence, ,
when applied to matter. In a loofe and popular fenfe, ,
then, the life, and the organifation, and the plant, .
are juftly faid to be the fame, notwithftanding the per¬
petual change of the parts. But, in a ftritt and phi¬
lofophical manner of fpeech, no man, no being, no ■
mode of being, no, any thing, can be the fame with ,
that with which it has indeed nothing the fame. Now .
famenefs is ufed in this latter fenfe when applied to *
perfons. The identity of thefe, therefore, cannot fub-
lift with diverfityof fubftance..
“ The thing here confidered, and demonftfatively, What it is.
as I think, determined, is propofed by Mr, Locke in
thefe words : Whether it (i. e. the fame felf.or perfon) be
the fame identical fuljlance ? A nd he has fuggefted what
is a much better anfwer to the, queftion than that
which he gives it in form : .For he-defines perfon a
thinking intelligent being, See. and perfonal identity, the
famenefs of a rational being; and then the queftion is.
Whether the fame rational being is the fame fubftance ?
which needs no anfvver ; .becaufe. being and fubftance
are in this place fynonymous terms. The ground of
the doubt, whether the fame perfon be the fame fub-
ftancc, is faid to be this, that the confcioufnefs of our
own exiftence, in youth and in old age, or in any two»
joint fucceffive moments, is.not the fame individual aftion, ,
5$ 4 M E T A P
of I'cifiiul j, e, not the fafne cenfeicjfnefs, but different fuccef-
, fcciirity. fIve confcJ0ufneffes. Now it is ftrange that this fhould
have occafioned fuch perplexities: for it is furely con¬
ceivable, that a perfon may have a capacity of know¬
ing fome object or other to be the fame now which it
was when he contemplated it formerly; yet in this
cafe, where, by the fuppofition, the objedt is percei¬
ved to be the fame, the perception of it in any two
moments cannot be one and the fame perception. And
thus, though the fucceffive confcioufneffes which we
have of our own exiftence are not the fame, yet are
they confcioufneffes of one and the fame thing or 0b-
jedt; of the fame perfon, felf, or living agent. The
perfon of whofe exiftence the confcioufnefsis felt now,
and was felt an hour or a year ago, is difcerned to be,
not two perfons, but one and the fame perfon ; and
therefore is one and the fame.
“ Mr Locke’s obfervations upon this fubjedt appear
hafty ; and he feems to profefs himfelf diffatisfied with
fuppofitions which he has made relating to it. But
forne of thofe hafty obfervations have been carried to
a firange length by others; whofe notion, when traced
and examined to the bottom, amounts, I think, to
this : ‘ That perfonality is not a permanent but a
tranfient thing : That it lives and dies, begins and
ends, continually : That no one can any more remain
one and the fame perfon two moments together, than
two fucceflive moments can be one and the fame mo¬
ment : That our fubftance is indeed continually
changing : but whether this be fo or not is, it feems,
nothing to the purpofe ; fince it is not fubftance, but
confcioufnefs alone, which conftitutes perfonality;
which confcioufnefs, being fucceffive, cannot be the
fame in any two moments, nor confequently the per-
§ Anfiver ^hmality conftituted by it Hence it muft follow.
Dr Clarh\ that it is a fallacy uponourfelves to charge our prefent
third Be- felves with any thing we did, or to imagine our pre-
^ent ^ves interehe<i in any thing which befel us, ye-
M^Dod- herday ; or that our prefent felf will be interefted
wf//,fecondi*1 what will befal us to-morrow; fince our prefent
edit. p. 44, felf is not in reality the fame with the felf of yefter-
56, &c. day, but another felf or perfon coming in its room,
and miftaken for it; to which another felf will fuc-
ceed to-morrow. This, I fay, muft follow : for if the
felf or perfon of to-day and that of to-morrow are not
the fame, but only like perfons ; the perfon of to-day
is really no more interefted in what will befal the per¬
fon of to-morrow, than in what will befal any other
perfon. It may be thought, perhaps, that this is not
a juft reprefentation of the opinion we are fpeakirig
of ; becaufe thofe who maintain it allow that a perfon
is the fame as far back as his remembrance reaches: And
indeed they do ufe the words identity and fame perfon ;
nor will language permit thefe words to be laid afide.
But they cannot, confiftently with themfelves, mean
that the perfon is really the fame : For it is felf-evi-
deht, that the perfonality cannot be reallythe fame, if, as
they exprefsly affert, that in which it confifts is not
the fame. And as, confiftently with themfelves, they
cannot, fo I think it appears they do not, mean that
the perfon is really the fame, but only that he is fo in
a fiftitious fenfe, ia fuch a fenfe only as they affert:
for this they do affert, that any number of perfons
whatever may be the fame perfon. The bare unfold¬
ing this notion, and laying it thus naked and open,
Nu 215.
H Y S I C S. Part Ilf.
feems the beft confutation of it. However, fince Of Perf mal
great ftrefs is faid to be put upon it, I add the follow- , blentny.^
ing things : 1
“ Firjl, This notion is abfolutely contradiftory to Over-
that certain convi&ion, which neceffarily and every thrown,
moment rifes within us, when we turn our thoughts
upon ourfelves, when we refleft upon what is paft, and
look forward to what is to come. All imagination,
of a daily change of that living agent which each man
calls himfelf for another, or of any fuch change through¬
out our whole prefent life, is entirely borne down by
our natural fenfe of things. Nor is it poffible for a
perfon in his wits to alter his conduft with regard to
his health or affairs, from a fufpicion that though* he
ftiould live to-morrow he flrould not however be the
fame perfon he is to day.
“ Secondly, It is not an idea, or abftraft notion, or
quality, but a being only which is capable of life and
aftion, of happinefs and mifery. Now all beings con-
feffedly continue the fame during the whole time of
their exiftence. Confider then a living being now ex-
ifting, and which has exifted for any time alive : this
living being muft have done, and fuffered, and enjoyed,
what it has done; and fuffered, and enjoyed, formerly
(this living being, I fay, and not another), as really
as it does, and fuffers, and enjoys, what it does, and
fuffers, and enjoys, this inftant. All thefe fucceffive
aftions, fufferings, and enjoyments, are adlions, enjoy¬
ments, and fufferings, of the fame living being; atad
they are fo prior to all confiderations of its remember¬
ing or forgetting, fince remembering or forgetting
can make no alteration in the truth of paft matter of
fa&. And fuppofe this being endued with limited
powers of knowledge and memory, there is no more
difficulty in conceiving it to have a power of knowing
itfelf to be the fame being which it was fome. time ago,
of remembering fome of its actions, fufferings, and en¬
joyments, and forgetting others, than in conceiving it
to know, or remember, or forget, any thing elfe.
“ Thirdly, Every perfon is confcious that he is now
the fame perfon or felf he was as far back as his re¬
membrance reaches: fince when any one refle&s upon
a paft action of his own, he is juft as certain of the
perfon who did that a&ion, namely himfelf (the per¬
fon who now reflects upon it), as he is certain that the
action was at all done. Nay, very often a perfon’s af-
furance of an aftion having been done, of which he is
abfolutcly affured, arifes wholly from the confcioufnefs
that he himfelf did it: and this he, perfon, or felf,
muft either be a fubftance or the property of fome fub¬
ftance. If he, if perfon, be a fubftance; then confci¬
oufnefs that he is the fame perfon, is confcioufuefs that
he is the fame fubftance. If the perfon, or he, be the
property of a fubftance, ftill confcioufnefs that he is
the fame property is as certain a proof that his fub¬
ftance remains the fame, as confcioufnefs that he re¬
mains the fame fubftance would be ; fince the fame
property cannot be transferred from one fubftance to
another.
“ But though we are thus certain that we are the
fame agents, living beings, or fubftances, now, which
we were as far back as our remembrance reaches ; yet
it is afked, Whether we may not poffibly be deceived
in it ? And this queftion may be aiked at the end of
any demonftration whatever; becaufe it is a queftion
Parc III.
Of Perform! concerning the truth of perception by memory : and
Identity, can doubt whether perception by memory can
W' ’’ ' in this cafe be depended upon, may doubt alfo whe¬
ther perception by deduction and reafoning, which al¬
fo include memory, or indeed whether intuitive per¬
ception itfelf, can be depended upon. Here then we
can go no farther: for it is ridiculous to attempt to
prove the truth of our faculties, which can no other-
wife be proved than by the ufe or means of thofe fu-
fpe&ed faculties themfelves.’*
Objections This reafoning, which we believe will to moft men
to the fore-appear unanfwerable, Mr Cooper hopes to overturn by
going rea- ^he following obfervations * : “ If all imagination of a
* Tracis daily change in us be borne down by our natural fenfe
&c. of things, then (fays he) does our natural fenfe of
things poiitively contradict known fa£t; for a daily,
a momentaneous, change in us, i. e. in our bodies,
does adtually take place.” True, a daily change in
our bodies does take place, and fo likewife does a
daily change in our cloaths; but furely no man was
ever led by his natural fenfe of things to fuppofe, that
his limbs or external organs were the feats of fenfation
and will, any more than that his coat or his fhoes were
any real parts of his trunk or of his feet. But it is
only that which thinks and wills that any man con-
fiders, in this cafe, as himfelf or his perfon ; and if
our natural fenfe of things, or confcioufnefs, tell us,
that what thinks and wills has continued the fame
from a diftance of time as far back as we can remem¬
ber, it is certain, that, whether it be material or imma¬
terial, it has continued from that period, otherwife we
can be certain of nothing. “ But (fays our philofo-
pher) other known and afcertained fafts are frequent¬
ly borne down by our natural fenfe of things: for how
many thoufand years before the days of Copernicus was
the motion of the earth round the fun entirely borne
down by our natural fenfe of things, which made us
give full credit to the motion of the fun round the
earth ? Do not the generality of mankind believe, up¬
on the evidence of their natural fenfe of things, that
every part of their body remains exadlly the fame to-
j day as it was yefterday ?”
Aiifwered. To the former of thefe queftions we anfwer pofi-
tively, that before the days of Copernicus the motion
of the earth round the fun was not borne down by our
natural fen/e of things, but by ill-founded hypothefes
and inconclufive reafonings. By the natural fenfe of
things, nothing can be meant, in this place, but the evi¬
dence of confcioufnefs or of external fenfation; but
the aBual motion either of the fun or of the earth is not
perceived either by confcioufnefs or by fenfation.' Of
confcioufnefs nothing is the objeft but the internal
energies and feelings of our own minds;, and with re¬
gard to the motion of the fun or of the earth, nothing
is perceived by the fenfe of fight but that, after con-
liderable intervals of time, thefe two great bodies have
repeatedly changed their places in the heavens with re-
fpe& to each other. This is all that on this fubjedt
our natural fenfe of things leads us to believe; and is not
Vot. XI. Part II.
585
this infallibly true ? Afterwards indeed, by taking for OfPerfonal
granted the truth of propolitions, for which neither Identity.^
fenfe nor confcioufnefs affords the fhadow of evidence; *
the vulgar now, and all mankind formerly, reafoned
themfelves into the opinion, that the earth ftands ftill,
and that the fun moves round it. In vulgar philo-
fophy it is taken for granted, that in the univerfe
there is not a relative but an abfolutey upwards and an
abfolute downwards ; that our heads are abfolutely up¬
ward, and our feet downward ; and that were the earth
to revolve round it* axis, thefe pofitions would be re-
verfed, that our heads would be placed beneath our
feet, and that we ourfelves would fall from the earth
into empty fpace. Upon thefe falfe hypothefes the
vulgar reafon correctly. They know that bodies can¬
not change their place without motion; they know
that in the time of their remembrance the fun and
the earth have been perpetually varying their places
with refpeft to each other; they know that they them¬
felves have never fallen, nor had a tendency to fall,
into empty fpace ; and hence they infer that it is the
fun and not the earth that moves (x). But will any
man fay that the abfurd fuppofitions from which this
conclufion is logically deduced, have the evidence ei¬
ther of fenfation or of confcioufnefs, as the perma¬
nency of that living agent which each man calls him¬
felf has?
To our author’s fecond queftion we likewife reply
with confidence, that the generality of mankind do
not believe, upon their natural fenfe of things, that
every part of their body remains exaftly the fame
to-day as it was yefterday. It would be ftrange in¬
deed if they did, after having repeatedly experienced
the wafte of increafed perfpiration or fweating ; after
having witneffed men emaciated by ficknefs, and again
reftored to plumpnefs in health; and after having
perhaps loft whole limbs, which certainly their natural
fenfe of things teaches them to confider as parts of
their body. In all thefe cafes, the generality of man¬
kind are as fenfible of changes having taken place in
their bodies as he who has attended ever fo clofely to
phyfiological inquiries, though not one of them has
the leaft imagination of a change having taken place
in the living agent which each man calls himfelf.
Biftiop Butler obferves, that if the living agent be
perpetually changing, it is a fallacy upon ourfelves to
charge our prefent felves with any thing we did, to
imagine our prefent felves interefted in any thing which
befel us yefterday, or that our prefent felf will be in¬
terefted in what will befal us to-morrow. To thisju-
dicious obfervation our daring philofopher replies,
“ that as the man of to-morrow, though not in all
points the fame with, yet depends for his exiftence up¬
on, the man of to-day, there is fufficient reafon to care
about him.” Could he have faid, that as the man of
to-day depends for his exiftence on the man of to¬
morrow, there is fufficient reafon for the prefent man
to care about the future man ; or that as the man of
to-morrow depends for his exiftence on the. man of to-
4 E day.
METAPHYSICS.
(k ) This inference too has been fo often drawn, that it comes in time to coalefce in the mind with the
fenfations, from which the motion either of the fun or of the earth is deduced with infallible certainty |
and hencg it is confidered as part of that truth which fenfation immediately difcovers. See our Chapter
vf Ano curios
586 META PHYSIC S. PartHE
Of Perform! day, there is to-day fufficient reafon for the future man
„ 1<re‘‘tity to care about the prefent man ; we (hould in either cafe,
if the anaehronifm had been kept out of fight, have
feen the force of his argument. Every man has fufii-
cient reafon to care about the ox upon which he is to
be fed ; but we cannot fo clearly perceive what reafon
the ox-has to care about the man.
Not fatisfied, it would feem, with this reply, our
author proceeds to affirm, “ that the man of to-mor¬
row, poffeffing a reminifcence of the a&ions of the man
of to-day, and knowing that thefe adlions will be re¬
ferred to him both by himfelf and others (which is
certainly knowing that both himfelf and others are
moft iniquitous wretches), they .cannot be indifferent
to the man of to-day, who looks forward to the pro¬
perties of the man of to-morrow;” i. e. the runi-
nifcence and knowledge of a future man conftitute all
the relation that fubfifts between a prefent man and his
adtions; a difeovery worthy of an original genius.
But as on the fubjedl of perfonal identity we pretend
to no originality, vte fiiall leave this propofition to the
meditation of our readers, and take the liberty to afk
our author a queftion or two refpefting this fame re¬
minifcence, which he is gracioufly pleafed to acknow¬
ledge for a property.
He defines identity, “ the continued exiftcnce of
any being unaltered in fubfta'nce or in properties;”
and he repeatedly acknowledges that no identical qua¬
lity or property can be transferred from one fubjedt to
another. Let us now fuppofe, that a man has a remi¬
nifcence of an individual aftion performed a month a-
go, and that this reminifcence is accompanied with a
confcioufnefs that the adtion was performed by him¬
felf. This fuppofition, whether true or falfe, may cer¬
tainly be made ; for it implies nothing more than what
every man firmly believes of himfelf in every add of re¬
membrance. Let us again fuppofe, that, at the di-
ftance of ten or twenty years, the man known by the
fame name has a reminifcence of the fame adtion, with
a confcioufnefs that he himftlf performed it. Is this
reminifcence the fame with the former? or is it a dif¬
ferent reminifcence ? If it be the fame, either the per-
fon remembering at the diftance often or twenty years
is the fame with him who remembered at the diftance
of a month, or there is an identical quality transferred
from one fubftance to another, which is admitted to
be impoffible. If reminifcence be itfelf a real and im¬
mediate quality of any fubftance, and not the mere
energy of a power, and if the one reminifcence be
different from the other, the fubjedds in which thefe
two different qualities inhere mull likewife be dif¬
ferent. Yet the man who has the reminifcence at
the diftance of a month, has the evidence of confciouf¬
nefs that the addion was performed by him ; and the
man who has the reminifcence at the diftance of ten
or twenty years, has likewife the evidence of confci¬
oufnefs that the fame addion was performed by him
and not by another. By the confeffion of Hume and
of all philofophers, confcioufaefs never deceives; but
here is the evidence of one confcioufnefs in diredd op-
pofition to another; and therefore, as two contradic¬
tory propofitions cannot both be true, either the one
reminifcence is the fame with the other, or reminifcence
is no real quality. That one add of reminifcence fhould
be numerically the fame with another, which followed
it at the diftance of twenty years, is plainly impoffible; Of Pe fonal
whence it ftiould feem, that remirrifcence itfelf is no Identity,
real and immediate quality of any fubftance. But if \r—J
this be fo, what is reminifcence ? We anfvver, it is
plainly neither more nor lefs than the energy of a power,
which though dormant between its energies, remains
unchanged from the one to the other, and which be¬
ing itfelf the real and immediate quality of a fubjedd,
that fubjedd muft likewife remain unchanged. That
powers may remain dormant, and yet unchanged,
every man muft be convinced ; who having ftruck any
thing with his hand, knows that he has power to re¬
peat the ftroke, and yet does not addually repeat it.
Two blows with the hand immediately following each
other are numerically different, fo that the one can¬
not with truth be faid to be the other; but we have
the evidence of external fenfe, that they are both ftruck
by the fame member. In like manner, two energies of
reminifcence diredded to the fame objedd, and fucceed-
ing each other at any interval of time, cannot poffibly
be one and the fame energy; but as the latter ener¬
gy may include in it the former as well as the ob¬
jedd remembered by both, we have the evidence of con¬
fcioufnefs that both are energies of the fame power;
and we have feen, that to fuppofe them any thing elfe,
may be demonftrated to involve the groffeft abfurdities
and contradiddions.
Mr Cooper has other arguments to obviate the
force of Bilhop .Butler's demonftration of perfonsl
identity; fuch as, that a “ high degree aijim'darAy
between the two fucceeding men is fufficient to make
the one care about the other;” and, that “ a good
man, knowing that a future being will be punilhed or
rewarded as the addions of the prefent man deferve,
will have a fufficient motive to do right and to ab-
ftain from wrong.” But if there be any one of our
readers who can fuffer himfelf to be perfuaded by fuch
affertions as thefe, that the living agent which he calls
himfelf is perpetually changing, and at the fame time
that fuch change is confiftent with the expeddation of
future rewards and punifhments, he would not be re¬
claimed from his error by any reafoning of ours. We
fhali therefore truft fuch trifling with every man's
judgment, and proceed to examine our author’s dc~
monjlration, that perfonal identity has no exiftence.
But here it is no part of our purpofe to accompany
him through his long chemical ramble, or to contro¬
vert his arguments for the non-identity of vegetable,
and animal bodies. The only thing to which, after
Biffiop Butler, we have aferibed identity, is that
which in man is fentient and confcious; and the non¬
identity of this thing, whatever it be, Mr Cooper un¬
dertakes to demonftrate from the known properties
of fenfations and ideas.
This demonftration fets out with a very ominous A pretend-
circumftance. The author, after conducting impref-e‘! demon-
fions ab extra, from the extremities of the nerves to
the brain, affirms, that fenfations and ideas are nothing dentoy is"
but “ motions in the brain perceived ;” i. e. when impoilibls
a man thinks he is looking at a mountain, not only
at reft, but to appearance immoveable, he is grofsly
deceived ; for he perceives nothing all the while but
motion in his brain ! Were not the defire of advancing
novelties and paradoxes invincible in fome minds, we
ftiould be aftoniihed at finding fuch an affertion as
part HI. M E T A P
Of Perfonai this fall from the pen. of any man who had paid the
fdent.ty. (Ughtett attention to the different energies of his own
jHtelle<9:. Motions in the brain, as we have repeatedly
obferved, are the immediate caufes of our fenfations ;
but is it conceivable, is it poffihle, that any thing
fhould be the caufe of itfelf ? The motion of a fword
through the heart of a man, is the immediate canfe
of that man’s death ; but is the fword or its motion
death itfelf, or can they be conctived as being the Jtn-
fations of tl*e man in the agonies of dying ? But fenfa¬
tions and ideas, whatever they be, exift in fucceffion;
and therefore, argues our -demon ftrator, no two fen¬
fations or ideas can be one and the fame fenfation or
idea. The conclulion is logically inferred ; but what
purpofe can it poffibly ferve ? What purpofe, why it
feems “ fenfations and ideas are the only exijlences
•whofe exijlence we certainly know (a charming phrafe,
the exiflence of exijlences, and as original as the theory
in which it makes its appearance) ; and, therefore,
from the nature of fenfations and ideas, there is
no fuch thing as permanent identity.” Indeed!
what then, we may be permitted to afk, is the im¬
port of the word we in this fentence ? Does it denote
a feries of fenfations and ideas, and does each fenfa¬
tion and each idea certainly know not only itfelf, but
all its anceftors and all its defeendants ? Unlefs this
be admitted, we are afraid that fome other exiftence
befides fenfations and ideas muft be allowed to be cer¬
tainly known, and even to have fomething of a per¬
manent identity. Nay, we think it has been already
demondrated (fee chap, of Time), that were there
not fomething permanent, there could be no time, and
of courfe no notion of a firft and laft, or indeed of fuc-
ceflion, whether of fenfations or ideas. And there¬
fore, if we have fuch a notion, which the author here
takes for granted, and upon which indeed his demon-
flration refts, it follows undeniably that there is
fomething permanent, and that we know there is
fomething permanent, which obferves the fucceffion of
fenfations and ideas.
Shown to All this, indeed, Mr Cooper in efftft grants; for
be ahlurd js not ftartled at the appearance of contra-
knis.n KU d!&'ons in his theory. “ I find (fays he), by perpe¬
tually repeated impreffions which I perceive, that my
hands, body, limbs, &c. are conne&ed, are parts of one
whole. I find, by perpetually repeated perceptions
alfo, that the fenfations excited by them are con-
ftantly fimilar, and conftantly different from the fen''-
fations excited by others.” He has then repeated
perceptions : but how can this be poffible, if he be not
different from the perceptions, and if he do not re¬
main unchanged while the perceptions fucceed each
other at greater or lefs intervals of time ? A linking
objeft palling with rapidity before the eyes of a num¬
ber of men placed befide each other in a line of
battle, would undoubtedly excite a fucceffion of fen¬
fations ; but furely that fucceffion would not take
place in the mind of any individual in the line, nor
could any fwgle man in this cafe fay with truth that
he had repeated perceptions of the objeft. In like man¬
ner, were that which is fentient perpetually changing,
no man could poffibly fay or fuppofe that he had re¬
peated perceptions of any thing ; for upon this fup-
jpofition, the man of to-day would have no more
H Y S I C S. 587
connexion-witli the man who bore his name yefter-Of Per{C)I,al
day, or twenty years ago, than the laft man in the Lr‘t1^',
line had with the firft.
Upon the whole, We cannot help thinking, thnt
Bifhop Butler’s demonftration of perfonal identity
remains unlhaken by the batteries of Mr Cooper.—•
It refts, indeed, upon the folid bafis of confcioufneis
and memory ; and if implicit credit be not given to
the evidence of thefe faculties, vve cannot proceed a
Angle ftep in any inquiry whatever, nor be certain
of the truth even of a mathematical demonftration. 2fir
But as we .have ourfelves fuppofed, that to fenfa-. A. difficulty
tion, reminifcence, and every actual energy of the mindrcmoved’
of man, the inftrumentality of fome material fyftem is
neceffary, it may perhaps be thought incumbent on us
to fliow how the perpetual flux of the particles of mat¬
ter which compofe the brain, as well as all the other
parts of the body, can conlift with the identity of
the perfon who perceives, remembers, and is cqnfci-
ous. If this cannot be done, our hypothefis, ancient
and plaulible as it is, muft be given up ; for of perfo¬
nal identity it is impoffible to doubt. In this cafe,
however, we perceive no difficulty ; for if there be
united to the brain an immaterial being, which is the
fubjedl of fenfation, confcioufnefs, and will, &c. it is
obvious, that all the intelleQualpowers which properly
conftitute the perfon, muft be inherent in that being.
The material fyftem, therefore, can be neceffary-only
as an inftrument to excite the energies of thofe pow¬
ers ; and fince the powers themfelves remain un¬
changed, why ffiould vve fuppofe that their energies
may not be continually exerted by fucceffive inftru-
ments of the fame kind, as well as by one permanent
inftrument ? The powers of perception and volition
are not, in the material fyftem, any more than the fen¬
fation of feeing is in the rays of light, or the energy
of the blackfmith in the hammer with which he beats
the anvil. Let us fuppofe a man to keep his eye fof
an hour fteadily fixed upon one objedt. It will not
furely be denied, that if this could be done, he would
have one uninterrupted and unvaried perception of an
hour’s duration, as meafured by the clock. Yet it is
certain, that the rays of light which alone could oc-
cafion that perception would be perpetually changing-
In like manner, a blackfmith, whilft he continues to
beat his anvil, continues to exert the fame power
whether he ufes one hammer all the time, or a diffe¬
rent hammer at each ftroke. The reafon is obvious;
the eye, with all its connexions of brain and mind
in the one cafe, and the perfon of the fmith in the
other, remain unchanged; and in them alone refide
the faculty of fenfation and- the power of beating,
though neither the faculty nor the power can be ex¬
erted without material inftruments. But were it poi-
fible that millions of men could in the fpace of an
hour take their turns in rotation with each new ray
of light, it is felf-evident, that in this cafe, there
would be nothing permanent in fenfation ; and, there¬
fore, there could not be one uninterrupted and unva¬
ried perception, but millions of perceptions, during
the hour, totally diftinX from and unconneXed with
each other. Let us now fuppofe a man to fix his eye
upon an objeX for the fpace of a minute, and at the
diftance of a day or a month to fix it upon the fame
4 E 2 objed
J88 M E T A P
objcft a fecond time. He would not indeed, in this
the Soul. cak’ ^ave one uninterrupted and unvaried perception,
u—y—. but he would be eoufcious of the energy of the very
fame faculty the fecond time as at the firft. Where¬
as, were one man to view an obje& to-day, and ano¬
ther to view the fame objeft to-morrow, it is obvious,
that he who fhould be lad in the fucceffion could
krfow nothing of the energy of that faculty by which
the objeft was perceived the firft day, becaufe there
would be nothing common to the two perceptions.
Thus then we fee, that perfonal identity may with
truth be predicated of a compound being, though the
material part be in a perpetual flux, provided the im¬
material part remain unchanged ; and that of fuch a
being only is a refurreftion from the dead pofiible.—
For fince the motions of the brain do nothing more
than excite to energy the permanent powers of the
mind, it is of no fort of confequence to that energy,
whether thefe motions be continued by the fame nu¬
merical atoms, or by a perpetual fucceflion of atoms
arranged and combined in the very fame manner.
We fhall, therefore, be the fame perfons at the refur-
re&ion as at prefent, whether the mind be united to
a particular fyftem compofed of any of the number-
lefs atoms which have in fucceffion made parts of our
prefent bodies, or to a fyftem compofed of totally dif¬
ferent atoms, provided that new fyftem be organifed
in exaftly the fame manner with the brain or material
vehicle, which is at prefent the immediate inftrument
of perception. This (we fay) is felf-evident; but
were the immaterial part to change with the changing
body, a refurreftion of the fame perfons would be
plainly impoffible.
Chap. IV. Of the Immortality of the
Soul.
261
T1 e im- Wherever men have been in any degree civilized,
the'lbid the an^in f°me nati°ns where they have been in the moft
general ber f*vage ftate, it has been the general perfuafion, that
lief in all the mind or foul fubfifts after the diflblution of the
nations. body. The origin of this perfuafion, about which
difputes have been raifed, no Chriftian hefitates to
attribute to revelation. The Egyptians, from whom
the Greeks derived many of their theological and phi-
lofophical principles, appear to have taught the im¬
mortality of the foul, not as a truth difcovered by the
exertions of human reafon, but as a dogma derived
to them from the eajlieft ages by tradition. This
jtndeed may be confidently inferred from the charac¬
ter and condudf of their firft Greek difciples. Thofe
early wife men who fetched their philofophy imme¬
diately from Egypt, brought it home as they found
it, in detached and independent placits. Afterwards,
when fchools were formed, and when man began to
philofophife by hypothefis and fyftem, it was eagerly
inquired upon what foundation in nature the belief of
the foul’s immortality could reft; and this inquiry
gave rife to the various difquifitions concerning the
J'ulflance of the foul, which have continued to exer-
cife the ingenuity of the learned to the prefent day.
It was clearly perceived, that if confcioufnefs, thought,
and volition, be the refult of any particular modifica¬
tion of matter and motion, the living and thinking
agent mull perilh with the diffolution of the fyftem}
H Y S I C S. Part III.
and it was no lefs evident, that if the being which Of the Im-
perceives, thinks, and wills, be not material, the mind
of man may fubfift after the refolution of the body' e "l'' .
into its component particles. The difcovery of the
immateriality of the mind was therefore one Jlep to¬
wards the proof of its immortality ; and in the opi¬
nion of many philofophers, whofe hopes ought to reft
on a furer bafis, it was alone a complete proof. —
“ They who hold fenfitive perception in brutes (fays
a pious writer.f) to be an argument fbr the immateri- f See the
ality of their fouls, find themfelves under the necef- Procedure,
fity of allowing thofe fouls ta.be immortal.” ^AmHs'offbt
The philofophers of ancient Greece, however, felt iruJerJanJ-
not themfelves under any fuch neceffity. Whatever
were their opinions refpe&ing the fouls of brutes, 2(?3.
they clearly perceived that nothing which ^ad a be-^hers'crf* •
ginning of exiftence could be naturally immortal, whe-ancie-t
ther its fubftance were material or immaterial.— Greece be-
“ There never was any of the ancients before Chri- lieved like-
ftianity (fays the accurate Cudworth), that held the
foul’s future permanency after death, who did not like- ]^'Cj 1 '
wife aflert its pre-exiftence ; they clearly perceiving,
that if it were once granted that the foul was gene¬
rated, it could never be proved but that it might be
alfo corrupted. And, therefore, the aflertors of the
foul’s immortality commonly began here, firft to prove
its pre-exiftence, proceeding thence to eftablifti its per¬
manency after death. This is the method of proof
ufed in Plato : Hv no iS^ov » vpiv tv t« Si t» avfya-
vrtvu E.fft ytaetiai, otrh x«i rauh «6ava7o» ri toaev i uvau
Our foul was fomewhere before it came to exift in this hu¬
man form, and thence it appears to be immortal, and as fuch
will fulftft after death?’
To give this argument for immortality any ftrength, And abfo»
it muft be taken for granted, not only that the foul lute eter- .
exifted in a prior ftate, but that it exifted from all niT*
eternity ; for it is obvious, that if it had a beginning
in any ftate, it may have an end either in that ftate
or in another. Accordingly, Plato afierts in plain
terms its eternity and felf-exiftence, which, as we learn
from Cicero, he infers from its being the principle of
motion in man. “ Quin etiam cseteris, qua; moventur,
hie fons, hoc principium eft movendi. Principii autem
nulla ef origo. Nam ex principio oriuntur omnia : ipfum
autem nulla ex re alia nafei poteft : nec enim effet id
principium, quod gigneretur aliunde This, it§ rufcul. j
muft be acknowledged, is very contemptible reafon-lib. i.cap.zj;?
ing; but the opinion which it was intended to prove
was held by all the philofophers. They were unani¬
mous in maintaining the jubjlance of the foul, though
not its perfonality, to be eternal d parte ante as well as
ad partem pof ; and Cicero, where he tells us that this
opinion paffed from Pherecydes, Syrus, to Pythago¬
ras, and from Pythagoras to Plato, exprefles their
notion of the foul’s duration by the worAfemptier'
ms *, which, in its original and proper fenfe, is ap-* TuTcaf, .
plicable only to that which has neither beginning hb.i.
nor end.
Indeed none of the philofophers of ancient Greece
appear to have believed a creation (fee Creation) pof-
fible : for it was a maxim universally received among
them, De nihilo nihilft, in nihilum nil poffe reverti ; that
nothing can come from nonentity, or go to nonentity. This
maxim, as held by the theiftical philofophers, the
learned Cudworth labours to interpret in a fenfe agree-
  able-
Part lit. M E T A P H
Of the im able to our notions of the orgin of the world ; but the
Y s i c s.
5*9‘
r petent reader that on tins occafion he labours in vain.
For inftance, when Ariftotle writes of Parmenides
and Meliffus, that <par,v wSt
ra> ov1a», they fay that no real entity is either made or de-
jlroyed; what can be his meaning, but that thofe
philofophers taught that nothing could be either cre¬
ated or annihilated? He teftifies the fame thing of or matter out of which the world
Xenophi nes and Xeno, when he fays that it was a fun¬
damental principle of their philofophy—v“»
—that it is mpojfible that any thing
Mtr/iior) viro 3-fou yryevtvui \tynv nai aJW ojuiv yap xaXX/rof Ti>v yt- Of the Im.
yovolu* aiJi ot.fs-of r«v a hay r>!V Ji OT2I ANf,*a< T'AH N ytyo mortality of
yiy ov yivo/imv, a\X« vtiMipam an Ta tnnvovpyu its Jia6firiv the Soul.
xcci ra?!* Ctuht, xai :rpoc r^.ao<air<v. af fvvah/v xy rapair^iry* ov yap 
ex tou ovloc x yiniri;, axx’ ex tou ^xx xaxaf, /txxJ’ ixavaf froths,
as omas xai Iptahov, xai avipiav'icc -)•. It is therefore better for\ Plut. 0p4
us to follow Platoy and to fay andfing that the world was10111
made by God. For as the world is the bejl of all works, fo *' 'nT'A*
is God the bejl of all caufes Neverthelefs, the substance
* " ’ ’ '’ ' NOT
itfelf made, but was always ready at hand, and fobject to
the artificer, to be ordered and difpofed by him. For the
raking of the world was not the production of it out of n<
. 1014.
fijould be made out of nothing. And of Empedocles, when thing, but out of an antecedent bad and diforderly fate, like'
' 1 *  {  " ! — A‘ the making of a houfe, garment, or Jlatue.
If, then, this be a fair .eprefentation of the fenti-
ments of Plato, and furely the author underftood thofe
he relates a*’-**!* /aula W*ums opeoKoyu
^avov e.'< ymtrvtu to rs ov f&Mvo-Sai ayxvu ov v.ai appmlov That
he acknowledges the very fame thing with other philofophers.
viz. that it is impojjible that any thingJhould be made out of fentiments better than the moft accomplilhed modern
nothing, or perijh into nothing But it is needlefs to mul¬
tiply quotations refpe&ing the opinions of fingle phi¬
lofophers. Of-all the phyfiologers before himfelf and
Plato, Ariftotle fays, without exception, ravhs
o/Myvu/sovovo-i t»( tofys tipi (pvirius, oh r yiyvoy.(vov i*/lov ovUv
f Phypc. yiyvurlui aJuvaloy f—That they agree in this opinion, that it is
&b.i cap* 5:, impojjible that any thing Jhould be made out of nothing :
and he calls this the common principle of naturalifts ;
plainly intimating, that they confidered it as the
greateft abfurdity to fuppofe that any real entity in
nature could either be brought from nothing or redu¬
ced to nothing.
The author of the IntelleEiual Syflem, in order,
perhaps, to hide the impiety of this principle, endea¬
vours to perfuade his readers, that it was urged only
againft the hypothefis of forms and qualities of bodies
confidered as real entities, diftinft from matter. But
how it could be fuppofed to militate againft that par¬
ticular opinion, and not againft the poffibility of all
creation, is to us perfe&ly inconceivable. The father
of the fchool which analyfed body into matter and
form, together with by far the greater part of his fol¬
lowers, taught the eternity of both thefe principles ( l) ;
and therefore maintained, as ftrenuoufly as any atomift,
the univerfal maxim, De nihilo nihil fit. Even Plato
himfelf, whofe doftrine of ideas is fuppofed to wear a
more favourable afpedl than Ariftotle’s forms to the
truths of revealed religion, taught the eternity of mat¬
ter ; but whether as a felf-exifting fubftance, or only
as an emanation from the Deity, is a queftion which
'has been difputed. That he admitted no proper
creation, may be confidently inferred from Plutarch ;
who writing upon the generation of animals, accord¬
ing to the dodtrine laid down in the Timceus, has the
following paffage : B«x7<»y OW, H\allavi irtiBofstptous tov pav
fcholar can pretend to do, nothing is more evident,
than that the founder 'of the academy admitted of no
proper creation, but only taught that the matter
which had exifted from eternity in a chaotic Hate, was
in time reduced to order by the Demiurgus, or fupreme
Being: And if fuch were the fentiments of the divine
Plato, we cannot hefitate to adopt the opinion of the
excellent Mofheim, which the reader will probably be-
pleafed to have in his own words. “ Si a Judaeis dif-
cedas, nefcio an ullus antiqnorum philofophorum mun-
dum negaverit aeternum effe. Omnes mihi asternum
profefii videntur effe mundum : hoc uno vero disjun-
guntur, quod nonnulli, ut Arijloteles, formam et mate-
riam fimul hujus orbis, alii vero, quorum princeps fa¬
cile Plato, materiam tantum celernam, formam vero, a
Deo comparatam, dixerunt f d* \ Votes on
Now it is a faft fo generally known, as not to Hand Cudviorthh
in need of being proved by quotations, that there was dntelleaual
not among them a fingle man who believed in the Mem'
exiftence of mind as a being more excellent than mat¬
ter, and effentially different from it, who did not hold
the fuperior of at leaft equal antiquity with the infe¬
rior fubftance. So true is this, that Synefius, though
a Chriftian, yet having been educated in one of the
fchools of philofophy, could not by the hopes of a
bifhopric be induced to diffemble this fentiment:
Xt< T(V pv^v OUK a|iatra tro'l vrEf0;-fvx vo/xijeiv *.— *Efifp
IJhall never be perfuaded to think my foul younger than my ’ ^
body. This man probably believed upon the autho¬
rity of the feriptures, that the matter of the vifible
world was created in time ; but he certainly held with
his philofophic mafters, that his own foul was as old
as any atom of it, and that it had confequently
exifted in a prior ftate before it animated his prefent
body.
Thofe
(l) Arijlotelem, et plerofque Peripateticorum, in vulgus notum eft, in hac fuiffe fententia—nec natum ’
effe, nec interiturum unquam hunc mundum. Vid. Petrus Gassendus Phyfic. fe6t. i. lib. I. cap. 6. Jac.
Thomasws de Stoica mundi exujlione, Diff. 4. et alii. Plures ita baud dubie fenferunt philofophorum veterum.
Hinc video Manilivm in Ajlronomico Lib. i. inter philofophorum de mundo fententias hanc, ac li praecipua
effet, primo commemorare loco :
Quem five ex mllis repetentem femina rebus,
Natali quosue bgere placet, femperqtte fuisse,
Et fore, princifio pariter FAToque carentem.
Mojheim's edition of Cudworth’s Inttlkdual Syjlem, lib. i. cap. 3. fed. 33. note 60. On this fubjed fee alfo
Ancient Metaphyfus, '
M E T A P
H Y S X C S. PartUI.
ration from its divine parent. Cicero end the Stoics £*f the im,
talk as if the Supreme Mind were extended, and as if mortal'ty of
the human foul were a part literally torn from thattlie S'm- ,
mind, as a limb can be torn from the body. The Py¬
thagoreans and Platonifts feem to have confidered all
fouls as emanations from the divine Subftance rather
than as parts torn from it, much in the fame way as
rays of light are emanations from the fun. Plato, iu
particular, believed in two felf-exiltent principles, God
and matter. The former he confidered as the fupreme
Intelligence, incorporeal, without beginning, end, yr
change; and diftinguiihed it by the appellation of
oc.ya..ovJ the Good, Matter, as fubfifting from eternity,
he confidered as without any oat form or quality what¬
ever, and as having a natural tendency to diforder. Of
this chaotic mafs God formed a perfect world, after the
eternal pattern in his own mind, and endowed it with
5QO
Of the 1m- Thofe who maintained that the world was uncreated,
^h^Su V <sfnia,'ntained upon the fame principle that their fouls were
e <)U ' uncreated likewife 5 and as they conceived all bodies to be
2^ formed of one firft matter, fo they conceived all fouls to
They fup- be either emanations from the one firft Mind,or difeerp-
pofed ail te<] part3 of Ariftotle, who diftinguifhes between the
foul- to be intellectual andfenfitivefoulsjfaysexprefslyqf theformer,
'foro the”*'that “it enters from without,and is divine;” adding this
left mind; reafon for his opinion, that “ its energy is not blended
with that of the body—\un1ui St ™ vouv ^cova, Svpu t» i*u-
eritvca, xoci r%iov eivu:- /xwov' ou$e yxp avion tv tnrysia xaivcovti (rapcct-
* De Gene- i,KV mf,yux *. As to the Stoics, Cleanthes held (as Stq-
*3seus inf°rrns usf), that “everything was made out
'.Kb.ihcap.j. °f one, and would be again refolved into one.” But
f Ecltg. ' let Seneca fpeak for them all : “ Quid eft autem, cur
Phyf c. 20. non exiltimes in eo divini aliquid exiftere, qui Dei
pars eft ? Totum hoc, quo continemur, et unum eft,
£///?. 9«. et _l)Kas; et focii ejusfumus, et membra|| — WhyJhould a foul or emanation from himfelf. In the language of
you not believe Jbmething to be divine in him, who is indeed Plato, therefore, the univerfe being animated by a foul
part ov God ? That whole in which we are contained which proceeds from God, is called the fon of God;
is one, and that one is God ; we being his companions and and feveral parts of nature, particularly the heavenly
members. Epidetus fays, The fouls of men have the bodies, are gods. The human foul, according to him,
nearejl relation to God, as being parts or fragments of is derived by emanation from God, through the inter-
him, la.cerpted and torn from his susstancf. : vention of this foul of the world ; and receding farther
TU .ta, «!(ctvlou y._opicc ova-ca xcu cnrorxuo-tearct. Plato writes from the firft intelligence, it is inferior in perfection
to the very fame purpofe, when, without any foften- to the foul of the world, though even that foul isde-
ing, he frequently calls the foul God, and part of bafed by fome material admixture. To account more
God. And Plutarch fays, that “ Pythagoras and fully for the origin and prefent ftate of human fouls,
Plato held the foul to be immortal ; for that, launch- ^ ' ‘ ~
jng out into the foul of the univerfe, it returns to its
parent and original—Xiufayopcti, nx«7«v, afBaplov uyit r»v
»(,ovn»’ i^ioua-avyap Hi rpt tov ■Aav'loc ^ugtiv, aixyuptit xpoc to h/j.o-
•f T)c Placi- paia; f- Plutarch declares his own opinion to be, that
>tU Vhilofo- <1 the foul is not fo much the work and production of
fitTivca God, as a part of him ; nor is it made by him, but
1 iv.cap 7. FRO;!rt an(j QUT 0f ; j, oux £fj,ev tr, n,„0,y
ouf Til’ av'iov, ukd An' ocvTOv, xa’ E3 avlov
* Pfoto yiyont *■ But it is needlefs to multiply quotations.
Cicero delivers the common fentiments of his Greek
§ De Divi- mailers on this head, when he fays §, “A natura de-
natroM,hb.i orum^ ut doCliffimis fapientiffimifque placuit, hau-
• cT-49- sxos animos et libatos habemus.” And again:
“ Humanus autem animus decerptus ex mente
divina: cum alio nullo, nifi cum ipfo Deo (fi hoc
266 fas eft di&u), cbmparari poteft.”
Bur differ- Whilll the philofophers were thus unanimous in
ed in opi- maintaining the foul to be a part of the felf-exiftent
™°nmao8dte°of Subftance, they differed in opinion, or at leaft expref-
theirTepa- fed themfelves differently, as to the mode of its fepa-
ration.
Plato fuppofes *, that “when God formed the uni-* Enfield's
verfe, he feparated from the foul of the world inferior Abridgment
fouls, equal in number to the liars, and affigned tQ0ff?fucier'*
each its proper celeftial abode ; but that thofe fouls,
(by what means, or for what reafon, does not appear), J
were fent down to the earth into human bodies, as
into fepulchies orprifons.” He aferibes to thiscaufe
the depravity and mifery to which human nature is
liable ; and maintains, that it “ is only by difengaging
itfelf from all animal paffions, and riling above fenfible
obje&s, to the contemplation of the world of intelli¬
gence, that the foul of man can be prepared to return
to its original ftate.” Not inconliftentiy with this doc¬
trine, our philofopher frequently fpeaks of the foul of
man as confining of three parts : or rather he feema
to have thought that man has three fouls; the firlt
the principle of intelligence, the fecond of paflion, and
the third of appetite (m) ; and to each he afligns its
proper place in the human body. But it was only
the intellectual foul that he confidered as immortal.
Ariftotle
(m) “ Plato triplicem finxit animam ; cujus principatum, id eft, rationem, in capite, ficut in arce, pofuit:
et duas partes feparare voluit, iram et cupiditatem, quas locis difelufit; iram in peClore, cupiditatem fubter
precordia locavit.” Gceronis Tufc. flue ft. lib. i. cap. 10.
This hypothefis has been adopted by the learned author of Ancient Metaphyfics : but it cannot be
proved by argument, and is in direCl oppofition to confcioufnefs. Were there three ditlinft minds in each
man the principles of intelligence, of paffion, and of appetite, it is obvious that each man would be three
perfons, and that none of thefe perfons could know any thing of the powers and properties of the other two.
The intelligent perfon could not reafon about paffwn or appetite ; nor could the perfons who know nothing but
paffion and appetite reafon about intelligence, or indeed about any thing elfe. The very queftion at iffue,
therefore, furnifhes the moft complete proof poffible, that the fame individual which each man calls himfelf,
is the principle of intelligence, of paffion, and of appetite : for if the Platonic hypothefis were true, that
queftion could never have been ftarted, as no one individual of the human race could have underftood all its
terms. It may be juft worth while to mention, that the author of Ancient Metaphyfics, attributing all mo-
cap. 6.
PartHI. M E T A P
ot the Im- Ariftotle taught, in terms equally exprefs, that
mor tality of the human foul is a part of God, and of eourle that
the Sou ■ ^ jt8 fubftanee is of eternal and neceffary exiftence. Some
of his followers, indeed, although they acknowledged
two jitjl principles, the aftive and the paffive, yet held,
with the Stoics, but one fubjlance in the univerfe ; and
to reconcile thefe two contradidlory propofitions, they
were obliged to fuppofe matter to be both adtive and
palTive. Their dofctrine on this fubjedl is thus deliver¬
ed by Cicero: “ De natura ita dicebant, ut earn divide-
rent in res duas, ut altera effet efficiens, altera autem
quafi huic fe preebens, ea quae efficeretur aliquid. In eo,
quod efficeret, vim efle cenfebant; in eo autem quod effi¬
ceretur, materiam quandam ; in utroque tamen u-
trumque. Neque enim materiam ipfam coherere potu-
iffe, fi nulla.vi contineretur, neque vim sine aliqua
.f AceJsmi- Materia ; nihileftenim,quodnon alicubielTecogaturt.',
lib. i. They divided nature into two things, as the firjl principles ;
6' one ■whereof is the efficient or artificer, the other that which
offers itfelf to him for things to be made out of it. In the
efficient principle, they acknowledged aftive Jorce; in the
paffive, a certain matter ; but fo, that in v.Ach both of
these rrEKE together : forafmuch as neither the matter
could cohere together unlefs it were contained by fame active
force, nor the jctiff. force subsist of itsEiE without
matter; becaufe that is nothing which may not be compelled
to befomewhere. Agreeably to this ft range doctrine,
Arrian, the interpreter of Epidtefcus, fays of himfdf,
uui ntpoc -rev xavlo*, ®V Ufa if. “ I am a man
(a part of the 70 or univeff?), as an hour is part of
the day.
' Ariftotle himfelf is. generally fuppofed to have be¬
lieved in the eternal exiftence of two fubftances, mind
and matter ; but treating of the generation of animals,
he fays, TO xavlt itppohc pv^ixn, u< rpbxov rtva xavlcc
* De Gene- *\yipn Sio cwurUlcu oxalav i/urtpIRnfjn *, In the vni-
rahone Am Verfe there is a certain animal heat, fo as that after a man-
hb ‘in 'c 11 ntr are foM °f mind ; wherefore they are quickly
completed (or made complete animals) when they have re¬
ceived a portion ef that heat. This heal, from which,
1 Tufcul. according to Cicero J, the Stagy rite derived all fouls,
lib. i. c 3. has, it muft be confeffed, a very material appear¬
ance ; infomuch that the learned Mofheim feems to
have been doubtful whether he admitted of any imma¬
terial principle in man; but for this doubt there ap¬
pears to us to be no folid foundation. Ariftotle ex-
prefsly declares, that this heat is notfire nor any fuch
power, but a fpirit which is in thefeeds or elementary prin¬
ciples of bodies", roulo Se ov xop, evte roiavln ivtapnf (trim, crXXa.
* De Gtne- to (u7npikceu.Cetioy.ivin sv ra axipyah v.ai s» to acppoiei xnvya*.
rat lone Am- And as the excellent perfon himfelf acknowledes (n).
Lb. .i. c 3.
H Y SICS. 591
that Ariftotie taught the exiftence of two principle*, Of the lm-
God and matter, not indeed fubfifting feparately, but
eternally linked together by the clofeft union; we think .
it follows undeniably, that this heat, from which he
derived all fouls, muft be that mind which he called
God, and which he coniidered as the actuating foul of
the univerfe.
Upon thefe principles neither Ariftotle nor the
Stoics could believe with Plato, that in the order of
nature there was firft an emanation from the fupreme
mind to animate the univerfe, and then through this
univerfal foul other emanations to animate mankind.
The Stagyrite believed, that the Supreme Mind him¬
felf is the foul of the world, and that human fouls are
immediately derived from him. The genuine Stoics,
acknowledging but one fubilance, of neceffity conli-
dered both the fouls and bodies of men as portions of
that fubftance, which they called. though ftiil
they affected to make feme unintelligible diftia&ion
between body and mind. But however the various
fchools differed as to thofe points, they were unanimous
as to the foul's being a part of the felf-exifting Sub-
ftance; and Cicero gives their whole fyftem from Pa-
cuvianus in words which cannot be mifunderftood:
Quicquid eft hoc, omnia animat, format, alit, auget, crest,
Sepelit, recipitque in lefe omnia, omniumque idem eft Pater :
Indidcmqueeadem,q a: oriuiiturdeiiitegro,atqueeodemoccidunt.
To thefe veifes he immediately fubjoins the following Upon theft*
query : “ Quid eft igitur, cur, cum domus fit omnium principles
una, eaque communis, cumque animi homimtm semper ' e' 'j13'11*
ruERWT, futvrisue Sint, cur ii,quid exquoque evenuit, e irary
et quid quamque remfignificet,perfpicerenon poffint|] ?” euftence of
And upon the fame principle he elfewhere argues, notthe fou';
merely for the immortality, but for the eternity and ns- ^ 1>e
teffiary exiftence of the foul: “ Animorum nulla in ter fcap? 57 * A*~
ris origo invenire poteft : His enim in naturis nihil
inert, quod vim memorise mentis, cogitationis habeat;
quod et praeterita teneat, et futura provideat, et com-
pledii poflit prsefentia ; quae fola divina funt. Nec
ilivenietur unquam, unde ad hominem venire poffint,
nifi a Deo. Ita quicquid eft illud, quod fentit, quod
fapit, quodvult, quodviget, caelefte et divinum eftpps
EAMQTJE REM STERNUM SIT NECXSSE EST*.” ThlS> Frxg fo-
was indeed fecuring the future permanency of the foul Confotatiomr.
in the moft effeftual manner ;, for it is obvious, that
what had not a beginning can never have an end, but
muft be of eternal and neceffary exiftence.. ^
But when.the ancients attribute, a proper eternityBiunnt In¬
to the foul, we muft not fuppofe that they underftoodi s diftinAi
it to be eternal in its difiind and perfonalexflence. They an'^ Perfo-
believed that it preceded or was difeerpted in time from nal caPa"
theClty*
tion, and even the coherence of the minute particles of body, to the immediate agency of mind, of courfe
furniffies every human body with at leaft four minds. This fourth mind differs not from the plaflic nature of
Cudworth, and is likewife a Platonic notion apparently better founded. That there are in our bodies mo¬
tions perpetually carried on by the agency of fomethihg which is not the principle of either our intelligence,.
our paffions, or our appetites, is a fatf which cannot be denied ; but if thofe motions proceed immediately
from mind, it muft be either from the. fupreme mind, or from iornt fulordinate mind, acting under, the fupreme,
but wholly difiind from and independent of that which each man calls himfelf.
(n) “ Non cum illis componi prorfus poteft Aristotei.es, qui bina rerum feparataque ftatuunt principia,
Dtum et materiam. Arftiffirne enim utmmque hoc.initium conjunxit Stagyrita, atque ipfa naturae neceffitate :
Deum cohaerere cum mole hac corporea putavit.’, Cudw&rlh’.s Intelledual Syfiem, Book I. Chap iv. Seft- 6,
Note 3.
T
of the Im- the fuhftance t>f God, and would in time be again re-
TJsluYOif0hecI into that lubftanee. This they explained by a
-t clofed veflel filled with fea-water; which fvvimming a
while upon the ocean, does, on the veflel’s breaking,
flow in again, and mingle with the common mafs.
They only differed about the time of this reunion ;
the greater part holding it to be at death; but the
Pythagoreans not till after many tranfmigrations. The
Platonifts went between thefe two opinions; and re>
joined pure and unpolluted fouls immediately to the
Univerfal Spirit; but thofe which had contracted m uch
defilement, were fent into a fucceffion of other bodies,
to be purged and purified, before they returned to
J Parcnt fubflance-J”
Lclatlon™ A dodtrine fimilar to this of Plato has been held
‘“469 from time immemorial by the Braminsin India, whofe
A fimilar facred books teach, “That intelledl is a portion of
heldb^th t^ie GREAT SOUL °* univerfe, breathed into all
iiramins, creatures, to animate them for a certain time; that af¬
ter death it animates other bodies, or returns like a
drop into that unbounded ocean from which it firft arofe;
that the fouls of men are diftinguifhed from thofe of
other animals, by being endowed with reafon and
with a confcioufnefs of right and wrong ; and that the
foul of him who adheres to right as far as his powers
extend, is at death absorbed into that divine es¬
sence, never more to reanimate flefh. On the other
band, the fouls of thofe who do evil, are not at death
difengaged from all the elements ; but are immediate¬
ly cloathed with a body of fire, air, and aknjh (a kind
of celedial element, through which,the planets move,
and which makes no refiftance) in which they are for a
time punifhed in hell. After the feafon of their grief
is over, they reanimate other bodies; and when they
arrive through thefe tranfmigrations at a {late of pu¬
rity, they are abforbed into God, where all passions
are utterly unknown, and where consciousness
%‘§tlTnh- IS L0ST iN blissJ.”
^flrtauonto Whether the Greeks derived their notions of the
Vow^Hi- divinity and tranfmigration of fouls from the eaft, or
Jlary of In- whether both they and the Bramins brought the fame
dojlan. fioftrines at different periods from Egypt, it is foreign
This^loc ^rom t*ie ParP0^e t*1'8 article to inquire. Certain it
trine in-' is» that the philofopher's of Greece and India argued
(compatible in the very fame manner, and upon the very fame prin-
withafu- ciples, for the natural immortality of the foul; and
rewards6 t^e 'mrnortality which they taught was wholly
In™ punilh- incompatible with God’s moral government of the
incuts, and world, and with a future ftate of rewards and punifh-
ments. That this is true of the dodlrine of the Bra¬
mins, is evident from the laft quoted fentence : for if
the foul, when abforbed into the Divine effence, lofes
all confcioufnefs of what it did and fuffered in the
body, it cannot pofiibly be rewarded for its virtues
praftifed upon earth. That thejhilofophers of Greece
taught the fame ceffation of confcioufnefs, might be
inferred with the utmoft certainty, even though we
had not Ariftotle’s exprefs declaration to that purpofe:
N° 215.
Part III,
For as they all believed their fouls to have exiffed be- °f the *m-
fore they were infufed into their bodies, and as each ™°r‘alir1y<>^
muff have been confcious that he remembered nothing ^ ^uu ’ .
of his former ftate (o), it was impoflible to avoid con¬
cluding, that in the future ftate of his foul as little would
be remembered of the prefent. Accordingly Ariftotle
teaches, that “ the agent intellect only is immortal and
eternal, but the paffive corruptible’—-roulo aM-juiov
» St n-aBnitxof you? ptaphc*. Cudworth thinks this * He , ‘nU
a very doubtful and obfcure paffage ; but Warburton,ma' hh. iii.
whofe natural acutenefs often difcovered the fenfe ofcap' 6‘
ancient authors when it had efcaped the fagacity of
abler fcholars, has completely proved, that by the agent
intellect is meant the JubJlance of the foul, and by the
pa/five its particular perceptions. It appears therefore
that the Stagy rite, from the common principle of the
foul’s being apart of the Divine fubftance, draws a con-
clufion againllafuture ftate of rewards and punilhments;
which though all the philofophers (except Socrates)
embraced, yet all were not fo forward to avow.
That the hypothelis of, the foul’s being a part of Gi-oisly ab.
the Divine fubftance is a grofs abfurdity, we furelyfurd iu is-
need not fpend time in proving. The argument long eit ’
ago urged againft it by St Aullin muft ere now have
occurred to every reader. In the days of that learned
father of the church, it was not wholly given up by
the philofophers; and in his excellent work of the
City of God, he thus expofes its extravagance and im¬
piety : “ Quid infelicius credi poteft, quam Dei par¬
tem vapulare, cum puer vapulat ? Jam vero partes Dei
fieri lafcivas, iniquas, impias, atque omnino damnabiles,
quis ferre poteft nili qui prorfus infanit ?”
But though this hypothelis be in the higheft degree Yet the on»
abfurd and wholly untenible, we apprehend it to be the r? principle
only principle from which the natural or ejfcntial immor- ^rom which
tility of the foul can pofiibly be inferred. If the foul had :lle f<lul cara
a beginning., it may have an end; for nothing can be more ;o ;,e effen»
evident than that the being which had not exiftence of ialiy im-
itfelf cannot of itfelf have perpetuity of exiftence. Hu-Ia®rtak
man works, indeed, continue in being after the power
of the workman is withdrawn from them; but between
human works and the Divine there is thisimmenfe dif¬
ference, that the former receive from the artift nothing
but their form; whereas the latter receive from the
Creator both their form and their fubftance. Forms
are nothing but modifications of fubftance; and as
fubftances depend upon God and not upon man, hu¬
man works are continued in being by that fiat of the
Creator, which made the fubftances of which they are
compofed fufceptible of different forms, and of fuch a
nature as to retain for a time whatever form may be
impreffed upon them. Human works therefore are
continued in being by a power different from that by
which they are finifhed ; but the works of God de¬
pend wholly upon that power by which they were ori¬
ginally brought into exiftence; and were the Creator
to withdraw his fupporting energy, the whole creation
would fink into nothing.
8 Self-
METAPHYSICS.
(o) This is exprefsly acknowledged by Cicero, though he held with his Greek mafters the eternity of thd
foul. In anfwer to fonre very foolifti affertions concerning the evil of death, he fays, “ Ita, qui nondura
nati funt, miferi jam funt, quia non funt: et nos ipfi, ft poll mortem miferi futuri fumus, miferi fui«
*nus antequam nati. Ego autem non commemini, antequam fum nalus, me miferum. Tufcut. lib. I. cap. 6.
Part III.
Iramorta- Self-evident as this truth certainly is, fome eminent
,kL0ulthe P^^0^°P^ers Seem to ‘lave queftioned it. “ Na fub-
. ° ftance or being (fays Mr Baxter *) canr have a natural
473 tendency to annihilation, or to become nothing. That
Baxter’s ar-a being which once exifts ftiould ceafe to exift. is a real
gumentfor effect, and muft be produced by a real caufe : But
nr^effential t^*8 cau^e could not be planted in the nature of any
immonaii- fsbftance or being to become a tendency of its nature ;
ty of the for it could not be a free caufe, otherwife it muft be a
foul being itfelf, the fubjedt of the attribute freedom, and
‘intatb^Ka- t^ere^ore not t^ie property of another being ; nor a ne-
ture of the ceff^ry eaufe, for fuch a caufe is only the effect of fome
human Soul, thing impofing that neceffity, and fo no caufe at all.”
vol. i. That the author’s meaning in this argument is good
<874 cannot, we think, be controverted ; but he has not ex-
Inconclu- preffed himfelf with his ufual accuracy. He feems to
five, confound caufes with the abfence of caufes, and the ejfeds
of the former with the confequences of 4the latter. The
vifible world was brought into exiftence by the aftual
energy of the power of God ; and as the vifible world
had nothing of itfelf, it can remain in exiftence only by
a continuance of the fame energy. This energy therefore
is at the prefent moment as real a caufe as it was fix
thoufand years ago, or at any paft period when it may
have been firft exerted ; and the vifible world is its real
and permanent effeS. But would the ceafing of this
energy be likewife a caufe? It would certainly be
followed with the annihilation of the vifible world,
juft as the withdrawing of the fun-beams would be
followed with darknefs on the earth. Yet as no one
has ever fuppofed that darknefs, a non-entity, is a po-
Jitiw effeft of the fun or of his beams, but only a mere
negative confequence of their abfence ; fo, we think,
no one who believes in creation can confider that
deftruftion which would inevitably follow the with¬
drawing of the energy by which all tilings are fup-
plied, as the pofitive ejfed of a contrary energy, or as
any thing more than a negative confequence of the cea¬
fing of that volition or energy of power by which
God at firft brought things into exiftence. For
“ where the foundation of exiftence lies wholly in the
power of an infinite Being producing, the ground of the
continuance of that exiftence muft be wholly in the fame
power conferving; which ha?, therefore, with as much
truth as frequency,been ftyled a continued creation(p).”
and in ef- The force of this reafoning Mr Baxter certainly faw
fe<5t given when he faid, that “ a tendency to perfevere in the
up by him- fame ftate of nature, and a tendency to change it, are
—*■ contradictories, and impoffible to be planted in the fame
fubjeCt at once: or, not to utge the contradiction, if
the laft prevailed, the remaining in the fame ftate for
any given time would be impofiible. We forget the
true caufe of all thefe tendencies^ the will of God,
which it is abfurd to fuppofe contrary to itfelf. The
tendency in matter to perfevere in the fame ftate of
Vol.XI. Partll.
METAPHYSICS. 593
reft or motion, is nothing but the will of the Creator, Immorta-
who preferves all things in their exiftence and manner
of exiftence : nor can we have recourfe to any other °u ' .
caufe for the prefervation of immaterial fubftance in
its exiftence. Therefore thefe tendencies are to be
aferibed to the will of God, and it is abfurd to fup¬
pofe them contrary.” ,
All this is unqueftionably true. The exiftence or Analogical
non-exiftence of matter and of created fpirits depends evidence of
wholly upon the will of God ; and we cannot fuppofe fl1^ immor-
himto be willing to-day the reverfe of what he willed
yefterday, becaufe we know that all his volitions are and a mo-
directed by unerring wifdom. We have likewife the ral proof
evidence of experience, that nothing is ever fuffered to of a future
perifh but particular fyftems, which perifh only as fy- ward?and"
Jlems by a decompofition of their parts. A being, pUniih-
which like the foul has no parts, can fuffer no decom-meats,
pofition ; and therefore, if it perifti, it muft perilh by
annihilation. But of annihilation there has not hi¬
therto been a fingle inftance ; nor can we look for a
fingle inftance without fuppofing the volitions of God
to partake of that unfteadinefs which is charaderiftic
of man. Corporeal fyftems, when they have ferved
their purpofe, are indeed reiblved into their compo¬
nent parts ; but the matter of which they were com-
pofed, fo far from being lojl, becomes the matter of
other fyjiems in endlefs fucceffion. Analogy, therefore,
leads us to conclude, that when the human body is
diftolved, the immaterial principle by which it was ani¬
mated continues to think and ad, either in a ftate of
feparation from all body, or in fome material vehicle to
which it is intimately united, and which goes off with
it at death ; or elfe that it is preferved by the Father of
fpirits, for the purpofe of animating a body in fome
future ftate. When we confidcr the different ftates
through which that living and thinking individual,
which each man calls himfelf, goes, from the moment
that it firft animates an embryo in the womb, to the
diffolution of the man of fourfeore; and when we re¬
fled likewife on the wifdom and immutability of God,
together with the various diflblutions of corporeal fy¬
ftems, in which we know that a fingle atom of mat¬
ter has never been loft ; the prefumption is certainly
ftrong, that the foul (hall fubfift after the diflblution of
the body. But when we take into the confideration the
moral attributes of God—his juftice and goodnefs, to¬
gether with the unequal diftribution of happinefs and
mifery in the prefent world; this prefumption from
analogy amounts to z complete moralproof thzt there
fhall be a future ftate of rewards and puniftiments (qj.
(See Moral Philofophy and Religion) ; and if
we eftimate the duration of the rewards by the bene¬
volence of Him by whom they are to be conferred,
we cannot imagine them (horter than eternity.
4 F Chap.
(p) See Stillingfleet’s Origines Sacr<e, where this queftion is treated in a very mafterly manner by one of
the ableft metaphyftcians of the laft; century. See ^Ifo our article Providence.
(qJ It was by fuch arguments that Socrates reafoned himfelf into the belief of a future ftate of rewards and
puniftiments. He was Angular, as we hdve already obferved, in this belief; and he was as Angular in confiaina-
himfelf to the ftudy of morality. “ What could be the caufe of this belief, hut this reftiai of which his
belief was a natural confequence ? For having confined himfelf to morals, he had nothing to miflead him;
whereas the reft of the philofophers, applying thentfelves with a kind of fanaticifm to phyfecs and metaphyfes,
had drawn a number of ahfurd, though fubtle, conclufioris, which directly oppofetj the coiifequeiicts of tWe
*ioral arguments.” Warburton’s Div. Leg. vol. ii.
94 METAPHYSICS. Part III.
^ofNe. writers areextremelyvarious, and that tointroduce them OfNe-
cefRty and Chap. V. Of NECESSITY and Liberty. all into our abftraft, would make the whole a mafs of and
Liberty. confufion. We fhall, therefore, feleft one writer to 1 erty'
’ ' In the preceding chapter we have adverted to that
Freedom of great moral proof for a future ftate, and the immor-
agency im tality of the foul, arifing from the relation in which
plied in ac- man> a3 a being accountable for his conduft, Hands
countable- to a Qod 0f alm|ghty power, infinite wifdom, and
^ 5" perfeft juftice. But the circumftance of accountable-
nefs implies freedom of agency ; for it is contrary to
all our notions of right and wrong (fee Moral Phi-
lofophy), that, a man fhould be either rewarded or pu-
nifhed for aftions which he was necefiitated or com-
pelled to perform.
Every man Human aftions are of three kinds : one, where we
has power aft by inflin&, without any view to confequences ; one,
to da what where we aft by will, in order to obtain fome end ;
he wills: and one^ w|iere we againft will. It is the fecond
kind of adtions only which confers upon the agent
merit or demerit. With refpeft to the firft, he afts
blindly (fee Instinct), without deliberation _ or
choice ; and the external aft follows from the inftinc-
tive impulfe, no lefs neceffarily than a ftone by its gra¬
vity falls to the ground. With refpeft to the laft,
he is rather an inftrument than an agent; and it is uni-
verfally allowed, that were a ftrong man to put a
fword into the hand of one who is weaker, and then
to force it through the body of a third perfon, he who
held the fword would be as guiltlefs of the murder as
the fword itfelf. To be intitled to rewards, or liable
to punifhment, a man muft aft voluntarily ; or in other
words, his aft ions muft proceed from that energy of
mind which is termed volition: and, we believe, it.
has never been denied, that all men have power to do
whatfoever they will, both with refpeft to the ope¬
rations of their minds and the motions of their bo¬
dies, uncontrolled by any foreign principle or caufe.
“ Every man (fays Prieftley) is at liberty to turn his
thoughts to whatever fubjeft he pleafes, to confider
the reafons for or againft any fcheme or propofition,
and to refleft upon them as long as he fhall think
proper ; as well as to walk wherever he pleafes, and
to do whatever his hands and other limbs are capable
of doing.” Without fuch liberty as this, morality
is inconceivable.
*79 • But though philofophers have in general agreed
ent (HuT* w‘t^1 refpe& to th6 power which a man has to per-
ons enter- f°rm fuch aftions as he wills, they have differed wide-
tained of ly in opinion refpefting the nature of his volitions,
the free- That thefe are the refult of motives, has feldom if ever
£n°f V°' keen queftioned;'but whether that refult be neceffary,
fo as that the agent has no felf-determining power to
decide between different motives, has been warmly
difputed by men equally candid, impartial, and intel¬
ligent. The principal writers on the fide of necef-
fity are, Hobbes, Collins, Hume, Leibnitz, Lord
Karnes, Hartley, Edwards, Prieftley, and perhaps
Locke. On the other fide are, Clarke, King, Law,
Reid, Butler, Price, Bryant, Wollafton, Horfteyr,
Beattie, and Gregory, &c. To give a ihort view of this
celebrated queftion, is all that our limits will permit;
and as we do not think ourfelves competent to fettle
the difpute, it were perhaps a thing definable to give
the oppofite reafonings in the words of thofe eminent
authors themfeves. It muft, however, be obvious to the
reader, that the ftyk and manner of fo many different
plead the caufe of neceflity, fupplying his defefts '
from thofe who, though inferior to him on the whole,
may yet have argued more ably on fome particular
points which the queftion involves : and to this com¬
bined reafoning we ftiall fubjoin fuch anfwers as to us
appear moft conclufive. Hartley, Hume, and Prieft¬
ley, are perhaps the moft profound reafoners on the
fide of neceffity ; but there is fo much more perfpi-
cuity in the arguments of Lord Kames, that we can¬
not help preferring them, as being on the whole bet¬
ter calculated to give the ordinary reader a fair view
of the fubjeft.
“ Into aftions done with a view to an end (faySgchenie of
his Lordftiip §), defire and will enter : defire to ac- neceflity,
complifti the end goes firft ; the will to aft, in order according
to accomplifh the end, is next; and the external aftj)?Lord
follows of courfe. It is the will then, that governs § of
every external aft done as a mean to accomplilh an the Hifory
end ; and it is defire to accomplilh the end that puts of Man,
the will in motion ; defire, in this view, being com-B‘,olc
monly termed the motive to aft. But what is it that p^tx. **
raifes defire ? The anfwer is ready : It is the profpeftfeft. $,
of attaining fome agreeable end, or of evading one
that is difagreeable. And if it be inquired, what
makes an objeft agreeable or difagreeable ? the anfwer
is equally ready : It is our nature that makes it fo.
Certain vifible objefts are agreeable, certain founds,
and certain fmells : other objefts of thefe fenfes are dif¬
agreeable. But there we muft flop ; for we are far
from being fo intimately acquainted with our own
nature as to aflign the caufes.
“ With refpeft to inftinftive aftions, no perfon, I
prefume,thinks that there is any freedom. With refpeft
to voluntary aftions, done in order to produce fome
effeft, the neceflity is the fame, though lefs apparent
at firft view. The external aftion is determined by
the will; the will is determined by defire ; and defire
by what is agreeable or difagreeable. Here is a chain
of caufes and effefts, not one link of which is arbi¬
trary, or under command of the agent: he cannot will
but according to his defire ; he cannot defire, but ac¬
cording to what is agreeable or difagreeable in the
objefts perceived : nor do thefe qualities depend on his
inclination or fancy; he has no power to make a
beautiful woman ugly, nor to make a rotten carcafe
fmell fweetly.
“ Many good men, apprehending danger to mora¬
lity from holding our aftions to be neceffary, endea¬
vour to break the chain of caufes. and effefts above
mentioned ; maintaining, that whatever influence de¬
fire or motives may have, it is the agent himfelf who
is the caufe of every aftion ; that defire may advife*
but cannot command ; and, therefore, that a man is
ftill free to aft in contradiftion to defire and to the
ftrongeft motives.
“ That a being may exift which in every cafe afts
blindly and arbitrarily, without having any end in
view, 1 can make a fliift to conceive : but it is diffi¬
cult for me even to imagine a thinking and rational
being, that has affeftions and paffions, that has a de-
firable end in view, that can eafily accomplifli this
end; and yet after all can fly off or remain at reft, with¬
out any caufe, reafon, or motive, to fway it. If fuch a
1 whim-
Part III. METAPHYSICS.
595
Of Ne- whlmfical being can pofiibly exift, I am certain that
eeffity and man js not that being. There is not perhaps a per*
. Hi eny- ^on above the condition of a changeling, but can fay
w—v he did fo and fo, what moved him, what he in¬
tended. Nor is a Angle fa£t Hated to make us be¬
lieve that ever a man afted againll his own will or
deiire, who was not compelled by external force.—
On the contrary, conftant and univerfal experience
proves, that human adlions are governed by ceriairv
inflexible laws; and that a man cannot exert his
felf-motive power but in purfuance of lome delire dr
motive.
“ Had a motive always the fame influence, aftions
proceeding from it would appear no lefs neceflary
than the actions of matter. The various degrees of
influence that motives have on different men at the
lame time, and on the fame man at different times,
occafion a doubt, by fuggefting a notion of chance.
Some motives, however, have fuch influence as to leave
no doubt: a timid female has a phyfical power to
throw herfelf into the mouth of a lion roaring for
food ; but Ihe is with-held by terror no lefs effectual¬
ly than by cords : if Ihe fhould rulh upon a lion, would
not every one conclude that fhe was frantic ? A man,
though in a deep fleep, retains a phylical power to
aft. but he cannot exert it. A man, though defpe-
rately in love, retains a phylical power torefufe thehand
of his miftrefs; but he cannot exert that power in
contradiftion to his own ardent defire, more than if
he were fait alleep. Now, if a llrong motive have a
neceffary influence, there is no reafon for doubting,
but that a weak motive mull alfo have its influence,
the fame in kind, though not in degree. Some ac¬
tions indeed are ftrangely irregular; but let the wild-
eft aftions be fcrutinifed, there will always be difco-
vered fome motive or delire, which, however whimli-
cal or capricious, was what influenced the perfon to
aft. Of two contending motives, is it not natural to
expeft that the ftronger will prevail, however little
its excels may be t If there be any doubt, it muft
arife from a fuppofition, that a weak motive may be
refilled arbitrarily. Where then are we to fix the
boundary between a weak and a ftrong motive ? If a
weak motive can be refilled, why not one a little
ftronger, and why not the ftrongeft ? Between two
motives oppofing each other, however nearly balanced,
a man has not an arbitrary choice, but muft yield
to the ftronger. The mind, indeed, ftuftuates for fome
time, and finds itfelf in a meafure loofe: at lall,
however, it is determined by the more powerful mo¬
tive, as a balance is by the greater weight after many
vibrations.
“ Such, then, are the laws that govern our volun¬
tary aftions. A man is abfolutely free to aft accord¬
ing to his own will; greater freedom than which is
not conceivable. At the fame time, as man is made
accountable for his conduft to his Maker, to his fel¬
low-creatures, and to himfelf, he is not left to aft ar¬
bitrarily ; for at that rate he would be altogether un¬
accountable : his will is regulated by defirej and de¬
lire by what pleafes or difpleafes him.—Tims, with
regard to human conduft, there is a chain of laws
eftablilhed by nature ; no one link of which is left
arbitrary. By that wife fyftem, man is made ac¬
countable i by it he is made a fit fubjeft for divine
and human government 5 by it perfons of fagacity Of Ne
forefee the conduft of others; and by it the pre-ar.tl
fcience of the Deity with refpeft to human aftions is f
clearly eftablifhed.”
Of the doftrine of neceffity, a more perfpicuous
or plaufible view than this is not to be found in any
work with which we are acquainted. It is indeed
defective perhaps, as his Lordfhip only hints at the
nature of that relation which fubfifls between motive
and aftion ; but from his comparing the fluftuations
of the mind between two contending motives, to the
vibrations of a balance with different weights in the
oppofite fcales, there is no room to doubt but that
he agreed exaftly in opinion with Mr Hume and Dr
Prieftley. Now both thefe writers hold, that the
relation of motives to volition and aftion, is the very
fame with that which fubfiits between caufe and-ef- 181
feft in phyfics, as far as they are both known to us. ^ Hun,c'
“ It is univerfally allowed (fays Mr Humef), thatf /,,7„,Vy
matter, in all its operations, is aftuated by a neceffary
force ; and that every natural effeft is fo precifeiy de-ir’'"
termined by the energy of its caufe, that no other
effeft, in fuch particular circumftances, could poflibly
have refulted from it. The degree and direftion of
every motion is, by the laws of nature, prefcribed
with fuch exaftnefs, that a living creature may as foon
arife from the fhock of two bodies, as motion in any
other degree or direftion than what is aftually pro¬
duced by it. Would we, therefore, form a juft and
precife idea of necejity, we muft confider whence that
idea arifes, when we apply it to the operation of bo¬
dies. But our idea of this kind of necdfity and cau-
fation arifes entirely from the uniformity obfervable
in the operations of nature, where fimilar objefts are
conftantly conjoined together, and the mind is deter¬
mined by cuftom to infer the one from the appear¬
ance of the other. Thefe two circumftances form
the whole of that neceffity which we afcribe to mat¬
ter. Beyond the conjlant conjunBion of fimilar objefts,
and the confequent inference from one to the other, we
have no notion of any neceffity or conneftion.” He then
gives a pretty long detail to prove a great uniformity
among the aftions of men in all nations and ages; and
concludes that part of his argument with affirming,
“ not only that the conjunftion between motives and
voluntary aftions is as regular and uniform as that
between the caufe and effeft in any part of nature ;
but alfo, that this regular conjunftion has been uni¬
verfally acknowledged among mankind, and has never
been the fubjeft of difpute either in philofophy or
common life.” He afterwards obferves, “ that men
begin at the wrong end of this queftion concerning
liberty and neceffity, when they enter upon it by ex¬
amining the faculties of the foul, the influence of the
underftanding, and the operations of the will. Let
them firft difcufs a more Ample queftion, namely, the
operations of body, and of brute unintelligent matter;
and try whether they can there form any idea of cau-
fation and neceffity, except that of a conftant con¬
junftion of objefts and fubfequent inference of the
mind from one to another. If thefe circumftances
form in reality the whole of that neceffity which we
conceive in matter, and if thefe circumftances be alfo
univerfally acknowledged to take place in the opera¬
tions of the mind, the difpute is at an end; at lead
4 F 2 muft
59$
Of Ne- mud be owned to be thenceforth merely verbal. When
ceflity and we conflcler how aptly natural and moral evidence link
. 1 ^ y‘ together, and form only one chain of argument, we
{hall make no fcruple to allow that they are of the
fame nature, and derived from the fame principles.—
Between a connefted chain of natural caufes and vo¬
luntary aftions, the mind feels no difference in paf-
fing from one link to another ; nor is lefs certain of
a future event which depends upon motives and voli¬
tions, than if it were conne&ed with the objedts pre-
fent to the memory and fenfes by a train of caufes,
cemented together by what we are pleafed to call a
phyjicul neceffity. The fame experienced union has
the fame effedt on the mind, whether the united ob¬
jects be motives, vojition and adtion, or figure and
motion. We may change the names of things, but
their nature and their operation on the underftanding
never change.”
Dr Prieffley, in words a little different, teaches the
, r ne * very fame dodtrine which was taught by Mr Hume.—
* The Doc- “ In every determination of the mind (fays he*),
trine if phi- or in cafes whefe volition and choice are concerned,
lofopbual aiL the previous circumftances to be confidered are the
luftruted.'’ -flate mtn^ (including every thing belonging to the will
itfelf \ and the views of things prefented to it; the lat¬
ter of which is generally called the motive, though un¬
der this term fome writers comprehend them both.
To diftinguifh the manner in which events depending
upon will and choice are produced, from thofe in which
no volition is concerned, the former are faid to be pro¬
duced voluntarily, and the latter mechanically. But the
fame general maxims apply to them both. We may
not be able to determine a priori how a man will aft
in any particular cafe; but it is becaufe we are not
particularly acquainted with his difpofition of mind,pre-
nfe fituation, and views of things. But neither can we tell
in which way the wand will blow to-morrow, though
the air is certainly fubjeft to no other than neccffary
laws of motion.
“ It is univerfally acknowledged, that there can
be no effect without an adequate caufe. This is
even the foundation on which the only proper argu¬
ment for the being of a God refts. And the neceffa-
rian afferts, that if, in any given (late of mind, with
icfpeft both to difpojition and motives, two different
determinations or volitions be poffible, it can be fa
on no other principle, than that one of them {hall
come under the deferiptiorr of an effc8 without a caufe;
juff as if the beam of a balance might incline either
way, though loaded with' equal weights. It is ac¬
knowledged, that the mechanifm of the balance is of
one kind, and that of the mind of another ^ and,
therefore, it maybe convenient to denominate them
by different words ; as, for inftance, that of the ba¬
lance may be termed a phyftcal, and that of the mind
a moral mechanifm. But ftill, if there be a real tne-
< hanifm in both cafes, fo that there can be only one
refult from the fame previous eircumftances, there
will be a real neceffity, enforcing an abfolute certain¬
ty in the event. For it muff be underftood, that all
that is ever meant by neceffity in a caufe, is that which
produces «rfrwz(y in the effect.'’
Such is the nature of human volitions, according
to every neceffarian of eminence who has written on
the fubjeft fince the days of Hobbes : and if this the-
Part IIL
ory be juft, if there^ be a conftant and infeparable Ne-
conjunftion of motives and aftions fimilar to that c£®t5r*nt^
©f caufe and effeft in phyfics, it is obvious, that 1 ^ty‘ t
in volition the mind is as inert as body is in motion.
This confequence is indeed avowed and infifted upon View of
by Hume, Prieftley, and their adherents; whilft the ad- human li-
vocates for human liberty, on the other hand, contend ^ertr*
.for an abfolute exemption of the will from all internal
arifing from its owm frame and conftitution,
the impulfe of fuperior, beings, or the operations of
objefts, reafons, or motives, &c. By this they do not
mean, that between motives and volitions there is no
relation whatever, or that a man can ever choofe evil
as evil, or refufe good as good. Such an affertion
would be contrary to confcioufnefs and univerfal expe¬
rience. But what they endeavour to prove is, that
the conjunction of motive and volition is not infepa¬
rable, like that of caufe and effeft in phyfics; that a
man may in moft cafes choofe according to any one of
two or more motives prefented to his view ; that by
choofing any thing, he may make it in fome meafure
agreeable by his own aft, or, to fpeak more pro¬
perly, may bend his defire to it; that in volition, the
mind is not inert; and that, therefore, we are un¬
der no neceffity to aft in a particular manner in any
given cafe whatever.
That the conjunftion of motive and aftion is not
conftant like that of canfe and effeft in phyfics, and
that by confequence the mind in forming volitions is
not inert, has been evinced by Dr Gregory with the
force and precifion of mathematical demonftration.—•
Former writers on the fide of liberty had often o!d-
ferved, that upon the fuppofition of the inertia of
mind, a man, with equal and oppofite motives pre¬
fented at once to his view, would, during their conti¬
nuance, remain perfeftly at reft, like a balance equally
loaded in' both feales. The obfervation is admitted to
be juft by all the advocates for neceffity ; but they
contrive to evade its confequences, by denying that in
any ^given cafe a man can be at once affailed by two
equal and oppofite motives. Thus, when it .is faid
that a porter, Handing with his face due north, muff
remain in that pofition at perfeft reft, as long as equal
motives (hall at once be offered to him for travelling
eaftward and weftward, the neceffarians admit the
force of the argument; but when it is added that a
guinea, offered for every mile that he ffiould travel in
each of thefe oppofite direftions, ought therefore to
fix him at reft till one of the offers be withdrawn, they
deny that the defire of gaining the guineas is the
whole of the motives which operate upon his mind. He
may have, fay they, fome fecret reafon which we can¬
not difeern for preferring the one direftion to the o-
ther; and that reafon, added to the guinea, will make
him go eaftward or weftward, juft as an ounce thrown
into either fcale of a balance poifed by equal weights
will make that fcale preponderate. Though we think
that this folution of the difficulty can fatisfy no man
who is not already biaffed to the neceffarian fyftem ;
and though, even were it to be admitted, it feems to
. militate againft the conftant conjunftion of motives and
aftions, unlefs it can be proved that the porter muff
travel the road which he has been neceffitated to
choofe with reluftanee and a heavy 4heart; yet as it
may admit of endlefs quibbling upon ambiguous
2 words.,
METAPHYSICS.
Part III.
METAPHYSICS.
597
Of Nc- words, the philofophical world is much indebted to defire not to fin againft God ;• but this is confounding Of Ne-
ceffity and j)r Gregory % for an "argument which, in our opinion, the reader, by calling two energies of mind, between ceffity and
■ , can neither be overturned nor evaded, and which de- which there is little or no fimilarity, by the fame L!b^rty' ,
$ Effay on monftrates that the conjunction of motive and adion name. He perceived, or knew, that’to comply with '
the Relation cannot be conftant and infeparable, like that of caufe his miftrefs’s requeft would be to fin againft God ; he
t'tnveen Vla- anJ cfBsd in phyfics. knew that he ought not to fin againlt God, and there-
t,™ an 0- His reafon;ng is to this purpofe : Suppofe a porter fore he chofe or determined himfclf not to do it. We
to be offered a guinea for every mile that he fhall
a84
conflant.
Pemonftra travel direftly eallward. If there be no phyfical caufe
tion that or- moral motive to keep him at reft, or to induce him
?be 5?”' of to move in another direction, there cannot be a doubt,
motive and upon either hypothefis, but he will gladly embrace the
adlionis propofal, and travel in the direction pointed out to
him, till he fhall have gained as much money, as to fa*
tisfy his molt avaricious defires. The fame thing would
have happened, if a guinea had been offered for every
mile that he fhottld travel due fouth. In thefe two
cafes taken feparately, the relation between the man’s
motives and his adtions would be ftrikingly analogous
to that between a fingle impulfe and motion in phyfics.
Let us now fuppofe the two offers to be made at the
fame inftant, and the man to be affured’that if he tra-
can eafily conceive how the prefence, attitudes, and
addrefs, of the lady might be agreeable to him, and
excite defire. There may very pofiibly be more than one
of our readers, who, during the courfe of their lives, have
experienced fomething of the fame kind: but could
abltradt truth be in the fame way agreeable,, fo as to
excite in his mind a def re of virtue fufficient to annihi¬
late or banifh the de/ire of the woman ? As well may
it be faid that one fenfation can annihilate another^
that the beautiful colours of the rainbow can remove
the fenfation of flench from the mind of him who is
plunged into the midft of a dunghill, or that the fme!l
of a rofe can make a man infenfible to the pain of a
ftroke inflidled by a bludgeon. Senfitive defire, and
the perception of duty, are things fo totally different.
vel eaftward he can have no part of the reward pro- that to confider them as operating againft each other,
mifed for his travelling to the fouth, and that if he like different weights in the oppofite fcales of a ba-
travel fouthward he can have no part of the reward lance, is as abfurd as to fuppofe that found can ope-
_ c-j —ii -tire.. „ e. againft colour, or colour againft fmell. A man
promifed for his travelling to the eaft. What is he to
do in this cafe ? If his mind be inert in volition, and
if the two motives operate upon him with the fame
neceflity that caufes operate in phyfics, it is obvious
that the man could travel neither towards the call nor
towards the fouth, but in a diagonal direction from
north-weft to fouth-eaft ; and this he mull do willing¬
ly, although perfectly fatisfied that he could gain no¬
thing by his journey. As this inference is contrary
to fadt and univerfal experience, the Doftor very
juftly concludes that the premifes, from which it is de¬
duced by mathematical reafoning, mull be falfe and
abfurd ; or, in other words, that the relation between
motive and action cannot be that of conftant conjunc-
may prefer found to colour, or colour to fmell, and
aft accordingly ; but the determination muft be wholly
his own, unlefs thefe two fenfations be themfelves ei¬
ther agents or phyfical caufes of the fame hind, like
the weights in the oppofite fcales of the balance.
The advocates for liberty do not pretend, that in Men do
matters of importance a man ever a<fts without fome not always»
motive or reafon for his condudv All that they infift determine
upon is, that between twm or more motives of differ-|,het™gelvc9
ent kinds he has a liberty of choice, and that he doesftrongefb
not always determine himfelf by that which he knows motive,
to be the greateft. Without fuch freedom, they
think men might be often brought into fituations
tion, like the relation between caufe and effect in phy- where they could not aft at all, and where inaftion
fics* would at the fame time be in the higheft degree ab¬
ide ufes many arguments of the fame kind, and furd. Thus, were two bags of gold, containing each
equally convincing, to prove the abfurdity of fuppo- a thoufand or ten thoufand guineas, to be placed on
fing the inertnefsof mind, and only an occafional con-
junftion of motives and aftions; but we forbear to
quote them, both becaufe we wifh his book to be read,
and becaufe we think the fingle argument which we
the fame table, before a man whofe family is pen filing
for want, and were the man to be told that he might
take either of them, but not both, is it conceivable
that he would be field in perpetual fufpence betwei
live and aftion.
But is it then not really true, that the external ac¬
tion is determined by the will, the will by defire, and
defire by what is agreeable or difagreeable ? That the
external aftion is univerfally determined by the will, is
certainly true; but that the'will is neceflitated and uni-
be the confequence of a very powerful motive, the
defire to obtain honeftly that wealth of which he and
his family flood fo much in need. That motive, how¬
ever, being general. Would draw him equally to both
bags; and it remains with the neceflarians to fay by-
what dfe than a felf determining power he could take
vtrfally determined by the defire is as certainly falfe. It either the one or the other. When it is affirmed, that
Potiphar’s wife was handfome, and made her propofal fuch felf determination would be an effeft without a
to Jofeph with any degree of female addrefs and
his conftitution was like that of other young men ;
there cannot be'a doubt but that he felt a dfire to do
what fhe requefted of him : yet we know that he wiled
to do otherwife, and in direft oppoiition to his dftre
fifed from the room. Perhaps it may.be faid, that his
caufe, the advocates for liberty cannot help thinking
that their antagonifls are guilty of advancing as an ar¬
gument a petitio principii ; for the affirmation is true,,
only if the mind in volition be inert, and the inertia of
the mind is the foie queflion at iffue. If the mind be
not inert, it is plain, that in confequence of a man’s
volition to flee was the effeft of a contrary and ftronger felf-determination, no effeft would be produced without
593 METAPHYSICS. Part III.
Of Ne* a fufficient caufe. At any rate, motives cannot be
ccffify and caufes. in the proper fenfe of the word, a caufe is
v which produces an effeft } but the production of
an effect requires active power ; and power being a
quality muft. be the quality of foir.e being by whom it
may be exerted. Power may be dormant, and there-
fbre power without will produces no effcCt. Are mo¬
tives, then, real beings, endowed with power and will ?
No; they are only views of things or mental concep¬
tions, which in the ftriCteft fenfe of the word are paf-
fave; and between two motives the mind determines
kfelf, without receiving an impulfe from either.
Nor is it only between motives of equal force that
men have the power of determining themfelves. Who¬
ever believes in a future ftate of rewards and punilh-
ments, and yet afts in a manner which he knows to
lie offenfive to Him who is to be the future and final
judge, unqueftionably prefers to the ftrongeft of all
motives, another which even to himfelf appears to
have comparatively but very little ftrength. Whether
there be men who occafionally aft in this manner, is a
queftion which can be decided only by an appeal to
every one’s confcioufnefs. That there are, we can have
no doubt; for we never met with a fingle individual,
not biaffed by fyftem, who was not ready to acknow¬
ledge, that during the courfe of his life he had done
many things, which at the time of action he clearly
perceived to be contrary to his true intereft. Without
a felf-determimng power in the mind, this could never
be the cafe. Did motives operate with the necefiity
of phyfical caufes, it is obvious that in every pofiible
fituation the ftrongeft muft conftantly prevail; and that
he who in certain circumftances had in time paft done
any particular thing, would on a return of the fame cir-
■cumftances do the very fame thing in every time future.
Dr Prieftley, indeed, wilhes to perfuade his readers
that this as aftually the cafe. “ In every determination
of the mind (Jays he), or in cafes where volition and
choice are concerned, ail the previous circumftances
to be confidered are the Jlatt of mind (including every
thing belonging to the ivillitfelf ), and the various views of
things prefented to itand he affirms, that “ when¬
ever the fame precife circumftances occur twice, the
very fame determination or choice will certainly be
made the fecond time that was made the firft.” This
is an affertion of which no man can controvert the
truth ; for it is an identical propofition. If in the
circumftances previous to the determination of the
mind, every thing belonging to the will itftlf muft be
included, it is felf-evident that he who in any given
circumftances has afted a particular part, will on a re¬
turn of thefe circumftances aft the fame part a fecond
time ; for this is only faying, that he who on two dif¬
ferent occafions (hall exert volitions of the fame ten¬
dency, will not on thefe occafions exert volitions of
which the tendencies are different. But the queftion
to be decided is, Whether a man, in the fame general
ftate of mind, poffeffed of the fame degree of health,
and confcious of the fame appetites, muft, in external
circumftances perfeftly alike, neceffarily exert at all
times the fame volitions. That the human mind is
under no fuch neceffity, we think every man’s confci¬
oufnefs and experience may abundantly fatisfy him ;
lot there are, perhaps, but very few who have not at
one time refitted temptations, to which at another Ne*
they have chofen to yield. Seny-
That there is a relation between motives and aft ions, ' ^
muft be confeffed ; but that relation js neither necejfi*
ty, nor conftant conjunftion. If it were, all aftions If they did,
would be perfeftly rational; and folly, as well as merit as.wed
and demerit, would be baniffied from the conduft ofanddeme
men. What is the particular nature of that relation , it would
which fubfifts between the voluntary aftions of men, bt bamfhed
and the motives from which they proceed, can be from the
known to every individual only by an attentive andvvot '
unbiaffed refleftion on the operations of his own mind.
Without this refleftion, no man can be made to un-
derttand it by the reafonings of philofophers, and with
it no man can need the aid of thofe reafonings. That
a felf-determining power, fuch as that for which we
plead, contributes to the fum of human happinefs, has
been ihown by Archbilhop King and his ingenious
tranfiator; who have proved, with the force of demon-
ftration, that the mind can take pleafure in the objeft of
its choice, though that objeft be in itfelf neither agree¬
able nor difagreeable to our natural appetites ; and that
if it could not, it would be vain in fuch a world as
ours to hope for any portion of felicity. Into that
detail our limits will not permit us to enter: but to
the reader who wifhes for further information, we beg
leave to recommend the laft edition of King’s Origin
of Evil, by Dr Law late bilhop of Carlifle ; without,
however, vouching for the truth of all the opinions ad¬
vanced by either of thofe learned writers.
Before we conclude this chapter, it may be proper
to obferve, that it is only in volition that we are con¬
fcious of any original aftive power in ourfelves, and
that without fuch confcioufnefs we could never have
acquired the notion of aftive power. In our defires
and appetites, we neither are aftive nor fuppofe our¬
felves aftive. Lord Karnes, and moft neceffarians,
confound delire with volition ; but that they are per¬
feftly diftinft is plain from this circumftance, that we
daily defire many things which we know to be wholly
out of our own power *, whereas no man ever •willed* Retd's
what he did not believe to be in his own power. We
all define or wilh that our children may be virtuous, &c,
wife, and happy ; and though we are confcious that ’
it is not in our power to make them fo, we cannot
banifli the defire from our breafts. But madmen only
have ever ‘willed virtue, wifdom, and happinefs, to
any perfon ; and if there was ever a man fo extrava¬
gantly mad as to exert fuch a volition as this, he has
at the time fancied himfelf a divinity, and therefore
believed that the objedt of his volition depended upon
himfelf. When the aftronomer, whofe charafter is fo
admirably drawn by our great matter of moral wif¬
dom-)-, fancied himfelf the regulator of the weather +
and the dillributor of the feafons, he might w///eitherof
rain or funjhine as he thought proper, becaufe he con- Abyjj'mia.
fidered the objeft of his volition as depending upon a
power imparted to him from heaven ; but though he
might dejire, he could not <will, the riling or the falling
of winds, for thefe he confeffed were not fubjefted to
his authority. In a word, without freedom in voli¬
tion, power is inconceivable ; and therefore it is as
certain that we are free agents, as that we have any
notion of aftive powers.
Chap,
META PHYSIC
Part III.
Of the Be
inland At- CHAp4VI. BEING ATTRIBUTES
tributes of J r r->
God. y 'JOD.
It has been already obferved, that as of bodies
there are various kinds, endowed with various proper¬
ties ; fo the probability is, that of minds endowed
with different powers, or different degrees of power,
the variety may be as great, or perhaps greater. The
exiftence and powers of our own minds are made known
to us by confcioufnefs and reflection ; and from our
dependent ftate, and the mutability of the objefls
around us, we are neceffarily led to infer the exift¬
ence of another mind, which is independent, unchange¬
able, eternal, and the caufe of all things which have
a beginning of exiftence. Between that mind and our
own, we can hardly avoid believing that there are ma¬
ny orders of “ thrones, dominations, princedoms, vir¬
tues, powersbut as we have no intuitive knowledge
of fuch intermediate beings, and cannot form any
thing which we perceive difcern the necejfity of their
*87 exiftence, they are not properly the objeCfs of fcience.
The exift- exJ{tence> however, and many of the attributes
«od ca- °f One Firft Caufe, are capable of the ftrideft demon-
pable of de. ftration; “ for the invifible things of Him from the
monftra- creation of the world are clearly feen, being under-
uon‘ flood by the things which are made.”
Of this great truth, the moft important by far which
can occupy the mind of man, many demonftrations
have been given both by divines and by philofophers.
We fhall lay before our readers fuch a one as to us
appears perfectly conclufive, being founded on the in¬
tuitive knowledge which we have of our own exiftence,
and therefore independent of all theories about the na¬
ture and reality of the material world.
* See Notes Every man> whether he adopt the common theory
* Origin <f or t^at Berkeley refpeCting matter, is confcious
Evil. that he himfelf exifts, and muft therefore grant that
288 fomething now exifts. But if any thing exift now *,
Some one muft fomething have always exifted ; otherwife
dentBe- t^iat thing which now exifts, muft either have been
ing has ex- created by nothing, i. e. have been caufed ly no caufe,
ifted from or elfe it muft have created itfelf, aCting before it ex-
ttermty. Both thefe fuppofitions are fo palpably abfurd,
that no atheift has avowed them, either among the
ancients or the moderns. We muft therefore admit,
either that there is feme one independent being, which
now exifts, and always has exifted; or that the things
which we know to exift at prefent (every man’s felf
for inftance), were produced by fomething which had
its exiflence from fomething elfe, which alfo depended
upon fame other caufe, and fo on, in an inf nit e fcries of
caufed or fuccejfive beings. But this laft fuppofition,
though it has been often made, is as grofsly abfurd as
either of the two former. For of this infinite feries,
either fame one part has been fucceffive to any other,
or elfe all the feveral parts of it have been fucceffive.
If fome one part of it was not fuccejfive, then it had
a frf part; which deftroys the fuppofition of its infi¬
nity (r). If all the feveral parts of it have been fuccef¬
five, then have they all once been future ; but if they
s: . 599
have all been future, a time may be conceived when Of the Be-
none of them had exiftence: and if fo, then it fol-
lows, either that all the parts, and confequently the 11 God! °
whole. o( this infinite feries, muft have arifen from no- j
thing, which is abfurd; or elfe that there muft be
fomething in the whole befidas what is contained in all
the parts, which is alfo abfurd.
As the poffibility or impoffibility of an infinite fe¬
ries of dependent beings is the main quettion at ifliie
between the atheiiis and us, we fhall Hate the prece¬
ding reafoning in a manner fomewhat different. For
this purpofe, let us fuppofe fome one to affirm, that the
courfe of generat ion has had no beginning, and confe¬
quently that the number of fucceffive births has been
infinite. We would afk fuch a perfon, Whether be¬
fore the birth of Abraham, for example §, there had § See ah
pad an infinite feries of generations or not ? If not, EJfay to-
the courfe of generation mull have had a beginning,'“'‘T*.
which is the conclufion for which we contend. But^J^"
if the feries paft was infinite, then at the birth of Jo- w
feph the great-grandfon of Abraham, it is evident, of God,
that more generations were paft, and that the number^ Setb
then was greater than that which was fuppofed to be ^fnfeTat
infinite ; fo that upon this fuppofition we have a num-Oxford,,
ber that is both infinite and not infinite, which is a
manifeft contradiftion. Should it be faid that the
number of generations was infinite, as well at the
birth of Abraham as at the birth of Jofeph ; it will
then follow, that one infinite may be greater than
another of the very fame kind ; and confequently that
an infinite may be bounded, i. e. be finite. But fhould
it be alleged, that the number of births at Abraham’s
was finite, and became infinite when it reached to Jo¬
feph’s, it will then follow, that one finite number
added to another may make an infinite number, which
is dire&ly contrary to every poffible notion of infinity.
We might argue in the fame manner againli an infinite
feries of every kind, the very fuppofition of which
involves the moft palpable contradiftions. See Chap.
O/-Infinity Eternity. ^
From the impoffibility of an infinite feries it necef-Whofe du*
farily follows, that there exifts, and muft have- exifted ration is
from eternity, fome one independent being, whofenotn'°^*
duration cannot be commenfurate with fucceffron, and
to whom the relation of time is not applicable. Herercffion,.
will fome atheifts prefently imagine, that by theand
fame mode of reafoning they may difprove the exift¬
ence of God : for do not they who thus deftroy the
eternity of the world, deftroy at the feme time the
eternity of the Creator ? If time itfelf be not eternal,
how can the Deity or any thing elfe be fo ?'
In urging thefe queftions, it muft be taken for grant"
ed that time is eflential to all exiftence, and that God;
cannot be eternal otherwife than by a fucceffive flux of
infinite time. But it has been already ftiown (n° 225)*
that fucceffive duration is not effential to exiftence ;
that we can even conceive exiftence without fucceffion ;
and it may here be added, that if we fuppofe a perfedf
being alone in nature, we fliall find it impoifible to
imagine any fuccejfion of ideas, any flux of moments, or
any alteration or increafe whatever in his knowledge and'
effence*
(a) T«i» axitpo, «vx iriv #uJiv Xfiafov, Arif. PUyf. lib.viii, cap. 5. fed. 4,
METAPHYSICS.
* IntelUc-
'iual Syfiertt)
JBook i.
•Chap. 3.
■§ Notes to
JOng on
£vily and
La-w’s In.
’tbPldeo of
Space, &C.
apz
What is
meant by
•neceffary
cxiftence.
Part III*
efleitce. Such duration as we are acquainted with can pendent beings; the contrary of which we know to be Ofthe Be¬
have no relation to an immutable Beingj while fuppo- true. 'tributes^V
fed to exill alone; but .as foon as he determined to In the fecond fenfe, when the neceffity of exiftence Go(J>
excrcife his feveral attributes in the production of fome- arifes from the relation which the aCtual exiftence ef ll t ■
thing diftinCt from himfelf, then, and not till then, any thing has to the manner of its own exiftence, ne-
havewe reafon to think that time, fucceffion, and increafe, cefftty means, that thej thing, of which it is affirmed,
began. Thefe atheiftical queftions, therefore, inftead exifts after fuch a manner as that it never could in
of containing an objection to the exiftence of a Deity, time pajl have been non-exiftent, or can in time future ceafe
afford a plain demonftration of it : for fince it is not to be. Thus, every independent being, as it exifts with-
more evident that fomething now exifts than that fome- out a caufe, is neceffaruy exifting ; becaufe exiftence is
.thing muft have exiftedfrom eternity ; and fince it has ejfential to fuch a being ; fo that it never could begin
been fhown, that neither the world in its prefent ftate, to exift, and never can ceafe to be: For to fuppofe a
nor time, nor any thing capable of change or fuccef- being to begin to exift, or to lofe its exiftence, is to
fion, can poffibly be eternal; it follows, that there fuppofe a change from non-entity to entity, or vice
muft neceffarily be fome Being who, in the order of verfa ; and to fuppofe fuch a change is to fuppofe a
nature, is before time, and who, in the liability and caufe upon which that being depends. Every being,
immutable perfection of his own intelligence, compre- therefore, which is independent, i. e. which had no
hends at once his ytferday, to-day, and for ever. “ The caufe of it exiftence, muft exift neceffarily, and cannot
atheifts (fays the excellent Cudworth*) can here only poffibly have begun to exift in time paft, or ceafe to
fmile, or make wry faces, and ffiow their little wit in be in time future.
quibbling upon nunc-Jlans, or a funding notv of eternity ; ' Thefe two kinds of neceffity as applied to exiftence, Only one
as if ih'&t/landing eternity of the Deity (which with fo though they have; been often confounded, are in them-nereffahly-
much reafon hath been contended for by the ancient felves perfectly diftinCt: For though a being cannot *
genuine theifls) were nothing but a pitiful fmall moment of be neceffarily exiftent in the former fenfe without be-f"^"rtle
time funding fill, and as if the duration of ail beings ing fo in the latter alfo ; yet may it be necefiarily ex- fenfe; and
whatfoever muft needs be like our own : whereas the iftent in the latter fenfe without being fo in the for-
duration of every thing muft of neceffity be agreeable mer. For any thing that we know to the contrary,
to its nature ; and therefore, as that whofe imperfeSt there may be two or more beings exifting neceffarily
nature is everfloiving like a river, and ccnfifts in conti- in the latter fenfe of the word necejfty, i. e. with regard
nual motion and changes one after another, muft needs to independence and the manner of their own exiftence :
have accordingly a fuccejivc and fotving duration. Aiding but in tire former fenfe of the word, i. e. in relation to
perpetually from prefent into paf, and always hailing this fyfem, there can be but one necejfarily exiftent be¬
en towards the future, expeCting fomething of itfelf ing; for it is obvious that no more are neceffary to
which is not yet in being; fo muft that whofe perfect account, for the production of the dependent beings
nature is effentially immutable have permanent and wu which we know to exift. To fuppofe the non-exilt-
changing duration, never lofing any thing of,itfelf once ence of all independent beings, implies the non-exiftence
prefent, nor yet running forward to meet fomething of all dependent beings, ourfelves and every thing elfe;
of itfelf which is not yet in being.” but to fuppofe the non-exiftence of all independent be-
From the eternity of the fupreme Being we necef- ings except one, involves in the fuppofition no fuch
farily infer his independence or felf-exiftence ; for that abfurdity.
which never had a beginning oi exiftence cannot poffi- Thus the phenomena of nature leads us, by the though
blyhave any caufe of that exiftence, or in any man- ftriCleft reafoning, to one firft caufe, which is fuffi-there might
ner depend upon any other being, but muft exift of cient for their production; and therefore none but hemore
itfelf, or be felf-exifent. firft caufe can in this fenfe of the word be neccjfary
Eternity ad partem pof, or neceffary exifence, or the And though feveral mere independent beings might pof-ter) they
impoffibility of ever ceafing to be, follows from inde- iibly exift, yet they would be no gods to us: they would be
pendence : For to the nature of that which exifts with- would have no relation to us demonftrable by reafon,110 g°cs.t«
out any caufe, exiftence muft be effential. But a be- nor we any thing to do with them. For if the fup-us'
ing whofe cxiftence is of itfelf and effential to its na-* pofition of their exiftence were not requifite to the
ture, cannot beto exiftence or non-exiftence, produition of this fyftem, which it obvioully would
but muft exift neceffarily. And here it may be proper not be, we could, perceive no neceffity for it at all; we
to obferve, that the word neceffity, when applied to ex- could never difeover it by our own faculties, and there-
iftence, may be taken in two acceptations very diffe- fore it could be nothing t© us. And tho’ two or three
rent from each other $ ; either as it arifes from the re- fuch beings ffiould exift, and aft in the formation and
lation which the exiftence of that thing, of which it government of their refpedive fyftems, or agree in one;
is affirmed, has to the exiftence of other things ; or from yet till their exiftence and operations were made known
the relation which the ablual exiitenee of that thing to us, and a natural relation difeovered, nothing would
has to the manner of its own exiftenqe. be due from us to them. They would have no re/f-
In the former fenfe, when neceffity of exiftence has gious or moral relations to us; and we fhould have no
relation to the exiftence of other things, it denotes reafon to call more than one of them our creator, pre-
that the fuppofition of the nos-exiftence of that thing ferver, and governor, which is the proper fenfe of the
of which neceffity is affirmed, implies the non-exiftence word God.
of things which we know to exif. Thus, fome inde- To ffiow in this manner that there is only one eter-
pendent being does neceffarily exif; becaufe, to fup- nal felf-exiflent Being which bears the relation of God
pofe no independent being, implies that there are no de- t» us, feems to be going as far as is neceffary, or as na-
JNFair. tural
pan III. M E T A P
Of the Be- tural ligKt w!ll lead US. Thofe who endeavour to de-
^)g ar.d At- monJlrate that there cannot pojjibly be more than one felf-
411 God. exiftent Being, either reafon in a circle, or proceed
t ^ - upon principles which their antagonills cannot be
*95 compelled to grant. When they deduce the Divine
Impoflible unity from independence or omnipotence, they evi-
ftrsuethat Gently prefuppofe it in their definition of thefe attri-
there can bates: and when they infer it from the nature of fpace
be but ono and duration, which they confider as modes of the
felf-exillent felf-exiftent Being, they take it for granted, that fpace
and duration have a real e*iftence, independent of us
and our thoughts; and that the one is infinite and the
other eternal, contrary to what has been already pro¬
ved, we think, with the force of demonftration. The
celebrated Dr Clarke made much ufe of fpace and du¬
ration in his attempt to demonflrate that there can be
but one felf-exiftent Being; but he argues for the
fame thing from the nature of neceffity as applied to
exiftence.
t)r Clarke’s “ Necefiity (fays he *), abfolute in itfelf, is fimple
firft de- and uniform and univerfal, without any pofiible diffe-
tion'ofdie rence'» deformity y or variety., whatfoever : and all variety
unity or difference of exiflence muft needs arife from fome
* Demon- terna^ Caufe> and be dependent upon it, and proportionable
/ration <f to the efficiency of that cavfe, whatfoever it be. jhb-
tle Being folute necejjity, in which there can be no variation in any
and /itiri- kind or degree, cannot be the ground of exiftence of a
number of Beings, however ftmilar and agreeing : be-
" ’ caufe, without any other difference, even number is itfelf
a manifeft difformity or inequality (if J may fo fpeak) of
297 <ffic'tency or caufality.”
examined, - Such is this great man’s firft argument from necef-
ard (hown fity, to prove that there cannot be more than one felf-
to be in- exiftent Being. But what is this neceffity which proves
•enc u ive. ^ muc}1 ^ jt ;s tjje ground Qf exiftence (he fays) of
that which exifts of itfelf; and if fo, it muft, in the
order of nature, and in our conceptions, be antecedent
to that being of whofe exiftence it is the ground. Con¬
cerning fuch a principle, there are blit three fuppofi-
tions which can poffibly be made ; and all of them may
be fhown to be abfurd and contradiftory. We may
fuppofe either the fubjlance itfelf, fome property of that
fubftance, or fomethihg extrinfic to both, to be this
antecedent ground of exiftence prior in the order of na¬
ture to the frjl caufe.
One would think, from the turn of the argument
which here reprefents this antecedent neceffity as effi¬
cient and caufah, that it were confidered as fomething
• Differ it- extrinfic to the firft caufe*. Indeed if the words have
iton »n the any meaning in them at all, or any force of argument,
triori’z&A they muft be fo underftoed, juft as we underftand
fed to Zeis’* them of any external caufe producing its effeft. But
Inquiry into as an extrinfic principle is abfurd in itfelf, and is befides
^lce%ime reje(^e^ £)r Clarke, who fays exprefsly, that “ of
Zmmenfty' the thing which derives not its being from any other
&c. ’ thing, this neceffity or ground of exiftence muft be in
the thing itfelf,” we need not fay a word more of the
laft of thefe fuppofitions.
Let us then confider the firft ; let us take the fiib-
fiancc itfelf, and try whether it can be conceived as prior
or antecedent to itfelf in our conceptions or in the order
of nature. Surely we need not obferve that nothing
tan be more abfurd or contradictory than fuch a fup-
toofition. Dr Clarke himfelf repeatedly affirm*, and it
s Vou XI. Part II.
H Y S I C S. 6m
would be ftrange indeed if he did not affirm; that no Of the Be-
leinr, no thing whatever, can be conceived as inanyin^,andAV-
° ^ ' tributes of
relpett prior to the firlt caufe. G(jd
The only remaining fuppofition is, that fome attri- —
lute or property of the felf-Cxiftent Being may be coii-
ceived as in the order of nature antecedent to that being;
But this, if poflible, is more abfurd than either of the
two preceding fuppofitions. An attribute is attributed
to its fubjetl as its ground or fupport, and not the fub-
jeB to its attribute. A property, in the very notion of it,
is proper to the fubftance to which it belongs, and fub-
fequent to it both in our conceptions and in the order
of nature. An antecedent attribute, or antecedent pro¬
perty, is a folecifm as great, and a contradidlion as flat,
as an antecedent fubfequent or fubfquent antecedent, un-
derftood in the fame fenfe and in the fame fyllogifm.
Every property or attribute, as fuch, prefuppofes it*
fubjeft ; and cannot otherwife be underftood. This is
a truth fo obvious and fo forcible, that it fomtftimes
extorts the afient even of thofe who upon other occa-
fions labour to obfcure it. It is confeffed by Dr
Clarke |, that “ the fcholaftic way of proving the ex- f Anfwtr fs
iftence of the felf-exiftent Being from the abfolute per-$ixtb
feclion of his nature, is wA*?™ xpolipov. For all or any Letter'
perfeftions (fays he) prefuppofe exiftence; which is
a petitio principii.” If therefore properties, modes, or
attributes in God, be confidered as perfeftions (and it
is impoflible to'confider them as any thing elfe), then,
by this confeffion of the great author himfelf, they
muft all or any of them prefuppofe exiftence. It is in¬
deed immediately added in the faihe place, “ that bare
neceffity of exiftence does not prefuppofe, but infer
exiftence ;” which is true only if fuch neceffity be fup-
pofed to be a principle extrinfic, the abfurdity of which
has been already ihown, and is indeed univerfally con-
fefled. If it be a mode or property, it muft prefuppofe
the exiftence of its fubjedf, as certainly and as evident¬
ly as it is a mode or a property. It might perhaps
d pofleriori infer the exiftence of its fubjeCf, as effefts
may infer a caufe; but that it ffiould infer in the other
way d priori is altogether as impoffible as that a tri¬
angle ftiould be a fquare, or a globe a parallelogram. 29* .
Doubtful, as it would feem, of the force of his ^monftra-.
argument, which even thofe who pretend to be con- rion o'f the
Vinced by it acknowledge to be obfcure, the Doctor fame au-
gives a fecond, which we muft confefs appears to us to thor
be ftill more obfcure, and if poffible lefs conclufive.
“ To fuppofe two or more difiinB beings exifting of
themfelves neceflarily and independent of eaefi other, im¬
plies (he fays) this contradict ion, that each of them be¬
ing independent from the other, they may either of
them be fuppbfed to exift alone ; fo that it will be no
contradiction to fuppofe the other not to exift; and
confequently neither of them will be neceflarily exifting.
Whatfoever therefore exifts neceflarily is the one Am¬
ple effence of the felf-exiftent Being ; and whatfoever
differs from that is not neceffarily exifting, becaufe in
abfolute neceffity there can be no difference or diverfity
of exiftence.
“ Neceffity is ufed here in two different fenfesj,^-^^ "
both as abfolute and relative. In the former, neither oithe ideas of
the two beings can exift without the other, i. e. with- Space,
out our fuppofing the other to exift alfo, fince that is^P1
equally necelfary. In the latter, either of them may
4 G exift
6ca M E T A P H
Of the Be- exift alone,!. e. without the help of the other, or with-
ing and At out fUppofition of the other as requifite to its own
Wl Ood* °f exiH®006- The confequence therefore that either of
■ them may exift alone, and fo neither of them is necef-
299 fary, 'S a mere equivocation on neiejfity, ufing it both in-
exam in- an abfolute and relative fenfe‘at the fame time." But
be°cquai!y the author was a man of grearworth, we {hall confider
insonclu- his argument upon the fuppofition that the word ne~
**ve> cejfity has from the beginning to the end of it the fame
invariable meaning.
It has been already obferved, that there are only two
fenfes in which that word can be applied to the exift-
ence of any being ; and whether it be here ufed in the
one or the other of thefe fenfes, the reafoning, if re-
folved into a fyllogifm, will appear to be inconclufive.
If the word be taken in that fenfe of neceffity which
arifes from the relation that dependent beings which
• we know to exift bear to fome one independent Being,
the argument will ftand thus:
From a known effeft no more caufes can be necejfa-
ri!y inferred than what are fufficient to account
for that effeft : but
One felf-exiftent and independent Being is fufficient
to account for all the phenomena of nature; there¬
fore, from the phenomena, &c.
No more than one fuch Being can be necejfarily inferred
to exift.
But though no more than one independent being
can in this fenfe of the word necejjarily exift, it by no
means follows from this fyllogifm, that two or more
fuch beings may no\.pojfibly exift. It is, indeed, a plain
contradiction to fay, that two or more felf-exiftent
beings are in this fenfe necejfary ; but furely there is
no contradiction in faying, that two or twenty fuch
beings are pojfille. We could not, therefore, by this
argument, conviCt a perfon of abfurdity, who ffiould
affirm that two or more independent beings actually
exift. We might, indeed, deny the exiftence of them
all but one, becaufe one is fufficient to account for
thofe phenomena, from which alone we know that.
any independent being exifts; but becaufe one of them
might be fuppofed to exift alone, fo that it would be
no contradiction to fuppofe the other not to exift;
we know not how the DoCtor came to affirm, in di-
reft oppofition to his own demonftration, that not
one of them would be neceffarily-exifting.
Neceffity, as applied to exiftence, in the other fenfe
of the word, arifes, as we have feen, from the relation
which the attual exiftence of the being, of which it
may be affirmed, has to the manner of that being’s ex-
Anfiver iftence. It is the fame neceffity, we are told *, with
ifrom t^at is the caufe of the unalterable proportion
a Gentle- between two and four; and it is conftdered as the
man in formal caufe or ground of the exiftence of an independ-
Cloucefter- ent being. Were it not for the ftrange expreffions
^re- formal caufe and ground of exiflence, we ftiould have no.
objection to this account of that necejfty by which a
being independent undoubtedly exifts : but this kind
of neceffity is a principle which will not fupport the
fuperftruCture which the learned author labours to
raife upon it The fame necejfity which is the caufe
of the unalterable proportion- between two and four,
is likewife the caufe of the unalterable proportion be¬
tween and fx, between four and eight, and be-
Y S I C S, Part HE,
tween five and ten, Sic. But if it can be the caufe of Of the Bs-
fo many different proportions of the fame kind, why ‘“f aijd At*
may it not be the formal caufe or ground of exiftence m 0 *
to as many independent beings of the fame kind as well
as to one ? The following fyllogifm, we apprehend, to
be legitimate both in mode and figure, and, its con-
clufion is diredly contrary to the propofttion which
the DoCtor deduces from the.fame notion of neceffity.
If neceffity, confidered as o. formal caufe or ground
of cxifcnce, be in one infiance of its caufality the.
formal caufe or ground of exiftence to many^
things of the fame kind, it may likewife in every,
other infiance of its caufality, be the formal caufe
or ground of exiftence to.many things of the fame.
kind.
But fuch neceffity, in that inftance of its caufality
where it is the formal caufe or ground of exift¬
ence to the unalterable proportion between two >.
and Tour, is the formal caufe or ground of ex- .
iftence to many proportions, of the fame kind.
Therefore, the fame neceffity in that other inftance.
of its cafuality, where it is faid to be the formal
caufe or ground of exiftence to one independent
being, undoubtedly may be the formal caufe or
ground of exiftence to many independent beings of
the fame kind. 30O.
Thus it appears, that neefity, ,in any fenfe in which it Neceflity^
can be properly affirmed of exiftence, cannot be the a danger-
foundation of any argument to prove the impoffibility
of more than one felf-exiftent being. It is indeed a prin¬
ciple from which we apprehend that no pofitive con-
clufion whatever.can be deduced by reafoning dpriori.'
That neceffity of exiftence may be predicated of a
being which is independent and uncreated, is felf-evi-
dent; becaufe to the nature of fuch a being ex¬
iftence is. effential. But whilft that nature itfelf re¬
mains wholly incomprehenfible by us, it is impoffible that,
we ffiould difeover, by our own unaflifted reafon, whe¬
ther it can be the nature of only one or of more than one
independent being. To argue from neceffity, as if it,
were the caufe or ground ©f exiftence to fuch a being,
is certainly abfurd, if it be not'impious; for if that
to which exiftence is effential, does not exift without
any caufe efficient or formal, we ffiall be obliged to
inquire after a caufe or ground of this caufe, and thus.
be involved in all'the abfurdities and contradictions oF
an infinite feries. We have infifted the longer on.
this point, becaufe necejfity, as the foundation of the
argument d priori, has fometimes been employed to
very bad purpofes. Attempts have been made from.
the notion of necejfary exiftence, to prove that the
Supreme Being cannot be a free agent, and to fet
the firft principles of the religion of nature at variance
with thofe which are revealed in the feriptures. . 30r
But though we are firmly perfuaded that the di-The unity
vine unity cannot be Jemonfirated d priori, we are far^f
from thinking it incapable of deny proof On the con-j^i^
trary, the common arguments d pojleriori drawn from.
the order and harmony of the world, have always fa-
tisfied us, and in our opinion muft fatisfy every per¬
fon capable of proportioning his affent to evidence,
that the Creator and Preferver of fuch a fyftem
has but one will and one intelligence, and therefore is
himfelf but one being. But proof is one thing ; and
demonfiration is, in the proper fenfe of the word, ano¬
ther.
^art lit, M -R T A P
Of the Be- thcr-f fa). And if we cannot arrive at abfotute certainty
ingand At- conct!rnIng this important truth by the fight of nature,
*^God*0t we oug^lt t0 ^ie more thankful for that revelation,
vs -.which has put the unity of God j>aft difputes to all
502 who believe the holy feriptures.
<Jod omni. The being which is felf-exiftent and independent
potent. be alf0 omnipotent. That fuch a being has afiive
power in fame degree, is Ihown at the fame time and
by the fame medium that we prove his exiftcnce;
and fince he depends upon no caufe for his exiftence
br his power, he cannot depend upon any for the ex¬
ertion of that power, and confequently no limits can be
applied to it. Limitation is an ejfeit of fome fuperior
caufe, which in the prefent inftance there cannot be:
confequently to fuppofe limits where there can be no
limiter, is to fuppofe an ej'eft without a caufe. For a
to being to be limited or dtfeient in any refpeft f, is
to be dependent in that refped on fome other being
which gave it juft fo much and no more ; confequent-
Jy that being which in no refpett depends upon any
other is in no refpcB limited or deficient. In all beings
capable of increafe or diminution, and confequently
incapable of perfedion or abfolute infinity, limitation or
defeft is indeed a neceflary confequence of exiftence,
and is only a negation of that perfection which is wholly
incompatible with their nature; and therefore in thefe
beings it requires no further caufe. But in a being
naturally capable of perfection or abfolute infnity, all /to-
perfection or finitenefs, as it cannot flow from the nature
Of that being, feems to require fome ground or reafon /
which reafon, as it is foreign from the being itfelf, mult
be the effeCt of fome other external caufe, and confe¬
quently cannot have place in the Jirjl caufe. That the
felf-exiftent being is capable of perfection or abfolute
infinity muft be granted, hecaufe he is manifeftly the
- fubjeCt of one infinite or perfect attribute, viz. eter¬
nity, or abfolute invariable exiftence. In this refpeCt
his exiftence has been drown to be perfect, and there¬
fore it may be perfeft in every other refpeCt alfo. Now
that which is the fubjeCt of one infinite attribute or
perfection, muft have all its attributes infinitely or in
perfection ; fince to have any perfections in a finite
limited manner, when the fubjett and thefe perfec¬
tions are both capable of ftriCt infinity, would be the
forementioned abfurdity of pofitive limitation without
H Y S I C S. 603
a caufe, To fuppofe this eternal and independent Be-
being limited in or by its own nature, is to fuppofe fome yf
antecedent nature or limiting quality fuperior to that be-
ing, to the exiftence of which no thing, no quality, is
in any refpeCt antecedent or fuperior. And to fuppofe
that there is no fuch thing as aClive power in a being
which rs evidently the fountain of all power, is the
grofleft of all absurdities. The fame method of rea-
foning will prove knowledge and every other per¬
fection to be infinite in the Deity, when once we have
proved that perfection to belong to him at al!; at lead
it will flrow, that to fuppofe it limited is unreafonable,
fince we can find no manner of ground for limitation
in any refpeCt; and this is as far as we need go, or
perhaps as natural light will lead us.
Of the omnipotence of the fupreme Being fome0nr "
philofophers, as well theifts as atheifts, have talked very do every1
abfurdly, Hobbes^, with a view to make this attributethiugwhich
appear impoflible and ridiculous, affirms “ that Godliues -ot
by his omnipotence or infinite power could -turn^i
a tree into a fyllogifm.” And Des Cartes *, though 'C
certainly no atheift, cbildifhly aflerts, that all things j| Levi art.
whatever, even abftraCl truth and falfehood, do fo de-chaJ> 3-
pend upon the arbitrary will ,and power of God, as *
that if he had pleafed “ twice two ftiould not have been
four, nor the three angles of a plain triangle equal ^,§6.
to two right ones.” But the true notion of Omni¬
potence, fo far from implying a power to turn a tree
into a fyllogifm, or to make twice two not equal to four,
implies only that the being pofiefTed of it can actually
perform whatever can be conceived by the moil per¬
fect underftanding ; conception in this cafe being the
meafure of poffibility. Now every thing may be^con-
ceived by a mind fufficiently enlarged which does
not involve in it a direct contradiction ; but what we
clearly difeern to imply a contradiction, fuch as that
a thing may be and not be at the fame- inftant, can¬
not be conceived by any intdleft, or made to exift by
any power. And thus has this attribute of the Di-
vinity been always Hated, not only by the vvifer Chri-
ftians, but alfo by moft of the ancient philofophers
themfelves, who exprefsly admit that “nothing is ex¬
empted from the divine power, but only to make that
which hath been done to be undone.” (n)
And here it may be afleed, Whether creation, in
4 G 3 the
(g) John Gerhard and John Vofllus both cite Gabriel Biel as acknowledging the unity of God to be in¬
capable of rigid demonftration; and with the fentiments of that fchoolman, thole two learned divines pro*
Tefs their own to agree.
Sed Biel (1. Sant. Dift. 2 '<5^10. Art. 3.1, ftatuit “ quod tantum wmm efle Deum, fit eredrtum et non-de*
monfir at um ratione natural! nobis in via poffibili.” Id nos ita interpretamur ; ctiamfi ex natnra libn rations*
non contemvendx pro imitate divinas efientia? afferenda erui poffint, egg tamen ad fidei -cordibus noftri*
sngenerandam, non fatis efficaces elfe. Ergo mens prius confinnanda eft ex verlo Dei, et illuftrihus tefti-
iuoniis in quibus fe Deus geneVi humano patefecif! roftea utiliter potdl addi cotifideratio philoiophicarum
demouftrationum. Gerhard. Loc. Comm. Tom. I. p, 106.
Diffentit Gabriel Biel, qui ante annos hofee 140 Tubingenfi Gymnafio praefuit. Is ceufiet probabiles omgis ra«
tiones efle quam evidtntes et ccrf^j-.-'-Verum efto fane, irt folae non fint « »#n*hxaij. At magnum'iis pond us ad-
Vlit traditio vetus; turn autem quod argumenta iithsec, fi non prorfus falttm ulque adeo probabilia
lint, ut patroni nihil ullius momenti adferre valeant; cur plufquaro uhum Itatuerc deum potiu*
'«c«veinat. Vf. de Idolatries, Lib. 1. c 2
(b) to /< yty'ftf ‘ V*. ivJigiTm ymcrQui' Sio ayxiuc AyctSui.
Movou yap avlov rat :to( dtpicKdai,
' -Aysvda Mmo, dee r xinpuy(/,dx. drfi, ad Nicomacb. Lib 6. cap. %,
<0+ M E T A P H
Of the Ik- the proper fenfe of the word (fee Creation), be
^tnbute/ci w'l^’n t^ie coinPa^ °f infinite power. All the an-
cient philofophers, who were unenlightened by the
- rays of divine revelation, held that it is not f ; ground¬
ing their opinion upon this maxim, Ex nih'tlo nihil fit.
But the maxim will fupport no fuch conclufion.—
The ancients, or at leall the Peripatetic fchool, with
the metaphyfics of which we are beft acquainted, con-
t See Mo- fidered four kinds of caufes, the efficient, the material,
Jium s Dif- thg formals and the final; and though they extended
this Sub] "a, t^ie max>m to the firfi /wo, if not to all thefe caufes,
in bis Edi- it is a felf-evident truth only when applied to the ejfici-
*'"n Cud- ent caufe. Without the actual exertion of power, it
UllrBual
Stfcm.
into exiftence ; but it is fo far from being clear that
pre-exiltent matter, or, as Ariftotle chofe to exprefs
himfelf, a material caufe, muft be fuppofed for infinite
power to operate upon, that, we think, every man
may find complete evidence of the contrary in him¬
felf. That fenfation, intelligence, confcioufnefs, and
volition, are not the refult of any modifications of fi¬
gure and motion, is a truth as evident as that confci¬
oufnefs is not fwift, nor volition fquare. If then
thefe be the powers or properties of a being diftinft
from matter, which we think capable of the com¬
pleted; proof, every man who does not believe that
hi* mind has exifted and been confcious from eter¬
nity, mud be convinced that the power of creation
has been exerted in himfelf. If it be denied that there
is any immaterial fubjlance in man, Hill it mud be con-
feffed, that, as matter is not edentially confcious, and
cannot be made fo by any particular organization,
there is fome real thing or entity, call it what you
pleafe, which has either exided and been confcious
from eternity, or been in time brought from non¬
entity into exiilence by an exertion of infinite power.
To this perhaps fome one may objedl, that upon
our own fuppofition of the inability of the human
mind to exert its faculties but in union with fome
material and organifed fydem, the mind of every man
may have exided from eternity without being confci¬
ous of its own exidence ; and that, therefore, we have
in ourfelves no evidence of creation, but only of the
union of two felf-exident fubdances, which in their
prior date had been didinft and feparate from each
ether. But fuch an objedtion as this, we bgg leave
to reply, can arife from nothing but mifapprehenfion
of our hypothefis, and of the. reafons by which we
think it fupported. We fuppofe, that to the exer¬
tion of the human faculties, a body of fome kind or
other may be necedary as an indrument, not merely
from what we obferve of the dependence of percep¬
tion and memory on the date of the brain, but be-
caufe we cannot conceive a Creator of infinite wifdom
and goodnefs to immerfe in fydems of matter, minds
to which he knows that fuch fydems mud be always
ufelefs and often hurtful. We believe, therefore, that
our fouls and bodies were created and formed for each
other; but as our prefent adverfaries admit not of a
Creator, we mud afle them, How their felf-exiftent
fouls have been difpofed of from eternity, and by what
power they have all in due fucceffion been united each
lo its proper body ? As before the union they were
aot confciousfc they could not unite themfelves; and
fuppofe them united by fome fuperior intelligence,
Y S I C S. Part Ilf,
is to fuppofe them in fome refpe&s 8ependent on that Of the lie-
intelligence, which feems not to accord with their inSand As”
felf-exidence. Whatever is felf-exident and eternal tri^*o^3
mild be independent; and if pofleffed of any power, ~ ‘
cannot be conceived to have that power limited.—
We repeat, therefore, that every man has in himfelf
fufficient evidence that creation is poffible ; for if in¬
finite power can create an immaterial and percipient
being, it may furely be fuppofed capable of creating
dead and unintelligent matter.
But the creation of the material fydem may be
diown to be in the highed degree probable by other
arguments. The fame reafoning which proves the
impoflibility of an infinite feries and of eternal time,
proves that the univerfe cannot have exided from eter¬
nity in its prefent date. But if it has not exided from
eternity in its prefent date, it belongs to the oppo¬
nents of creation to fay what was its former. We
talk indeed of chaos; but fuch language, when a Crea¬
tor is not admitted, is mod unphilofophical trifling,
it appears from the mod accurate inquiries that have
been made into the fubdance and effence of body t, 1 Baxter's
that the atoms of which each mafs is compofed are
held together by a foreign force. If by chaos ^ofthe^M.
meant matter, when this force is fuppofed to be re- mxn Smi,
moved, we mud beg leave to fay, that of fuch a fub¬
dance we have neither idea nor notion, and cannot
didinguilh it from non-entity. The original atoms
of matter, we believe indeed to require no other
agency to keep each entire than that /™/ by which
it was created; but dill, as thofe atoms are concei¬
ved to be folid and extended, they mud be capable
of divifion by infinite power ; and if that fiat or influ¬
ence which makes them folid and extended were re¬
moved, they would lofe folidity and extenfion, and of
courfe become nothing. So far is it, therefore, from
being true, that the creation of matter appears to be
impoffible, that we are compelled by every thing that
we know of it to believe that matter .cannot poffibly
be felf-exident.
“ Beeaufe it is undeniably certain, concerning our¬
felves (fays Cudworth-)-), and all imperfect beings, f Intellect
that none of thefe can create any new fubjlance, men tual Syjicm,
are apt to meafure all things by their own fcantling, K
and to fuppofe it univerfally impoflible for any power a^‘^*
whatever thus to create. But fince it is certain, that
imperfect beings can themfelves produce fome things
out of nothing pre-exiding, as new cogitations, new
local motion, and new modifications of things corporeal,
it is furely reafonable to think that an abfolutely per¬
fect Being can do fomething more, i.e. create new fub-
Jlances, or give them their whole being. And it may-
well be thought as eafy for God er an Omnipotent
Being, to make a whole world, matter and all, ®uic
ovlav, as it is for ns to create a thought or to move a
finger, or for the fun to fend out rays, or a candle
light; or laflly, for an opaque body to produce aa
image of itfelf in a glafs or water, or to project a flia-
dow : all thefe imperfect things being but the ener¬
gies, rays, images, or Jhadows, of the Deity. For a
fubdance to be made out of nothing by God, or a Be-
ing infinitely perfeQ, is not for it to be made out of no¬
thing in the impolfible fenfe, becaufe it comes from
him who is all. Nor can it be faid to be impoffible
for any thing whatever to be made by that which
4 hatffc
Part IIT. M E T A P
Of the Be- nath not only infinitely greater perfeQ'wn, but alfo infi-
ntte aa*ve It is indeed true, that infinite
1 God ° Power itfelf cannot do things in their own nature im-
* pofilble; and, therefore, thofe who deny creation,
ought to prove, that it is abfolutely. impoffible for a
fubjlance, though not for an accident or modification, to
be brought from non-exiftence into being. But no¬
thing is in itfelf • impoflible, which does not imply a
contradiction: and though it be a contradiction for
a thing to be and not to be at the fame time, there
k is furely no contradiction in conceiving an imperfeCt
being, which before was not, afterwards to be.” To
call in queftion the poffibility of creation, becaufe
we have no adequate conception how a thing can be
brought into exiftence, would be in the higheft de¬
gree abfurd ; for it may be doubted, whether we have
adequate conceptions of any thing except our own
305 ideas and their various relations (1).
God a fr»e The Being which is lelf-exillent, omnipotent, and
agent; but omn;fcient, is not a neceffary, but a /h?* agent; for ac¬
tive power implies freedom, and infinite power infinite
freedom. What, therefore, hath no bounds fet to its
power, what can have no oppofition made to its will,
nor reftraint laid on its aCttons, mull both will and
aCl freely. “ If the fupreme caufe were not a be¬
ing endowed with liberty and choice, but a mere ne-
celfary agent, then would it follow, as Dr Clarke well
f Demon- obferves f, that nothing which is not, could pojfibly
^tbeBeiif ^avt keen » and that nothing which is, could pojfibly
and Attri- not ^ave I>een * an<I t^at n0 mode or circumftance of
butes of the exigence of any thing could pojfibly have been in
GW. anyrefpeCt otherwife than it now aClually is. All which
being evidently moll falfe and abfurd ; -it follows, on
the contrary, that the fupreme caufe is not a mere
necefiary agent, but a Being endued with liberty
and choice.”
f Coopers To this reafoning it has been lately repliedf, that
Trails. “ Clarke mull have known, that all thofe who con¬
tend againft the free agency of the Deity, do of courfe
acknowledge, that nothing could have happened, or
does happen, or will happen, but what adlually has
happened, or doth happen, or will happen ; and that
it is molt falfe and abfurd to deny it.” It is, there¬
fore, according to the neceflarians, abfolutely impof¬
fible, that at prefent there could exill upon this earth
more or fewer perfons than are now adlually alive ;
that the earth could move in any other diredlion than
from weft to eaft; or that there could be more or
fewer planets in the folar fyftem. Yet is it moft cer-
h y s i c s. 605,
tain, that there have been fewer perfons on the earth pi the Be-
than there are now ; that there is not a cultivated
country in Europe which could not contain more peo- gq&.
pie than now inhabit it; that the comets move in very w—y—U
different directions from that of weft to eaft ; and. that
as, till very lately, we conceived only fix primary pla¬
nets in the fyftem, it is evidently polfible that the fy¬
ftem might contain' no more. Upon the fuppofition,
therefore, that the Supreme Being a£ts under a phy-
fical neceffity, the fame things ard poffible and not
pofiible at the fame time, which is the groffeft of
all abfurdities. It might have been objected with,
much more plaufibility, that the firft caufe cannot
poffibly be free, becaufe he muft needs do always
what is belt in the whole; but it will be feen by
and by, that among different created fyftems, there
is no reafon for fuppofing any one abfolutely bejl. ^06
But though this Being is free, and as fuch the au-himfelf um
thor of change in other beings, yet he muft himfelf be changeable*.
unchangeable; for all changes have a beginning, and
confequently are effedts of fome prior caufes. But
there can be nothing prior to the exiftence of this Be¬
ing, as he is eternal; neither any caufe of it, as he is
independent; nor confequently any change in it, except
we could fuppofe him to change himfelf, which is the
fame abfurdity as to produce himfelf, i. e. to be at the
fame time both eJfeB and caufe.
Omnifcience, as well as fome of the foregoing at- Omnifcx*
tributes of the Supreme Being, may perhaps be more ence> *5*
eafily deduced thus $. We find in ourfelves fuch ft114*» drfferent
lities as thought and intelligence, power and freedom, &c. manner,
for which we have the evidence of confcioufnefs as . Jotes ta
much as for our own exiftence. Indeed, it is °ri
only by our confcioufnefs of thefe that our exift- vi'
ence is known to ourfelves. We know like wife that
thefe are perfeQions, and that to have them is bet¬
ter than to be without them. We find alfo that they
have not been in us from eternity. They muft, there¬
fore, have had a beginning, and cqnfequently fome caufe%
for the very fame reafon that a being beginning to exift
in time requires a caufe. Now this caufe, as it muft
be fuperior to its eJfeB, muft have thofe perfedtions in.
a fuperior degree ; and if it be the JitJl caufe, it muft
have them in an infinite or unlimited degree, fince
bounds, or limitation without a limiter, would, as we
have already fhown, be an effect without a caufe.
It is indeed obvious, that the 'omnifcience of the Su¬
preme Being is implied in his very exiftence. “ For
all things being not only prefent to him, but alfo en¬
tirely
(1) “ Ridicula faret et inepta ejus temeritas, qui corporum ideo creationem fibi duceret negandum effer
quod ejus creationis clarem et perfpicuam notionem effingere cogitatione nobis baud licet. Infinita enim eft re¬
rum copia, quarum perfpicuis et apertis caremus notionibus. Et fx omnia neganda continue nobis effent,.
quorum confufam tantum et imperfedlam confequi poffumus notionem, omnia fere nobis effent neganda, ex-
ceptis relationibus, quas inter notiones quafdam abftradtas effe intelligimus. Quis interiorem fibi naturam
rerum, tarn corporum, quam fpirituum, cognitam effe dixerit ? Et effe tamen has naturas, omni plane du-
bitatione vacat. Quis quemadmodum altera harum naturarum agat in alteram, fefe feire, affirmet ? Quia-,
caufas fibi patere, propter quas hi vel illi «ffedlus, quos videmus quotidie contingere, a certis veniant corpo-
ribus, jure glorietur ? Nec tamen quifquam eft, qui vel illam animoe in corpus operationem, vel hog effedlug
m dubium revocare aufit. Teneamus igitur ea, quae certo novimus, nec idcircb nos ab illis dimoveri patia-
mur, quod multa rurfus funt, quorum naturam ignoramus ; contra multa nos fugere et cognitionem noftram
fuperare, aequo et tranquillo feramus animo. jfoannit Clerici contra eos qui n eg ant, ex nihilo ulla rationefieri pojfk
•liquid, obfiervationes ; in Mojkemii edit. Lntelkc. Sjfi. 1 ^
6cS W E T A -P -H
- Of the 3e- t'rely depending upon him, and having received both their
'trtbutl/of and all their powers and faculties from him, it
QO^0t is manifeft that as he knows all things that are, and pe-
netrates every part of their fubftance with his all-fee¬
ing eye, fo muft he likewife know all po/Jibilihes of
Y S I C S. Part ITT,
how God can foreknow future events, without a chain Of the Be-
of necejfary caufes, it is indeed impoffible for us to ex- nf.ancl AH*
plain : yet feme fort of general notion of it we may cc
ceive. “ For, as a man who has no influence o
other perfon’s a&ions, can yet often perceive before-
tribute? of
things, that~is, all effe&s that can be. For, being hand what that other will do; and a wifer and more
alone felf-exiflent, and having alone given to all things
all the powers and faculties with -which they are en¬
dued, it is evident that he muft of neceliity know
perfeftly what all and each of thefe powers and facul-
’ ties, which are derived wholly from himfelf, can pofiibly
produce. And feeing at one boundlefs view, or fnore
experienced man, with ftill greater probability will fore¬
fee what another, with whole difpofition he is perfect*
ly acquainted, will in certain circumftances do; and
an angel, with ftill lefs degrees of error, may have a
further: propped! into mens future actions : fo it is
very reafonable to conceive, that God, without in-
properly in his own ideas, all the poffible compofitions fluencing mens wills by his power, or fubje&ing them
Chyle
Dem-.nf
and divifions, variations and changes, circumftances
and dependencies of things, all their poffible relations
one to another, and their difpofitions or fitnefles to
certain and refpedtive ends, he muft without poffibili-
ty of error know exaftly what is heft and propereft
in every one of the numberlefs poffible cafes, or me¬
thods of difpofing - things ; and underftand perfe&ly
how to order and direct the refpeCtive means to bring
about what he -fo knows to be in its kind, or on the
whole, the beft and futeft in the end. This is what
is meant by-infinite wifdom, or omnifcience f and
it has been readily admitted by every man who has
believed in the exiftence of a God as the creator and
"63 preferver of all things.
-God tore- Doubts, however, have been entertained by theifts,
cjbiows the and pious theifts, whether omnifcience itfelf can cer-
ca&ions of tainly foreknow what are called contingent events, fuch
”1'ce *8ents‘ as tjie aftions of free agents ; and fome few there are
•• profeffing to be even Chriftians, who have boldly pro-
nouncedfuch knowledge to be impoffible. That we have
: no adequate notion how events, which are called contin¬
gent, can be certainly foreknown, muft indeed be grant¬
ed ; but we are not, therefore, authorifed to fay that fuch
knowledge is impoffible, unlefs it can be clearly ffiown
to imply a contradiction. They who fuppofe that it
’implies a contradiction, muft'likewife fuppofe, that,
where there is not a chain of neceflary caufes, there
can be no certainty of any future event; but this is
evidently a miftake. “ For let us fuppofe that there
is in man c power of beginning motion, and of a&ing
with what has ©f late been called philofophical freedom;
and let us fuppofe farther that the a&ions of fuch a
man cannot poffibly be foreknown ; will there not yet
be in the nature of things, notwithftanding this fup-
pofition, the fame certainty of event in every one of the
man’s aflions, as if they were ever fo fatal and necef-
fary ? For inftas ce, fuppofe the man, by an internal
principle of motion, and an abfolute freedom of mind,
vto do fome particular aftion to-day, and fuppofe it
was not poffible that this action ftiould have been fore¬
seen yejlerday, was there not neverthelefs the fame
certainty of event as if it had been forefeen, and abfo-
lately neceftary ? That is, would it not have been as
certain a truth yefterday, and from eternity, that this
aftion was in event to be performed to-day, notwithftand¬
ing the fuppofed freedom, as it is now a certain and
infallible truth that it is performed ? Mere certainty of
event, therefore, does not in any meafure imply necef-
to a chain of neceflary caufes, cannot but have a know¬
ledge of future free events, as much more certain than
men or angels can poffibly have, as the perfeSion of his
nature is greater than that of theirs. The diJlinB manner
how he forefees thefe things we cannot, indeed, ex¬
plain ; but neither can we explain the manner of num¬
berlefs other things, of the reality of which, however,
no man entertains a doubt f.” We muft therefore t
admit, fo long as we perceive no contradiction in it, Demonjlnt*
that God always knows all the free adions of men, and^0”’ &s*
all other beings endued with liberty ; otherwife he
would know many things now of which he was once
ignorant, and confequently his omnifcience would re¬
ceive addition from events, which has been already
fhown to be contrary to the true notion of infinity.—
In a being incapable of change, knowledge has no¬
thing to do with before ox after. To every purpofe of
knowledge and power, all things are to him equally
prefent. He knows perfectly every thing that is, and
what to us is future he knows in the very fame manner
as he knows what to us is prefent. 30$
Thus have we demonftrated the neceflary exiftence God ing-
of a being who is eternal, independent, unchangeable, om- PeSr*
nipotent, free in his adions, and omnfient; and-this is fuffi’c;en"t
the being whom we worihip as Goo. Eternity, inde- and omne-
pendence, immutability, omnipotence, liberty, and omiu/cience, prefect,
which feem to be all the natural attributes which we
can difeover in the divine nature, as they are conceiv¬
ed to be differently combined, make us fpeak of him
in different terms. His enjoying in an abfolute mari¬
ner every conceiveable power or perfection, makes us
call him a Being infinitely perfect. His being capable
of no want, defect, or unhappinefs of any kind, de¬
notes him to be all-fufficient in himfelf; and the unlimi¬
ted exercife of his knowledge and power, demonftrates
him to be omnipnfent. That fuch a Being muft be in-
comprehenfible by us, and by every creature, is a
truth felf-evident; and yet in all ages men of the beft
intefitions have been vainly attempting this impoffibi-
lity. The manner of hrs omnifcience, fof inftanoe,
has been the fubject of much deputation among thofe
who ought to have reflected that they knew not how
their own minds were prefent to their own bodies.—
The celebrated Dr Clarke and his adherents, who
-eonfidered fpace as the fair qua non of all other things*
infilled, that God muft. be infinitely extended; and that,
as wherever his fubftance is, there his attributes muft
be, it is thus that his knowledge and power are pre¬
fent with every creature But this notion labours un-
‘pVforlc's Jtty t-” And furely it implies no contradiction to
'bemonftra. fuppofe, that every future event which in the nature der infuperable difficulties.
****"> of things is now certain, may now be certainly known For “ if the Divine fubftance be infinitely extend-
by that intelligence which is ottinifcient. The manner ed, then will there be part of it in this place and part
3 i*
PartHI. M E T A P
<0f the Be- in tKat. It mu ft be commenfurate with all particular
ingajid At- beings, fo that fome will occupy more and fome lefs
^God. *ts dimenfions. By this account it will be very pro-
. per and philofophical to fay, that God is not in heaven^
310 but only a part of him ; and that an elephant or a
The man- mountain, a whale or a wicked giant, have mort of the
nei- of the effence or prefence of God with them than the holiejl
niprefcence"01 ^eJ man *n t^e world, unlefs he be of equal iize :
ii.compre- all which, as has been well obferved f, are at leall harfh
he: fib!e. and grating expreflions. As the attributes of the Di-
v‘ne Being mult be confidered in the fame manner with
Lau's /« fubftance, we (hall likewife, upon this notion of
puiry into omniprefence,, have a part of his knowledge and power
the Ideas in this place, and a part of them in that; and of thefe
d Parts t^ie one mu^ greater or than the other
Ifimaijiiy according to the dimenfions of the place with which
’ it is commenfurate; which is a fuppofition that appears
to us harfher, if poffible, than even the former.
“Should it be faid that the Divine attributes are
Hot to be confidered as having parts (though we fee
not how they can be confidered otherwife than as their
fubjeft), they muft then exift completely in every point
of this immenfe expanfion. Be it fo; and what
follows ? Why, every point of this infinitely expand¬
ed being will be omnifcient and omnipotent by itfelf}
an inch of it will have as much wifdom and power as
a yard, a mile, or the whole; and, inftead of one in¬
finite wifdom and power, we fhall have millions : For
as thefe parts of the fubftance are conceived dijlintlly,
and one individual part is not another, fo muft the
attributes be likewife conceived, and the individual
power and knowledge of one part be diftinft from that
of another.” And if fo, it follows, that one point of
this expanded being has equal power and intelligence
with the whole ; fo that the notion of excenfion be¬
ing necejfary to God’s prefence with every creature, in¬
volves in it the moft palpable contradiction. That
God is at all times and in all places fo prefent with
every creature as to have an abfolute knowledge of
and power over it, is indeed capable of the ftriCteft
demonftration ; but we think it great prefumption to
affign the particular mode of his prefence, especially
fuch a one as is neither agreeable to the nature of an
abfolutely perfe6t> Being, nor in the leaft neceffary to
the exercife of any one perfection which he can be
proved to pofiefs. Philofophers and divines have of¬
fered feveral names for the manner in which God is -
prefent with his- works ; but we choofe rather to con-
fefs, that the manner of his prefence is to us, and pro¬
bably to every creature, wholly incomprehenfible. Nor-
need we be furprifed or daggered at this, when we
refleCt that the manner in which our own minds are
prefent with our bodies is to us as incomprehenfible
as the manner in which the fupreme. Mind is prefent'
with every thing, in the univerfe. That our minds-
have a power over our limbs, we know, by experience ;
but that they'are not extended or fubftantially diffufed
through them, is certain ; becaufe men daily lofe arms
and legs without lofing any part of their underftand-
^ ing, or feeling their energies of volition in the fmalleft
JreJs degree weakened. But we need purfue this fubject
'nee awl U- n° farther. It has been confefled by one of the moft
w>v, idfc ftrenuous advocates. % for the- extenfion of the Deity
page 110. and all minds, that “ there is an incomprehenfiblenefs
H Y S I C S.
607
in the manner of every thing, about which no contro-Of the £
verfy can or ought to be concerned.” ing and At-
The moral attributes of God may be deduced from triGod3of
his natural ones, and are immediate confequences v ■-
them when exercifed on other beings. They may be tit
termed his fecondary relative attributes, as they feemG<?d’s ni°*
to be the perfection of his external ads rather than any j,*,.*^*
new internal perfections. And though the exiftence ftlt from
of any moral quality or action is not capable of ftriCt his natural
demonjlration, becaufe every moral aCtion or quality, as Per^iona^
fuch, depends upon the will of the agent, which muft
be abfolutely free ; yet we have as great aflurance that
there are moral qualities in God, and that he will al¬
ways aCt according to thefe qualities, as the nature of *
the thing admits; and may be as well fatisfied of it, .
as if it were capable of the moft rigid demonftration. *
This important point, however, cannot be fo clearly»
or fo firmly eftabliihed by abftraft reafoning as by ta->
king a fcientific view of the works of creation, which :
evince the goodnefs, holinefs, and juftice, of their
Author, as well as his perfeCt wifdom and infinite ■
power. The conlideration, therefore, of the moral
attributes of God, together with his providence, and
the duties thence incumbent on man, is the proper
bufinefs of other articles (fee Religion, Theology,
and Moral Philofophy.)
At prefent we (hall only obferve, that by reafoning Hither
d priori from his exiftence and his natural perfections, ought tc>
we muft neceffarily infer that his aCtions are the refultte conceit
of unmixed benevolence. Every wife agent has fomeved‘
end in view in all his aftions ; it being the very effence
of folly to aCt for no end : but there cannot be an end '
of aCtion which is not either felfifh or benevolent.'
Selfiflinefs is the offspring of want and imperfection,
and is therefore the fource of moft human aCtions;
becaufe men are weak and imperfcCt beings, capable
of daily additions to their happinefs,. When the thief •
plunders a houfe at midnight, when the highwayman •
robs a traveller on the road, and even when the af- *
faffin murders the man who never injured him ; it will
be found that their aCtions fpring not from an innate
defire to infliCt mifery upon others, but from a pre--1
fpeCt of reaping advantage to themfelves. The objeCt;
of the thief and the robber is obvious : it is to gain *
money, which is the mean of procuring the comforts
of life. Even the affaffin has always the fame felfifh
end in view either he is bribed to commit the murder,?
or he fancies that his horrid deed will remove an ob-
Jlacle from the way to his own happinefs. But they
are not vicious men only who aCl from felfilh coafidera-'
tions : much of human virtue, when- traced to its
fource, will be found to have its origin in the defire
of happinefs. When a man gives his money to feed-
the hungry and to clothe the naked, he believes thaS»
he is-aCting agreeably to the will of Him to whom he
and the poor ftand in the fame relation; and he looks
for a future and eternal reward. By continuing the
practice, he foon acquires the habit of benevolence j*
after which, indeed, he looks for no further reward,*
when performing particular aCtions, than the imme¬
diate pleafure of doing good. This felfiflmefs of in arr¬
is the neceffary confequence of his progreifive ftate, •
But thg Being who is independent, omnipotent, om-«
nifcient,.and, in a word, poffeffed of every poffible ?
per-
€d8 ^ MET
•Of tho Be- perTeftion, ?s incapable of progreffion, v,.   
t'nhutesof any acceili°n whatever made to his happinefs. He is
God' immutable 5 and niaft of neceflity have been as happy
W- y—» from eternity, when exifting alone, as after the
creation of ten thoufand worlds. When, therefore,
he willed the exiftence of other beings, he could have
nothing in view but to communicate fome refemblance
of his own perfe&ions and happinefs. That he had
fome end in view, follows undeniably from his infinite
wifdom. That he could not have 'a fej/i/h end, follows
with equal certainty from his own infinite perfeftions }
and as there is no medium, in the a&ions of a wife Be¬
ing, between felfifhnefs and benevolence, we mult ne-
APHYSICS. Partin.
of having to their nature, is no more an evil to them, than their Of the B--
never having been created or brought into being at all inS®n<1
could properly be called an evil.” To this we may ^'qo?. °
add, that as no created being can be felf-exiftent and
independent, imperfe&ion is unavoidable in the cre¬
ation, fo that the evil of defeat (as it i§ moft abfurdly
called) muft have been admitted, or nothing could
ever have exifted but God. “ The fecond kind of evil,
which we call natural evil, is either a neceffary confer
quence of the former, as death to a creature on whofe
nature immortality was never conferred ; and then it is
ho more properly an evil than the former: Or elfe it is
countevpoifed in the whole with as great or greater
ceffarily conclude, that the creation was the refult of • good, as the ajjlidions and fuferings of good men ; and
unmixed benevolence or perfeft goodnefs. The other
moral attributes of the Deity, his juftice, mercy, and
truth, ought therefore to be confidered only as fo ma¬
ny different views of the fame goodnefs in the Creator,
and various fources of happinefs to the creature. Thefe
are always fubordinate to and regulated by this one prin¬
cipal perfection and brighteft ray of the Divinity.
“ Thus we conceive \i\sjujlice to be exerted on any
being no farther than his goodnefs neceffarily requires,
in order to make that being, or others, feriftlle of the
then alfo it is properly no evd ; Or elfe it is a punifh*
meat j and then it Is a neceffary confequence of the
third and laft fort of evil, viz. moral evil. And this
arifes wholly from the abufe of liberty, which God gave
to his creatures for other purpofes, and which it was
reafonable and fit to give them for the perfection and
order of the whole creation : only they, contrary to
God’s intention and command, have abufed what was
neceffary for the perfection of the whole, to the cor-
tuption and depravation of themfelveS. And thus have
§N'oiesto heinous nature and pernicious ejfeds of Jin §, and thereby all forts of evils entered into the world without any
§!vil°n *° kr*ng them to as great a degree of happinefs as diminution to the infinite goodnefs of its Creator and
their feveral natures are capable of. His holinefs hates Governor.” 314
and abhors all wickednefs, only as its neceffary confe- But though evil could not be totally excluded from Whether'
quences are abfolute and unavoidable mifery ; and his the univerfe, are we not authorifed to infer, from the ^lc prefer*
veracity or faithfulnefs feems to be concerned for truth, infinite power, wifdom, and goodnefs of the Creator, ^
only becaufe it is connefted with and productive tof that the prefent fyftem is upon the whole the very belt fible,
the happinefs of all rational beings; to provide the fyftem poflible ? Undoubtedly we are, if of pofiible
propereft means for attaining which great end, is the fy Items there can be a beft ; but this is fo far from be-
exercife of his •wiflomd’ Such is the view of God’s ing evident, that we think it implies a contradiction,
moral attributes, which the abftraCt contemplation of A beft of beings there is, vita. God, who is poffeffed
his natural perfections neceffarily gives 5 and whether of infinite perfections ; but there cannot be a beft of
this way of conceiving them be not attended with lefs creatures or of created fyftems. To prove this, we
difficulty than the common manner of treating them need only refleCt, that wherever crefation flops, it
under the notion of two infinites diametrically oppoftU^ muft flop infinitely ffiort of infinity J and that how
313 muft be left to the judgment of the reader. perfeCt foever we conceive any creature or fyftem of
The origin But if the Creator and fupreme Governor of all Creatures to be, yet the diftance between that and God
®f evil. things be a Being of infinite power, perfeCt wifdom, is not leffened, but continues infinite. Hence it fol-
and pure benevolence, how came evil into the works lows, that the natare of God and his omnipotence is
of creation ? This is a queftion which has employed fuch, that whatever number of creatures he has made,
the fpeculative mind from the firft dawning of philo- he may ftill add to that number 5 and that however
fophy, and will continue to employ it till our facul- good or perfect the fyftem may be en the whole, he
ties be enlarged in a future ftate, when philofophy might ftill make others equally good and perfeCt.
ffiall give place to more perfeCt knowledge. To thefe The difpute, whether a being of infinite power, origin ef
lJ meditations, as has been well obferved J, humanity is wifdom, and benevolence, muft be fuppofed to have that quo-
t Jolnfon-
Review off* not equal. Volumes have been written on the fub- created the hejlpojfihle fyjlem, and the embarraffment of ftion.
rilntotht jeCt; but we believe that the following extraCt from mens underftandings about it, feem to have arifen
Qrigm of Dr Clarke contains all that can be advanced with cer- from their taking the words good, better, and bejl, for
£vit. tainty, and all that is neceffary to vindicate the ways abfolute qualities inherent in the nature of things,
of God to man. whereas in truth they afe only relations arifing from
“All that we call evil (fays that able reafoner f), certain appetites. They have indeed a foundation, as
+ Demon- an evil of imperfection, as the want of certain all relations hate, in fomething abfolute, and denote the
tie Being faculties and excellencies which other creatures have ; thing in which they are founded; but yet they them-
pni Attri- or natural evil, as pain, death, and the like ; or moral felves imply nothing more than a relation of congruity
lutes cf evip as all kinds of vice. The firjl of thefe is not pro- between fome appetite and its objcCts. This is evi-
perly an evil: for every power, faculty, * r perfec- dent; becaufe the fame objeCt. when applied to an
tion, which any creature enjoys, being the free gift appetite to which it has a congruity, is good ; and
of God, which he was no more obliged to beftow bad, when applied to an appetite to which it has n«
than he was to confer being or exiftence itfelf, it is congruity. Thus, the earth and air to terreftrial ani-
plain, that the want of any certain faculty or perfec- mals are good elements, and neceffary to their prefer*
Sion, in any kind of creatures, which never belonged vation ; to thofe animals the water is bad, which yet
N*Zi$. afford#
Partlll. METAPHYSICS. 609
Of’the Be affords the heft receptacle to fifties. Good, therefore^
uibotes of relat've t0 appetite, that irtuft be reckoned the
God heft creature by us which has the ftrongeft appetites,
c—v—' and the fureft means of fatisfying them all, and fecu-
ring its own permanent happihefs. ‘ And though the
fuljlance of creatures is chiefly to be regarded as con¬
tributing to their perfection, yet we have no way of
raeafuring the perfection of different fubftances but by
their qualities, i. e. by their appetites by which they
are fenfible of good and evil, and by their powers to
procure thofe objefts from which they receive that
fenfe of things which makes them happy.
316 It is plain, therefore, that whatever fyftem we fup-
No tyftem p0fe jn nature, God might have made another equal
a^o ute y to jt. ;nfin;te wifdom and power being able to
make other creatures equal in every refpeCt to any
that we know or can conceive, and to give them equal
or ftronger appetites, and as certain or more certain
ways of fatisfying them. We fee in many cafes, that
very different means will anfwer the fame end. A cer¬
tain number of regular pyramids will fill a fpace ; and
yet irregular ones will do it as well, if what we take
from the one be added to another; and the fame
thing may be done by bodies of the moft ifregular and
different figures in the fame manner s and therefore
we may very well conceive, that the anfwering of ap¬
petites, which is all the natural good that is in the world,
may as well be obtained in another fyftem as in this ;
provided we fuppofe, that where the appetites of the
fentient beings are changed, the objefts are alfo fuit-
ed to them, and an equal congruity among the parts
ef the whole introduced. This is fo eafily conceived,
that in an indefinite number of poffible worlds, we do
not fee why it may not be done in numberlefs ways by
infinite power and wifdom.
If then it be plain, that there might have been many
other worlds, or even but one, equal to this in all
refpefts as to goodnefs, there could be no neceffity,
either phyfica! dr moral, that God ftiould create the Of the Be-
one rather than the other; becaufe nothing could
make the one better, or to him more agredable, than “ 0
the other, but his own free choice. Either, there-
fore, God muft be poffeffed of abfolute freedom, or, 317
among a number of poflibilities equally perfect, he eould Ood not
not have made a choice, and fo nothing would ever
have been created. It is not, then, as Leibnitz and gocdnefs t®
others argue, the natural and neceffary goodnefs of create the
forrie particular things, reprefented by the divine ideas^ present i”
which determines God to prefer them to all others, if to^Uothfl?
underftood of his JirJl a£t of producing them ; but it worlds,
is his own free choice, which among many equal po¬
tential goods, makes fome things a&ually good, and de^
termines them into exiftence. When thofe are once
fuppofed to exift, every thing or a&ion becomes good
which tends to their happinefs and prefervation ; and
to fuppofe their all-perfe£l Author to have any other
end in view than their prefervation and happinefs, is
the fame abfurdity as to fuppofe that knowledge may
produce ignorance j power, weaknefs j or wifdom
folly.
We have now finilhed what we propofed under the
article Metaphyfics. It has fwelled in oiir hands to
a large extent 5 and yet it can be confidered as little
more than an introduction to that fcience, which com¬
prehends within .its wide grafp every thing exifting.
The reader who wilhes to purfue thefe interefting
fpeculations, (hould ftudy diligently the authors whom
we have confulted, and to whom we have been careful
to refer in the margin. Were we to make a felec-
tion, we ftiould without hefitation recommend Ariftotle
and Plato among the ancients ; and Cudworth, Locke,
Hartley, and Reid, among the moderns. Thefe phi-
lofophers, indeed, on many points, differ exceedingly
from one another; but he who wilhes not to adopt
opinions at random, fhould know what can be faid on
both fides of every queftion.
Metaplaf-
M E T
METAPLASMUS, in grammar, a tranfmutation
or change made in a word, by adding, retrenching, or
altering a fyllable or letter thereof.
METAPONTUM, or Metapontium, (anc.
geog')> a town of Lucania, on the Sinus Tarentinus,
to the weft of Tarentum ; built by the Pylians, who
returned from Troy, (Mela). Where Pythagoras is
faid to'have taught in the time of Servius Tullius,
(Livy). Metapontini, the people; who' pretended
to (how, in a temple of Minerva, the tools with
which Epeus built the wooden horfe, (Juftin). Now
a tower, called Torre di Mare, in the Bafilicata of
Naples, (Baudrand.)
ME1ASTASIO (P abbe Pierre Bonaventure),
whofe real name was Trapajfi, was born at Aflife, on
January 3d, 1698. His talent for poetry was firft un¬
folded by the reading of Taffo ; and he began to com-
pofe verfes at ten years of age. “ A prodigy of this
nature (fays Metartafio) made fuch an irnpreflion on
my mafter, the celebrated Gravina, that he thence-
Vol. XI. Part II.
MET1
forth confidered me as a plant worthy of being cufti- VTetaftafife
vated by his own hands.” Metaftafio was only four- y ■—»
teen years of age when he compofed his tragedy en¬
titled 11 Giujlino ; in which he appears too clofe and
fcrupulous an imitator of the Grecian drama. Our
young poet unfortunately loft his patron in 1717}
who left him his heir, “as being a young man of the
moft promifing abilities.” Metaftafio, at the age of
nineteen, being, in confequence of this inheritance,
fuperior to thofe wants which reprefs the exertions of
genius,, and to which men of abilities are too often
fubjeft, gave full fcope to his inclination for poetry.
He began his dramatic career with the Didonne si ban-
donnata, which was afted at Naples in 1724 ; the mu-
fic was compofed by Sarro. He foon acquired fuch
celebrity, that in 1729 he was invited to Vienna by
the emperor Charles VI.; who appointed him impe¬
rial poet, and granted him a penfion of 4000 florins.
From that time fome of his works were prefented at
every court-feftival; and notwithftanding the extreme
4 H magni-
MET r 610 ] MET
Metaftafio. magnificence of thefe entertainments, they would now
w—v |-,e forgotten were it not for the verfes which he compo-
fed upon the occafion. The courts of Vienna and Ma¬
drid vied with each other in the prefents which they
conferred upon him. From Maria Therefa he recei¬
ved a fnuff-box and a port-folio fet with diamonds,
and a golden candleftick- with a fcreen. Ferdinand
VI. king of Spain, informed of the great merit of
Metaltafio by Farinelli, of whom he was a paffionate
admirer, fent him a prefent of a caiket mounted with
gold, and furniihed with the different implements of
writing. This favourite of kings and of the mufes
■was of a cheerful temper, and was exceedingly tempe¬
rate : to this he was probably indebted for the unin¬
terrupted health which he enjoyed, and for the entire
poffeffion of his fenfes and faculties to the moft advanced
period of old-age. He took his meals, arofe, and went
to ted, always at Hated hours. This exn&nefs and
order were ferupuloufly obferved even in th^ moft tri¬
fling actions of his life. He ufed to fay in jeft, that
he dreaded hell for no other reafon but becaufe it
was a place ubi nullus ordo, fed fempiternus horror in¬
habitat. He had even his ftated hours for making
verfes ; to which he fcrupuloufly adhered, without
waiting for the moment of poetical enthufiafm. He
was equally regular in the duties of the Chriflian as in
the labours of the fcholar. His behaviour was that of
a true philofopher : his ambition extended no farther
than the attainment of literary fame ; and he defpifed
every civil mark of diftinftion. When CharlesVI.offer¬
ed him the titles of Count or of Baron, which add no
♦ real worth or dignity to the poffeffor, but frequently
make him appear in a more ridiculous light, he in-
itandy begged the favour that he would allow him Hill
to continue Metoftafto. The emprefs Maria Therefa
afterwards wifhed to beftow upon him the fmall crofs
of St Stephen ; but he excufed himfelf on account of
his age, which would prevent him from affifting at the
feftivals of the order. He was attacked by a fev»r on
the zd of April 1782 ; and he died on the 12th of
the fame month, at the age of 84. Before his death
he received the facrament according to the form of the
Romifh church; and Pius VI. who was then atVienna,
. fent . him his apoftolical benedittion in articulo mortis,
He left about 150,000 florins. He compofed a great
■number of tragic operas, and feveral fmall dramatic
pieces which have been fent to mufic. We have dif¬
ferent editions, of them in qto, 8vo, and i2mo ;• and
M. Richelet has publifhed a tranflation of them into
French, in 12 vols, fmall 1 zmo.
The greateft part of Metaftaiio’s writings will con¬
fer immortality on their author. His dialogue is na¬
tural, fimple, and eafy ; his ftyle is always pure and
elegant, and fometimes fublime and pathetic. His
fubjetts are noble, interefting, and excellently adapt¬
ed for reprefentation. He was perfe&ly acquainted
with the refources of his art, and has fubjedted the
opera to rules. He llripped it of its machinery,
and of the marvellous, which was fitted to ex¬
cite the gaze of aftonifhment, but which gave no in-
ftru&ion to the underftanding, and made no impref-
fion on the heart. His defcriptions are copied from
mature; the fituations of his charafters never fail to
taife an intereft in the reader, and often excite the
•Sear of pity. His fables are celebrated j his charac-
6
ters are noble and well fupported ; his plots are ex- Metaftafi©
cellently conducted, and happily unravelled. “ There II
are fcenes (fays Voltaire) worthy of Corneille when vretatarfu°»
he does not declaim, and of Racine when he is not
feeble.” His operas, in point of the pathetic, may
be compared with our fineft tragedies ; and may be
read with great pleafure, independent of the charms
of the mufic. We muff not, however, expedl to find
in Metaftafio that exait regularity, and that fertile
fimplicity, which conftitutes the ‘excellence of fome
of our tragic poets: But though he fometimes tranf-
greffes the unities of time and place, he always pre~
ferves the unity of intereit. Notwithfianding all
thefe advantages, fome critics will not allow him the
merit of invention, which is the firft qualification of
a poet. They confide/-, him only as a fuccefsful imita¬
tor of the French tragic writers, from iwhom a great
part of his beauties are borrowed, and place him at
the head of the fineft wits of Italy, but deny that he
poffeffed genius. He was a fond admirer of the an¬
cients t and this admiration, increafing with the foli-
dity of his underftanding, continued to the la ft period!
of his life. He recommended reading them, as he
himfelf had done, in a chronological order. His me¬
mory was excellent, and continued unimpaired even in
old age. Horace was his favourite author, and he
could repeat almoft the whole of him. Metaftafio,
who, as we have obferved, was the pupil of the cele¬
brated Gravina, added a gentlenefs of character pecu¬
liar to himfelf to the accuracy of thinking and great
erudition of his mafter. His abilities and fame were
refpe&ed by the critics in general; and v/hereas the
life of moft men of letters is one continued warfare,
his days happily glided away in tranquillity and peace.
The circumftance which occafioned the change of his
name is thus related in a late anecdote : “ Gravina’s
barber, who, like moft of his profeffion, was a great
talker, one day informed him, that in the Place de la
Valtcella, where he had his (hop, a young boy came
every evening, and fung extempore verfes of his own
compofition, fo harmonious and elegant that all the
paffengers flopped to liften to them. Gravina, upoa
this information, added one to the number of the
young poet’s audience, and found the verfes fo fupe-
rior to the idea which he had formed of them from
the account of the barber, and fo much above the ca¬
pacity of a child of ten or eleven years of age, that
he inttantly determined to undertake the cultivation of
fo promiiing a plant. His firft care was to put the
young 'Trapajft (which was the boy’s name) tofchool;
but apprehending that the ordinary methods of edu¬
cation might check the progrefs of fo uncommon ta¬
lents, he took him home to his own houfe, and chan¬
ged his name into Metajlajio, which fignifies the fame
thing in Greek. In. ftiort, by a plan of education and
by inftrudlkms fuited to his genius, Gravina laid the
foundation of that reputation which he predicted, and
which Metaftafio now enjoys.” Vies des Hommes II-
lujlres d’Italic, Tom. I. p. 187.
METASTASIS, in medicine, a tranfpofition or
fettlement of fome humour or difeafe in fome other
part; and fometimes it fignifies fuch an alteration of a
difeafe as is fucceeded by a folution.
METATARSUS beyond, and the
tarfus'), in anatomy^ that part of the human fkeleton
containing;
MET r (Sir 1 MET
Metathefis, containing the middle of the foot. Sec Anatomy,
Metelin.
w'~v METATHESIS, in grammar, a fpecies of the
metaplafmus; being a figure whereby the letters or
fyllnbles of a word are tranfpofed, or Ihifted out of
their ufual fituations, as pifirh for prijlis, Lylia for
Libya, See.
This word is, by phyficians, ufed with refpeft to
■morbific caufes, which, when they cannot be evacua¬
ted, are removed to places where they are lefs injurious.
METELIN, the modern name of the ifland of Lcf-
bos. See Lesbos and Mitylene.
In the Irifh Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1789,
we have a defeription of this ifland by the earl of
Charlemont, in which he fpeaks with raptures of its
beauties. “ The mountains, whofe rugged tops ex¬
hibit a pleafing interfperlion of rocks and fine groves,
have their green fides, for many miles along the coaft,
covered with olives, whofe lefs agreeable verdure is
corrected, embellifhed, and brightened by a lively mix¬
ture of bays and laurels afpiring to the height of
foreft-trees, of myrtles “and pomegranates, of ar-
imtes rich at once in bloffom and in berry, of mul¬
berries growing wild and laden with fruit, &c. Win¬
ter is here unknown, the verdure is perpetual, and
the frequency of evergreens gives to December the
colour of June. The parching heat of fummer is ne¬
ver felt; the thick Ihade of trees, and thoufands of
cryftal fprings which every where arife and form them-
felves into unnumbered rivulets, joined to the refrefhing
fea-breeze the conftant corredtive and companion of
noon tide heat, qualify the burning air and render the
year a never-ending May. The houfes are conftrudted in
fuch a manner as to have the beft view of thefe natu¬
ral beauties. Each is a fquare tower neatly built of
hewn Hone, fo high as to overtop the trees, and to
command a view of the fea and neighbouring iflands.
The lower ftories are granaries and ftorehoufes; and
the habitable apartments are all at the top, to which
you afeend by a ftone Hair, built for the moft part
■on the outfide, and furrounding the tower; fo that
from the apartment the trees are overlooked, and
the whole country is feen, while the habitations them-
felves, which are very numerous, pearing above the
groves, add life and variety to the enchanting pro-
fpedt, and give an air of human population to thefe
woodlands, which might otherwife be fuppofed the
region of Dryads, of Naiads, and of Satyrs.”
The moft remarkable thing, however, in this ifland
Is a cufiom by which the women have here openly
ufurped thofe rights of fovereignty which in other
countries are fuppofed to belong effentially to the men.
“ Contrary (fays his lordlhip) to the ufage of all
other countries, the eldeft daughter here inherits ; and
the fons, like daughters every where elfe, are por¬
tioned off with fmall dowers, or, which is ftill worfe,
turned out penny lefs to feek their fortune. If a man
has two daughters, the eldeft, at her marriage, is in-
titled to all her mother’s poffeffions, which are by far
the greater part of the family eftate, as the mother,
keeping up her prerogative, never parts with the
power over any portion of what fhe has brought into
the family, until fhe is forced into it by the marriage
of her daughter; and the father alfo is compelled to
ruin himfelf .by adding whatever he may have feraped
together by hi» induftry. The fecond daughter in- M tali;,.
herits nothing, and is condemned to perpetual celi-
bacy. She is ftyled a calogria, which fignifies pro¬
perly a religious woman or nun, and is in effetft a
menial fervant to her After, being employed by
her in any office fhe may think fit to impofe, fre¬
quently ferving her as waiting-maid, as cook, and of¬
ten in employments ftill more degrading. She wears
a habit peculiar to her fituation, which fhe can never
change; a fort of monaftick drefs, coarfe, and of a dark
brown. One advantage, however, fhe enjoys over her
After, that whereas the elder, before marriage, is ne¬
ver allowed to go abroad, or to fee any man, her neareft
relations only excepted, the calogria, except when
employed in domeftic toil, is in this refpeA at perfect
liberty. But when the filler is married, the fituation
of the poor calogria becomes defperate indeed, and
is rendered ftill more humiliating by the comparifon
between her condition and that of her happy miftrefs.
The married filler enjoys every fort of liberty ; the
whole family fortune is hers, and fhe fpends it as fhe
pleafes; her hufband is her obfequious fervant, her fa¬
ther and mother are dependent upon her, fhe drefle*
in a moft magnificent manner, covered all over, ac¬
cording to the fafhion of the ifland, with pearls and
with pieces of gold, which are commonly fequins;
thus continually carrying about her the Enviable
marks of affluence and fuperiority, while the wretch¬
ed calogria follows her as a fervant, arrayed in Ample
homefpun brown, and without the moft diftant hope
of ever changing her condition. Such a difparity
may feem intolerable, but what will not cuftom re¬
concile ? Neither are the misfortunes of the family yet
at an end. The father an'd mother, with what little is
. left them, contrive by their induftry to accumulate a fe¬
cond little fortune ; and this, if they fhould have a
third daughter, they are obliged to give to her upon her
marriage; and the fourth, if there fhould be one, be¬
comes her calogria; and fo on through all the daugh¬
ters alternately. Whenever the daughter is marriage¬
able, fhe can by cuftom compel the father to procure
her a hufband ; and the mother, fuch is the power of
habit, is foolifh enough to join her in teafing him
into an immediate compliance, though its confequen-
ces muft be equally fatal and ruinous to both of them.
From hence it happens, that nothing is more common
than to fee the old father and mother reduced to the
utmoft indigence, and even begging about the ftreets,
while their unnatural daughters are in affluence ; and
we ourfelves have frequently been fhown the eldeft
daughter parading it through the town in the greateft
fplendor, while her mother and After followed her as
fervants, and made a melancholy part of her attendant
train.
“ The fons, as foon as they are of an age to gain a
livelihood, are turned out of the family, fometimes with
a fmall prefent or portion, but more frequently with¬
out any thing to fupport them ; and thus reduced,
they either endeavour to live by their labour, or, which
is more ufual, go on board fome trading veflel as bai¬
lors or as fervants, remaining abroad till they have got
together fome competency, and then return home to
marry and to be henpecked. Some few there are who,
taking advantage of the Turkifh law, break through
this whimfical cuftom, who marry their calogrias, and
4 H 2 retain
MET [ 61:
Meteliti. retain to themfelves a competent provifion : but thefe
are accounted' men of a fxngular and even criminal dif-
pofition, and are hated and defpifed as conformiits to
Turkifh manners, and deferters of their native cuftoms;
id that we may fuppofe they are few indeed who have
the boldnefs to depart from the manners-of their coun¬
try, to adopt the cuftoms of their detefted mafters, and
to brave the contempt, the-derifion, and the hatred,
of their neighbours and fellow-citizens.
“ Of all thefe extraordinary particulars I was in¬
formed by the French confui, a man of fenfe and of
indifputable veracity, who had relided in this ifland
for feveral years, and who folemnly aflured me that
every circumftance was true : but indeed our own ob-
fervation left us without the leaft room for doubt, and
the iingular appearance and deportment of the ladies
fully evinced the truth of our friend’s relation. In
walking through the town, it is eafy to perceive, from
the whimfical manners of the female paffengers, that
the women, according to the vulgar phrafe, wear the
breeches. They frequently ftopped us in the ftreets,
examined our drefs, interrogated us with a bold'and
manly air, laughed at our foreign garb and appearance ;
and ftiowed fo little attention to that decent modefty
which is or ought to be the true chara&eriftic of the
fex, that there is every reafon to fuppofe they would,
in fpite of their haughtinefs, be the kindeft ladies up¬
on earth, if they were not ftritftly watched by the
Turks, who are here very numerous, and would be
ready to punilh any tranfgreffion of their ungallant
laws with arbitrary hues. But nature and native man¬
ners will often baffle the efforts even of tyranny. In
all their cuftoms thefe manly ladies feem to have
changed fexes with the men. The woman rides a-
llride, the man fits lideways upon the horfe; nay, I
have been affuredthat the hufband’sdiftinguiffling appel¬
lation is his wife’s family name. The women have town
and country houfes, in the management, of. which the
hufband never dares interfere; Their gardens, their
fervants, are all their own; and the hufband, from eve¬
ry circumftance of his behaviour, appears to be no other
> than his wife’s firft domeftic, perpetually bound to
her fervice, and Have to her caprice. Hence it is that
a tradition obtains-in the country, that this ifland was
formerly inhabited by Amazons ; a tradition, how¬
ever, founded upon no ancient hiftory that I know of.
Sappho indeed, the molt renowned female that this
illand has ever produced, is faid to have had manly
inclinations ; in which, as Lucian informs us, fhe did
but conform with the lingular manners of her country¬
women : but I do not find that the mode in which
Ihe chofe to fflow thefe inclinations is imitated by the
prefent female inhabitants, who feem perfedtly con¬
tent with the dear prerogative of abfolute fway, with¬
out endeavouring in any other particular to change
the courfe of nature ; yet will this circumftance ferve¬
to Ihow, that the women of Lefbos had always fome-
thing peculiar, and even peculiarly mafculine, in their
manners and propenfities. But be this as it may, it
is certain that no country whatfoever can afford a more
perfeft idea of an Amazonian commonwealth, or bet¬
ter ferve to render probable thofe ancient relations
which our manners would induce us to efteem incre¬
dible, than this illand of Metelin. Thefe lordly ladies
are for the moft part very handfome in fpite of their
5 ] MET
drefs, which is fingular and difadvantageous; Ddwrr Metelitn.
to the girdle, which as in the old Grecian garb is
railed far above what we ufually call the waift, they
wear nothing but a Ihiftof thin and tranfparent gauze,
red, green, or brown, through which, every thing is
vifible, their breafts only excepted,, which they cover
with a fort of handkerchief; and this, as we were in¬
formed, the Turks^have obliged them to wear, while
they look upon it as an encumbrance, and as no in-
confiderable portion of Turkifh tyranny. Long lleeves
of the fame thin material perfectly fhow their arms
even to the Ihoulder* Their principal ornaments are
chains of pearl, to which they hang fmall pieces of
gold coin. Their eyes are large and fine; and the
nofe, which we term Grecian, ufually prevails among
them, as it does indeed among the women of all theie
iflands. Their complexions are naturally fine; but they
fpoil them by paint,, of which they make abundant
ufe ; and they disfigure their pretty faces by lhaving
the hinder part of the eyebrow, and replacing it with
a. ftraight line of hair neatly applied with fome fort of
gum, the brow being, thus- continued in a ftraight and
narrow line till it joins the hair on each fide of their
face. They are well made, of the middle fize, and
for the molt part plump ; but they are diftinguilhed
by nothing fo much and fo univerfally as by a haughty,
difdainful, and fupercilious air, with which they feem
to look down upon all mankind as creatures of an in¬
ferior nature, born for their fer-vice, and doomed to
be their flaves; neither does this peculiarity of coun¬
tenance in any degree diminiffl their natural beauty,
but rather adds to it that fort of bewitching attra&ion
which the French call piquant.”
His lordfhip has been at great pains to inveftigate
the origin of fuch a fingular cuftom; but is unable to
find any other example in hiftory than that of the Ly-
cians, who called themfelves by the names of these
mothers,.and not of their fathers. When alked by their
neighbours who they were? they deferibed themfelves
by their maternal genealogy. If a gentlewoman fflould
marry a Have, the children by that marriage were ac¬
counted noble; but fliould the firft man among them
marry a foreign woman, the children would be ac¬
counted ignoble. This cuftom is mentioned by feverat
ancient authors. A difficulty of no little magnitude
occurs, however, in accounting for the derivation of
the inhabitants of Leffios from the Lycians. This is
folved in the following manner : In times of the molt
remote antiquity, the ifland of Lefbos was peopled by
the Pelafgi, who, under their leader Xanthus, the fon
of Triopas king of Argos, firft inhabitated Lefbos:
previous to that time they had dwelt in a certain part of
Lycia which they had conquered; and in this country
we may fuppofe they had learned the cuftom in qua-
ftion. But though this might readily be granted, as
we know fo little of the origin of ancient nations, yet
the qu'eftion ftill recurs, Whence did it originate among
the Lycians ? Here we are ftiil more difficulted than
before ; and the only thing we have to help us out is
an obfeure tradition concerning Bellerophon, wz. that
the hero having deftroyed a boar which wafted the
territory of Xanthus a city of Lycia, the inhabitants
were fo ungrateful as to return him no thanks for fo
great a favour; upon which, by his prayers, he caufed
the curfe of barrennefs to fall upon them, but was at
length
MET r 613 ] MET
Mctei'n, fengtli prevailed upon, by the intreat'es of the women,
L ^stellus- t0 ;nterc£(Je witli his patron Neptune to pardon them.
* " On this account it was decreed, that the people of
Xanthus fhould be called by the names of their mo¬
thers and not of their fathers. Plutarch relates alfo,
that Bellerophon not only freed the Lycians from an
invafion of pirates but from the Amazons alfo, whom
he drove out of their country; “ fo that there may
be fome reafon (fays his Lord (hip) to fuppofe, that
the Lyc’an women, by an intercourfe with the Ama¬
zons, who had, it Ihould feem, dwelt among them,
were already previoufly prepared for the introduction
of thofe cuftoms, which were finally eftabliihed in con-
fequence of their patriotic merit in deprecating the
wrath of Bellerophon, and in averting its fatal conle-
quences.”
This is the fubftance of what his Lordfhip advances
to the origin of this extraordinary cuftom. He owns,
that the traces are very obfcure; and though he is
confcious that fuch a fpeculation may be liable to ri-
, dicule, and he is aware “ of fome objections not eafy
to be anfvvered, the coincidence will notwithftanding
be allowed to be curious and very remarkable. The
%veli known pertinacious adherence to ancient man¬
ners among the eaftern nations, may in fome meafure
excufe our credulity; and we may Hill add to our au¬
thority, by fuppofing that this fame Xanthus may
probably have given his name to the Lycian city of
that denomination ; and confequently muft have inha¬
bited that very part of Lycia where, according to
Plutarch, he is fuppofed more immediately to have
Hourilhed.”
METELLUS, the furname of the family of the
Csecilii at Rome, the moil known of whom were
  A general who defeated the Achxans, took
Thebes, and invaded Macedonia, &c.— Q^Caeci-
lius, who rendered himfelf illuftrious by his fuccefies
againil Jugurtha the Numidian king, from which he
was furnamed Numldicus.—Another who faved from
the flames the palladium, when Vella’s temple was
on fire. He was then high-pried. He loll his fight
and one of his arms in the a&ion ; and the fenate, to
reward his zeal and piety, permitted him always to
be drawn to the fenate-houfe in a chariot, an honour
which no one had ever before enjoyed. Pie alfo gained
a great victory over the Carthaginians, &c.—Qu_Cas-
cilius Celer, another who didinguiihed himfelf by his
fpirited exertions againd Catiline. He married the
-fider of Clodius, who difgraced him by her inconti¬
nence and lafcivioufnefs. He died 57 years before
Chrid. He was greatly lamented by Cicero, who
Ihed tears at the lofs of one of his mod faithful and
valuable friends.— L. Caecilius, a tribune in the civil
wars of J. Csefar and Pompey. He favoured the caufe
of Pompey, and oppofed Ctefar when he entered
Rome with a victorious army. He refufed to open
the gates of Saturn’s temple, in which were depolited
great treafures; upon which they were broke open by
Csefar, and Metellus retired when threatened with
death.— QAHsecilius, a warlike general who conquered
Crete and Macedonia, and was furnamed Macedonicu:.
He had four fons, of which three were confuls, and
the other obtained a triumph, all during their father’s
lifetime.— A general of the Roman armies againit the
Sicilians and Carthaginians. Before he marched, he
offered facrifices to all the gods except Vefla; for
which negleCl the goddefs was fo incenfed, that fhe c^0^3, ,
demanded the blood of his daughter Metella. When
Metella was going to be immolated, the goddefs placed
a heifer in her place, and carried her to a temple at
Lanuvium, of which fhe became the .prieflefs.— Ano¬
ther, furnamed from his conquell over Dal¬
matia, A. U. C. 634.—Cimber, one of the confpii a-
tors againfl J. Csefar. It was he who gave the fignal
to attack and murder the dictator in the fenate-houfe.
—Pius, a general in Spain, againfl Sertorius, on whofe
head he fet a price of zoo talents and 2c,coo acres
of land.
METEMPSYCHOSIS, (formed of “ be¬
yond,” and “ I animate or enliven”), in the
gneient philofophy, the paflage or tranfmigration of
the foul of a man, after death, into the body of fome
other animal.
Pythagoras and his followers held, that after death
mens fouls patted into other bodies; of this or that
kind, according to the manner of life they had led.
If they had been vicious, they were imprifoned in the
bodies of miferable beafls, there to do penance for fe-
veral ages; at the expiration whereof, they return¬
ed afrefh to animate men. But, if they lived virtu-
oufly, fome happier brute, or even a human creature*-
was to be their lot.
What led Pythagoras into this opinion was, the
perfuafion he had that the foul was not of aperifhable
nature : whence he concluded that it mutt; remove in¬
to fome other body upon its abandoning this. Lu¬
can treats this dodlrine as a kind of officious lie, con¬
trived to mitigate the apprehenfion of death, by per-
fuading men that they only changed their lodging,.
and only ceafed to live to begin a new life.
Reuchlin denies this dodrine ; and maintains that
the metempfyehofis of Pythagoras implied nothing-
more than a fimilitude of manners, defires, and flu-
dies, formerly exifling in fome perfon deceafed, and
now revived in another alive. Thus when it was faid
that Euphorbus was revived in Pythagoras, no more
was meant than that the martial virtue which had
fhone in Euphorbus at the time of the Trojan war, was
now, in fome meafure, revived in Pythagoras, by reafon
of the great rtfpad: he bore the athlete. For thofe peo¬
ple wondering how a philofopher fhould be fo much
taken with men of the fword, he palliated the mat¬
ter, by faying, that the foul of Euphorbus, i. e. bis
genius, difpotttion, and inclinations, were revived in
him. And this gave occafion to the report, that Eu-
phorbus’s foul, who perifhed in the Trojan war, had'
tranfmigrated into Pythagoras.
Ficinus aflerts, that what Plato fpeaks of the mi¬
gration of a human foul into a-brute, is intended alle¬
gorically, and is to be underflood only of the man¬
ners, affedlions, and habits, degenerated into a beafl-
ly nature by vice. Serranus, though he allows fome
force to this interpretation, yet inclines rather to un*
derfland the metempfyehofis of a refurreftion.
Pythagoras is faid to have borrowed the notion of a
metempfyehofis from the Egyptians; others fay, from
the ancient Brachmans. It is ilill retained among the
Banians and other idolaters of India and China ; and
makes the principal foundation of their religion. So
extremely are they bigetved to it, that they not only
5 • forbear.
MET [ 614 ] MET
Metempto forbear eating any tiling that has life, but many of
, them even refufe to defend themfelves from wild
- 'r~'’ beafls. They burn no wood, left fome little animalcule
fhoiild be in it; and are fo very charitable, that they
will redeem from the hands of ftrangers any animals
that they find ready to be killed. See Pythago¬
reans.
METEMPTOSIS (from « p0ft,” and™-™
cado “ I fall,”) a term in chronology, expreffing the
folar equation, neceffary to prevent the new moon
from happening a day too late. By which it ftands
contradiftinguift»ed from proemptofu, which fignifies
the lunar equation, neeeffary to prevent the new moon
from happening a day too foon.
The new moons running a little backwards, that
is, coming a-day too • foon at the end of 312 years
.•and a half; by the proemptofis, a day is added
every 300 years, and another every 2400 years: on
■ the other hand, by the metemptofis, a biflextileps fup-
preffed each 134 years; that is, three times in 400
years. Thefe alterations are never made but at the
end of each century ; that period being very re¬
markable, and rendering the praftice of the calendar
eafy.
There are three rules for making this addition or
fupprefiion of the bifftxtilc-day, and, by confequence,
for changing* the index of the epacts. 1. When there
is a metemptofis without a proemptofis, the next fol¬
lowing, or lower index, muft be taken. 2. When
there is a proemptofis without a metemptofis, the
next preceding or fuperior index is to be taken. 3.
When there are both a metemptofis and a proempto-
fis, or when there is neither the one nor the other, Meteor,
the fame index is preferved. Thus, in 1600, we had Meteorolo-
D : in 1700, by reafon of the metemptofis, C was ■ ‘ t
taken : in 1800, there will be both a proemptofis and J
a metemptofis; fo the fame index will be retained.
In 1900, there will be a metemptofis again, when B
will be taken ; which will be preferved in 2000, be-
caufe there will then be neither the one nor the other.
This is as far as we need compute for it: but Cla-
vius has calculated a cycle of 301800 years; at the
end of which period, the fame indices return in the
fame order. SccEpact.
METEOR, (by the Greeks called ^rtofa., q. d.
fublima or “ high railed ;” by the Latins imprejfivnes,
as making figns or impreffions in the air), commonly
denotes any bodies in the air that are of a fluxortran-
fitory nature. Hence it is extended to the phenomena
of hail, rain, fnow, thunder, &c.; but is moft com¬
monly confined to thofe unufiial and fiery appearances
named faliing-Jlars, ignes fatui, aurora boreales, &c.
whether they appear at a great diftance from the earth
or not. See Meteorology.
METEOROLOGICAL, fomething belonging to
meteors.
Meteorological Journal, is a table recording the
daily ftate of the air, exhibited by the barometer,
thermometer, hygrometer, anemometer, and other me¬
teorological inftruments. We have many journals of
this kind, kept at the houfe of the Royal Society,
and by different obfervers in other places, in the Phi.
lofophical Tranfaftions, the Memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences, and fimilar publications.
M E T E O R O L O G Y;
THAT fcience which inveftigates the phenomena
of our atmofphere * (commonly called meteors),
* rT S'vinS an account of the circumftances attending each,
.ajp ere. anj expja;n;Ug the caufes from whence they arife.
Meteors ton^er*nff fcience, we find the objects of it
how di- ’ naturally divided into two claffes, ■wz. thofe which rife
vided. high in the heavens, feemingly without any connection
with this earth; and others which are more particu¬
larly connected with the earth, or are perceptible only
.in the lower regions of the atmofphere. The former,
which may properly be called celejiial meteors, are only
three in number, vi%. the large fire-balls, falling ftars,
and aurora borealis. The fecond clafs is much more
numerousincluding the phenomena of the ordinary
winds, rain, Kail, fnow, clouds and vapours of all kinds,
thunder and lightning, hurricanes, whirlwinds, water-
fpouts, ignes fatui, and other wandering luminous
appearances ; not excepting the various changes of
the atmofphere itfelf, with regard to its fpecific gra-
vity, rarefaCtion, heat, and moilture, as indicated by
^ the barometer, thermometer, and hygrometer.
Difficulties To treat of all thefe in a fatisfaCtory manner, it is
attending plain that we ought 4o have an intimate acquaintance
tiie fubjedb with the conftitutioH of the atmofphere ; with the na¬
ture of thofe powerful agents by which it appears to be
. principally influenced, viz. fire, light, and eleClric fluid;
and with their peculiar modes of operation and aCiion
.upon .one another and upon the atmofphere, and this in
every poffible variety of circumftances. Nor is even all
this fufficient*! The various phenomena of rain, wind,
fnow, thunder, heat, cold, &c. are known to depend
very much upon the fituation of different places on
the furface of the earth ; and their occafional varia¬
tions are with great reafon fufpetted to. proceed, partly
at leaft, from changes which take place in the bowels .
of the earth*: whence a meteorologift ought not only * See We*-
to be perfeCUy well acquainted with geography, but ther~
with mineralogy alfo; and that to an extent at which
human knowledge will probably never arrive.
In a fcience fo very difficult, it is hot to be fuppo-
fed that any thing like a certain and eftablifhed theory
can be laid down : our utmoft knowledge in this re-
fpeft goes no farther as yet than to the eftablifhment
of a few fadls ; and in reafoning even from thefe, we
are involved every moment in queftions which feem
fcarcely within the compafs of human wifdom to re-
folve. , »
In confidering the fubjeft of meteorology, it will Caufes pro-
readily be admitted, that the whole atmofpherical phe-bal>1y con*
nomena depend fome how or other upon the adfion ofcerne *
the fun upon the earth, and the annual and diurnal
revolutions of the latter. As thefe caufes, however,
are always invariably the fame, why do we not find
the fame regularity in meteors that we do in other
phenomena of nature ? The eclipfes of the fun and
moon, for inftance, which depend on the diflerent po-
fitiong
M E T E O
fit ion 3 of the earth and moon with regard to the great
luminary, are found to follow a certain and Aguiar
courfe; fo that the very fame eclipfes, both as to
quantity and duration, which happened before will
happen again. But with meteors the cafe is quite dif¬
ferent, Moil of the atmofpherical phenomena are fo
various and uncertain, that no perfon can pretend to
reduce them to any kind of rule. Every fucceeding
year, for inftance, differs in a vaft number of particu¬
lars from that which preceded it, even in fuch as are
the moft fsmilar to one another. Sometimes we find
a number of years fuccefiively fimilar to one another,
and another fet quite different taking place immedi¬
ately after them ; and feme have even fancied that this
fucceffion took place every 19 years, nearly the time
of the revolution of the moon’s nodes, though the ob-
fervations on which this opinion is built are far from
being fufficient to efl^bli/h it: at any rate, the diffi-
milarity between the phenomena of different years may
fufficiently warrant us to conclude, that other caufes
befides the regular adlion of the fun and revolution of
the earth are concerned. Some of thefe caufes may
be fuppofed to be fermentations and other commotions
within the bowels of the earth itfelf; but as all fer¬
mentation is*a regular procefs, and takes place only in
certain circumftances, of which heat is a very confider-
able one, why is there not annually a certain quantity
of this fermentation excited, and why are not regular
effe&s obferved in proportion ? It does not indeed ap¬
pear, that the immenfe variety which occurs in mete¬
orological appearances can by any means be accounted
for but by the interference of fome caufes in their own
nature irregular; that is, capable of fuch endlefs va¬
riety, that no afiignable fpace of time is fufficient to
4 exhauft it. Thefe caufes, as they cannot be proved to
them6pro- cx*ft either 0,1 the Surface of the earth or in its internal
babty exifi Parts» m.uft be f°ugbt f°r in the celeftial expanfe it-
in thece- f'-lf. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofed the planets to be in-
lettial ex- fluenced by the comets, and that from the tails of the
panfe; latter fome of the finer parts of our atmofphere were
produced. He even fuppofed, that from thefe bodies
a quantity of water, imagined to be wafted in the va¬
rious operations of nature, might be fupplied. But if
it is not unreafonable to fuppofe that cornels anfwer
fome fuch purpofes in nature, it is as little uoreafon-
able to think that the planets may influence the atmo-
fpheres of one another. That this muft be the cafe
indeed is very probable, not only on account of the
light they reflect upon one another, but alfo by rea-
fon of their fpheres of mutual attra&ion, which ex¬
tend an immenfe way, and are fo powerful in the pla¬
nets Jupiter and Saturn, that they difturb the motions
of each others fatellites as they pafs. But befides
even thefe caufes, if we allow them to be fuch, thefe
are others which take place in the immenfe void be¬
twixt the celeftial bodies, and which has with great
impropriety been determined an abfolute vacuum. That
changes do take place in this fpace, is evident from ,
what is related of the temporary difappearance of fome
r of the fatellites of Saturn, and their fudden re-appear¬
ance, without any perceptible change in our atmo¬
fphere fo as to affedt our view of other celeftial ob-
jedis. It may appear ridiculous to think, that a change
in fuch diftant regions ihould have any influence upon
Ft O L O G Y. 615
the atmofphere of the earth ; but we muft remember,
that if the univerfe is con-nedted together as one vaft
fyftem, which we have every reafon to believe, it is as
impoffible that a change can take place in any part
without affedting the whole in fome degree, as it is
impoffible to change any part of a clock or watch
without in fome meafure affedting the whole move¬
ment.
But of all the changes which take place in the ce¬
leftial regions, thofe which affedt the fun feem moll
likely to produce changes in our atmofphere, and
to be the hidden caule of many meteorological
phenomena. That the fun is not exempt from q.
thofe changes, is evident from the fpots which are al- fun.
ways or for the moft part to be feen on his dilk when
viewed through a telefcope. It has been obferved in
fome years, that the fun has feemed to lofe his in¬
fluence, and even to the naked eye appeared much
dimmer than ufual. In fuch cafes it is impoffible but
our atmofphere, and even the whole fohr fyftem, mull
have been affedled ; and not only muft the feafons for
the prefen^ time have felt the malign influence of thofe
fpots, but the atmofphere itfelf may have acquired
fuch a difpofition as to produce feafons of a peculiar
nature for a number of years afterwards. If it be
true, according to the hypothefis of fome, that the fun
is fupplied with fuel by comets falling into his body,
it is plain that every new acceffion of this kind mull
have a proportionable effedl upon all the bodies ex-
pofed to his light. If the comets do not perform any
fuch office, ftill it is very probable that they anfwer
fome purpofes to the planets, becaufe they are never
feen without the planetary regions: and though their
influence be not immediately perceptible, it is impoffible'
to prove that they have none, nor indeed is it probable
that they have not ; for we are very certain, that
the influence of any objedl extends as far as its light,
and how much farther we cannot tell. Confidering
the matter in this view, therefore, there is not a fpot
which can obfeure the fun, a comet that can appear
in the celeftial regions, a planet that can approach the
earth, nor perhaps a belt or fpot which can take place
on Mars, Jupiter, or Saturn, wffiich may not be pro-
du&ive of important changes in our atmofphere, and
affedt the meteors produced by it in many different
ways.
It would no doubt be an error to have recourfe to
fo many obfeure caufes, were there any plain and ob¬
vious ones from whence the phenomena could be de¬
duced. But the endlefs variety of meteors which oc¬
cur throughout every part of the globe, plainly fhow
that the caufes, whatever they are, muft be infinitely 6
varied alfo. The principal one is no doubt the adliou tdtion o?
of the fun upon the earth and atmofphere in its va- the fun,
rious pofitions : but this is regular; and, did nothing n;oon>anc*
elfe interfere, would produce regular effedts. Secon- p!ai;cts>
dary eaufes probably are the adtion of the moon and co“cenie
planets: but thefe alfo are regular, though much more
diverfified than the former:- fo. that we are at laft obli¬
ged to have recourfe to caufes ftill more obfeure and
remote, as comets, fpots on the fun, and changes ta¬
king place in the etherial fluid which pervades the
whole celeftial expanfe. Thefe we muft either affign
as the remote caufes of the phenomena of our atmo-
fphere,.
6i6
M E T E O
fphere, or admit others equally obfcure; or we muft
be contented to own our ignorance, as indeed muft at
all events be frequently the cafe.
But though, to fatisfy ourfelves, fuch conjeftures
may occalionally be indulged, it is not from them that
R 0 L O G ?.
by itfelf could bear. The fame thing is manifeft from
mixing dry plafter of Paris with water ; for thus a
vaft quantity of the water is fixed, and becomes in a
manner folid. A ftill more remarkable inftance
is in fending the fleam of water over red-hot iron ;
e are to derive any of the regular phenomena of na- for there the fluid unites in fuch a manner with the
lure ; for thefe are evidently owing to the fettled and
eitablifhed adlion of heat, light, and elellric mat¬
ter, which have already been enumerated as the great
powers influencing, and indeed in a great meafure
forming, the fubftance of our atmofphere. The moft
remarkable effefts of thefe are,
I. Evaporation. This, which is the principal caufe
vapor a- Qf au meteors of our atmofphere, may be
tiun a Vr*n- , j    i      _f
metal, that it cannot be ‘expelled from it even by the
heat of a burnitig-glafs. Other inftances are men¬
tioned Under the article Water : here we are to con-
fider the changes which the element undergoes after
being reduced to the ftate of vapour. The. firft of iz
thefe is, its affurning the appearance of fmoke or fog Particular
when mixed with the common atmofphere; which 'U1't
imoke, when examined by a microicope, appears to 4s,,p0!U.
cipal caufe reckoned in a more particular manner the effeft of be compofed of an infinite number of fpherules oftion.
bfmeceors, heat. Upon this principle it is explained under the
article Chemistry, where vapour is ftiown to be a
compound of water and fire ; and fuch it is fuppofed
to be by M. de Luc, in his Treatife on Meteorolo¬
gy, as well as by other philofophers of the higheft
rank. In confidering this operation, however, as
carried on by nature, we will Toon find, that it pro-
Natural
• evapoi ation
different
from artifi-
water, hollow, and filled with a fluid fpecifically light¬
er than air, by which means they afcend in it. As
long as the aqueous vapour retains this vifible form,
it retains alfo its humidity, and will again become a
liquid, and wet whatever comes in its way ; and this
the more readily, while it retains any fenfible degree
of heat. As the vapour Cools ki the atmofphere, it
c.al.
ceeds in a manner very different from what takes place gradually aflumes an aerial Hate, mixing itfelf with
in our chemical operations. In the latter, evaporation the air fo as to be no longer diftinguifhable from it.
is merely the effeft of heat; and the procefs cannot In this ftate the air itfelf does not by any means ap-
go on without a confiderable degree of it, efpecially if pear to become more moift, but continually drier the
the veflel containing the fluid be clofe. In the natural more water it receives. This, however paradoxical it may
feem, is a certain fad-: for in fummer, though we are
allured that evaporation goes on very rapidly from
the furface both of the fea and land, yet the air, To
far from being moift, is much drier than at any other
way, on the contrary, the procefs goes on under almoft
every degree of cold we know ; the vapours afcend to
an height which has never yet been determined; and,
from the extreme cold which they Tuftain, fhow evi- ___
9 dently that they are connetled with our atmofphere time ; and yet we know that the whole quantity eva-
Drynefs of by means of fome other agent befides heat. From porated is fome how or other received by the at-
• redonfof t^ie cont*nlial afcent of vapour indeed, if the opera- mofphere. After the wrater has attained to this ftate,
the atmo- ' tions of nature -were of 4:he Tame ;kind with thofe of our inquiries concerning it muft in. a great meafure
fphere. art, the upper parts of our atmofphere would be al- flop. We knownot now, whether it has the form of
ways involved in a fog, by reafon of the condenfation fmall hollow fpherules, or whether it really becomes
of the vaft quantity which continually afcends thither; part of the atmofphere itfelf, and affumes the form of
• but fo far is this from being the cafe, that in thofe what we call dephlogijlicated air. From fome experi- 13
elevated regions to which the -vapours continually a- ments in which that kind of air is produced from wa-b capable
•Tcend, the air is much drier than at the furface of the ter, we are certain, that part of this element is con-0 '3eine
10 ground. This w'as experienced by M. de ■Saufiure verted into air: but in thefe operations, the evapora-
Surpriftng ancj M.-de Luc in their .journeys-up-the Alps. The tion of the water is prevented by being carried rin in
thU^dry- a‘r was there found to be excelfively dry, and eva- i-pfTV-lc • f« that-we cannot tell whether that1
of being de«
compofed.
poration to go on much more rapidly than below;
fo that the furface of their bodies was parched up,
-and an exceffive thirft took place by reafon of the
great abforption of the moifture. The fame drynefs
> was manifeft by the hygrometer} which could fcarce
■ever be brought to indicate any moifture, even when
-our trayellers were furrounded with clouds, hail, and
From many experiments, indeed, it is evident.
.•that water, after being reduced ip to a ftate of vapour,
s capable of undergoing-a certain change, by which acquainted. .
it lays afide its - fluidity entirely, and -even to appear- On this fnbjeft M. de Luc has fome very curious ob-Qijfer. a_
clofe velfels; fo that we cannot tell whether that which
would be mere fleam in the open air, becomes dephlo-
gifticated air in clofe vefiels or not. From the im-
menfe wafte of dephlogifticated air, indeed, and the
vaft quantity which always furrounds the earth, we
may fufpesft that the water, after undergoing the na¬
tural procefs of evaporation, does really become
changed into this aerial fluid ; and thus we will have
a more ample fource of it than can be derived from
vegetation, or any other caufe with which we are yet
acquainted.
ance" its fpecific gravity ; To that it becomes, as far fervations, built principally upon the new dodtnne oftions of M.
judge, a fubftance totally different from the compofition of water; which, though a pofitionde Luc.
‘ maintained by the antiphlogiftians, is by no means
inconfiftent with the exiftence of phlogifton, but ra¬
ther a proof of it. Our author firft began to alter
his fentiments concerning the aqueous exiftence of va¬
pour in the atmofphere, from the circumftance al¬
ready mentioned concerning the great drynefs of the
upper atriiofpherical regions already taken notice of.
Water -what it was before. This may be underftood from
fometimes the common operation of flacking lime ; for in that
changes its cafe, the water unites with the lime fo intimately,
nature. ^ whole affumes the form of a dry powder, ex¬
tremely greedy of moifttire, and which cannot be re¬
duced to its former ftate of quicklime without under¬
going a much greater tjegree of heat than the water
^ 216.
617
METEOROLOGY.
A very remarkable inftance of this was, that the fe¬
rule of his cane dropped off during his journey up one
of the Alpine mountains, which he never had obfer-
Ved it to do before. It is obferved likewife, that the
air in thefe elevated regions is fomewhat drier in the
night than in the day-time ; for which M. de Luc
gives the following reafon, viz. that the air on the
plains being condenfed by the cold, the fuperior air
muft fubfide, and the air on the mountains of courfe
be replaced by the drier air from above them ; though
he thinks that this drynefs may alfo be imputed in
part to fome other caufe. This increafe of drynefs
in the night, however, feems lefs conftant than that
in the day-time. Our author has often arrived at the
tops of mountains before fun-rife, and fometimes
found the grafs covered with dew ; though he never
had the good fortune to be able to determine the
flate of the air for want of an hygrometer r nor in¬
deed could the appearance of dew be any certain in¬
dication of the date of the atmofphere, there being
ftrong reafons to believe, that dew is occafioned in
great meafure by vegetables themfelves; for grafs,
when covered with glafs plates, was found to become
moift as well as that which had been expofed to the
open air. In this cafe, the plates became moift both
on the upper and under ftdes; but when fufpended a
foot above the ground, they were found to be covered
ty with dew only on the upper part.
M. Sauf- The drynefs of the air on tl\e tops of high moun-
rure’s me- tains was otherwife accounted for by M. Sauflure.—
the.I of ac- When on Mount Blanc, at the height of 7200 feet
for thiTdry-above the level of the fea, he found, that from fix in
TieCs of the the evening till half paft five next morning, his hy-
air. grometer moved 21 degrees (the whole fcale contain¬
ing ico) towards drynefs. But this he accounts for
by faying, that from funrife to three or four in the
afternoon, the quantity of vapours in the neighbour¬
hood of the earth is continually diminilhing, becaufe
they afcend in the atmofphere, either in virtue of their
own levity, or by means of a vertical wind, which he
fuppofes to be produced by the heat of the fun ; that,
from the time juft mentioned till next morning, their
quantity increafes in the lower ftrata, becaufe the up¬
per vapours re-defcend in proportion as they con-
denfe t and that in the higher regions of the atmo¬
fphere, the reverfe ought to be the cafe, as the upper
ftrata are then left drier by the previous defcent of
the vapours. This argument, however, is contra*
Infufficient lifted by M. Sauflure himfelf in another part of his
work ; where he fays, that in the middle of the day,
when the fun is hotteft, the air in the neighbourhood
of the earth contains really more water than it does
at the moment when a refrefhing dew falls. It is
befides impoffible that a vertical wind can ever be oc¬
cafioned by the heat of the fun ; for this produces
only a general expanfion of the whole body of the at-
mofphere, as a condenfation of it is occafioned by
the a&ion of cold: neither could any conftderable
quantity of vapour (fuppofmg with M. Sauflure that
it is a chemical folutiou of water in air) defcend in
the night-time 5 for, according to him, this compound
differs very little from common air in its capacity of
being expanded and condenfed. Neither, according
to M. Saufliire himfelf, can any part of the' water
Vol. XI. Part II.
with which the air is combined defcend at all, until
-fome portion of the former becomes fuperfaturated
with it, that is, till it has received more than it can
hold in folution. But if this fhould happen to be
the cafe, the fuperfluous quantity would then appear
in the form of a mift or cloud, and the hygrometer
would indicate extreme humidity ; whereas the con¬
trary indication conllitutes the difficulty. 17
It is befides evident, from innumerable inflances, Aenal va*
that mere cold will not by any means occafion the DeTondm-
condenfation of aerial vapour. A moft remarkable fed by co:d.
example of this is given by M. de Luc, in an account
of a ftorm in which he was involved on one of the
Alps. “ Though the hygrometer (fays he) was
within 33! degrees of extreme drynefs, or 66- from
extreme humidity, thick clouds formed around us,
which obliged us to think of retreating : in a little
time the fummit of the mountain was furrounded br
them : they fpread and covered the whole horizon : a
premature night furprifed us in a very dangerous
road ; and we fuffered one of the moft violent tempefts
I ever experienced, of wind, rain, hail, and thunder.
The ftorm lafted great part of the night, and extend¬
ed all over the neighbouring mountains and plains ;
and after it had ceafed, the rain continued, with only
a few intermiffions, till next day at noon. In one of
thefe intervals, I examined the hygrometer on the
outfide of our cabin ; |it fliowed only l0-,^ more
humidity than before 5 and even this increafe was no
more than what the difference of heat was capable of
producing. Neverthelefs, new clouds continually
rolled around us; and the rain, which prefently began
again, accompanied us as it were by fits to the bot¬
tom of the mountain. When arrived there, we faw
the clouds difperfe entirely. I obferved the hygro-
meter again in the open air ; and though the earth
was all drenched with water, and the heat of the fun
much lefs, the hygrometer was i°T7er drier than it had
been two days before, after a courfe of fine weather.
Where was all this water, and all the ingredients of
the ftorm, while the hygrometer fhowed fuch a de¬
gree of drynefs in the very ftratum where it was
formed ?”
M. de Luc adopts the opinion concerning vapour M‘fe Luc's
which has been publifhed in this work, under the ar- Aefi“itioa
tides Chemistry, Evaporation, and many others, °f V3p°Urv
viz. that it is a combination of fire with water. By
vapour^ however, he does not mean the vifible fleam
ifluing from heated liquids, but that invifible and fub-
tile fluid which is found to be formed even in vacuo,
and which of confequence difproves the hypothefis of
thofe who hold that vapour is a folution of water in
air. Our author, however, gives a folution of the
difference betwixt what he calls fog or mljl and va¬
pour, which feems not founded upon any evident
principle. According to him, this vapour cannot
fubfift unlefs the particles of water united to the fire
be at a certain diilance from one another. When
this diftance is leflened, a dccompofition takes place
by reafon of the attraction of the aqueous particles
to one another; and they then appear in their proper
form of a liquid, the fire diffipating itfelf through
the atmofphere. The fmalleft diftance to which the
particles can be brought without any decompofition,
4 1 varies
6i8
METEOROLOGY.
varies according to the temperature ; but is always
conftant in the fame degree. When the thermome¬
ter Hands at temperate, or thereabouts, watery va¬
pours, comprefled into the fmalleft fpace they can
bear, are found to have between Tjthand TVth of the
elafticity of air; but have lefs than -ry^th of its weight.
If fuch vapour, however, be mixed with air, the mi¬
nimum diflance is greatly increafed, by reafon of the
interpofition of aerial particles; and thus it can fub-
fifi: under a much greater preflure than it could other-
wife endure. In the heat of boiling water they can,
without any mixture of air, bear the preffure of the
atmofphere : for ebullition, under any given preffure,
cannot take place until the vapour produced in the li¬
quor has acquired a degree of expanfive force fuffici-
ent to raife the liquor into bubbles under that pref¬
fure ; and as long as the vapour retains this heat, it
muff continue capable of refilling the fame preffure.
As the heat abates, a decompofition begins ; hence
the opaque fteam over boiling water, which, by be¬
coming vapour again by uniting with the fire it meets
with in a larger fpace, is diffufed by its expanfibility.
19 Thus, vapours are continually undergoing decompo-
Evapora- fitions and new vaporifications. This evaporation of
cloud' 1 6 t^e clouds after they were once formed, M. de Luc
obftrved very evidently ; fome parts being continually
detached, and gradually diminifhing and difappearing,
while new ones are formed ; fo that the clouds do
not continue the fame for two moments together; and
the evaporation goes on fo faff, that a cloud could
not fubfift without conftant and large fupplies 
Thefe phenomena appear to be independent of heat
and cold : for fometimes clouds form fuddenly in the
middle of a hot day; and after they have poured
down their water, all is clear again : and fometimes
they evaporate after funfet, gradually vanifhing in
the calmeft weather without any change of place.—
The appearances are fuch as would be produced by a
large mafs of water in violent ebullition, fufpended in-
vifibly in the atmofphere ; and the fimilarity of effect
naturally points out an analogy in the caufe; that is,
a fource of vapour in the atmofphere itfelf. It is
only when the vapour is produced too abundantly and
too rapidly to be difperfed by evaporation that rain
is formed ; the veficles in this cafe running together,
and the water falling to the lower part, as it does
in foap-bubbles, till they become thin enough to burft.
Remarics With regard to this explanation, however, though
on M. De it may account for the artificial produftion and de-
I.nc’so'-.. compofition of vapour, it does not feem to anfwer
fjwvauors. for that produced in the natural way. That the lat¬
ter is certainly in a ftate of drynefs, cannot be denied;
but it cannot be proved that ever any artificial fteam is
fo, let the heat be what it will. Though the ap¬
proach of the aqueous particles to one another, there¬
fore, by a diminution of temperature, may occafion
the decompofition of artificial fteam, it does not feem
to be fo in the natural way; nor is there any fource
from which we can reafonably infer a very great and
fudden acceffion of vapour from the earth to the up¬
per regions of the atmofphere in particular places,
which might increafS the proximity of the aqueous
particles, and thus bring on rain according to M. de
Luc’s hypothefis. It muft likewjfe be remembered^.
that, according to the do&rine upon which M. de
Luc founds his fyftem, water, when decompofed, is
riot converted into one fpeeies of air, but into two,
viz the dephlogifticated and inflammable, each of
which contains a quantity of undecompofed water ;
fo that there is ftill fome ambiguity in the experi¬
ments ; and as the two ftrrink up into very little bulk
by their union, there ftiould feem to be danger of pro¬
ducing vacuums of immenfe extent by the fudden union
of the two airs in the high atmofpherical regions.—.
Thefe vacuums, were they to extend over the whole
fpace occupied by a large cloud, might occafiou
dreadful concuflions by the rufhing in of the air to fup-
ply them : or even if we fuppofe them to be difper¬
fed interftitially, they muft certainly affedt the baro¬
meter very greatly ; which does not appear to be the
cafe. M. Sauffure, who paffed feveral nights on one
of the Alps, at the height of 10,578 feet above the
level of the fea, does not mention any confiderable
variation of the barometer, though he was frequently
involved, during that time, in the moft violent ilorm*
of hail, wind, fnow, thunder, and lightning. In the
warm climates alfo, where we fhould think that the
vaft deluges of rain would often fink the barometer
to an amazing degree, yet we feldom hear of any re¬
markable variation. M. de Prielong, in his account
of Meteorological Obfervations made at Goree in
1787, informs us, that there were 16 or 18 hurri¬
canes ; and that the greater part ef thefe raifed the
barometer from one twelfth to a fixth part of an
inch ; others funk it as much, and fome did not at
all affedl it. Another caule muft therefore be con¬
cerned, which diminifhes the rarefadtion, or condenfe*
the air as faft, or neaVly fo, as the condenfation of the
vapour would rarefy it: and that another caufe really 2,
is concerned, we learn from M. Reynier, who has M- Rey-
made a great number of obfervations upon the Va-”ier’s.ol>'
pours formed on the Alps, and gives us the following ervatl0a8»
account. “ In the morning, the vapours condenfed
by the coldnefs of the night rife along the mountains
in proportion as the fun rifes above the horizon.-—
When the weather will be fine, they glide uniformly
on the brink of the mountain, and rife over it by a
regular motion, fomewhat flow. When rain im¬
pends, the motion is irregular: they are alternately
attradled and repelled by the mountain, and rife like
elaftic bodies rebounding. In a ftormy feafon, par¬
ticularly when there will be hail, the motions are ftill
more rapid and irregular.” “ This obfervation (add the
Monthly Reviewers, from whom the above quotation was
taken) may be confirmed in the mountainous coun¬
tries of Great Britain ; we have feen it among the
mountains of Cumberland, particularly in the neigh¬
bourhood of Kefwick. M. Reynier obferves, and
the obfervation is fufficiently near the furface not to
be overlooked, that the appearance is eleftrical.”
Before we proceed to give any folution ef the r/e- Confidera-T
compojition of vapour, it will be neceffary to confider a tiorison the
little farther the nature of that fluid or fluids into
which water is converted when it affumes a dry ftate to which'11*
in the atmofphere. In the experiments of Lavoifier water is
and others, it feems with great probability to be re- educed by
duced into the two different kinds of air already men- ®^Pora*
tionedj .but M. de Luc does not think that the at¬
mofphere-
METED
RiofpWe naturally contains any fuch fluids. Air,
Xfrhen artificially decompofed, does not contain in¬
flammable, but phlogifticated or mephitic, air, mixed
}n a certain proportion with the dephlogifticated
kind. Thefe have different fpecific gravities ; and our
author is of opinion, that two fluids of this kind
Could not mingle uniformly with one another with¬
out feparating through time ; and as the dephlogifti¬
cated air has the greateft fpecific gravity, it thence
follows, that the under parts of the atmofphere ought
to be almoft entirely compofed of that kind, and. the
Upper ftrata of the mephitic or inflammable kind.
But this does not appear to be the cafe ; fo that M.
de JLuc concludes, that air is an homogeneous fluid,
every particle being fimilar to every other, and coa-
fifting of all the ingredients that we extraft from the
mafs, together, probably, with others yet unknown to
us. Though a mixture of vital and mephitic air pro¬
duces many of the effefts of atmofpheric air, we can¬
not thence conclude their abfolute identity: the one
may fuffer a decompofition in order to the produdf ion
of thefe effeifts, while the other produces them im¬
mediately. The mixture may fupport life for a time,
but will it equally maintain health alfo ? Though me¬
phitic air by the mixture of one-third of vital air is
prevented from being immediately fatal, we are not
uuthorifed to conclude that it is altogether innocent.
On the whole then, if it is not in the immediate pro-
duft of evaporation that rain has its fouree ; if the
vapours change their nature in the atmofphere, fo as
to be no longer fenfible to the hygrometer or to the
eye; if they do not become vapour again till clouds
appear ; and if, when the clouds are formed, no altera¬
tion is obferved in the quality of the airj we muft ac¬
knowledge it to be very probable, that the interme¬
diate ftate of vapour is no other than air ; and that the
clouds do not proceed from any diftindt fluid in the
atmofphere, but from a decompofition of a part of the
air itfelf, perfe&ly fimilar to the reft.”
This opinion of M. de Luc appears the more pro¬
bable, that the two ingredients into which water is
artificially refolved, by the late experiments do not by
any means re-compofe atmofpherical air by Ample mix¬
ture ; for thefe explode with extreme violence on the
application of flame; the common atmofphere, alfo,
when decompofed, does not refolve itfelf into dephlo¬
gifticated and inflammable air, but into the former,
and what is called phlogifticated or the mephitic kind,
the difference of which in fpecific gravity is much lefs
than between dephlogifticated and inflammable airs,
though it is probable that even thefe are connected ei¬
ther by means of a chemical union, or by fome other
ingredient we do not yet know. By this union the
qualities of both may be in fome meafure changed, and
a third kind of fubftance formed, as neutral falts may
be made out of acids and alkalies. This third fub¬
ftance, which we call the common atmofphere, is pro¬
per for preferving both animal and vegetable life, which
neither of the two ingredients are capable of doing ;
for plants wither and die in dephlogifticated air, and
animals are fuffocated in a moment by the mephitic
kind ; nor, indeed, do we know whether the dephlo¬
gifticated kind be altogether proper for the fuftenance
ef animal life for any confiderable length of time It cer¬
tainly will fuftain it much longer than an equal quantity
R o t. o G Y. 619
of atmofpherical air, even the pureft we are acquainted
with ; but it is equally certain that animals confined in
it die much fooner than according to its apparent pu¬
rity they ought to do. It is not an unreafonable
hypothefis, therefore, that though water may be ar¬
tificially feparated into the two fluids called dephlogi¬
fticated and inflammable airs, yet in the natural way the
decompofition does not proceed beyond a certain
point, which we may, in a fubjedt of fuch an obfcure
nature, call a chemical union, or a ftate in which the
two ingredients exift, and are capable of being fepa¬
rated when the air comes into contadl with certain fub-
ftances. Hence, when the atmofphere is taken into
the lungs of an animal, fome of the dephiogifticated
part may enter the blood, and the phlogifticated
part combining more intimately with the reft, may
form fixed air or part of it appear in its proper
form. In like manner, when the common atmofphere
comes in contadl with a vegetable, it is poflible that
the phlogifticated pait may be abf'orbed by it, and
the dephlogifticated part fet free, which in the atmo¬
fphere may form new combinations, &c.
Granting this to be the cafe, and we Can fcarcely . and
hope for a more probable conjedlure on the fubject, ' ; cort*
the decompofition of the vapour will be eafily account- m'
ed for. If by any natural procefs the water can be odier.
converted into air, and if the latter is only water par¬
tially decompofed : then, by an inverfion of the pro¬
cefs, air may be inftantly re-converted into water, and
will become vilible in fog or mitt, or be condenfed in¬
to rain, confifting of greater or fmaller drops, accord¬
ing to the degree to which this inverted procefs is
cartied. With regard to the means ufed by nature
for carrying on thefe two oppofite proceffes, we can
fay very little 5 becaufe the agents concerned in them
are entirely beyond the reach of our fenfes. From
M. Raynier’s obfervation, indeed, of the clouds being
attra&ed by the hills, it would feem probable that
eleftricity was ultimately concerned, but in what man¬
ner we cannot^etermine. On this hypothefis, how¬
ever, we may explain the phenomenon taken notice of
by M. de Luc anff others, viz. that even during the
time of exceffive rains the hygrometer ftiowed fcarce
any figns of moifture, and that the clouds were in a
conftant ftate of evaporation or diffolution in the air.
The hygrometer, we know, cannot ftiow figns<ff moif¬
ture, unlefs it abforbs it: and it cannot abforb, unlefs
the air around it really contains more vapour in an
aqueous form than the hygrometer itfelf does. But
in very elevated regions this can fcarce ever be the
cafe. So much of the preffure of the atmofphere is
then taken off, that the water contained in any fub¬
ftance refolves itfelf into vapour with the utmoft'faci¬
lity. Hence bodies brought from the lower regions
into the higher will undoubtedly part with a great deal
of the moifture they contained in the lower parts of the
atmofphere, and which was kept in it by the fuperior
preffure of the atmofphere in thefe parts. For the
fame reafon, though the air in the upper regions
ftiould be made ever fo moift, a body fuch as the hy¬
grometer can never abforb fo much as it would other-
wife do, becaufe the water in thefe regions has a natu¬
ral tendency to fly away from it. It appears, however,
that there was in reality fome variation of the hygro¬
meter, though fmall; and had it been poffible to com*
4 I 2 ftrinSt
620
METEOR
ftru& an hy ^roiruter of materials found on the top of
the mountain, which might be faid to be naturalized to
the climate, the fcaleof variation might probably have
been larger, though there is no reafon to think that it
ever would be fo large as on the plain. For the fame
reafon, as foon as the procefs has been inverted, by
which water was converted into air, the evapora¬
tion inftantly takes place in the vapour that has been
produced. We are to confider, that the atmofphere is
never difpofed to let fall t/je whole of the vapour it
contains, for this would amount almoft to an annihila¬
tion of it. Both proceffes go on at once; and it is
only in particular parts that the reverfe procefs takes
place. I’bus clouds are formed : but as thefe feldom
continue ftationary, they no fooner come into a iituation
whefe the contrary operation is going on, than they begin
to evaporate ; and even in the very fame place, as foon
as the condeniing procefs has Hopped, the other be¬
gins ; as we fee that even in the moft damp and moitt
weather there is a conftant evaporation going on ; fo
that during the very time that rain is falling, the at-
mofphere is taking up what lies upon the ground.—•
Hence alfo we may fee why the hygrometer indicated
a greater degree of drynefs in the night than in the
day time, viz. becaufe the evaporation from the earth
is lefs during the night than in the day time.
Fle&runt Having nowin fome meafure explained the phe-
rf die at- nomena of natural evaporation, we mult next confider
mofphere thofe of the Ektlricily of the atmofphere. Under the
cwiiidered. article Electricity, the nature of that fluid is fo
fully difeuffed, and its identity with the folar light
rendered fo probable, that there feems no farther oc-
cafion for entering into fpeeulations upon the fub-
jedt. We fhall therefore, w’ithout taking any no¬
tice of the arguments of M- de Luc for its being a
compound fluid, proceed to confider, according to
the principles laid down in that article, how far elec¬
tricity is concerned in producing the phenomena of
^ meteorolgy.
Different fn this inquiry wre muft obferve, that as none of the
agents con- agents by which thofe phenomena are produced can
rrrned in by themfelves, but mult always be aflifted by the
ail meteors re^’ we are nol: to Hcribe any one phenomenon to
the influence of a Angle agent without the reft.—
Thus, though in evaporation heat is principally con¬
cerned, and though evaporation is the principal caufe
of the appearance of clouds, &c. yet we do not find
that heat is the foie caufe of evaporation i neither is
evaporation the foie caufe of the appearance of clouds.
In like manner, though electricity is the principal
caufe of many of the more grand phenomena of na¬
ture, yet eleftricity does not aft by itfelf, but in con¬
junction with aqueous vapours; and when the atmo¬
fphere ceafes to contain any of thefe vapours, it is
highly probable that it ceafes to manifeft any of the
common effeCts of eleCtricity alfo.
2(, The general eleCtricity of the earth has, under the
Ele&ricity article Electricity, been Ihown to depend upon, the
of the earth abforption of the rays of the fun by the land and wa-
ocplained. ter^ efpecially by the latter. As this abforption muft
undoubtedly be ftrongeft in thofe places where the
greateft quantity of rays fall upon the furface, it fol¬
lows, that the emiffion muft be greateft where the
feweft are abforbed; that is, at the poles. Hence,
were there no obftacles, the electrical fluid would iflue
O L O G Y.
forth in vaft quantities at each pole, very little betojj
emitted in the intermediate fpaces. By reafon of the
refiftance made by the great body of the earth, and the
immenfe fields of fnow and ice with which the polar
regions are conftantly enveloped, and which are much
lefs perfeCt conduCtars than liquid water, the eleCtric
fluid, once abforbed, has no free pafihge through any
particular part of the globe, and therefore forces out
every where throughout the whole furface. This paf-
fage is facilitated by the moifture contained in the at¬
mofphere ; and thus the procefles of evaporation and
eleCtricity afiilt one another : for where the air has for
a long time been very dry, we find that the eleCtric
fluid cannot readily pafs, and violent thunder and
lightning, nay fometimes earthquakes, are ready to
enfue. Hence alfo the common obfervation relative
to thunder, viz. that there is feldom much thunder
when it begins to rain before the thunder comes on :
The reafon is, that the rain, being an excellent con¬
ductor, facilitates the paffage of the electric matter
through the air, and keeps up the equilibrium with¬
out any violence or exploiion.
As the eleCtric matter gets out of the earth, it is
naturally driven upwards to the higher parts.of the at¬
mofphere, where it-probably affifts in the decompofi-
tion of air, or refolving air into water, as has been
already faid. When clouds are formed, it preflts
ftrongly upon them by reafon of their conducting na¬
ture : and hence all clouds, whether high or low, are
found to be electrified; as are likewife all fogs, of what¬
ever kind. The fluid getting ftill higher and higher,
at laft afeends beyond the regions of our atmofphere,
into the unknown fpaces which are the relideuce of
thofe firft of all created agents which conduct the pla¬
nets round the fun, and act as the primum mobile of na¬
ture.
Thus there is a' circulation in the eleClric fluid as
there is in the water. It defeends originally from the
fun; pervades the whole fubftance of the globe ; and
perfpiring, as it were, at every pore, afeends beyond
the clouds ; and, palling the extreme boundaries of our
atmofphere, returns to the fun from whence it came.
As the fphere of its action in returning, however,
muft always increafe, it follows, that after it has got
beyond the bounds of the atmofphere, the figns of its
aCiion muft continually become lefs and lei's, nay, moft
probably vanilh entirely; becaufe it is there oppofed by
an immenfe quantity of fimilar matter, acting in an
oppofite or different direCtion from, itfelt.
This latl confideration leads into a very curious fpe- How the e«
culation, and in a very plaufible manner anfwers an kftric mat-
objeCtion, the force of which it woi
very difficult to avoid. “ If the elt
uld olherwife ber{
other than the light of the fun abforbed by the earth, fphera.
and emitted from it again by innumerable fmall vents,
how comes it to pafs that it is not perpetually drain¬
ed off from the upper regions as fall as it arrives, with¬
out Ihowing any lign of being refilled. The pheno¬
mena of thunder, of rain, nay of every meteor, ma-
mfeftly Ihow that it often meets with very great re¬
finance ; but this could not happen, unleis there was
without the atmofphere fomething capable of refilling
and countera&ing the vehement impulfe of all the
eleftric fluid with which the earth is filled. This re¬
fiftance is very evidentfor if there were none, there
could
621
METEOROLOGY.
Mr Mor¬
gan’s fou-
tould not be any accumulation of ele&ricity in the eleftric matter has a good condu&or, it moves filently,
upper regions of the atmolphere, but a rarefaction in and without (bowing any marks of power whatever,
ic would take place fimilar to what there is of air in If it meets with a fmall refiltance it makes a fmall ef.
the fame regions. But this is fo far from being the fort, and a greater one if a greater refiltance is made,
cafe, that all the ele&rical phenomena are much and fo in proportion. The violence with which this
ttronger in the upper than in the lower regions.5' fluid afts in fome cafes, (hows the ftrength of the re-
Tofolve this objection, Mr Morgan, in a late paper fiftance to it all around ; for, like other fluids, we are
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, fuppofes that an ab- certain that this one alfo afts with equal force ail
folute vacuum, fuch as he imagines the celeftial fpaces . around it, and the explofion is always made at the lead
to be, is abfolutely impenetrable by the eledtric fluid, refilling part. The eleClric fluid of the atmofphere,
But this feems not far from a contradiction. Sir Ifaac therefore, is confined by a very great power, which it
Newton imagined the celeftial fpaces to be void of all is not by any means able to overcome, but which
matter, on account of the apparent facility with which yields in a certain degree to its impulfe every moment,
the planets move through them ; and we fee that the in proportion to the frefli fupplies yielded by it to the
rays of light, the impulfe of which is accounted fcarce earth, and which fupplies come every moment from
any thing at all, do penetrate them. To fuppofe, indeed, the fun. ^
that a mere non-entity can aft either by refiftance or any III. Heat and cold are very powerful agents in pro- o(' heat and
way elfe, is an abfurdity. How can any perfon ima- ducing various meteors: but thefe are only relatives, cold as
gine, that a perfed vacuum, which even a feather by and different modifications of the fame fluid ; the aSents-
its weight can caufe it pervade from one end to the other, former being its adlion from a centre, the latter its
fhould be impenetrable by a flaih of lightning ? It is aCtion from a circumference to a centre. Though we
true, indeed, that from fome experiments it is found, do not know what connexion there is between heat,
that when the air is exhaufted very perfeftly from a cold, and what we call electricity, yet we know that
receiver, we cannot force an eleClric (park through it. this laft is very much affefted by them ; for heat
But this, fo far from proving that there is nothing in makes bodies more pervious to eleilricity than other-
the glafs, plainly (hows that there is fomething in it wife they would be, and cold makes them lefs fo.—-
which makes a greater refiftance than we can over- Hence the mod violent ele&rical phenomena are ob-
come : and it is very probable that this fomething is ferved in hot countries; while in the colder regions
no more than the eleftric fluid itfelf; for as we are thofe which depend on a more moderate eleftnlica-
very certain that the eleftric fluid can impell, fo we tion, as aurorae boreales, are more frequent. The
are equally certain that it can refijl. The truth is, that prevalence of heat and cold in particular places, how-
it is not in our power to move this fluid at all but by ever, depends upon circumftances which are altoge-
leffening in one part the refiftance it meets with ; in ther unknown to us; and therefore we cannot invefti-
which cafe it moves very freely of itfelf r juft as we can gate the modes of their operation in fuch a particular
move the air with great facility, provided we allow manner as could be wiflred. From what has been al-
the reft to follow ; but if we attempt to pu(h a quan- ready faid, however, about the nature of the dif-
tity of air before us, without allowing any to follow ferent agents concerned in meteorology, both in this
it to fupply the vacuity, we will meet with a moft article and in other parts of the work, we may take
violent refiftance. In the cafe of eleftric fluid, we the following view of the caufes of meteor's in ge-
can make it circulate from one part of the earth to neral. ^
another by means of conduftors : but we cannot i. Evaporation, combined with eleftricity, pro- Particular
force any part of it to a diftance from the reft, nor duces all the phenomena of vapour, fog, clouds, rain, explanatiort
can we caufe a fmall quantity expel a large one from &c.; and according as thefe two are joined to certain meteors’
any place, otherwife than by breaking the equilibrium; degrees of heat or cold, they produce dew, hoar-frolt,
in which cafe the quantity which follows is precifely rain, hail, or fnow.
equal to that which went before. In the cafe of a The phenomena of dew and hoar-froft feem to pro-
perfeft Torricellian vacuum, we cannot difcharge a ceed from a quantity of aqueous and undecompofed
bottle through it, without fetting in motion all that vapour which always exifts in the atmofphere ; and
quantity which is contained in the glafs, as well as all which, being raifed by mere heat, is condenfed by
that is connefted with it, which it feems is more than mere cold, wirhout undergoing that procefs by which
the power of any machine can do. In like manner, water is changed into air. Hence it both afcends
the atmofphere of the earth being furrounded by an and defcends ; for if we cover a fmall fpace of ground
immenfe and inconceivable quantity of eleftric matter, with plates of glafs, they will be wetted both above
it cannot efcape without putting in motion a quantity and below\ The reafon of this is, that the evapora-
©f that matter equal to what goes out. But this tion from the ground does not ftop immediately after
quantity, upon the whole, can never be greater than the air begins to cool, efpecially if it be covered with,
that which the earth every moment abforbs from the any thing which prevents the accefc of the cold air,
fun. Were a greater quantity to iffue forth, it would as the glafs plates do in this cafe. The cold air, there-
fee refilled by all the reft, even to the utmoft bounda- fore, afting upon the glafs,, condenfes the vapour be¬
lies of the univerfe ; a power which no created being low it, in the fame manner that the head of a (till or the
could overcome. As matters ftand at prefent, the re- receiver of a retort condenfes the vapours which rife
fiftance is inconceivably great: for from the laws of from the matter to be diftiiled. If the cold be very
mechanics it is evident, that aftion cannot exift with- intenfe, hoar-froft appears inftead of dew ; which is
out re-aftion; fo that where there is no refiftance, there nothing more than the dew frozen after it falls upon
can be no eft’ort. In all cafea we fee that where the the ground, in the fame manner that the vapour in a
7 warm.
&12. M E T E O
warm roorrt congeals on the infide of the windows In
a frofty night. As this feems to be the whole procefs,
it has not been obferved that any ele&ricity is con¬
cerned in the produftion of dew.
When the vapour has been thoroughly decompofed,
and become invifible, it very frequently returns back
to its priftine ftate, fo far as to affume the appearance
of mill or fog. In this cafe, electricity appears evi¬
dently to be concerned ; for Mr Cavallo has obferved
that all fogs are eledtrifled. When the procefs has ad¬
vanced farther, and the water begins to collect into
drops, the elettricity is (till more remarkable ; and it
is with great reafon fuppofed that it is by means of
-eledtrical repiilfion that the drops of rain keep at a
regular diftance from one another. When the cold is
intenfe, and the eleftricity ftrong, the drops of water
are frozen, and hail is produced: but fnow indicates
a more moderate degree of electricity ; and a very vio¬
lent cold, accompanied with a ftrongly eledtrical at-
mofphere, produces that exceflively difagreeable va¬
pour in the polar regions called frojl-frrwke, which is a
general congelation of all the aqueous moifture con¬
tained in the atmofphere.
2. By violent eledtricity alone are produced the
phenomena of thunder, lightning, fire-balls, ignes fa-
tui, and the aurora borealis. In the phenomena of
-thunder, evaporation and the other agents by which
rain and hail are produced are alfo concerned; though
eledtricity is molt remarkably fo, and thunder and
lightning of the moft violent kind frequently occur
without any rain. The ignis fatuus, aurora bo¬
realis, large fire-balls, and the fmaller ones called
falling-flars, feem to depend upon eledtricity alone,
without any aid from evaporation, or from heat or
cold. Aurora borealis, indeed, is moft common in
the northern and fouthern parts of the world, where
the cold is intenfe; though this feems to be owing, not
-to the cold, but to the natural emiffion of the eledtri¬
cal fluid from the polar regions in much greater quan¬
tities than from others. The fire-balls commonly ap¬
pear colledted on the very extreme boundaries of the
.atmofphere, where, from the violent refiftance already
mentioned, the fluid is confined as it were in a con¬
cave fhcll, which it cannot by any means penetrate in
great quantities in any particular place. Though thefe
fire-balls, therefore, contain an immenfe quantity of
this fluid, they can only proceed in an horizontal di-
redfion, and never fly perpendicularly up from the
earth, as thofe will fometimes do which are formed
nearer the ground. The ignis fatuus feems to depend
on the ftrong electricity of a certain portion of atmo¬
fphere, the caufe of which is not well underftood.
3. By the action of heat and eledtricity combined,
are produced the phenomena of hurricanes, whirlwinds,
and water-fpouts. It is not, indeed, known in what
manner thofe agents combine themfelves to produce
R O L 0 G Y.
fuch tremendous effects ; but it feems evident tbit
eledtricity is concerned in them, as the fea-water be¬
comes unufually clear before an hurricane, and many
figns of eledtricity are likewife obferved in the
heavens.
4. The winds are fuppofed to proceed moftly from
the heat of the fun rarifying the atmofphere, and oc-
cafioning a continual influx of frefti air to fill up the
vacuum ; but very violent winds are frequently obfer¬
ved where no fuch caufe can be fuppofed to exift.—
Thus,' on the tops of high mountains the winds are
commonly very violent; and mountainous countries,
efpecially when cold, are for the moft part alfo fubjedt
to high winds. As the tops of mountains, however,
are known to be ftrongly eledlrified by their attradt-
ing and repelling the clouds, we muft -fuppofe that
this eledtricity has a confiderable fhare in producing the
winds which are generally fo violent on their tops.—
This will appear the more probable, when we confider
that frequently ftorms of wind, and thofe of the moft
violent kind, feem to be brought along with clouds }
as, for inftance, that mentioned under the article
Malta, in which a dreadful temped, brought along
with a cloud, almoft deftroyed the whole town. 3t
Thus we have endeavoured to give a general fketchUfesof nj««
of the dodtrine of Meteorology: a more partiO!:larteorSs
detail of the caufes by which meteors are produced ia
given under the names of each of them as they oc¬
cur in the order of the alphabet. With regard to
their sfes, thofe of the more magnificent and tremen¬
dous kind feem to be deftined to preferve the balance
Cf the electric fluid in the atmofphere, the want of
which would be produdtive of.the moft fatal effedts to
the world in general. The effedts of the inferior onea
are more confined, and are of ufe only to pa-ticular
diftridts,'fcarcely ever extending their influence over a
whole country. Thus the clouds, which produce rain
for the purpofes of vegetation, do not extend them¬
felves over a whole country at once, but tranfitorily
fly over different parts of it; fo that when it is rain,
for inftance, in one place, it may be funfhine in ano¬
ther, thunder in a third, See. It is, however, fur-
prifing to obferve how equally thefe adt over the whole
of a very large traft of land; fo that though there is
never precifely the fame weather in two places twenty
miles diftant from one another, yet vegetation goes
on without any perceptible difference in the one as
well as the other ; neither, unlefs there be fome very
remarkable difference in the weather of one year from
that of another, will there be any perceptible diffe¬
rence in the crop. For a more particular inveftiga-
tion of this point, however, fee the articles Vegeta¬
tion and Weather.
Far the application of meteorology to the fore¬
knowledge of the weather, fee the article Weather.
MET
Msteoro METEOROMANCY, a fpecies of divination by
jnancy. meteors, principally by lightning and thunder. This
method of divination paffed from the Tufcans to the
Romans, with whom, as Seneca informs us, it was held
in high efteem.
MET
METESSIB, an officer of theeaftern nations, who Mctefllh,
has the care and overfight of all the public weights Methegl *.
and meafures, and fees that things are made juftly ac- ““V-***
cording to them.
METHEGLIN, a ipecies of mead; one of the
moil
MET
[ 623 ]
MET
Method, nrtoft pleafant and general drinks the northern parts of of the church of Rome. To this clafs belong Nicolle Wet’ orliftj.
Icthodifts. T!> * it j j u  .1 :   : t r _ -r> rr .  ■ -
Method.fts.£uroDe affor^j and much ufed among the ancient in-
v habitants: (See Mead). The word is Welih, med-
dyglin, where it fignifies the fame.—There are divers
ways of making it; one of the beft whereof follows :
Put as much new honey, naturally running from the
comb, into fpring-water, as that when the honey is
thoroughly diffolved an egg will not fink to the bot¬
tom, but be juft fufpended in it; boil this liquor for
an hour or more, till fuch time as the egg fwim above
the liquor about the breadth of a groat; when very
cool, next morning it may be barrelled up ; adding to
each t 5 gallons an ounce of ginger, as much of mace
and cloves, and half as much cinnamon, all grofsly
pounded ; a fpoonful of yeaft may be alfo added at
the bung-hole to promote the fermentation. When
it has done working, it may be clofely flopped up ;
and after it has flood a month, it ftiould be drawn off
into bottles.
METHOD, the arrangement of our ideas in fuch
a regular order, that their mutual connexion and de¬
pendence may be readily comprehended. See Logic,
Part IV.
METHODISTS, in ecckfiaftical hiflory, is a de¬
nomination applied to different fe£ts, both Papifts and
Proteftants.
1. The Popjjh Methodl/ls were thofe polemical doc¬
tors, of whom the moft eminent arofe in France to¬
wards the middle of the 17th century, in oppofition
to the Huguenots or Proteftants. Thofe Methodifts,
from their different manner of treating the controver-
fy with their opponents, may be divided into two
claffes. The one may comprehend thofe do&ors,
whofe method of difputing with the Proteftants was
difingenuous and unreafonable, and who followed the
examples of thofe military chiefs, who ihut up their
troops in intrenchments and ftrong holds, in order to
cover them from the attacks of the enemy. Of this
the Janfenift doftor, the famous Boffuet, &c.
II. The Protejlant Methodifts form a very coi\fider-
able body in this country. The fed was founded in
the year 1729 by one Mr Morgan and Mr John Wef-
ley. In the month of November that year, the latter
being then fellow of Lincoln college, began to fpend
fome evenings in reading the Greek New Teftament,
along with Charles Wefley ftudent, Mr Morgan com¬
moner of Chrift-church, and Mr Kirkham of Merton-
college. Next year two or three of the pupils of'Mr
John Wefley and one pupil of Mr Charles Wefley ob¬
tained leave to attend thefe meetings. Two years af¬
ter they were joined by Mr Ingham of Queen’s-col-
lege, Mr Broughton of Exeter, and Mr James Her-
vey; and in 1735 they were joined by. the celebrated-
Mr Whitefield, then in his 18th year.
At this time it Ms faid that the whole kingdom of
England was tending fall to infidelity. “ It is come
(fays Bifhop Butler), I know not how, to be taken
for granted by many perfons, that Chriftianity is not
fo much as a fubje& of inquiry, but that it is now at
length difeovered to be fiftitious ; and accordingly
they treat it as if in the prefent age this were an-
agreement among all people of difeernment, and no¬
thing remained but to fet it up as a principal fubjeft.
of mirth and ridicule, as it were by way of reprifals,
for its having fo long interrupted the pleafures of the
world.” The Methodifts are faid, with great proba¬
bility, to have been very inftrumental in ftemming
this torrent. They obtained their name from the
exact regularity- of their lives; which gave occa-
fion to a young gentleman of Chrift-church to fay,
“ Here is a new fet of Methodijh fprung upallu¬
ding to a fe£t of ancient phyficians which went by that
name. This extreme regularity, however, foon brought
a charge againft them, perhaps not altogether without
foundation, of being too fcrupulous, and carrying
number were the Jefuit Veron, who required the Pro- their fandtity to too great an height. In particular it
teftants to prove the tenets of their church by plain
paffages of feripture, without being allowed the liber¬
ty of illuftrating thofe paffages, reafoning upon them,
or drawing any conqlufions from them ; Nihufius, an
apoftate from the Proteftant religion ; the two Wa-
lenburgs, and others, who confined themfelves to the
bufinefs of anfwering obje&ions and repelling attacks;
and cardinal Richelieu, who confined the whole con-
troverfy to the Angle article of the divine inftitution
and authority of the church. The Methodifts of the
fecond clafs were of opinion, that the moft expedient
manner of reducing the Proteftants .to filence, was not
to attack them by piecemeal, but to overwhelm them
at once, by the weight of fome general principle or
prefumption, fome univerfal argument, which compre¬
hended or might be applied to all the points contefted-
between the two churches: thus imitating the con-
duft of thofe military leaders who, inftead of fpending
was urged, that they laid too much llrefs upon the
rubrics and canons of the church, infifted too much
on obferving the rules of the univerfity, and took the
feriptures in too literal a fenfe ; and to the name of
Methodijh two others were quickly added, vi%. thofe
of Sacramentarians and the Godly club.
The principal perfon in this club while in its infan¬
cy appears to have been Mr Morgan, and next to him-
Mr John Wefley. They vifited the fick,, and inftitu-
ted a fund for the relief of the poor ; and the better
to accomplilh their benevolent defigns, Mr Wefley-
abridged himfelf of all his fuperfluities, and even of
fome of the neceffaries of life; and by propofing the
fcheme to fome gentlemen, they quickly increafed
their funds to- Sol. per annum. This, which one ihould
have thought would have been attended with' praife-
inftead of cenfure, quickly drew upon them a kind of
perfecution ; fome of the feniors of the univerfity be-’
their time and ftrength in fieges and flrirmilhes, en~ gan to interfere, and it was reported “ that the college
deavoured to put an end to the war by a general and
decifive aflion. Thefe polemics refted the defence of
Popery upon prefeription ; the wicked lives of Pro¬
teftant princes who had left the church of Rome; the
crime of religious fchifm; the variety of opinions
among Proteftants with regard to doftrine and difei-
plinej and the uniformity of the tenets and worlhip.
cenfors were going to blow up the Godly club*.” * See W’##-
They found themfelves, however, patronifed and en- A/' Life} .
couraged by fome men eminent for their learning and P*10^*
virtue; fo that the fociety ftill continued, though they
had fuffered a fevere lefs in 1730 in the death of Mr-
Morgan, who had indeed been the founder of it. In
the month of October 1735? John and Charles Wef-
k?»>
M E T [ 624 T MET
Mc'h'diflf-.Jey, Mr Ingharn, and Mr Belarootte fonto a merchant
u* jn Lon^on> embarked for Georgia along with Mr O-'
glethgrpe, afterwards General Oglethorpe. The de-
iign of this voyage was to preach the gofpel to the
Indians By this time, however, it appears, that Mr
Wefley had embraced fuch notions as may without
the lead breach of charity be accounted fanatical. Thus
in a letter to his brother Samuel, he conjures him
to banilh from his fchool “ the claflics with their
poifon, and to introduce in dead of them fuch Chri-
Hian authors as would work together with him in
4 building up his flock in the knowledge and love of
God.”
During the voyage fuch a profufion of worflrip w-as
ebferved, as we cannot help thinking favoured more of
a Pharifaical than Chriftian behaviour ; an account of
which, as a fimilar ftriftnefs would certainly be incul¬
cated upon the difciples, and confequently muft give a
juft idea of the principles of the early Methodifts, we
ihall here tranfcribe from Mr Wefley’s Life. “ From
four in the morning till five each of us ufed private
prayer; from five to feven we read the Bible together,
carefully comparing it (that we might not lean to our
own underftandings) with the writings of the earlieft
ages; at {even we breakfafted; at eight were the pub¬
lic prayers; from nine to twelve learned the lan¬
guages and inftrufted the children ; at twelve we met
to give an account to one another what we had done
iince our laft meeting, and what we defigned to do be¬
fore our next; at one we dined ; the time from dinner
to four we fpent in reading to thofe of whom each of
us had taken charge, or in fpeaking to them feparate-
ly as need required; at four were the evening prayers,
when either the fecond leflbn was explained (as it al¬
ways was in the morning), or the children were cate-
chifed and inftructed before the congregation ; from
five to fix wc again ufed private prayer ; from fix to
feven I read in our cabin to two or three of the paf-
fengers, of whom there were about 80 Englifti on
board, and each of my brethren to a few more in
theirs; at feven I joined w ith the Germans in their
public fervice, while Mr Ingham was reading between
decks to as many as defired to hear; at eight we met
again, to inftruft and exhort one another; between
nine and ten we went to bed, when neither the roar¬
ing of the fea nor the motion of the (hip could take
away the refrefhing Deep which God gave us.”
As they proceeded in their pafiage, this aufterity
inftead of being diminifhed was increafed. Mr Wefley
difeontinued the ufe of wine and fleih ; confining him-
felf to vegetables, chiefly rice and bifket. He eat no
fupper; and his bed having been made wet by the
fea, he lay upon the floor, and flept foundly till morn¬
ing. In his Journal he fays, “ I believe I ftiall not
find it needful to go to bed, as it is called, any more;”
but whether this was really done or not, we cannot
fay.
The miffionaries, after their arrival, were at firft very
favourably received, but in a ftioit time loft the affedtions
■of the people entirely. This was owing to the behaviour
of Mr Wefley himfelf, who appeared not only capri¬
cious but frequently defpotic. He particularly gave
offence by infifting upon the baptifm of children by
immerfion ; and his exceffive aufterity with regard to
himfelf did not tend to give his hearers any favourable
Nc2i6.
opinion either of the fuperior fan&ity or wifdom of Mithcdift
their teacher. At laft, on account of a difference —"V-'H
with Mr Caufton the ftore-keeper and chief magiftrate
of Savannah, which ended in alaw-fuit, he was oblrred
to return to England.
Thus the caufe of Methodifm feemed to be entirely
loft in Georgia. But Mr Wefley was foon fucceeded,
by a more popular and fuccefsful champion, vi%. Mr
George Whitefield ; who having fpent his time during
the voyage in converting the foldiers with whom he
failed, arrived at Savannah in Georgia on the 7th of
May 1738. Here he was received by MrDelamotte,
was joined by feveral of Mr Wefley’s hearers, and be¬
came intimate with fome other minifters. Mr Ingham
had made fome progrefs in converting a few runaway
Creek Indians, who had a fettlement about four mile*
from Savannah; but being obliged to return to Eng¬
land in a few months, this defign was fruftrated, and
the Indians in a few years feparated. During the
fhort time that Mr Whitefield refried at Savarinah, he
became extremely popular ; and indeed the inftances
of his fuccefs in the way of making converts are very
furprifing. However, he was obliged to return to
England in the autumn of that year, that he might
receive priefts orders. On his return to America in
Oftober 1739, he landed at Philadelphia, and inftantly
began his fpiritual labours as in other places; being
attended with aftonifhing fuccefs not only there but
wherever he went. Palling through the colonies of
Virginia, Maryland, North and South Carolina, the
number of converts continually increafed; but on his ar¬
rival at Savannah, he found the colony almoft deferted.
He now refumed the fcheme he had formerly project¬
ed of building an orphan-houfe ; and for this he made
the firft collection at Charleftown in South Carolina,
amounting to about 70 1. fterling. His zeal in the
caufe of religion, or of the colony, were not, however,
fufficient to procure him the favour of thofe in power.
On his return to Philadelphia, after a ftiort ftay at Sa¬
vannah, the churches were denied him ; but he was
made ample amends by the fuccefs which attended his
field preachings and private efforts. Religious focie-
ties were every where fet up, and many were convert¬
ed with fymptoms of enthufiafm, different according to
their various tempers and conftitutions. During this
excurfion, he was f® fuccefsful in his collection for the
orphan-houfe, that on his return to Savannah he
brought along with him money and provifions to the
value of 500I. fterling.
The fuccefs in Georgia was now greater than ever;
but the many charities which it was neceffary to fup-
ply, rendered it neceffary in a fhort time for him to
undertake another journey to Charleftown. Here his
principles met with the greateft oppofition. He had
loft the favour of the commiffary by his field-preach¬
ing, and was denied the facrament. The oppofition,
however, was altogether fruitlefs ; the number of con¬
verts increafed wherever he went, and he now under¬
took a voyage to New England. In this place alfo
the eftablifhed clergy were his enemies; but the ufual
fuccefs attended his other endeavours, and procured
5001. more for the ufe of the orphans in Georgia.
From the year 1741 to 1742 America was deprived
of Mr Whitefield’s preachings, he having fpent that in¬
terval in England; but in x 744 he again fet out for
the
M E T
Mtthndifts, the wcftern Continent. The remarkable fuccefs which
C—y—— had hitherto attended his labours now ftined up
r 625 i
M E T
whom they lived. Among thofe who hurt the caufe Wethoilifts.
in this manner was Mr Wefley himfelf, who, by wri- \r”“"!
many opponents; and thefe had met with the greater ting a piece intitled A Calm Addrefs to the American
fuccefs, as none of the Methodift preachers whom he ' —,J -,I i.— -•- l.j
had left were pofleffed of fuch abilities either to gain
the favour of thofe who heard them, or to defend their
doftrines againfl: objefitions. Mr Whitefield’s fuccefs,
however, was the fame as before: he even found
means to infpire the military clafs with fuch fentiments
sf devotion, that Colonel Pepperell could not under¬
take his expedition againfl; Louifbourg without hrft
•confulting Mr Whiteiield; and great numbers of New-
Englanders went volunteers, confident of victory, in
-confequence of the difeourfes of their teacher.
From the continent of America Mr Whitefield
took a voyage to the Bermudas iflands ; and here, as
every where elfe, he met with the moft furprifing fuc-
cefs. Here alfo collections were made for the Or-
Colonies, would in all probability have ruined it, had
not a gentleman, with whom he was connected, de-
ftroyed or fent back to England the whole impreflion
as foon as it arrived in America, fo that its exiftence
was fcarce known in that continent. At the conclu-
fion of the war, Dr Coke, who in 1776 had left a curacy
in Enghind in order to join Mr Wefley, paid a vifit to
his friends in America ; though it had been imagined
that a total feparation had taken place between the
American and European Methodifts. This breach
was, however, made up by a manoeuvre of Mr Wef¬
ley ; for no fooner had the Americans obtained their
independence, than he, who had hitherto branded them
with the name of rebels, fent a congratulatory letter
on their freedom from the “ State and the Hierar-
phan-houfe in Savannah, which were tranfmitted to ehy,” and exhorting them t® “ ftand fall in that 11-
that place.
Suppofing it to be better for his caufe to vifit dif¬
ferent countries, than to take up a permanent refi-
ilence in one, Mr Whitefield left Bermudas in a few
months, and did not return to America till 1751,
when the Orphan-houfe was found to be in a very
berty with which God had fo ftrangely made them
free.” To (how his zeal in their fervice dill farther,
he gave ordination, by laying on of han^s, to feveral
preachers who were to embark for America, and con-
iecratedDr Coke one of the bifliops of the Methodift
Epifcopal church in that country. He extracted alfo
flourifln'ng fituation. After a (hort (lay, he fet fail from the liturgy of the Englifh church one for the
again for Britain. Here he remained two years, and American Methodifts, taking particular care to ex-
then fet out on another vifit to America, landing at punge every exprefiion that had a particular refpect to
Charleftown on the 27th of May 1754. His prefence the regal authority.
conftantly revived the fpirits and caufe of his party, Such proceedings in one who had formerly profef-
and added to their numbers wherever he went. Next fed fuch extraordinary attachment to the Englifh
year he returned to England; but after labouring in church, could not but require an apology ; and this
the ufual manner, and meeting with the ufual fuccefs was accordingly made in a paftoral letter tranfmitted
there till the year 1764, he fet fail again for America, to the American focieties, and addreffed “ to Dr
and arrived at Virginia in the latter end of Auguft. He
now vifited all the colonies, and found that great pro-
grefs had been made in converting the Indians. On
his arrival at Georgia, matters were found in a very
Coke, Mr Aftbury, and our brethren in North Ame¬
rica.” In this letter he makes the following defence
of his conduit. “ Lord King’s account of the pri¬
mitive church convinced me, many years ago, that
ilouriftiing fituation, and he received the thanks of biftiops and prefbyters are the fame order, and con-
the governor and principal people for the great bene¬
fit he had been to the colony ; which (hows, that
the (lories which had been fo induftrioufly propagated,
concerning the avarice of him and other Methodill
preachers, were, partly at lead, unfounded. In 1765
he returned to England; and in 1769 made his fe-
venth and laft voyage to America, landing at Charlef¬
town on the 30th of November the fame year. He widely different between England and North Ameri-
fequently have the fame right to ordain. For many
years I have been importuned, from time to time, to
exercife this right, by ordaining part of our travelling
preachers. But I have dill refufed, not only for the
fake of peace, but becaufe I was determined, as little
as poffible, to violate the eftabliflied order of the na¬
tional church to which I belonged. But the cafe is
was dill attended with the fame fuccefs; and indeed
it is impofiible to read, without admiration, an account
of the efforts made by himfelf and Mr Wefley, to pro¬
pagate their tenets in the different parts of the world.
For a, very confiderable time Mr Whitefield was
the only Methodid who paid any attention to A-
merica ; and in that country he was more popular
than even in Europe. Towards the end of his life
feveral Methodids having emigrated from Britain,
formed didinft focieties in New York and Philadel¬
phia. Thefe quickly increafed in number; and, about
the time that the war with Britain began, their num¬
bers amounted to about 3000 in Virginia, Maryland,
New York, and Pennfylvania. They would pro¬
bably have increafed much more, had it not been for
the imprudence of fome of their preachers, who in¬
troduced politics into their difeourfes, and thus ren¬
dered themfelves obnoxious tp the people among
Vol. XI. Part II.
ca. Here there are biftiops who have a legal jurif-
didtion ; in America there are none, neither any pa-
rifli-minifters : fo that for fome hundred miles toge¬
ther, there is none either to baptize, or to adminifter
the Lord’s fupper. Here, therefore, my feruples are
at an end"^ and I conceive myfelf at full liberty, as I
violate no order, and invade no man’s right, by ap¬
pointing and fending labourers into the harveft. It
has indeed been propofed to defire the Englifti bifliops
to ordain part of our preachers for America ; but to
this I object. 1. I defired the bifliop of London to
ordain only one, but could not prevail. 2. If they'
confented, we know the flownefs of their proceed¬
ings ; but the matter admits of no delay. 3. If they
would ordain them now, they would likewife expedl
to govern them ; and how grievoufly would that en¬
tangle us. 4. As our American brethren are now to¬
tally difentangled, both from the (late and the En-
4 K glifli
MET [
Methodifts^gKfli Hierarcliy, we dare not entangle them again ei-
ther with the one or the other. They are now at
full liberty Amply to follow the fcripture and the pri¬
mitive church; and we judge it beft, that they Ihould
hand faft in that liberty wherewith God has fo ilrange-
ly made them free.”
Dr Coke, on the confecration of Mr Aftbury to the
office of a bifhop, made another apology. “The church
of England (fays he), of which the fociety of Me-
thodifts in general have till lately profefled themfelves
a part, did for many years groan in America un¬
der grievances of the heavieft kind. Subje&ed to a
hierarchy which weighs every thing in the fcale of
politics, its moft important interefts were repeatedly
facrificed to the fuppofed advantages of England.
The churches were in general filled with' the parafites
and bottle-companions of the rich and great. The
humble and moft importunate intreaties of the op-
preffed flocks, yea the reprefentations of a general
affembly itfelf, were contemned and defpifed. Every
626 1 MET
interrupted line of fucceffion of regularly ordained hi- Methodifty
{hops neceffary.’ He alfo grants the authenticity
of the anecdote given us by St Jerom, which informs
us, that the church of Alexandria had no regular fuc¬
ceffion from the time of St Mark the evangelift, the
firft bifhop of that church, to the time of Dionyfius,
a fpace of 200 years ; but the college of prefbyters,
on the death of a bifhop, eledfted another in his ftead.
We are alfo informed, from the epiftle of St Clement
to the Corinthians, written foon after the death of St
Paul, a writer whofe works are next in precedence
to the canon of fcripture, and probably written by im¬
mediate infpiration, that the church of Corinth was
then governed only by a college of Prefbyters. And
from the epiftle of Polycarp to the church of Philip¬
pi, written in 116, we alfo find that the Chriftian
Philippians were then governed only by a college of
Prefbyters. So that the primitive Chriftians were fo
far from efteeming the regular fucceffion as eflential
to the conftitution of a Chriftian church, that, in fome
thing facred muft bow down at the feet of a party ; inftances, epifcopacy itfelf was wholly omitted.”
the holinefs and happinefs of mankind be facrificed r—
to their views; and the drunkard, the fornicator, and
the extortioner, triumphed over bleeding Zion, becaufe
they were faithful abettors of the ruling powers. The
memorable revolution has ftruck off thefe intolerable
fetters, and broken the antichriftian union which
before fubfifted between church and ftate. And had
there been no other advantage arifing from that glo¬
rious epoch, this itfelf, I believe, would have made
ample compenfation- for all the calamities of the war ;
one happy confequence of which was the expulfion
of moft of thofe hirelings, who “ eat the fat, and
clothed themfelves with the wool, but ftrengthened
not the difeafed,” &c. The parochial charches in
general being hereby vacant, our people were de-
Such was the defence urged by MrWefley for this
extraordinary affumption of epifcbpal powers : a con¬
duct, however, of which he afterwards repented;
as tending to make a final feparation betwixt his fol¬
lowers and the church of England. Yet it does not
appear that this had any bad effedt, on the minds of
his American brethren ; for Dr Coke, on his arrival
on the weftern continent, found the focieties numerous
and flouriftiing. His firft efforts were diredted againffi
the flave-trade; and not only the abolition of that
traffic, but the releafe of all thofe who were actually
fiaves at the time, feem to have been his favourite ob-
jefts. By interfering in this matter, however, per¬
haps with too much zeal, he involved himfelf in dan¬
ger. Some riots took place, and a lady offered the
prived of the facraments through the greateft part of mob 50 guineas if they would give the Doftor too
thefe ftates, and continue fo ftill. What method can ladies. This piece of difcipline would have been in-
we take in fo critical a juncture ? God has given us
fufficient refources in ourfelves; and, after mature de¬
liberation, we believe that we are called to draw them
forth.
“ But what right have you to ordain ?” The fame
right as moft of the churches in Chriftendom; our or¬
dination, in its loweft view, being equal to any of the
flicted, had it not been for the interpofition of a fturdy
colonel; and the Doflor had not only the fatisfadtiou.
of efeaping the intended puniffiment, but of feeing
liis dbdtrine fo far attended to, that fome {laves were
emancipated.
Mr Hanfon, in his Memoirs of Mr Wefley, obferves,
that “ the colonifts, in the infancy of Methodifm,
prefbyterian, as originating with three prelbyters of conduced themfelves with more propriety than the
the church of England. “ But what right have you Englifli. There was little or no perfecution, nor any
to exercife the Epifcopal office ?” To me the moft thing like a riot, except in one or two inftances which
manifeft and clear. God has been pleafed to raife up, have been mentioned as the confequence of the ani-
by Mr Wefley, in America and Eui-ope, a numerous madverfiuus on llavery ; and even thefe weie produc-
focietv well known by the name of Methodifts. The rive of no mifehief. Not a creature was materially
whole body have invariably efteemed this man as their injured; no bones were broken, nor any lives loft;
chief paftorunder Chrift. He has conttantly appoint- which was not the cafe in this country. Here many
ed all their religions officers from the higheft to the thoufands of innocent people were fubjedted to the
loweft, by himfelf or his delegate. And we are fully grofleft indignities, and feveral were eventually facn-
perfuaded there is no church office which he judges ficed to the fury of their perfecutors.
expedient for the welfare of the people entrufted to “ While we commend the Americans for their be-
his charge, but, as effential to his ftation, he has haviour in oppofition to the brutality of Englifli mobs,
power to ordain. “ But, do not you break the fuc- it may be proper to inquire into the fources of this
eeffion.?” The uninterrupted fucceffion of biffiops diftindtion. Something of this may have arifen from
is a point that has long been given up by the moft fimilarity of fentiment. The Americans, from the firft
able Proteftant defenders of epifcopacy. Bifliop Hoad- beginnings of colonization, had been accuftomed to'
ley himfelf, in his celebrated controverfy with Dr Ca- the dodtrines of the old puritans and nonconformifts,
lamy, allows it to be unneceffary. His words are, which in many refpedts have a near affinity to the Me-
‘ To the 1 3th queftian 1 anfwer, that I think not an un- thediftie tenets. The origin of Methodifm in A me-
M E
Methndifb.rica was feldom, if ever, attended, either under the
'""■'v difcourfes of Mr Whitefield’s or Mr Welley’s preach¬
ers, with thofe ridiculous effeds with which it was
accompanied in thefe kingdoms. Moil of the preach¬
ers, who went over to the continent, having laboured
for fome years in Europe previous to their having
crofled the water, had exhaufted their wild-fire; fo
that their difcourfes were more fcriptural and rational
than thofe of the primitive Methodifts. Another
reafon may be found in the education of the Ameri¬
cans. As a people, they are better cultivated than
the body of the Englifh ; they are chiefly compofed
of merchants and a refpe&able yeomanry : and there
is but a fmall proportion of that clafs fo fuperabun-
dant here which we diftinguiih by the name of mob.
“ The only exception we have heard, to their ex¬
emption from the extravagancies which in this coun¬
try marked the infancy of Methodifm, is a cuftom
they have introduced in Maryland and Virginia. Fre¬
quently, at the conclufion of a fermon, the whole
congregation begin to pray and to praife God aloud.
The uproar which this muft create may eafily be con¬
ceived. Some, we aie told, are great admirers of this
fpecies of enthufiafm, in which every man is his own
minifter, and one fings and another prays, with the
moft difcordant devotion. But we will not dignify
fuch indecency with fuch a name. Its proper appel¬
lation is fanaticifm. We hope, that, for the future,
religion will never appear in this country under fo
odious a form ; and greatly is it to be lamented, that,
among the friends of Chriftianity, any fuch abfurdi-
f 627 ] MET
rock, or beneath the foliage of fome venerable oak,MetboJifts.
delivered his primeval lectures, and was a “ preacher *
of righteoufnefs to the people.’'
The American hofpitality is fuppofed by Mr Han-
fon to have been another reafon for the affiduity of the
Methodift teachers, as well as the confcioufnefs of
being well employed, and the fatisfa&ion refulting
from confiderations of public utility. As many of
the'preachers were men of-fervent piety, this reflec¬
tion would have its full weight; and the inftru&’on
of the ignorant and the reformation of the profligate
would be confidered as the bell recompence of their
labours. Spreading themfelves through the continent,
they took in Nova Scotia, Georgia, with the princi¬
pal places in both Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland,
Delaware, Pennfylvania, New Jerfey, and New York;
numbering upwards of 43,000 members of their fo-
ciety, exclufive of about 80 itinerants, and a con-
fiderable number of local preachers, who took no cir¬
cuits, but aflifted occafionally in the neighbourhood
of their refpedlive refidence.
The large and expenfive buildings which the co-
lonilts have eredled for public worfhip, almoft exceed
credibility ; and feveral colleges are founded for the
inllrudlion of youth. HcJw far the propofed plan of
uniting genuine religion and extenfive learning will
be carried into execution, time only can difeover. It
mull materially depend on the charadter of the pre-
fidents.and tutors, and the provifion thatlhall be made
for their fupport. Men of real erudition will never
be procured at low falaries ; and it is in vain to at¬
tics fliould arife, to furnilh infidels with occafions of tempt eftablifhments of this fort without a liberal pro¬
triumph.3
Our author informs us, that the occupation of the
Methodift preachers in America was very laborious.
In the courfe of the day they frequently rode 20 or
30 miles, preaching twice or thrice, and fometimes
to confiderable congregations. Notwithftanding this
yifion for the profeflbrs in every branch of fcience.
Two of thefe places are called Cokejbury and IVeJley
Colleges. How they are endowed, or whether they
propofe to obtain authority to confer degrees, we are
not informed. But perhaps they are rather fchools
than colleges ; W'hich indeed is a circumftance to be
labour, however, few or none of them ever thought wifhed, as good grammar-fchools are of the utmoft
of returning to Britain. Several reafons may be af- fervice to the progrefs of literature.
figned for the pleafure they took in this laborious ex-
ercife. “ Their excurfions (fays Mr Hanfon) thro’
immenfe forefts abounding in trees of all forts and
fixes, were often highly romantic. Innumerable ri¬
vers and falls of water; villas opening to the view,
The great fuccefs which attended the Methodift
preachers in America naturally determined Mr Wef-
ley to try the Weft India illands. The Moravians
had already attempted to eftablilh their principles in
fome of thefe iflands; and in 1786 fome preachers
in contrail with the uncultivated wild; deer now were fent from the Methodifts in England to the Weft
Ihooting acrofs the road, and now fcouring through Indies. In many of thefe they met with fuccefs. So-
the woods, while the eye was frequently relieved by
the appearance of orchards and plantations, and the
houfes of gentlemen and farmers peeping through the
trees; formed a feenery fo various and pifturefque,
as to produce a variety of refle&ion, and prefent, we
will not fay to a philofophic eye, but to the mind
of every reafonable creature, the moft fublime and
agreeable images. ,
“ Their worlhip partook of the general fimplicity. It
was frequently conduced in the open air. The woods
refounded to the voice of the preacher, or to the
cieties were formed in Barbadoes, St Vincent’s, Do¬
minica, St Chriftopher’s, Nevis, Antigua, St Eufta-
tius, Tortola, and St Croix, amounting in all to near
5000 perfons. At this time the whole number of
Methodifts in America and the Weft Indies amounted
to about 48,302. Thefe focieties conlift both of
whites and blacks : on the continent they were moftly
whites, but in the illands negroes. “ But it is to
be obferved (fays Mr Hanfon) that the fubjefrtion of
the negroes, and the obedience in which, they are
trained, mull inculcate a docility peculiarly favour-
finging of his numerous congregations ; v/hile their able to the purpofes of a miffiond’ Some of the mif-
horfes, faftened to the trees, formed a lingular addi- fionaries went alfo to St Vincent’s, where they met
tion to the folemnity. It was indeed a linking pic- with fome fuccefs, and have eftablilhed fome fchools,
ture; and might naturally imprefs the mind with a in which their children are carefully inftrudled in the
retrofpeft of the antediluvian days, when the hills principles of religion.
and valleys re-echoed the patriarchal devotions, and , “ In January 1789 (fays our author), Dr Coke
a Seth or an Enoch, in the lhadow of a projeding, paid a yifit to Jamaica, and gave them feveral fer_
2 4 K 2 roons.
MET r 628 ] MET
Methodiftp. mons. As he made but a fhort flay, it could hardly be
^—Y—" confidered as a fair'trial. Should a miffion be eftablilh-
&d lieve, as well as in the other iflands, which will pro¬
bably be the cafe, it is hoped it will be the means of
correcting one vice at leaft, and that is duelling; a
favagc reii& of Gothic barbarity, by which all the
iflands have for many years been dillinguifhed. Per¬
haps too it will give fome check to the fpirit of lu¬
xury and diffipation ; and teach the planters, if it be
found impracticable to emancipate their flaves, at leaft
to treat them with humanity.”
It has been debated among the leading men of the
Methodiftical profefiion, whether the caufe might not
be ferved by fending mifiionaries to the Eaft Indies
and to Africa; but thefe proje&s were dropped, as
there was no invitation, nor any profpeft of fuccefs
if it had been adopted. A milfion has been formed
to the new fettlement called Kentucky, on the confines
of the Indian territories, near the Mifiiffippi. The
danger of the miffionaries at the time they undertook
this fervice was certainly very great; yet fuch was
their zeal for the caufe, that they voluntarily offered
themfelves : but we are not yet informed what fuc¬
cefs they have met with.
While Methodifm was thus making rapid progrefs
in America, its teachers were equally indefatigable
in Britain. A moft remarkable particular, however,
occurs with regard to Mr Wefley himfelf; for though
he had gone to Georgia, as has been already related,
to convert the Indians to Chriftianity, yet on his re¬
turn to England in 1738, he took it into his head
that he, their teacher, was not yet converted: the rea-
fon was, that he had not the faith of affurance. This,
however, was not long wanting. He arrived in Eng¬
land on the firft day of February, and was bleft with
the affurance on the fixth of March following. This
was immediately announced to the public; and the
«onfequence, if we may believe him, was, that God
then began to work by his miniftry, which he had
not done before. Being joined by one Kinchin, 2
fellow of Corpus, they travelled to Manchefter, Holms
Chapel, Newcaftle in Stafford/hire, and other places,
where they preached, exhorted, and converfed on re¬
ligious fubjedts, in public-houfes, ftables, &c. fome-
times meeting with fuccefs and fometimes not. Du¬
ring this peregrination Mr Wefley certainly difplayed
a great deal of fuperftition, which we mult undoubt¬
edly fuppofe to have been communicated to his hear¬
ers, and to have caufed them adt on many occafions
in a very ridiculous manner. An inftance follows :—
“ The next day (fays he), March nth, we dined
at Birmingham, and, foon after we left it, were re¬
proved for our negligence there (in letting thofe who
attended us go without either exhortation or inftruc-
tion) by a fevere Ihower of hail!” About the lat¬
ter end of March or beginning of April he and his
companion began to pray extempore, leaving off en¬
tirely the forms of the church of England, to which
he had formerly bees fo devoted. The dodirine of
inftantaneous converfion, which his imagination had
fuggefted to him as a work performed on himfelf,
was greedily received by forae of his hearers, and all
the converts to the new dodtrine confirmed themfelves,
and contributed greatly to perfuade others by decla¬
ration* of their experiences,' as they called them ; how¬
ever, though a knowledge of the favtng aflurance hadMethodiffa,
been given on jMarch 6th, he does not date his con- — y»-^
verfion fooner than May 24th ot the lame year.
This new dodtrme of an inftantaneous, and in fadfc
miraculous impulfe, though greatly rehihed by the
enthuliaftical part of the loeiety, was very much dif-
liked by others, particularly Mr Charles Wefley his
brother, who warned him of the mifehief he was do¬
ing ; though he himfclf was foon converted, and,
what is very aftonilhing, two days before John Wef¬
ley himfelf. The particulars related of thefe mira¬
culous converfions are truly difgraceful, and could not
but bring into contempt the fociety which confifted
of fuch enthufiafts. “ Many (fays Mr Hanfon) are
reprefented as falling fuddenly to the ground, in hor¬
ror and agony not to be conceived, and rifing again
with equal expreffions of peace and confolation.”—
Their converfions were ufually attended with thefe
violent fymptoms ; and, for ftvtral years, few meet¬
ings occurred where Mr Welley prelided, without one
or more inftances of the fame kind. It was not pof-
fible that fuch tranfaftions Ihould pafs without notice.
The confufion that too often prevailed, the emotions
of the perfons affebted, and the exultations of the reft,
which were feverally animadverted upon, gave.great
and general offence. Many infilled, that it mult ei¬
ther be occafioned by the heat of the rooms, and
the agitation of the animal fpirits under difeourfes
of the moft alarming nature j or that it was mere ar¬
tifice and hypoenfy.
In the mean time, two of the fons of a Mrs Hut¬
ton in London, happening to become converts to the
new doblrine, this lady was fo much offended, that
Ihe wrote to Mr Samuel Wefley, informing him, that
fhe was of opinion his brother John had loft his
fenfes ; and requeuing, that the next time he came
to his houfe, he, Mr Samuel, would either confine or
convert him. All that could be done, however, t®
prevent the progrefs of the new dodtrine was infuf-
ficient; and the firft Methodift fociety was formed ia
London, on the firft of May 1738, when about fa-
agreed to meet together once a-week for free conver-
fation, begun and ended with finging and prayer.
All this time, however, it feems that the conver¬
fion of Mr Wefley was far from being fo complete as
that of many of his hearers. He had preached and
converted others, while he himfelf was absolutely un¬
converted. The knowledge of the true faving faith
was only revealed to him on the 6th of March, and
he did not experience its power till the 24th of May i
and even after this, his doubts and fears were ftill fo
great, that on the 13th of June he undertook a voy¬
age to Germany, where, in the company of Count
Zinzendorff, his faith feems to have been thoroughly
confirmed.
On Mr Weftey’s return, September 16th, 1738,
he applied himlelf with the greateft affiduity and fuc-
ctfs to the propagation of his doftrine. Multitudes
of converts were made in various parts of the king¬
dom ; and the reproaches poured upon him by his
opponents, feemed to have rendered his zeal more fer¬
vent if poffible than before. It is remarkable, how¬
ever, that fome of his old friends were now fo much
offended with his conduft or his principles, that they
abfolutely refilled to keep company with him. Hi*
original
MET [ 629 ] MET
Methodifts. original plan fee ms to have been, to make an union
l"—v  of clergymen, and dilfeminate his principles by their
means. But in this he fucceeded fo ill, that in a letter
written in 1742* he wiihed for a clerical affiftant,
were he only in deacons orders : but adds, “ I know
of none fuch, who is willing to call in his lot with
us; and I fcarce expeft I (hall, becaufe 1 know
how fail they arc rivetted in the fervice of the devil
and the world wefore they leave the univerfity.”—
Finding at laft that nothing could be done with them,
he was obliged to have recourfe to lay preachers ;
and eafily fele&ed thofe who appeared to have the
greateft talents for prayer and exhortation in the pri¬
vate meetings appointed for that purpofe. Thus he
at once raifed himfelf to be the head of a fe& ; as the
lay-preachers willingly yielded obedience to him who
had the advantages of fuperior learning and abilities,
and was befides in orders as a clergyman ; and this
obedience he did not fail on every occafion to exa&.
If his dottrine had formerly given offence to the
eftablifhed clergy, the appointment of lay preachers
was reckoned much worfe ; and their being appointed
without any form of ordination whatever, which al-
moft all of them were, fubje&ed them to contempt
and reproach, which their want of learning, and very
often of natural abilities, did not contribute to re¬
move. Thus finding the churches (hut againft him
and his followers, he was obliged to preach in the
fields, and made his firft effay in this way on the fe-
cond of April 1739, in the neighbourhood of Bri-
ftol; Mr Whitefield having fet him an example the
day before.
The fuccefs of thofe ignorant and itinerant preach¬
ers, with their abfurd and uncharitable difeourfes and
behaviour, fo provoked their adverfaries, that a per-
fecution was foon commenced againfl them. Mr
Wefley himfelf was calumniated in the harfhefl man¬
ner, being fometimes faid to be a Jefuit, fometimes
an illiterate enthufiall, as the people took it into their
heads. Many pretended to anfwer him in writing,
without being able to do fo : the confequence was,
that their deficiency of argument was fupplied by
invedtive, and the moft fcandalous performances made
their appearance. Some of the Englifli clergy fo
far forgot themfelves as to infligate the mob againft
them, and the moft cruel outrages were committed
upon them in various places. For fome time the
perfecuted party adhered to the doftrines of paffive
obedience and non-refillance, which their inhuman
adverfaries did not fail to take the advantage of.—
The lefs they were oppofed, the more infolent they-
became. The Methodifts were frequently in danger
of their lives. Men, women with child, and even
children, were knocked down and abufed with the
fame undiftinguifhing fury. Houfes were ftripped of
their furniture, vaft quantities of furniture carried off,
feather-beds cut in pieces and ftrewed over the ftrects,
feveral reputable people were forced into the army,
&c. To the difgrace of magiftracy alfo it was found,
that when application was made to the juftices of
the peace, redrefs was commonly denied; nor was a
{top put to thefe fhameful proceedings without a royal
mandate for the purpofe.
From the year 1738 to 1747 Mr Wefley and his
itinerants were employed in various parts of England.
In 1747 he went over to Dublin, where a fociety had Methodift',
been formed by one Mr Williams a clergyman.—. 1 V"
Here they proved fo fuccefsful, notwithftanuing the
number of Papiits, and the violence of their other op¬
ponents, that in 1750 they had eredted meeting-
houfes in every part of the kingdom, and had formed
29 circuits, which employed 67 itinerants, befides a
confiderable number of local preachers. An invita¬
tion was given to Mr Wefley, in 1751, to vifit Scot¬
land, by an officer in quarters at Muffelburgh. He
accordingly took a journey thither the fame year }
but left the place, after preaching in it once or t -vice.
In 1753 he returned to Scotland, and vifited Glaf-
gow. Societies were at length formed in that city,
as well as at Edinburgh, Dundee, Aberdeen, Inver-
nefs, and a few other places : but his fuccefs was by
no means equal to what it had been in other parts ;
for in 1790 the number of circuits in Scotland was
no more than eight, which were fupplied by 20 iti¬
nerants.
Mr Whitefield, the other great labourer in the
vineyard, was equally indefatigable, and probably
more fuccefsful than Mr Wefley. Before entering
into orders, he had formed a fociety of religious per-
fons at Gloucefter : here he preached his firft fermon
on the Neceflity and Benefit of Religious Society ;
here he became extremely popular, as well as at
Briftol and London, while preparing to fet fail for
Georgia for the firft time j and in all places to which
he came, large colleftions were made for the poor.
He maintained the fame do&rine with Mr Wefley
as to the pew birth ; which likewife gave offence to
the clergy when delivered by him, as it had done with
Mr Wefley. In the various intervals of his voyage*
to America, he employed himfelf with the very fame
affiduity in Britain and in Ireland, which we have al¬
ready taken notice of in the wtftern continent. His
fuccefs was every where prodigious. In 1741 he was
invited to Scotland, and preached his firft fermoir
there at Dunfermline- From thence he went to E-
dinLmrgh, and preached in feveral of the eftablifhed
churches, but differed with Meffrs Ralph and Ebene-
zer Er.kines ; fo that he, as well as Mr Wefley, pro¬
ved unfucccfsful in forming a coalition with any other
religious party. In the private way. however, his
fuccefs was very confiderable, at Edinburgh, Glaf-
gow, Aberdeen, Dundee, and other places. In 1 - jz-
he paid a fecond vifit to Scotland, and a third
one in 1748. In 1751 he vifited Ireland for the
firft time; and preached to great multitudes, without,
being moleftedy even in places where others had been
mobbed. From thence he returned to Scotland the fame
year, and fpeaks in very favourable terms of the at¬
tention the people there paid to their bibles In
1752 and 1753 he again vifitedthe fame kingdom, and
the laft time diftinguilhed hirnfelf by preaching againft
the playhoufe in Glafgow. In 1756 he returned j
and by his animated difeourfes at Edinburgh againft
Popery and arbitrary power, was owned to have con¬
tributed very much to the increafe of courage and
loyalty in this country. Next year he again vifited the
Scottiftr capital during the time that the General Af-
fembly fat, and his fermons were attended by feveral
of the members. At Glafgow he made a large col-
ledion for the poor of that city, and from thence took
»
MET [ 630 ] MET
"Methodifts. a voyage to Ireland. He was received witli the ufual
v~~ affeftion by the lower clafles of Proteftants ; but the
Popifh rabble, exafperated at his fuccefs, almoft; mur¬
dered him with ftones. After palling through a great
part of Ireland, vifiting England and Wales, he paid
another vilit to Scotland, where four clergymen now
lent him their pulpits. His laft vilit was in the fum-
mer of 1758, where his congregations were as large
as ever; and it is to his endeavours principally that
we are to aferibe the great number of Methodilt fo-
cieties now exifting in Scotland.
With regard to the religious principles of the Me-
thodills, we cannot enter into any particular detail;
neither indeed arc there any dodtrines peculiar to all
included under that name, except the fmgle one
•Hiflory of of falvation by faith without works. In March
Methodfm, 1741, Mr Whitefield being returned to Eng-
'&c‘ land, entirely feparated from Mr Wefley and his
friends, “ becaufe he did not hold the decrees.”—
Here was the firlt breach, which warm men perfuad-
ed Mr Whitefield to make, merely for a difference of
opinion. Thofe indeed who believed univerfal re¬
demption, had no defire at all to feparate : but thofe
who held particular redemption, would not hear of
any accommodation, being determined to have no
fellowlhip with men that “ were in fuch dangerous
errors.” So there were now two forts of Methodifts
fo called ; thofe for particular, and thofe for general,
redemption.
Not many years paffed, before William Cudwoith
and James Kelly feparated from Mr Whitefield.—
Thefe were properly Antinomians, abfolute avowed
enemies to the law of God, which they never preach¬
ed or profeffed to preach, but termed all Legafijls who
did. With them, preaching the law was an abomina¬
tion. They had nothing to do with the law. They
would preach Chrift, as they called it ; but without
one word either of holinefs or good works. Yet
thefe wera ftill denominated Methodifts, although dif¬
fering from Mr Whitefield both in judgment and
practice, abundantly more than Mr Whiiefield did
from Mr Wefley.
In the mean time, Mr Venn and Mr Romaine be-
-gan to be fpoken of: and not long after Mr Madan
and Mr Berridge, with a few other clergymen, who,
although they had no connexion with each other,
yet preaching falvation by faith, and endeavouring to
live accordingly, to be Bible-Chriftians, were foon in¬
cluded in the general name of Methodifts. And fo
indeed were all others who preached falvation by
faith, and appeared more ferious than their neigh¬
bours. Some of thefe were quite regular in their
manner of preaching: fome were quite irregular,
(though not by choice; but neceflity was laid upon
them, they muft preach irregularly, or not at all) :
and others were between both ; regular in moft, tho*
not in all particulars.
In 1762, George Bell and a few other perfons be¬
gan to fpeak great words. In the latter end of the
year they foretold that the world would be at an end
on the 28th of February. Mr Wefley, with whom
they were then connefted, withftood them both in
public and private. This they would not endure:
/q, in January and February 1763, they feparated from
him, under the care of Mr Maxfield, one of Mr Wef- Methodifts,
ley’s preachers. But ftill Mr Maxfield and his adhe- Methodius.
rents, even the wildeft enthufiafts among them, go
under the general name of Methodifts, and fo bring
a fcandal upon thofe with whom they have no connec¬
tion.
At prefent, thofe who remain with Mr Wefley
are moftly Church-pf-England men. They love her
articles, her homilies, her liturgy, her difeipline, and
unwillingly vary from it in any inftance. Meantime, all
who preach among them declare, <ive are all by nature chil¬
dren of wrath, but by grace we are faved through faith ;
faved from both the guilt and from the power of fin.
They endeavour to live according to what they preach,
to be plain Bible-Chriftians} and they meet toge¬
ther at convenient times, to encourage one another
therein. They tenderly love many that are Calvinifts,
though they do not love their opinions. Yea, they
love the Antinomians themfelves; but it is with a
love of compaflion only, for they hate their db&rines
with a perfedt hatred; they abhor them as they do
hell-fire: being convinced nothing can fo effeftually
deftroy all faith, all holinefs, and all good works.
We fliall conclude this article with the words of
Mr Hanfon, which muft certainly be accounted juft,
whatever objections may be made to fome parts of the
principles or behaviour of the Methodifts. “ If they pof-
fefs not much knowledge, which, however, we do not
know to be the cafe, it is at leaft certain, they are not
deficient in zeal: and without any pafiionate defire to
imitate their example, we may at leaft commend their
endeavours for the general good. Every good man
will contemplate with pleafure the operation of the
fpirit of reformation, whether foreign or domeftic;
and will rejoice in every attempt to propagate Chri-
ftianity in the barbarous parts of the world: An
attempt which, if in any tolerable degree fuccefsful,
will do infinitely more for their civilization and hap-
pinefs, than all the united energies of thofe boafted
benefaftors of mankind, the philofophic infidels.”
Methodists (Methodici), in the hiftory of medi¬
cine, a feCt of ancient phyficians, who reduced the
whole art of healing to a few common principles or ap¬
pearances. The Methodifts were the followers of
Theffalus ; whence they were alfo called Theffalici.
They were ftrenuoufly oppofed by Galen in feveral of
his writings •, who fcrupled not to affert, that the me¬
thodical herefy ruined every thing that was good in
the art.
Quincy miftakenly ufes Methodifts (Methodici) for
thofe phyficians who adhere to the doCtrine of Galen,
and the fchools ; and who cure with bleeding, purges,
&c. duly applied according to the fymptoms, circum-
ftances, &c. in oppofition to empirics and chemifts,
who ufe violent medicines, and pretended fecrets or
noftrums.
METHODIUS, a father of the church, bifliop of
Olympus or Patara in Lycia, and afterward of Tyre
in Paleftine, fuffered martyrdom at Chalcis in Greece
towards the end of Dioclefian’s perfecution in the year
302. He compofed many works in a clear and ela¬
borate ftyle, which were extant in Jerome’s time. Fa¬
ther Combefis collected feveral confiderable fragments
of this writer, cited by Epiphanius, Photius, and
others }
MET C 631 ] MET
Wethufelah others; and printed them with notes of his own, toge-
II ther with the works of Amphilochius, and Andreas
Metopof Cietenflg, in folio, Paris 1644.
. cc<ry- METHUSELAH, the' fon of Enoch and father
of Lamech, was born in the year of the world 687,
begat Lamech in 874, and died in 1656, being the
very year of the deluge, at the age of 969, which is
the greateft age that has been attained to by any mor¬
tal man upon earth (Gen. v. 21, 22, &c.) According
to the text of the feptuagint, Methufelah muft have
lived 14 years after the deluge; and according to
other copies, he died fix years before it: but it is ge¬
nerally agreed on, that thefe copies, as well as the
feptuagint, are corrupted in this place.
METHYMNA (anc. geog.), a town of the ifland
of Lelbos. It was the fecond city of the ifland in
greatnefs, population, and opulence. Its territory was
fruitful, and the wines it produced excellent. It was
the native place of Theophraftus, and of Arion the
mufician. When the whole ifland of Lefbos revolted
from the power of the Athenians, Methymna alone
remained firm to its ancient allies.
METIUS (James), of Alcmaer, in Holland, the
inventor of telefcopes with glafles, one of which he
prefented to the States-General in 1609. Tubes, ex¬
tended, by uniting them, to a great length, were
known to the ancients ; but Metius was the firft who
added glafles, and he was indebted to chance for the
difeovery : he had frequently obferved fome fchool-
boys playing upon the ice, who made ufe of their co¬
py books rolled up in the fliape of tubes, to look at
each other, to which they fometimes added pieces of
ice at each end, to view diftant objefts: this led him
to the invention of optic glafles.
METO, a famous mathematician of Athens, 432
B. C. publiflied his Anneadecatoride, that is, his “ Cy¬
cle of Ninteen Years,” by which he endeavoured to
adjuft: the courfe of the fun to that of the moon, and
to make the folar and lunar years begin at the fame
point of time.
METCECI, a name given by the Athenians to
fuch as had their fixed habitations in Attica, though
foreigners by birth. The mdceci were admitted by the
council of Areopagus, and entered in the public re-
gilter. They differed both from the and Sn^;
becaufe the polita or “citizens” were freemen of A-
thens, and the xeni or “ ftrangers” had lodgings only
for a fhort time ; whereas the mctceci, though not free¬
men of Athens, conftantly rtfided upon the fpot whe¬
ther they had removed.
METONYMY, in rhetoric, is a trope in which one
mme is put for another, on account of the near relation.
■ there is between them. See Oratory, n'5 r.
METOPE, in archite&ure, is the interval orfquare-
fpace between the triglyphs of the Doric freeze, which
among the ancients ufed to be painted or adorned with,
carved work, reprefenting the heads of oxen or uten-
fils ufed in facrifices.
METOPO:-JOPY, the pretended art of knowing
a perlon’s difpofitions and manners by viewing the
traces and lines in the face. Giro Spontoni, who has
written exprefsly on metopofeopy, fays, that ieven lines
are examined in the forehead, and that each line is
conlidered as having its particular, planet: the firlt is
the line of Saturn, the fecond of Jupiter, the third of Metre-
Mars, &c. Metopofeopy is only a branch of phy- II
fiognomy, which founds its conjectures on all the parts MetroP°:i8;
of the body. *
METRE, in poetry, a fyftem of feet of a
juft length.
The different metres in poetry, are the different
manners of ordering and combining the quantities, or
the long and ftiort fyllables : thus hexameter, penta¬
meter, iambic, fapphic verfes, &c. confift of different
metres or meafures. See Hexameter.
The Engliftrv'erfes, the metres are extremely various
and arbitrary, every poet being at liberty to introduce
any new /orm that he pleafes. The moft ufual are the
heroic, generally confifting of five long and five flrbrt
fyllables, and verfes of four feet, and of three feet, and
a casfura or fingle fyllable.
The ancients, by varioufly combining and tranfpo-
fing their quantities, made a vaft variety of different
meafures, by forming fpondees, &c. of different feet.
See Poetry.
METRETES, a Grecian meafure, containing fome-
thing more than nine Englilh gallons. See Mea¬
sure.
METRICAL verses, are thofe confifting of a,
determinate number of long and ftiort fyllables ; as
thofe of the Greek and Latin poets.—Capelins ob-
ferves, that the genius of the Hebrew language is in¬
compatible with metrical poetry.
METRODORUS, a Greek phyfician, born at
Chios, was the difciple of Democritus the philolopher,
and the mafter of Hippocrates the phyfician and A-
naxarchus the philofopher. He maintained that the
univerfe is infinite and eternal: but his works are loft.
He lived about 444 B. C.
METROCOMIA (from mother, and town-
ox village), a term in the ancient church-hiftory, figni-
fying “ a borough or village that had other villages
under its jurifdiclion.”—What a metropolis was among
cities, a metrocomia was among country towns. The
ancient metrocomia had each its choriepifcopus or rural
dean, and here was his fee or refidence. See Metro¬
polis and Choriepiscopus.
METRONOMII, the name given by the Athe¬
nians to five officers in the city and ten in the pirsus,
whofe duty it was to infpect all forts of meafures ex¬
cept thofe of corn- The piraus was the greateit mart
in Attica.
METROPOLIS (from mother, and city),
the capital of a country or province ; or the principal
city, and as it were mother of all the reft.
The term metropolis is alfo applied to archiepif-
copal churches, and fometimes to,the principal or mo¬
ther-church of a city. The Roman empire having
been divided into 13 diocefes and 120 provinces, each
diocefe and each province had its metropolis or capi¬
tal city, where the proconful had his refidence. To
this civil divifion the ecclefiaftical was afterwards ad¬
apted,.. and the biflrop of the capital city had the di-
re&ion of affairs, and the pre-eminence over all the
bifhops of the province. His refidence in the metro¬
polis gave him the title o{ metropolitan. This ereritiorr
of metropolitans is referred to the end of the third,
century, and wgs confirmed, by the council of Nice..
hV-
M E U [ 632 ] M E U
Metulum A metropolitan has the privilege of ordaining his fuf-
II fragans; and appeals from fentences paffed by the fuf-
. Menkn. fragans are preferred to the metropolitan.
v ' Metropolis (anc. geog.), a town of Acarnania, a
little to the fouth of Stratos.—Another, of Lydia ; fi-
tuated between Colophon and Priene, near the Cayfter.
—A third, of Phrygia ; facred to the mother of the
gods, who was here worfhipped.—A fourth Me¬
tropolis of Eftiotis, a diftrift in Theffaly, to the eaft;
of Comphi, and the laft town of that dillridl. Me¬
tropolitan the people.
METULUM (anc. geog.), a confiderable city of
Liburnia, at the fiege of which Oftavius Caefar was
wounded. Said to be the metropolis, and fituated on
two eminences, interfeiled by a valley (Appian.) Now
generally thought to be Metling in Carniola. E. Long.
16. N. Lat. 46. 5.
METZ, an ancient, large, and ftrong town of
France, and capital of the territory of Meffin, with a
citadel, a parliament, and a bilhop’s fee, whofe bilhop
.affumes the title of a prince of the empire. The ca¬
thedral church is one of the fineft in Europe, and the
fquare called Cojl'm and the houfe of the governor are
worth feeing. The Jews live in a part of the town by
themfelves, where they have a fynagogue. The fweet-
meats they make here are in high efteem. It is feated
at the confluence of the rivers Mofelle and Seille. E.
Long. 6. 16. N. Lat. 49. 7.
METZU (Gabriel), an eminent painter, was born
at Leyden in 1615. His fubjedts were ufually taken
from low life; but they were all defigned after nature,
and furprifingly well reprefented; fuch as women fel¬
ling filh, fowls, or hares ; fick perfons attended by
the doftor; chemilts in their laboratories; dead game,
painters rooms, (hops, and drawing fchools hung with
prints and pi&ures ; all which fubje&s he compofed
well, and finifhed them with extreme neatnefs, as he
likewife did his portraits. He fpent a great deal of
time on his pictures, which has occafioned their fear-'
city and dearnefs at this time ; and belides, it is con¬
fidently faid, the Dutch prevent their being carried
out of their own country, as much as pofiible. So that
thofe paintings of Metzu, which are fometimes feen in
the colleftions of our kingdoms, are either obtained
by chance, or purchafed at large prices. Though it
ought alfo to be remembered, that the value fet upon
the works of this matter throughout Holland and
Flanders, has induced feveral painters to endeavour
at imitating and copying his works, which having
gradually circulated abroad and being a little mellow¬
ed by time, are now called originals. He died in
1658.
MEVANIA (anc. geog.), a town of the Cifap-
penine Umbria ; feated at the confluence of the Tina
and Clitumnus, on the Via Flaminia, famous for its
herds of white cattle brought up there for facrifice;
the white colour faid to be owing to the waters of the
Clitumnus (Virgil). Mevania was the country of Pro¬
pertius. Mevenatcs the people. Now faid to be Be-
vagna, in the territory of the Pope.
MEULEN (Anthony Francis Vander), painter of
battles, &c. was born at Brulfels in 1634; and was a
difciple of Peter Sneyers, a battle-painter of confi¬
derable note. Some of his compolitions happening to
be carried to Paris, were fhown to M. Colbert; who
foon difeernedthe abilities of Vander Meulen, and by Meurfius
his generous offers induced him to leave his native  *—“
city and fettle at Paris, Here he was employed by
Louis XIV. and had an appointment of zooo livres
penfion, befide being paid for his work. He attended
that monarch in moft of his expeditions in the field,
and defigned on the fpot the fieges, attacks, encamp¬
ments, and marches, of the king’s armies, alfo the
views of thofe cities and towns memorable by any
degree of fuccefs ; and from thofe Iketehes he com¬
pofed the paintings, which were intended to perpe¬
tuate the remembrance of thofe military exploits. He
died in 1690. The principal works of this mailer
are at Verfailles and Marli; but many of his eafel
piftures are difperfed through England, France, and
Flanders.
MEURSIUS (John), a learned and laborious wri¬
ter, born at Lofdun, near the Hague, in 1579. He
early difeovered a fondnefs for polite literature and the
fciences ; and went to ftudy the law at Orleans with
the fon of Barneveldt, whom he accompanied in hi*
travels. In 1610 he was made profeffor of hiftory at
Leyden, and afterwards Greek profeffor. In the fol¬
lowing year, the magiftrates of the United Provinces
proved how high their opinion was of his abilities, by
fixing on him to write the hiftory of his country.
Meurfius married in the year 1612. His wife, Anna
Catherina Bilberbeccia, defeehded from a very ancient
and noble family in Angermond a city of Pomerania,
poffeffed many amiable qualities, and rendered his do-
meftic life remarkably happy, while he difeharged the
duties of his profeflbrfhip with an afiiduity equal to his
abilities. At the fame time the republic of letters did
not lofe the advantages to be derived from his labours;
for during the fourteen years of his refidence at Ley¬
den, the works which he publiftied were more nume¬
rous than thofe which had been prefen ted to the world
by the whole body of profeffors from the original
foundation of the univerfity in 1575.
Meurfms’s writings had now diffeminated his repu¬
tation in every part of Europe ; nor had the fame of
his diligence and talents as a profeflbr fpfead with lefs
rapidity. In fo high a rank, indeed, did he itand
among his literary contemporaries, that Chriftian IV.
king of Denmark conferred on him the place of hi-
ftoriographer royal, and invited him; to undertake the
profeiforfhip of hiftory and politics in the academy of
Sora, which was founded by King Frederick II. al¬
though the revival of its honours and dignities may be
dated from this period, when it feemed to be again
founded under the aufpices of Chriftian IV. Meurfius
and his family left Leyden in the year 1635. 0° his
arrival at Sora, he was received with the moft. friendly
tokens of regard by his Majefty and the Danifh nobi¬
lity, and more particularly by Chancellor Rofenkrantz,
on whom he has bellowed very ample praifes in one of
his letters. Here he refided, equally beloved and ad¬
mired, for above twelve years. His pupils were not
very numerous, but his exertions never relaxed. Thofe
hours likewife which were not devoted to the duties
of his profeflbrfhip, he employed in revifing the works
of the ancients, and in philological difquiiitions.
His health was not much impaired by the intenfe-
nefs of application; but in the year 1638 he had a
violent attack of the ftone, from which diforder he
had
M E U [ 61$ J M E X
Meurfms. had fuffered feverely before. In a letter to Voflius
*■—>  he thus defcribes his melancholy condition •, “ The
ftate of my health during the whole of the laft winter
has been truly deplorable. My fufferings from the
Hone have been really dreadful. I have voided fo
many, that the repeated difcharges brought on a wound
which emitted blood for above four months. 1 was
next attacked by a tertian fever, which increafed con-
ilantly, and ,produced an univerfal laflitude of body, a
dejection of fpirits, and a total lofs of appetite. But,
thank heaven, I have now in fome meafure reco¬
vered my ftrength, and gotten the better of thefe
Complaints.” He recovered from this attack; but
in the following year the difofder returned with re¬
doubled violence, and brought on a confumption which
terminated his exiftence on the 20th day of September
1639. He left behind him a fon who was named af¬
ter him, and one daughter.
So mild were the difpofitions of Meurfius, that in
all his writings he conitantly avoided literary difputes.
He was fometimes unavoidably drawn into them; but
tonftantly endeavoured to promote A reconciliation,
rather than widen any breach, by his replies to the
attacks of his adverfaries. In his friendfhips he_Was
firm and affeftionate. Of his domeftic life, whatever
is known has been gathered from his letters. The
fame eafy tranquillity feems to have attended him in
every fituatiom In his family he was particularly
fortunate. In his fon, to whom he gave his own
name, he feemed to behold his own youth renewed.
The fame application, the fame eagernefs in the pur¬
suit ofiknowledge, marked the condu.'i of this pro-
mifing young man ; who did not long furvive his fa¬
ther, but died foon after he had recommended him-
felf to the notice of the learned World by his publica¬
tions. They were only three in number; but difplayed
fo much folld learning, that they have been affigned
to the father, John Meurfius, by Labbe Beughem and
others. This mittake was occafioned as much by the
fimilitudeof their names, as by the nature of their works,
and their manner of treating philological fubjefts.
His works may be divided into four claffes, of which
each might form a feparate volume if they were ever
to be republifhed. Meurfius himfelf indeed, in one of
his letters to Voffius, propofes fuch a divifion. From
that epiftle, and from another which the younger
Meurfius fent to G. L Voffius, who -ftrongly advifed
him to republifh the whole of his father’s writings,
and from the colle&ions ofhis'pofihumous works which
have appeared from Struvius, Grofchupfius, Moller,
and fome others, a catalogue of his works might be
formed. Some affiftance will alfo be derived from the
indexes publiffied in their refpedlive works, by Hank¬
ins, Deffelius, Wettenius, and Bartholinus. The plan
which Meurfius recommends for publiffiing his works,
is to infert in the firft volume all that he has written
relative to Athens'; in the fecond, his hiftorical pieces;
in the third, his mifcellaneous differtations; and in the
fourth, the various authors which he publiffied, with
his notes and corre&ions.
Before we conclude, one miftake with refpeft to
this great fcholar, which prevails very generally, muft
be correftei. A fcandalous and indecent work, which
is intitled Meurjii ehganiix \LaUni fermonis, and has
■Alo'ifis Sigea Satyra Sotadica annexed to it, is very
Vet, XI. Part II.
falfely attributed to Meuifius 5 nor indeed are the $a* Mew
tires with more reafon affigned to Aloifia Sigea, who ^
was a Spaniffi lady, eminent for her piety and virtue. ^' .! j
The real author of thefe infamous produ&ions was
Weftrenius, an advocate at Copenhagen, who probably
affumed the name of Meurfius, in order to ffiield him¬
felf from the difgrace which would naturally have at¬
tended the writer of fuch a performance. To infure
the fale of his book, however, might have been the
principal view of Weftrenius. At any rate, fuch a
conclufion may be fairly deduced from the difguifed
title, and from his defire that the world ffiould affix it
to a character fo diilinguiffied and refpe&able in almoft
every branch of various literature.
MEW, Sea-mew, or Sea-nail. See Larus.
JVniter-Metv, or Coddy-moddy, in ornithology. See
Larus.
MEWING, the fallingoff or change of hair, feathers,
ikin, horns, or other parts of animals, which happens
in fome annually, in others only at certain ftages of their
lives : but the generality of beafts mew in the fpring.
An old hart calls his horn* fooner than a young one,
which is commonly in the months of February and
March, after which they begin to button in March or
April: and as the fun grows ftrong, and the feafon of
the year puts forth the fruits of the earth, fo their heads
grow, and are fummed full by the middle of June. It
is to be obferved, that if a hart be gelt before he has
a head, he will never have any; and if he be gelt after
he has a head, he will never clft his horns; again, if
he be gelt when he has a velvet-head, it will always be
fo, without fraying or bnrniffiing.
MEXICO, a province of the Spaniffi empire in
America, once a celebrated kingdom,' the moll pow¬
erful and civilized in the New World.
In former times the country now diftinguiffied by Kinedon^s
the name of the Vale of Mexico*, was called An thuac, into which
the reft of it being divided into the kingdoms of Mcxi- Mexico was
co, Acolhuacan, Tlacopav, and Michuacan ; the republicsaIlc?e:'^
of Tlaxca lan, Cholollan, Huexotzincv, and fome other''1V1^e
ftates. Of theft the tnoft wefterly was Michuacan,
which to the call andfouth had Mexico ; on the north
the country of the Chichemecas, and fome other bar¬
barous nations ; on the weft the lake of Chapallan,
and fome independent tribes. It had four confiderable
cities; the capital being feated on the eaftern ffiore of
a beautiful lake named Pazcuaro. The kingdom of
Tlacopan lay betwixt Mexico and Michqacan, and
was of very fmall extent; its capital was feated on the
weltern border of a lake called Tezcuco, four miles
weftward of that of Mexico. Acolhuacan was the
moft extenfive as well as the moll ancient. It was
bounded on the call by the republic of Tlaxcallan ; on
the fouth by a province of Mexico named Chaleo ;
on the north by the country of the Huaxtecas ; and
on the weft by other ftates of Mexico, terminating at
the lake Tezcuco. Its length from fouth to north
was fomewhat more than 200 miles, and its breadth
about 60 ; it was very populous, and had a great
many cities. On the eaftern bank of the lake of
Tezcuco was fituated the capital of that territory, 1 y
miles to the eaftward of that of Mexico ; and no lefs
celebrated for its antiquity than the politenefs and ci¬
vilization of its inhabitants. • Tlaxcallan, or Tlafcala,
a celebrated republic, had Acolhuacan to the weft j
4 the
M E X [ 634 ] M E X
Mexico, the republics of Cholollan and Huexotzlnco to the during which time they reckon juft eight princes. Mexico,
fouth ; and fome of the Mexican ftates on the north We are not, however, to imagine that each of their ——v—
and eaft. It was but of fmall extent; not reaching kings lived long enough to make up this fpace. It
mq^e than 50 miles in length and 30 in breadth. Its was a cuftom among them that the name of the king
capital ftood on the fide of a great mountain, about fhould be continued for 52 years, and no longer, from
70 miles to the eaftward of Mexico. The kingdom the time he afcended the throne. If he died within
of Mexico, though the moft modern, came at laft that period, the govemment was carried on in his name
to be the moft extenfive of the whole. On the fouth by a regency; if he furvived, he was obliged to refign
and fouth-weft it extended as far as the Pacific Ocean ; his authority. During the four centuries that the
©n the eaft it was bounded by the republics of Tla- Toltecan monarchy continued, they'had increafed very.
copan and Michuacan ; on the north by the country confiderably in number, and had built many cities ;
of the Huextacas; and on the north-weft by the but when in the height of profperity, almoft the
country of the Chichemecas; the whole being com- whole nation was dettroyed by a famine occafioned by
prehended between the 14th and 21ft degrees of north drought; and a peitilence, probably the. confequence
latitude, and between 271 and 283 of longitude, com- of the former. “ According to Torquemada (fays .
4 puted from the meridian of Ferro. our author), at a certain feftival-ball made by the 7&/- .
Uncertain- If the origin of the nations on the eaftern continent
ty of the is obfeure, that of the inhabitants of the weltern con-
theMeib t*nent much more fo ; and indeed, till very lately,
cans. t^e hiftory of every one of the American nations, till
the arrival of the Spaniards, has been either treat¬
ed as entirely fabulous, or very {lightly touched
upon by hiilorians. By the induftry of the Abbe
Francefco Clavigero, however, we are now furnifhed
with an accohnt of the ancient kingdoms juft enu¬
merated ; more full and authentic than could have
been expedled, coniidering the difficulty there muft
3 have been of procuring materials.
They came According to this gentleman, it is undeniable that
from the Mexico was firft peopled from the more northerly parts
wor | of the continent, which for many ages had been filled
with inhabitants. Some have fuppofed, from the tra¬
ditions of the natives, and the difeovery of very large
human fkeletons in many parts of New Spain, that
this country was firft inhabited by giants: but though
fimilar conjeilures and difeoveries have been made in
ether countries, we are by no means warranted from
thence to conclude that the whole human race were
formerly of an fmmenfe fize ; it. being moft probable,
as our author obferves, that the gigantic race were
but a few individuals who lived at different times and
4 indifferent-nations.
Toltecans The Toltecans are the moft ancient Mexican nation
the firft in- of which w.e know any thing. They were expeHed,
habitants. as we are tol^ from their own country (fuppofed by
Clavigero to have been Tollan, to the northward of
Mexico) in the year 472 ; and for fome time led a.
migratory and wandering life. In whatever place they,
determined to refide for any confiderable time, they
ere&ed houfes and cultivated the ground. Thus their
migrations were extremely flow, and it was not till
J04 years after they, fet out that they reached a place
about 50 miles to the eaftward of the city of Mexico,
where they fettled for 20 years, giving to their new.
place of refiden.ee the name pf Tollant-zinco. From
thence they proceeded about 40 miles farther to the
weft, where they built a city called, from the name
of their country, Tollan, or Tula.
Their hi- The Toltecans, during their journeys, were condutt-
itcry. ed by a number of chiefs; who, by the time they arr
rived at Tollantzinco, were reduced to feven, and, af¬
ter their final fettlement, the government was changed
into a monarchy ; but by what means, or on what
account, we are not told. Their firft king began his ’
reign in. 667, and their monarchy Jailed 384 years,
tecas, the fad locking devil appeared to them of a gi¬
gantic fize, with immenfe arms, and in the midlt of
the entertainment he embraced and foffocated them ;
that then he appeared in. the form of . a child with a
putrid head, and brought the plague ; and, finally, at
the perfuafion of the fame devi, they abandoned the
country of Tula.”
T’hefe ftories, according to Clavigero, are taken ,
from the fymbolical reprefentations or hieroglyphics,
by which this piece of hiftory was reprefented, and
which the Spanilh author has taken literally. Be the
caufe what it will, however,,it is certain that the fur-
viving 1'oltecans abandoned their country, and difperfed
themfelves among the furrounding nations, where they
were well received, on account.of their fuperior know- ^
ledge and civilization. They were. focceeded by the Succeeded ’■
Chichemecas, a. much more barbarous people, who by -he Chi—
came from an unknown country called /lmaquemecanic^tae-,:^
where they had for a longtime refided ; .but of which
no traces or remembrance can be found among any of
the American nations known to - Europeans ; fo that
Clavigero fuppofes it muft have been very far to the
northward.
Ihe motive which the Chiehemecas had for leaving
their own country is not known. They were eighteen .!
months on their journey^ and took poffeffion of the .
defolate country of the Toltecas about an hundred
years after the former had left it. They were much
more uncivilized than the i’oltecans; but, however,
had a regular form of monarchical government, and
in other refpefts were lefs difgufting in their manners .
than fome of the neighbouring nations. The laft
king who reigned in .imaquemecan before the depar¬
ture of the Chichemecas, had left his dominions between .
his two fons Auchcauhtli and Xolotl, and the latter
condudted the new colony. Having proceeded from
the ruins of Tula towards Chempoalla and Ttpepolio,
Xolotl fent his fon to furvey the country. The prince
crpffed the borders of the lakes and the mountains
which furround the vale of Mexico; .then afeending
to the top of a very high one, he viewed the whole
country, and took poffeffion. of it in the name of his
father, by {hooting four arrows to the four winds.
Xolotl being informed by his fon of the nature of Xolefl thd*
the country, chofe for the,capital of his kingdom Te-firft king,
nayuca, about fix miles to-the northward of the city
of Mexico, and diftributed his people in the neigh¬
bouring territory ; but as moft of them went to the.
northward, that part obtained the name of the coun-
-try
M E X E 635 l M E X
IWcxieo. try of the Chichemecap, rn diftindion from the reft.
'Jb—v—~ j^ere a review of the people was taken, and their
number, according to Torquemada, wa* more than a
million. In confirmation of this the hiftorian adds,
that in his time there were ftill remaining twelve piles
of the ftones they threw to afcertain their numbers ;
but Clavigero thinks it improbable that fo large an
army ftiould let out on fo long an expedition, or that
fo fmall a drftrift could maintain fo many hunters.
Xolotl finding himfelf peacefully fettled in his new
dominion, fent one of his officers to explore the
fources of fome of the rivers of the country. While
performing this talk he came to the habitations of
fome Toltecans, who it feems had Hill kept together,
, and were likely once more to become a nation. As
tbefe people were not inclined to war, and greatly
efteemed for their knowledge and Ik ill in the arts, the
Chichemecas entered into a Uriel alliance with them,
g and Prince Nopaltzin, who had firft furveyed the coun-
Hb people try, married a Tpltecan princefs. The confequence
c‘v l'^Id ky°f this alliance was the introdudion of the arts and
cans. °tC knowledge of the Toltecans among the Chichemecas.
Till now the latter had fubfifted entirely by hunting,
and fuch fruits and roots as the earth fpontaneoufly
produced. They were clad in the /kins of wild beafts,
and, like thefe beafts, they are faid to have fucked
the blood of the animals they caught; but after their
connedion with the Toltecans they began to fow corn,
to learn the art of digging and working metals, to
cut ftoues, manufacture cotton, and, in every refped,
^ to make great improvements.
New inha- When Xolotl had reigned about eight years in his
fcitantsar. new territories, an embaftyof fix perfons arrived from
tarn 3 c^ant country not far from Amaqucmecun^ expreffing
ctients, * a defire coming with their people to refide in the
country of the Chichemecas. The king gave them
a gracious reception, and affigned them a diftri^ ;
and, in a few years after, three other princes, with a
great army of Acolhuang, who were likewife neigh¬
bours of Amaquemecan, made their appearance. The
king was at that time at Tezcuco, to which place he
bad removed his court: and here he wras accofted by
the princes, who, in a fubmiffive and flattering man-
tier, requefted him to allow them a place in his Imp¬
ly country, where the people enjoyed fuch an excel-
ent government. Xolotl not only gave them a fa¬
vourable reception, b.ut offered them his two daugh¬
ters in marriage, expreffing his concern that he had
no more, that none might have been excluded from
the royal alliance. On the third prince, howevei, he
bellowed a noble virgin of Chaleo, in whom the Toi-
tecan and Chichemecan blood were united. The nup¬
tials were celebrated with extraordinary pomp; and
the two nations, after the example of the fovereigns,
continued to intermarry. As the Acolhuans were t' e
more civilized nation of the two, the name of Chi¬
chemecas began to be appropriated to the more rude
and barbarous part, who preferred hunting to agri¬
culture, or who chofe a life of lavage liberty in the
mountains to the reftraintsof focial laws. Thefe bar¬
barians affociated with the Otomies, another favage
nation who lived to the northward, occupying a trail
of more than three hundred miles in extent; and by
their defendants the Spaniards were harafl'ed for ma¬
ny years after the conqueft of Mexico.
As foon as the nuptial rejoicings were over, Xolotl Mexico,
divided his territories into three parts, alfigning one J
to each of the princes. Acolhuatzin, who had mar’j)iv;f;0,n 0f
ried his eldeft daughter, had Azcopazalco, 18 mile»chev^^j°
to the weftward of Tezcuco } Chiconquauhtli, who nior* of
married the other, had a territory named Xaltocah ; Xolotl,
and Tzontecomatl, who married the lady of inferior
rank, had one named Coatlichan. The country con¬
tinued for fome time to flourilh, population incieafed
greatly, and with it the civilization of the people ;
but as thefe advanced, the vices of luxury and ambi¬
tion increafed in proportion. Xolotl found himfelf
obliged to treat his fnbjedls with more feverity than
formerly, and even to put fome of them to death—
This produced a confpiracy againft him, which, how¬
ever, he had the good fortune to efcape; but while
he meditated a fevere revenge on the confpirators, he
was feized with the dillemper of which he died, in
the fortieth year of his reign, and in a very advanced
age. His corpfe was adorned with various figures of
gold and filver, and placed in a chair made of gum
copal and other precious fubftanccs, where it remain¬
ed five days, until the lords fummoned to-the funeral
attended. The body was then burnt, and the alhea
depofited in an urn of the hardeft Hone. This urn
was kept expofed in the palace for forty days, during
which time the nobility attended with lamentations ;
after which it was carried to a cave in the neighbour¬
hood, with fimilar demonftrations of grief. Jr
Xolotl was fucceedet^by his fon Nopaltzin, who at Nopaitzln
the time of his acceffion is fuppofed to have been,!ie feconA
about lixty years of age. In his time, the tranquilli-kh«•
ty of the kingdom, which had begun to fuffer diftur-
bance under his father, underwent much more violent
firocks, and civil wars took place. Alcohuatzin> the
only one of the three princes who remained alive,
thinking the territory he poffeffed too narrow, made i*
war upon the lord of a neighbouring province named Civil wars|
Tapotzotlan, and deprived him of his territory. Huet-
zin, fan to the late prince Tzontecomatl, lord of
Coatlichan, fell in love with the grand-daughter of
the queen, a celebrated beauty, but was rivalled by a
neighbouring lord, who determined to fupport his
pretenfions by force of arms. Huetzin, however, got
the better, defeated and killed-his adverfary, and then
poffeffed himfelf of the 1 idy and his eilate. This was
followed by a rebellion of the whole province of Tol-
lantzinco, fo that the king himfelf was obliged to take
the field. As the rebels were very numerous, the
royal army was at firft defeated ; but having at laft
received a ftrong reinforcement, the febels were over¬
come, and their ringleaders feverely punifhed. The
king did not long furvive the reftoration of tranquilli¬
ty to his dominions. He died in the thirty fecond
year of his reign, and ninety-fecond of his age, leaving
the throne to his ddeft fon Tlotzin.
We are not informed of any particulars relating to TlotzUk.
this prince farther that he was of an excellent difpofi-
tion, greatly beloved by his fubje&s, an.4, though ad-
didled to peace, >et afiiduous in exercifiug his people
in the art of war He reigned thirty-fix years, and
died of a very painful difeafe."
Quinatzfn, the fon and fucceffor of Tlotzin, proved Quiratzin
a vain and luxurious prince. His acceffion to the 1 i.u*urio,J*
throne was celebrated with much greater pomp than princt!'
4 L 2 any
M E X [ 636 ] M E X
Mexico. any 0f his predeceffors. Xolotl had removed his court
""'' from Tenayuca to Tezcuco ; but being difgufted with
this laft place, on account of the confpiracy formed
againft him there, he had returned to Tenayuca.—
There the court continued till the reign of Quinat-
zin, who removed it back to Tezcuco. In his paffage
thither, he caufed himfelf be tranfported in an open
chair or litter, carried on the Ihoulders of four of his
principal lords, while four others held' an umbrella
over his head. Before his time the kings had been
accuftomed to walk upon their feet like other people ;
but this example, once fet, was quickly followed by
all the lords and great people in the kingdom, who
now ftrove to out-do one another in expenfrve and of-
tentatious grandeur.
Difturbaa- The reign of Quinatzin, though tranquil at firft,
ees in va- was foon difturbed by dangerous revolts and rebellions,
rious parts. Thefe firft broke out in two ftates, named JVlaztillen
and Totopec, fituated among the northern mountains.
The king, having colle&ed a great army, marched
without delay agdinft the rebels, and challenged their
leaders to come down and fight him in the plain.—
This challenge being accepted, a furious engagement
enfued, in which, though great numbers fell on both
fides, no decifive advantage was gained by either
party. Frequent engagements took place for the
fpace of forty days, until at laft the rebels, perceiving
that their own numbers were daily diminiftiing, with-
cut any pofiibihty of being recruited like the royal
-army, made a final Surrender to the king, who pu-
niftied the ringleaders with great feverity. Tranquil¬
lity, however, was not yet reftored : the rebellion
fpread to fuch a degree, that the king was obliged
not only to take the field in perfon, but to employ fix
other armies, under the command of faithful and ex-,
perienced generals, to reduce the rebels. 'Thofe proved
fo fuccefsful in their enterprizes, that in a flrort time
the rebellious cities were reduced to obedience, and
the kingdom enjoyed the bleffings of peace during the
long reign of Quinntzin, who is faid to have fat on
the throne for no lefs than fixty years. He was fuc-
ceeded by his fon Techotlatla ; but as the affairs of
the Acolhuans now began to be connefted with thofe
of the Mexicans, it will be proper to give fome ac-
,6 count of that people.
Migration* The Mexicans, called alfo the Aztecas, dwelt till
©fcheMexi-the year 1160 in a country called /Iztlan, fituated to
cans. north of the gulf of California, as appears by the
route they purfued in their journey ; but how far to
the northward we are not certainly informed. Betan¬
court makes it no lefs than 2700 miles, and Boturir.i
fays it was a province of Afia. The caufe of their
migration is faid to have been as follows:
Among the Aztecas was a perfon of great autho¬
rity, named Huiit llrf, to whofe opinion every one paid
the utmoft deference. He had conceived a defign, for
what reafon we know not, to perfuade his countrymen
to change their refidence ; and to effeft this he fell
upon the following ftratagem. Having heard, while
meditating on his fcheme, a little bird finging on the
branches of a tree, the notes of which refembled the
word Tihui, which in the Azteca language fignified
41 let ns go,” he took that opportunity to work upon
the fuperftition of the people. With this view, he
100^ along with him a refpe&able perfoq, and made
him attend to the note of the bird. “ What can it Mexico,
mean (fays he), but that we muft leave this country, —v
and find ourfelves another ? Without doubt it is the
warning of fome fecret divinity who watches over our
welfare : let us obey, therefore, his voice, and not
draw his anger upon us by a riifufal.” Tecpaltzin, for
that was the name of his friend, readily agreed to the
interpretation ; and both of them being perfons of
great influence, their united perfuafions foon gained
over to their projeft the bulk of the nation ; and they
accordingly fet out.
This account, though it has fomewhat the air of
fable, is what the Mexicans themfelves give ; and is
certainly more worthy of credit than that of the Spa¬
niards, who maintain that the Aztecas fet out by thfc
exprefs command of the devil. But whatever was
their motive, it is certain that they began their mi¬
gration about the year above-mentioned. Torquemada
fays, that in all the hieroglyphic paintings which re¬
cord this migration, there is delineated an arm of the
fea, or a great river, which, however, Clavigero takes
to be a reprefentation of the univerfal deluge. Botu-
rini fuppofes it to have been the gulf of California,
over which, he thinks, they tranfported themfelves ;
but our author controverts this opinion, becaufe there
are no remains of the buildings they conftrufled, du¬
ring their migration, in Ca iforniaas there are in other
places. If there really was any river of confequerice
which they crofled, he fays it muft have been the Co*
lorado, or Red River, which difeharges itfelf into the
gulf of California, in lat. 32°. 30. Havjng crofted
this beyond the lat. of 3 ;°, they proceeded towards
the fouth-eaft, as far as the river Gila> where they
flopped for fome time ; and on the banks of that river
there are remains of the great edifices they conftrutft-
cd. From thence having refumed their courfe towards
th# S.S.E.they proceeedd to lat.29P. and flopped again
at 9 place upwards of 250 miles diftant from the city
of CKihuahua, towards the N. N. W. This place is
now known by the name of Cafe granJi, on account
of a very large building ftill extant, and univerfally
attributed to them by the traditions of the country.
It is conftru&ed on the plan of thofe of-New Mexico,
that is, confifting of three floors with a terrace above
them, and without any entrance to the under floor.
The door for entrance opens to the fecond floor ; fo
that a fealing ladder is neceflary : and the inhabitants of
New Mexico build in this manner, in order to be left
expofed to the attack of their enemies; putting out
the fealing ladder only for thofe to whom they give
admiflion into their houfes. No doubt the Aztecaa
had the fame motive for raifing their edifice on this
plan, as every mark of a fortreft is to be obferved in
it, being defended on one fide by a lofty mountain,
and the reft furrounded by a wall about feven feet
thick, the foundations of which are ftill exifting. In
this there are ftones as big as mill-ftones ; the beams
of .the roof are of pine, and well finiflied. In the
, centre is a little artificial mount, apparently conftruft-
ed with a defign to keep guard on, and obferve the
enemy. Some ditches have been formed in this place,
and feveral kitchen utenfils found, as earthen pots,
difhes, and jars, with fome looking-glafies made of a
(tone called itztli.
The Atzecas having {laid here as long as they
thought
M E X
e I7.
S?p->.ration
of the
t»ibes.
thought proper, crofled the mountains of Tarahu-
mara, directed their courfe fouthward, and ftopped
again for three years at Culiacan, a place fituated on
the gulf of California, in 24 degrees north latitude.
Here they formed a wooden image of a god called
HmtzVopochtli, whom they imagined to be their tute¬
lar deity, and made a chair of reeds and rulhes to
tranfport it, calling this vehicle the chair of God.
Four priefts were ehofen, to carry the image on their
(houlders, whom they called the fervants of God; and
the aft of carrying it they name teomama, which fig-
nifies “ to carry God on one’s back”
The Aztecas, when they left their original habita¬
tions, were divided into fix tribes ; but here the Mex¬
icans were left with their god by five of them. viz. the
Xochimiicas, Tepanecas, Chaleefe, Tlahuicas, and
t 637 1
M E X
the king of a petty Hate named Colhuacan : but there Me*:ce\
are different accounts of the manner in which it was v
effected. Some fay that this prince, unwilling to
allow the Mexicans to maintain themfelves in his ter¬
ritories without paying tribute, made war upon them,
fubdued and enflaved them. Others affirm, that, pre¬
tending compafiion for their miferable fituation, he
offered them a more commodious place of refidence.
The Mexicans accepted the offer with great pleafure ;
but had fcarcely fet out to take poffellion of their
new place of refidence when they were attacked by
the Colhuans, made prifoners, and carried off for fiaves. 20
After fome years a war broke out betwixt the Col-They re-
huans and Xochimiicas; in which the latter gainedc®ln
fuch advantages, that they were obliged to employ d
their flaves to affid them. They accordingly orderedquenceof
Tlafcalans. The caufe of this feparation is not known, them to prepare for war, but without furnifhing themaniondroua-
The tribes juft mentioned pretend that it was done at
the exprefs command of God ; but there can be little
doubt that it was occafioned by fome difagreement
among themfelves. This is rendered farther probable,
when we confider that on their journey towards Tula,
the remaining tribe was divided into two violent fac¬
tions, w'hich alternately perfecuted one another : nei¬
ther did they afterw-ards conftrudt any more edifices.
However, they always travelled together, in order to
enjoy the company of their imaginary God. At eve¬
ry place where they ftopped an altar was ere&ed to
him ; and at their departure they left behind them all
their fiek, and probably alfo fome others to take care
of them, or fuch as were not willing to endure the
fatigue of farther journeys,
nine years, and eleven more
At laft, in 1216, they arrived at Zumpanco, a confi-
derable city in the vale of Mexico, where they were
received in a very hofpitable manner by the lord of
that diftrkft. He not only affigned them proper ha-
..Jth arms neceffary for a military enterprife ; fo that Piec® °f
the Mexicans were obliged to content themfelves withcrue t^*
long ftaves, having their points hardened in the fire :
they alfo made knives of the ftone itztli, and fhields of
reeds woven together. They agreed among them¬
felves not to wafte their time, as was ufual, in making
prifoners, but to content themfelves with cutting off
one ear of their enemies, and then leaving them with¬
out farther injury. They adhered pun&ually to this
refolution ; and rufhing furioufly upon the Xochimil-<
cas, cut off an ear from as many as they could, kill¬
ing thofe who ftruggled to fuch a degree, that they
could not effe£t their purj ofe. In fhort, fo well did
the Mexicans acquit themfelves in this engagement.
They ftopped in Tula that the Xochimiicas not only abandoned the field,
the neighbouring parts, but were obliged to take refuge among the moun¬
tains. After the battle, the Colhuan foldiers pre-
fented themfelves before their general with the prifon¬
ers they had taken ; for it was by the number of thefe,
not of the enemy left dead on the field, that they
bitations, but became very much attached to them ; judged of their valour. The Mexicans had taken only
18
The Mexi-
demanded from among them a wife for his
fon Ilhuicatl. This requeft was complied with ; and
from this marriage all the Mexican kings defeended.
The Mexicans continued to migrate from one place
to another along the lake of Tezcuco. Xoltotl, who
was then on the throne of the Acolhuans or Chiche-
mechas, allowed them to fettle in whatever places of
his dominions they thought proper; but fome of them
finding themfelves haraifed by a neighbouring lord.
four, and thefe they kept concealed for the abominable
purpofe of facrificing them. The Colhuans, there¬
fore, feeing no trophies of their valour, began to re?
proach them with cowardice ; but the Mexicans, pro¬
ducing their bafkets of ears, defired them to judge
from thefe how many prifoners they might have taken,
had they not been unwilling to retard their victory by¬
taking up time in binding them.
Notvvithftanding the valour difplayed by the Mexi-
obliged, in 1 245, to retire to Chapoltepec, a cans in this engagement, it doth not appear that their
mountain on the weftern borders of the lake, fcarce
two miles diftant from the fite of Mexico. This took
place in the reign of Nopaltzin ; when, as has alrea¬
dy been obferved, difturbances began to take place in
the- Acolhuan dominions. The Mexicans, however,
did not find themfelves any more fecure in their new
place of refidence than formerly : they were perfecu¬
ted by the neighbouring loids, and obliged to take
refuge in a number of fmall ifiands, named Acocolco,
at the fonthern extremity of the lake of Mexica.
Here for 52 years they lived in the moft miferable
manner that can be imagined ; fubfifting on filh, in¬
fers, roots, &c. and clothing themfelves with the
leaves of the amoxtli, which abounds in that lake.
In this miferable plight the Mexicans continued
till the year 1314, when they were all reduced to a
ftate of the moft abfolute flavery. This was done by
haughty mafters were in the leaft mollified or incli¬
ned to afford them eafier terms than before. Having
eredled an altar to their god, they demanded of their
lord fomething precious to offer in facrifice to him ; but
he in difiiain fent them a dirty cloth, inclofing the filthy
carcafe of a vile bird. This was carried by Colhuau
p.iefts ; and without any ceremony laid upon the al¬
tar. The Mexicans, with apparent unconcern, re¬
moved this filthy offering, and put in its place a knife
made of itztli, and an odoriferous herb. On the day
of confecration, the Colhuan prince failed not to at-
tend with his nobility ; not v/ith a view to do honour
to the feffival, but to make a mockery of the Mexicans. Mexk a.
Their derifion, however, was foon changed into hor¬
ror, when the Mexicans, after a folemn dance, brought
forth the four Xochimilcan prifoners they had taken ;
and, after having made them dance a little, cut open
them
'M E X
r 638 i
M E X
' Mexico. • their treads with the knife which lay on the altar,
and plucking out their hearts, offered them, while yet
warm and palpitating with life, to their dia!)olical idol.
This horrible facrifice had fuch an effeft upon the
fpeifators, that both king and fubjefts defired the
Mexicans immediately to quit their territories and go
where they pleafed. This order was inftantly obeyed :
“the whole nation took their rout towards the north,
until they came to a place named Acatzlt%intlan> fitu-
a*ted betwixt two lakes, and afterwards named Mexi-
call%inco ; but for fome reafon or other, being difcon-
tented with this fituation, as indeed they feem very
often to have been, they proceeded to Ixtacaho, ftxll
nearer to the fite of Mexico. Here they formed the
image of a little mountain of paper, and danced round
it a whole night, finging their victory over the Xo-
chimilcas, and returning thanks to their god for ha¬
ving freed them from the yoke of the Colhuas. Cla-
vigero is of opinion, that by this mountain they re-
prefented Colhuacan, as in their pi&ures it was al¬
ways reprefented by a hunch-backed mountain ; and
>11 this is the literal fignification of the name.
'They fettle Having {laid two years in Iztacalco, they came to
the^ifland- 3 P^ace on ^ie wliere they found a nopal or opini¬
on which grow>ng in a ftone, and over it the foot of an
. Mexic* eagle. All the Mexican hiftorians fay that this was
-was built, the mark given them by their oracle of the place where
they were finally to fettle. Here, theft, they put an
end to their wanderings ; and, as foon as they had ta¬
ken pofTeffion of the fpot, an altar was ere fled to the
god, or rather devil, whom they worihipped. The
altar was confecrated in a manner conformable to the
cruel religion which thefe people had adopted. Ha¬
ving at that time no prifoners among them, one of
their number vent out in tjueft of fome animal for a
viflim ; but happening to meet with a Colhuan, a
•quarrel enfued ; and the Mexican proving viflorious,
bound his enemy, brought him home, and prefented
his heart to the idol. Around this altar they now be-
,gan to build their habitations; which, like the cele¬
brated city of Rome, confifted at firft of a parcel of
miferaMe ru(h huts ; as they were then furnifhed with
no better materials. Their city, if fuch it might be
called, was named Temchtltlan, and afterwards Mexuo,
which name afterwards prevailed ; and, according to
Clavigero, fignifies the place of Mexitli or Huit%ilopochtU,
their god of war: and in this refpeft alfo the found¬
ing of Mexico was fimilar to that of Rome, the latter
being proteffed by Alars their god of war, as the
Mexicans were by Mextili.
Tliew mi- The city of Mexico was founded in the year 1325,
(ferable fi u-in the moft incommodious fituation we can imagine,
.ationat viK on a fmall ifland named Tenochtitlan, in the riiid-
ir ' die of a great lake, without ground to cultivate for
their fubfiitence, or even room fufiicient to build their
habitations. Their life was therefore as miferable here
for fome time as it had been when they were on the
iflands at the end of the lake, and they were reduced
to the fame fh’fts to maintain themfelvcs. To enlarge
1 he*fcoundaries of their ifland, they drove palifades in¬
to thofe parts of the water which were moil (hallow,
terracing them with ftones and turf, and uniting to
their principal ifland feveral other fmaller ones which
lay in the neighbourhood. To procure to themfclves
afterwards ftones, wood, &c. for conflrinfting their
habitations, as well as clothing and other neceflaries, Mexico,
they inl?ituted a commerce with the people who dwelt r*-4-
on the borders of' the lake, fupplying them with fifti,
water-fowl, and other more minute inhabitants of the
lake and rtiarfhes, which they contrived to tender eat¬
able; and in return for all this they received the necef-
faries above-mentioned. The greateft effort of their
induftry, however, was the conftniftion of floating
gardens, by means of bufties and mud of the lake ;
and thefe they brought to fuch perfection that they pro¬
duced maize, pepper, chia, French beans, and gourds.
For thirteen years that the Mexicans had to ftruggle The two
with extreme difficulty, they remained at peace ;‘but
no fooner did they begin to profper and live comfort-
ably, than the inveterate enmity betwixt the two
faCtiorre formerly mentioned broke out in all its fury.
This produced a feparation ; and one of the parties
took up their refidence on a fmall ifland at a little dif-
tance to the northward, which, from an heap of fan’d
found there, they at firft named Xa/tilolto, but after¬
wards "riatclolco, from a terrace conftruCled by them-
felves. This ifland was afterwards united to that of
Tenochtitlan.
About this time the Mexicans divided their city
into four parts, a divifion which ftill fubfifts ; each
quarter having now its tutelar faint, as it had for¬
merly its tutelar god. Iti the midft of their city
was the fanCtuary of their great god Mexitli, whom
they conftautly preferred to all the reft. To him
they daily performed aCts of adoration : but inftead
of making any progrefs in humanity, they feero to
have daily improved in the moft horrible barbarities,
at leaft in their religion. The dreadful facrifices Monftrotw
made of their prifoners already mentioned, could cnly l>arharuy<^i
be exceeded by that which we are now about to re-'1^ rel1'
late. Being bow on a more refpeClable footing than ^lon"
formerly, they fent an embaffy to the petty king of
Colhuacan, requefting him to fend them one of his
daughters, that (he might be confecrated the mother
of their protefting god. The unfufpe&tng prince,
intoxicated with the thoughts of having his daughter
made a goddefs, readily citnplied with their defirc.—
The unfortunate princefs was conducted in great tri¬
umph to Mexico; but no fooner was (he arrived,
than (he was facrificed in the (hocking manner above
related; and, to add to the horror of the deed, the
body was flayed, and one of the braveft young men
of the nation dreffed in her (kin. Her father, igno¬
rant of this dreadful tranfaCtion, was invited by the
Mexicans to be prefent at the apotheofis of his daugh-.
ter, and went to fee the foleftinity, and to worftiip the
new divinity. He was led into the fanCliiary, where
the young man ftood clothed in the bloody (km
of his daughter 5 but the darknefs of the place pre¬
vented him from feeing what was before him. They
gave him a cenfer in his hand, and fome copal to
begin his worfliip j but having difeovered by the flame ,
of the copal the horrible fpeftacle, he ran out in a
diftraCted manner, calling upon his people to re¬
venge the injury; but this they were not able to do
at that time nor ever after. Hiftorians are unani¬
mous, that this facrifice was perfqtmed at the exprefs'
command of the devil; and indeed in this inftance,
their credulity feems pardonable ; though Clavigero,
with more reafor, aferibes it to his priefts.
In
HEX r 639 1 M E X
Mexico. In the year i3?2 the Mexican government was
changed from an ariftocracy to a monarchy. At firft
they w^ere governed by 20 lords, of whom one had
an authority fuperior to the reft. This naturally fug-
gefted the idea of monarchy ;.and to this change they
were alfo induced by the contemptible ftate in which
their nation ftill continued, thinking that the royal
dignity would confer upon it a degree of fplendor
which otherwife it could not enjoy ; and that by
having one leader, they would be better able to op-
i ,6 pofe their enemies. Proceeding, therefore, to cleft
Acam pit- a king, the choice fell upon Acamapitzin, a man of
Bin the firft great eftimatioh among them, and defeended from
Mexico Opochtli a noble Atzecan, and ,a princefs of the royal
family of. Colhuacan. As he was yet a bachelor,
8 they attempted to negociate a marriage, firft with
the daughter of the lord of Tacuha, and then of
the king of Azcapozalco : but thefe proposals being
rejefted with difdain, they applied to Acolmiztli
lord of Coatlichan, and a defeendant of one of the three
Acolhuan princes ; who complied with their reqi eft,
and the nuptials were celebrated with great rejoicings.
Pie Tate- In the meantime., the Tlatelolcos, the natural ri-
:§lc«s aifo vals of the Mexicans, refolved not to be behind them
■boole a Jn ary thing which had the leaft appearance of aug-
Un^‘ menting the glory of their ftate. They likewife,
therefore, chofe a king ; hut not thinking proper to
choofe him from among themfelves, they applied to
the king of the Tepar.ecas, who readily fent them
his fon ; and he W'as crow ned firft king of TIatelolco
in 1553 In this the Tlatelolcos feem to have had
a. defign of humbling their rivals, as well as render¬
ing themfelves more refpeftable ; and therefor^ it is
probable, that they had reprefented the Mexicans as
wanting in that refpeft due to the Tepanecan mo¬
narch, as having elefted a king without his leave,
though at the fame time they were tributaries to
2g him. The confequence of this was, that he took a
Mexicans refolution. to double their tribute. Hitherto they
ppieflec'. had paid only a certain number of fifli and water¬
fowl ; but now they were ordered to bring alfo feve-
ral thoufands of fir and willow plants to be fet in the
roads and gardens of Azcapozalco, and to tranfport
to the court a great floating garden, w'hich pro¬
duced vegetables' of every kind known in Anahuac.
This being accomphihed with great difficulty, the
king commanded them next year to bring him ano¬
ther garden, with a duck and fwan in it both fitting
upon eggs; but fo, that on their arrival at Azcapo¬
zalco the brood might be ready to hatch. This
w-as alfo done ; and the prince had the fatisfaftion of
feeing the young birds come out of. the eggs. The
third year they were ordered to bring a live flag a-
]<Jng witha garden. This was more difficult than
any of the former talks ; becaufe they were obliged,
in order to hunt the flag, to go to the mountains of
the continent, where they .were in danger of falling
into the hands of their enemies; however, this alfo
was accomplilhed, and the defire of the king gratified.
In this manner the Mexicans were oppreffed for
no lefs than 50 years. They freed themfelves, how¬
ever, from all their difficulties by vigorous exertions,
abfurdly aferibing to the proteftion of that malevo¬
lent being whom they w'orlhipped the glory of every
deliverance. Acamapitzin governed this city, which
at that time comprehended the whole of his domi-' Mexico.-
nions, for 37 years in peace. His queen being bar- “■‘V***;
ren, he married another wife, but without abandon¬
ing the firft.; and thefe two, inftead of being rivals
to one another, lived together in the utmoft harmony;
the firft wife taking upon herfelf the charge of edu¬
cating Huit%Uihuitl, the fon of the fecond. He had,
befides, feveral children by other women, and one
named It%coatl, who afterwards proved one of the
heft and moft renowned kings who fat on the throne
of Mexico. He is faid alfo to have conquered four
conliderable cities; but Clavigero thinks he muft in
this only have been an auxiliary, it being very im¬
probable, that while he could fcarce maintain his
own teiritories, he Ihould think of foreign conquefts.
Acamapitzin died in 1389, greatly lamented by
the Mexicans, and his death was followed by an in¬
terregnum of four months. As the deceafed mo¬
narch had formally refigned his authority into the
hands of his nobles, it was neceflary that a new elec¬
tion Ihould take place ; and when this was done, the
choice fell upon Huitzilihuitl, the fon of Acama- HintzII-
pitzin. As he was ftill unmarried, it was refolvbd,hu!!l thefc*
if poffible, to procure him an honourable and advan-cond k*1*’
tageous match. With this view, a deputation of
nobility was fent to the king of Azcapozalco, re¬
queuing, in very humble terms, an alliance with one
of his daughters. The expreffions made ufe of by
thefe ambafladors are faid by our author to have
been particularly elegant in the Mexican language :
but it is difficult to underftand how a fpeeeh made
among a people ignorant cf the art of writing could
be particularly recorded at the interval of fome hun¬
dreds of years after. They are as follow: “ We be-
feech you, with the moft profound refpeft, to take
compaffion on our mailer and your fervant Huitzili-
huitl, confined among the thick rufhes of the lake.—.
He is without a wife, and we without a queen. 
Vouchfafe, Sir, to part with one of your jewels or
moft precious feathers. Give us one of your daugh¬
ters, who may come to reign over us in a country
which belongs to you.” '
This piece of oratory had fuch an effeft upon the Marries a
king, that he granted their requeft, and a Tepanecan dau*<t}ter °f *
princefs was condufted in great triumph to’ Mexico,
where the marriage was folemtiized with the utmoft aecans?^
joy. Though this princefs brought him a fon the
firft year of their marriage, the king, in order to
ftrengthen himfelf by frefh alliances, married alfo the
daughter of another prince, by whom ke had Monte-
auma lUmicamina, the. moft celebrated of all the Mexi¬
can kings.
We muft now return to . the hiftory of the Acol-Re!s‘> °f
huans, who at this time were governed by Techot-JechoVaIa
lala the fon of Quimatzin. For 30 years this prince
enjoyed an-uninterrupted tranquillity. This was in¬
terrupted by the revolt of Tzompan, prince of Xal-
tovan, and the laft of the family of Chiconquauhtli,
one of the three original Acolhuan princes, who had
drawn into his confpiracy the fovereigns of fix other
ftates. The king, out of refpeft to the quality of
the rebel, offered to pardon him if he would lay
down his arms; but Tzompan, confident of his
ftrength, rejefted the offer with contempt. The king-
was therefore obliged to fend an army againft him, >
3
M E X
M E X
[ 640 ]
m which the Tepanecans and Mexicans fenced as ,chotlala, which happened in 1406, the king of Ax- Mexica. ^
J auxiliaries. The war lafted only two months ; Tzom- capozalco, without making the ufual fubmiffions to the »
pan was defeated and put to death, along with feveral new king, to whom he was a feudatory, fet out for his
others of the principal rebels. The Mexicans, who own territories, with a view to llir up the other feu*
had behaved with great valour, returned in triumph datory prince* to rebellion. Having called to him
to their city, while Techotlala took feveral very pru- the kings of Mexico and Tlatleloco, he told them,
dent meafures to ftrengthen his government, prevent that Techotlala, who had long tyrannized over that
rebellions in future, and to augment the fplendor of country, being dead, he defigned to procure freedom
his throne. to the princes, fo that each might rule his own terri-
In confequence of the renown acquired in this -war tory entirely independent of the king of Acolhuacanj
by the Mexicans, and the advantages refulting from but for this purpofe he needed their afliftance, and
the alliance with the king of Azcapozalco, that trufted to their well known fpirit to take part with
people now began to be held in much higher eftima- him in the enterprife. He informed them likewife,
tion by their neighbours than before. They ex* that in order to enfure fuccefs, he would find means
tended their commerce, and in confequence of that, to unite other princes in the confederacy,
came to wear cotton inftead of the threads of the The new king of Acolhuacan, in the mean time*
wild-palm, which had formerly conftitmed their whole was employed in fettling the affairs of his kingdom,
drefs : but this gleam of profperity was foon over* and endeavouring to gain the good will of his fub*
taft, and they had to encounter a more inveterate je&s. The combination againft him was foon difco*
and formidable enemy than any that they had yet vered: but though Ixthlxochitl was defirous of head*
1 met with. This was Maxtlaton prince of Coyoacan, ing his army in perfon, he was diffuaded from fo do-
and fon to the king of Azcapozalco. Being of a ing by his courtiers; fo that the conduft of the wat
y cruel and revengeful temper, for which he was dread- was committed to his generals. To weaken the ene*
. ed even by his father, he refolved to refent the in- my, they ravaged the territories of fix revolted Hates j
dignity which he pretended to have been done to him but notwithftanding this, and the fuperior difcipline '
hy the marriage of his fifter to the king of Mexico, of the royal army, the war was carried on by the
The true caufe of his difpjeafure, however, was his rebels with great obftinacy, their armies being con¬
nate reign
ofTechot
Ida’s fon.
fear that the Tepanecan crown might devolve on .his ftantly recruited by frefh troops in proportion to their
filler’s fon by Huitzilihuitl; and to prevent this, he Ioffes. At lall, after three years of a ruinous war,
took the barbaroUs method of fending affaffins to mur* the king of Azcapozalco, finding that his refources
der his nephew. The king of Mexico was not then would at laft fail him, fued for peace ; but with a de-
able to refent the injury ; for though, by his marriage fign of accomplifhing by treachery what he had not
with the Tepanecan princdfs, the oppreffive tribute yet been able to do by force. His adverfary, equally
was taken off, and the Mexicans had only to pay a reduced with himfelf, confented to a peace', though
couple of ducks annually, by Way of acknowledging he knew very well that the Tepanecan prince intend*
the Tepanecan fuperiority, yet the one nation was far ed to obferve it no longer than fuited his purpofe. ^ j
from being in a condition to cope with the other.— In the year 1409 died Huitzilihuitl king of Mexi-Chimalpo*!
The barbarity of Maxtlaton was not unknown to his Co, who likewife left the right of elefting a fucceffor third 1
father ; but it is certain that he" did not refent it; and to the nobility. They made choice of his brother *
indeed there is great reafon to fuppofe that he took Chimalpopoca 5 and from thence it became an efla-
part with his fon in moft of his wicked enterprifes. blifhed law to choofe one of the brothers of the de-
As the Mexicans advanced in wealth and power, ceafed king, or if he had no brother's to ele<St one of
fo did their rivals the inhabitants of Tlatlelolco.— his grandfons. While the new prince was endeavour-
Their firft king died in 1399, leaving his fubjedts ing to fecure himfelf on the throne, the treacherous
greatly improved in civilization, and the city much Tezozomoc ufed all means in his power to ftrengthen
enlarged and beautified. The rivallhip which fub- the party he had formed againft the king of Acolhua-
fifted between the two cities had indeed greatly can. In this he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that
contributed to the aggrandizement of both. The the unfortunate prince found himfelf reduced to the
Mexicans had formed fo many alliances by marriage neceffity of wandering among the neighbouring moun-
With the neighbouring nations, had fo much impro* tains, at the head of a fmall army, accompanied by the
ved their agriculture, and floating gardens on the lords of Huexolta and Coatlichan, who remained al-
lake, and had built fo many more veffels to fupply ways faithful to him. The Tepartecahs diftreffed him
their extended commerce and filhing, that they were to fuch a degree, by intercepting his provifions, that
enabled to celebrate their fecular year, anfwering to he was forced to beg them of his enemies. One of Diftrefs and
A. D. 1402, with greater magnificence than they his grandfons was fent to Otompan, a rebel (late, to death of
had ever done fince they left their original countiy of requeft them to fupply their king with the provifions he th^o^"| ”1
Atztlan. ’ flood in need of, and to exhort them to abandon the ua'
All this time Techotlala continued to reign in caufe of the rebels, which they had efpoufed. No
Acolhuacan ; but being now very far advanced in talk could be more dangerous 5 yet fuch was the mag-
years, and finding his end approach, he called to him nanimity of the young prince’s difpofition, that he
his fon Ixtlilxochitl, and recommended to him to be- readily fet out on the journey ; nor was he deterred by
ware of the ambitious difpofition of the king of A z- the information he got that there were in the place cer-
capozalco, as he was apprehenfive that he might at- tain Tepanecans who had come on purpofe to publifh a
tempt fomething againft the peace of the empire, proclamation from Tezozomoc. He went boldly to the
His fufpicions were verified; for on the death of Te- moft public place of the town, and in prefence of thofe
N° 2x6. 4 wh$
M E X r 641 1
>• Vho publilhed the proclamation made known his re* ereft in a chaii
' queft. This heroifm, however, did not meet with
the fuccefs it deferved. His propolitions were derided
From the moment they were made ; but the people
did not offer any farther infult, until one of the mean-
M E S
In this miferable condition, how-
ever, he never forgot his tyranny nor cruelty. From
his cradle he iffued oppreffive laws relating to the A-
colhuacaus ; and almoft with his laft breath renewed
his commands with regard to Nezahualcojotl. At laft
er fort threw a ftone at him, exciting others of the lie expired in the year 1422, leaving the crown to his
fame ftamp to put him to death. The Tepanecans, fon Tajatzin.
who had hitherto continued filent, perceiving their op¬
portunity, joined in the general cry to kill the prince,
and began alfo to throw ftones. The prince attempted
firft to defend himfelf, and afterwards to efcape by
flight; but, both being equally impoffible, he fell un¬
der a fhower of ftones. The Tepanecans exulted in
this aft of treachery, and foon after cut ®ff Ixtlixo-
chitl himfelf, after having treacheroully perfuaded him
to a conference with two of their captains. This per¬
fidious aft was committed in fight of the royal army,
who were too weak to revenge it s the royal corpfe
s faved with difficulty ; and Nezahualcojotl, heir ap-
Tezezoihoc was no fooner dead than Maxtlaton, 3^
without paying the leaft regard to his father’s will, be-^c gj™"6
gan to exercife the functions of a fovereign. Though Maxtlatort.
it was the right of Tajatzin to invite to his father’s
funeral whom he pleafed, Maxtlaton took that upon
himfelf. Nezahualcajotl, though not invited, came
among the reft; but though Teuftzintli, brother to
Maxtlaton, infifted upon his being put to death, the
latter oppofed it, as it could not then be done private¬
ly, and he hoped to find another opportunity. No
fooner were the funeral ceremonies over, however,
than Maxtlaton behaved in fuch a manner to his bro- '
parent to the crown, was obliged to fhelter himfelf ther Tajatzin, that the prince thought proper to re-
quered by
Tezozo-
tnoc.
among the bufhes from the fury of his enemies.
Tezozomoc having now in a great meafure gained
his point, proceeded to pour down his troops upon
thofe cities and diftrifts which had remained faithful
to the late unfortunate monarch. The people made a
tire to Chimilpopoca king of Mexico, to whom he
had been particularly recommended by his father, in
order to have his advice. This monarch, agreeable to
the charafter of that age and people, advifed him to
invite his brother to an entertainment, and then mur-
moft defperate defence, and killed vaft numbers of der him. Unluckily for them both, this difeourfe was
their enemies ; but at laft being themfelves reduced by
the calamities of war, and in danger of total extermi¬
nation, they were obliged to quit their habitations
and fly to other countries. The tyrant, then, finding
himfelf fuperior to all his adverfaries, gave Tezcuco
in fief to Chimalpopoca king of Mexico, Huexotla to
Tlacacotl king of Tlateloko ; placing faithful gover-
overheard by a fefvant, who in expeftation of a reward
informed the tyrant of what he had heard: but in-
ftead of this, Maxtlaton, pretending to dilbelieve his
ftory, drove the informer from his prefence with igno¬
miny. Notwithftanding this pretence, the tyrant had
not the leaft doubt of the truth of what was told him;
and therefore determined to rid himfelf of his brother
nors in other places, and appointing Azcapozalco, the without delay. This he foon accompliflied in the very
capital of his own territory, the royal refidence and
capital of Acolhuacan.
Prince Nezahualcajotl was prefent in difguife at this
difpofal of his dominions, along with feveral other per-
Fons of diftinftion who were enemies of the tyrant;
and fo much was he tranfported with paffion, that it
was with difficulty he could be reftrained from killing
Tezozomoc on the fpot, though this would certainly
have been done at the expence of his own life. All
the reft of the Acolhuacan empire fubmitted; and Ne-
Zahualcojotl faw himfelf for the prefent deprived of all
hopes of obtaining the crown.
Tezozomoc had now attained the fummit of his am-
new fubjefts, opprefled them with new taxes ; and be¬
ing confcious of the precarious fituation in which he
flood, and tormented with remorfe on account of his
crimes, fell into melancholy, and was haunted with
frightful dreams. In one, he imagined that Nezahu¬
alcojotl, transformed into an eagle, had eat out hig
heart; and in another, that, in the ftiape of a lion,
he licked his body and fucked his blood. Terrified
by thefe vifions, he called his three fons, Tajatzin,
Teuftzintli, and Maxtlafon, enjoining them to put to
death Nezahualcojotl as foon as they could get it done
without being" publicly known. He himfelf fumved
his dreams only about a year.- He was now become
Histyran- bition i but inftead of conciliating the minds of his by his abfence at this time, ft was only to perifti in a 40
dcatfi,
fame way that had been projefted againft himfelf.
Tajatzin, along with the king of Mexico, Tlatelolco,
and fome other feudatory princes, were invited by
Maxtlaton to an entertainment. The king of Mexico
prudently excufed himfelf,. but the unfufpefting Ta¬
jatzin fell into the fnare. He came to the place of
entertainment, and was inftantly put to death. The Tajawin
company were greatly alarmed; but Maxtlaton, having murdered,
explained to them his reafons ,for fo doing, they, not
only excufcd him, but proclaimed him king; to which
it is not to be doubted that their fears greatly contri¬
buted.
Though the king of Mexico efcaped a fudden death
y his abfence at this time, ft was only to perifli in a
more flow and ignominious manner. The vengeance Miferable
of Maxtlaton firft appeared by fending him a woman’s [a.te offt:he
drefs in return to the prefent he fent him as a feuda- Mexico,
tory ; which being a refleftion upon his courage, was
the higheft affront that could be offered him. This
infult, however, was quickly followed by one of a
much higher nature. Having heard that one of the
Mexican princes’s wives was an extraordinary beauty,
he enjoined fome Tepanecan ladies, who were accu-
ftomed to vifit that princefs, to invite her to fpend
fome days with them at Azcapozalco. This being
complied with, the tyrant eafily got- an opportunity
of ravilhing her, and then fent her back to her buf¬
fo old, that his body no -longer retained its natural band. Chimilpopoca was fo much affefted by this
heat. He was therefore obliged to be covered up
with .cotton in a great cradle, not being able to fit
V01*. XI. Part II.
misfortune, that he refolved to offer himfelf up a fa-
crifice to his god. Maxtlaton, however, was refolved
4^ that
He isviGt-
ed in pri
fpn by Na-
zahualca-
Jotl.
M E X [64
that lie ihould not have even tins fat’sfuction. At
the very time cf the ceremony therefore he fent a bo¬
dy of troops ; who entering Mexico without refiftance,
carried off the king alive, to the aftonifhment of the
multitude ; and who probably were fo much confound¬
ed by this unexpected adventure, that they did not
think of making any refinance.
Chimilpopoca being carried prifoner to Azcapozal-
co, was confined in a ftrong wooden cage, the com¬
mon prifon for criminals. Maxtlaton ftill was not fa-
tisfied : he wifhed to get into his hands Nezahual-
eajotl; and with this view fent a meffage to him, pre¬
tending that he was willing to come to an agreement
with him refpe&ing the kingdom of Acolhuacan.
'Though the prince was well affured of the tyrant’s
treacherous intentions,, he went boldly to his palace,
prefented himfelf before him, and told him that he
had heard of the imprifonraent of the kingof Mexico;
he had heard alfo that he wiihed to take away his
own life ; he defired him to do fo, and to gratify his
malice. Maxtlaton was fo ftruck with this fpeech,
that he affured the prince he had not formed any de-
fign againft bis life ; and that he neither had put to
death the king of Mexico, nor would do fo. He
then gave orders for his being properly entertained,
and even allowed him to pay a vilk to the king of
Mexico in prifon. The unfortunate Chimilpopoca,
after reciting his misfortunes, requefted the prince
not to return to court, where they would certainly
fall upon fome projeft for taking away his life; and
having pathetically recommended to him the care of
his fubjefts, made him a prefent of a gold pendant and
fome other jewels he wore; after which they took a
laft farewell.
Chimilpopoca languilhed in prifon for fome little
time after the departure of Nezahualcajotl; but life
became at laft; fo intolerable to him, that he hanged
himfelf in his girdle. His voluntary death, in fpite of
all that the tyrant had done to prevent it, fo exafpe-
rated the latter, that he refolved upon the death of the
prince at all events, whether in the way recommended
by his father or not; to which it is not improbable that
he was likewife inftigated to this by certain predictions
of the priefts. He fent out four captains, therefore,
with a fmall party of troops, in queft of the fugitive
prince, with orders to kill him as foon as they over-
stook him. Tbefe meffengers of death fet out dired¬
ly for Tezcuco, where tire prince happened to be at
that time playing at foot-ball; for he fpent great part
of his time in fuch diverfions, that he might remove
all fufpicions of his afpiring to the throne ; and thus
he had an opportunity of carrying on his negociations
without moleftation. As he knew the errand on which
the Tepanecan captains came, he left off his play on
their appearance, and retired to his inner apartment.
On being informed that they inquired for him, he
fent for anfvver that he would1 wait upon them after
they had repofed and refrefhed themfelv.es. The prince
made ufe of this opportunity to (quit the houfe, and
retire by a fecret door ; or, according to Torquema-
da, by a kind of labyrinth which he had conftruded,
and through which none but himfelf knew the way.
He then fled to Coatlichan, a fmall fettlement of wea¬
vers, who were all exceedingly attached to him. He
was purfaed thither by the affallins, who had been
a ] M E X
informed by a countryman of the road lie had taken : Mexico*
but fuch was the inviolable fidelity of the inhabitants,  /-•-J
that feverail of them fuffered themfelves to be put to
death rather than difcover the place of his conceal¬
ment. Leaving this place, therefore, they went thro*
the country in queft of him; and no fooner were they
gone, than the prince fet out in a way diretftly con¬
trary to that which they had taken. Being purfued in
all directions, however, he was in the utmoft dam-
ger, and would once have been made, prifoner if
fome countrymen had not concealed him under an
heap of chia. Having efcape.d this danger, he went
to a pleafant villa at Tezcotzinco, belonging to his
anceftors; where he was met by fix lords who had
left their ftates. Having confulted with them, it was
determined to apply to the Chalcefe, although they
knew that they were an unfaithful and treacherous
people, and had been concerned in the death of the
late xing. He was then met by ambaffadors from the
Cholulans, who offered him their afliftance againft the
ufurper. In a ihort time he was j sided by nunjbers
of others ; fo that he was not only no longer in danger
of his life, but began to be formidable to his enemies.
In the mean time, the Mexicans, who had fuffered
many injuries fince the death of Chimilpopqca, raifed
to the throne Itzcoatl, the fon of Acamapitzin by 3i,ZCoitlraJ,
Have, and who was accounted the moft prudent, juft, fed to the
and brave, of all the Mexican nation. His eledfion throne of
was no lefs pleafing to Nezahualcajotl and his party, lV^xlc2-’„
than it was offenfive to Maxtlaton. An alliance was
quickly concluded between the exiled prince and the cajotl,
king of Mexico ; and this was foon followed by •'the
commencement of hoftilities on the part of the former.
His fir ft enterprife was againft the city of Tezcuco,
which he determined to take by affault, but was pre¬
vented by the fubmiffion of the inhabitants. He put
to death, however, all the officers eftabliftied by the
tyrant; and all the Tepanecans he found there. The
very fame day another large city named Acolman was
furioufly attacked by a detachment of his army; great
numbers put to the fword, and among the reft the go¬
vernor, who was brother to Maxtlaton ; and the fame
day alfo Coatlichan was taken by the Chalcefe.
The Mexican monarch, hearing of the fucceffes of his
ally, fent an embaffy to congratulate^Trim upon them.
His ambaffador was a fon ofking Huitzilihuitl, named
Montezuma, who for his invincible courage and- great
qualities was furnamed the man of great heart and the Dangerous.
archer of heaven. The journey was extremely dange-embalTy
rous; but Montezuma undertook it without any fear,un‘lerra^cia.
accompanied by another nobleman. They got in fhfety ^[^ontc“
to the place where the prince was; but had the misfor¬
tune to be taken prifoners, and were carried to Chaleo;
the lord.of which city, named Toteotzin, was an invete¬
rate enemy to the Mexicans. By him he was imme¬
diately put in cldfe confinement, under the care of one
Quateozin, who was inviolably attached to the Mexi¬
can intereft. Orders were given to the latter to pro¬
vide no fuftenance for the prifoners but what was pre-
feribed by his lord, until the mode of death, which,
they w.ere to fuffer ftiould be determined- Toteot¬
zin then, with, a view to flatter the Huexotzincas, fentc
his prifoners to them, that they might be facrificed?
there if they thought proper. Thefe people, however*
jeje&ed the propofal with difdain; on which Toteot-
ii%
M E X.
[ 643 1
M E X
Me*5co, 2’n, thinking to regain the favour of Maxtlaton, not-
^ v  withftanding his treachery in abandoning his caufe,
informed him of the prisoners he had in his poffe'fiion.
But Maxtlaton (whofe charafter feems not to deferve
all the reproaches with which it js loaded) called him
a double-minded traitor, and commanded him inftantly
to fet the prifoners at liberty. Before this anfwer ar-
ed the king to allow them to retire from their city, of Me*;
which they fuppofed the ruin to be certain. The king \T
encouraged them with the hopes of viftory. “ But if
we are conquered (replied they), what will become
of us ?” “ If that happens (anfwered the king), we
are that moment bound to deliver ourfelve* into your
hands, to be made facrifices at your pleafure.*’ “ Be it
rived, however, Quateozin had inftrufted the prifon- fo (replied they), if we are conquered 5 but if we ob-
ers how to make their efcape, and direfted them alfo tain the viftory, we and our defcendants are bound to
not to return by land left they fhould again be inter- be tributary to you ; to cultivate your lands and thofe
'of your nobles ; to build your houfes; and to carry
for you, when you go to war, your arms and bag¬
gage."
cepted, but to embark at a certain place, and proceed
by water to Mexico. They followed his advice ex¬
actly ; and having got to the place to which they were
directed, arrived fafely at their city, to the great fur- Matters being thus fettled, intelligence was fent to He it de-
prife and joy of the inhabitants. prince Nezahualcajotl to repair with his army to Mexi-feared and
Toteotzin, enraged at the lofs of his prifoners, put co, which he did without delay ; and the day after his^1'6^
Quateozin to a cruel death, deftroying alfo all his fa- arrival a furious engagement took place. The Tepa-
' necan army was commanded by a general named il/tf-
xatl; Maxtlaton himfelf not judging it proper to quit
his capital. The foldiers on both fides fought with
the utmoft bravery; but towards night the Mexicans,
diflieartened by feeing the army of their enemies con¬
tinually increafing in number, began once more to
0 t lo/e their courage and talk of furrendering. The
prince. The Mexican populace, terrified at engaging king, greatly concerned, alkedMontezuma what fliould
nmy excepting one fon and a daughter; of whom the
45 latter fled to Mexico, where Are was highly honoured
Maxtlaton on her father’* account. Maxtlaton, too, notwith-
wa^againft ^an^'n£ ^is generofxty to the prifoners (which Clavi-
Mexico. gero derives from mere oppofition to Toteotzin), pre¬
pared to wage a formidable war with the Mexicans,
who had agreed to unite their troops with thofe of the
fo powerful an enemy, demanded that their king fliould
fubmit and beg for peace. So great was the tumult,
it required the utmoft exertions of Montezuma’s elo¬
quence to perfuade the people to agree to a com¬
mencement of hoftilities. This being done at laft, the
king next called together the chief nobility, and afked
be done to diflipate the fears of the people ? That
„ . brave prince replied, that they muft fight till death ;
that the king himfelf was obliged to confent; and that if they died with their arms in their hands, it
would be honourable; but to furvive their defeat,
would be eternal ignominy. Nothing could be more
falutary than this advice at fo critical a juncture : for
„ „ ,. the Mexicans were already begun to implore the mer-
which of them would have the courage to carry an cy of their enemies, and to promife to facrifice their
embafly to the king of the Tepanecans ? This adven- chiefs, whofe ambition had brought the whole nation
lure appeared fo hazardous, that all of them kept a into fuch a dilemma. On hearing this, the whole
deep filence until Montezuma declared himfelf willing body of nobility, with the king and Montezuma at
to undertake the arduous enterprife. He was ordered their head, afiaulted the enemy fo furioufly, that they
to propofe peace to Maxtlaton, but to accept of no repulfed them from a ditch of which they had taken
difhonourable conditions; to which he punctually ad- pofleffion ; after which, Montezuma, happening to co¬
hered. Maxtlaton refufed to give any immediate am- counter Mazatl the Tepanecan general, ftruck him
fwer, but promifed to give one next day, after he had fuch a blow on the head that he fell down lifelefs.
confulted his nobility. Montezuma, dreading feme Thus the Mexicans were infpired with frefti courage,
treachery if he ftaid all night, promifed to return next and their enemies proportionally difpirited: however,
day ; which he did, and was told that Maxtlaton had they retired for that night to the city, in fome hopes of
determined upon war. Montezuma then performed being able to retrieve their fortune next day. Maxtlaton
encouraged them by every method in his power ; but
fortune proved ftill more unfavourable than the day
’T'„—  i , r . ;
the ceremony of challenging him, by prefenting him
with certain defenfive weapons, anointing his head,
and fixing feathers upon it, as was cuftomary to do before. The Tepanecans were now entirely defeated,
with dead perfons. Laftly, he protefted, in the name and the city of Azcapozalco taken. Maxtlaton, who
of his matter, that as Maxtlaton would not accept of feems not to have had the courage to fight, had not
the offered peace, he and all the Tepanecans would in- now the prefence of mind to fly. He attempted in¬
fallibly be ruined. Maxtlaton flmwed not the leaft deed to hide himfelf; but being quickly difeovered,
fign of difpleafure, but gave Montezuma arms in like he was beaten to death with flicks and ftones. The
manner to prefent to the king of Mexico ; and diredl- city was plundered, the inhabitants butchered, and
cd him, for his perfonal fecurity, to return in difguife the houfes deftroyed by the victors.
through a fmall outlet from the palace. Montezuma This victory proved decifive in favour of the confe--r. ^7
followed his advice; but as foon as he found himfelf derates. Every other place of ftrength in the c o u n t r y necaris en*"
out of danger, began to infult the Tepanecan guards ; was quickly reduced, until the Tepanecans, finding rirely reflu-
and though they ruflied violently upon him, he not themfelves on the verge of deftru&ion, fent an humble ced.
only efcaped from their attacks, but killed one or two embaffy to the king of Mexico, requefling to be taken
under his prote&ion, and to become tributaries to
of them.
On his return to Mexico, J:he populace were again
thrown into the utmoft confternation by the news
him. Itzcoatl received them gracioufly; but threat¬
ened them with total extirpation if they violated the
that war was inevitable, as the chiefs of the two na- fidelity they had fworn to him. Thus the whole Te-
tions had challenged one another. They now requeft-
panecan nation was fubje&ed to the Mexicans, 1
M 2 cepting
M E X [ 644
Mexico, ceptiilg only the Hate and city of Cojohuacan, which
continued refra£lory for a confiderable time.
Itzcoatl, after this extraordinary-fuccefs, took care
to have the above mentioned contrail ratified between
the nobility and common people, by which the-latter
were bound to perpetual fervices. Thofc who had
difcouraged the foldiers in time of battle were banifhr
td for ever from the ftate of Mexico ^ while Monte¬
zuma and others who had diftinguifhed themfelves by
their bravery, were rewarded with lands, as was ufual
with other conquerors.
48 Itzcoatl, now finding himfelf firmly feated on the
Nezahua'. throne of Mexico, fet about performing his engage-
•ff^ments to the Acolhuacan prince, by feating him on
colhuacan. ^ throne of his anceftors. Having again joined their
armies, they marched againft Huaxotla, a city which
refufed to fubmit even though terms of pardon were
offered them. Inftead of this, they rafhly ventured a
battle, in which they were entirely defeated; and were
then fain to fend a deputation of their old men, preg¬
nant women, &c. as was cuftomary in cafes of diilrefs,
to move the enemy to compafiion. At laft all ob-
ilacles being removed, Nezahualcajotl was feated
on the throne of Acolhuacan, the auxiliary troops
wTere difmifTed, and Itzcoatl left at liberty to purfuehis
conquelts, in which he was ftill affifted by the king
of Acolhuacan. The firll expedition was againtt Co¬
johuacan and other two Tepanecan cities, who had
not only refufed fubmiffion themfelves, but excited
others to flrake off the yoke alfo. The War againft
them proved bloody. Three battles were fought, in
Conquefts which Itzcoatl gained no other advantage than making
of the the enemy retreat a little ; but in the fourth, while
Mexican?, the two arsries were hotly engaged, Montezuma, with
a body of §hofen troops, which he had placed in am-
bufcade, attacked the rear-guard of the rebels with
fuch vigour, that'they were foon difordered, and ob¬
liged to fly to the city. The conquerors purfued them
thither; and Montezuma perceiving that they intend¬
ed to fortify themfelves in the greater temple, fruftra-
ted their defign by getting pofieffion of it and burn¬
ing the turret. By this difafter they were fo much
terrified, that they fled to the mountains fouth of Co¬
johuacan ; but even there the royal army overtook
and purfued them more than 30 miles, till they came
to another mountain, where, quite exhaufted with fa¬
tigue, and feeing no means of efcape, they were ob¬
liged to furrender at difcretion.
Having thus happily accomplifhed the conquefl: of
Cojohuacan and the other rebellious cities, the two
kings returned to Mexico. Itzcoatl gave great part
of the Tepanecan country to Totoquilmatiin, with the
title of king of Tacuba, a grandfon of Tezozomoc,
but who does not appear to have been any way con-
50 cerned in his projects againft the Mexicans. An al-
] M E X
cuba and Acolhuacan were both declared honorary Mexico
eleftors of the kings of Mexico ; the.real;electors be-  v——
ing four nobles: and the king, of Mexico was likewife
bound to aflift in. the wars, of his allies whenever it
was demanded..
After having thus-fettled matters among themfelves,
and rewarding their foldiers, Itzcoatl fet out with Tie:
zahualcajotl for, Tezcuco, where the Acolhuacan king
was crowned with all poffible ceremony,,. Here the
new king took every method which prudence could
fuggeft to eftablilh, his authority on a permanent ba-
fis ; but while he was thus employed, the. Xochi,
milcas, fearing left the Mexicans might conquer their
country as they had done that of the Tepanecans, held
a council on what was to be done to prevent fuch a
difgrace.. In this council it was determined to com¬
mence hoftilities agamft that rifing ftate, before it
fliould become more formidable by new conquefts.
Itzcoatl was no fooncr informed of this determina- Other,con*-
tion, than he fent Montezuma with,, a great army qutfts.
againft them. The Xochimilcas met him with one
ftill more numerousbut being worfe difciplined, they
were quickly defeated, and their city, taken in a very
fliort time after. This conqueft was followed by the
redu&ion of Cuitlahuac, fituated on a fmall ifland on.
the lake of Chaleo. Their insular fituation gave them-,
confidence to attack the formidable power of the
Mexicans. The king was fo fenfible of the difficulty
of this enterprife, that he propofed to attack, them
with the whole force of the alliance: Montezuma,,
however, with only a fmall number of men of his own
training, whom he-furnifhed with proper veffels, re¬
duced them in feven days.
Thefe conquefts were followed by the redmftion of.
the cities of Quauhnahuac, Quantitlan, and Toltitlan; ,
the firft of which was fo ftrong, that Itzcoatl was ob¬
liged to call in his allies to his affiftance. In fhort, in
the fpace of twelve years, Mexico, from being i con¬
temptible and tributary ftate, became able to com¬
mand thofe whom it had formerly ferved, and who
thought, themfelves very much fuperior in every re-
fpe&. _ 5%
Itzcoatl died in the year 145$, at a very advancedMc>i teza-
age, in the height of profperity, and was fucceedcd ma I. king.
by Montezuma i. the greateft monarch that ever fat Mex-
on the Mexican throne. Before his coronation, inlC0'
order to comply with the barbarous rices of his reli¬
gion, he made war upon the Chalcefe in order to pro¬
cure the prifoners who were to be facrificed at his
coronation ; and fcarce was this ceremony over, than
a new war commenced, which terminated in the de-
ftrudlion of that city. This quarrel happened be¬
tween the Chalccfe and the Tezcucans. Two of. the
royal princes of Tezcuco having gone a-hunting on
the mountains which overlook the plains of Chaleo,
liance was then formed among the three kings on the while employed in the chace, and feparated from their
following terms: The king of Tacuba held his crown retinue, with only three Mexican lords, fell in with
of Mexfco on condition of ferving the king of Mexico with all a troop of Chalcefe foldiers; who, to gratify the
Acolhua- ‘ his troops, at any time when required; for which he cruelty of their mafter, carried them all prifoners to
^ ’ ■■ ■' ■> - ' Chaleo. The cruel and inconfiderate tyrant who com¬
manded there inftantly put them all to death ; after
which he caufed their bodies to be faked, dried, and
placed in an hall of his palace, where they ferved as
lupporters to the pine torches burned there for ligkt
every evening. The king of Tezcuco, overwhelmed
with
in, and was to have a fifth part of the fpoils taken-from the
Tej-aneca. The king of Acolhuacan was likewife to af-
fift the king of Mexico in war ; and for this he was to
have a third part of the plunder, after dedudting the
ftiare of the king of Tacuba ; and the remainder was
to belong to the king of Mexico. The kings of Ta-
54
Tlate'oco
reduced,
and Mo-
made king.
55
Atonalwin
defeated,
and the
Mexican
dominions
enlarged.
M E X [ 6+5 1 M E X
with grtefj and to the lait degree exafperated at fach caufe. The conqueft of Cuctlachtlan or Cotajla, how- Mexico,
an inhuman a£t, called for the affiftance of the allied ever, which he attempted in 1457, proved a much v
kings. The city was attacked at once by land and water, more difficult tallc. This province lies on the coatl
'1 he inhabitants, knowing that they had no mercy to of the Mexican gulph, and had been formerly inha--
expeft, fought like men in defpair. Even the old ty- bited by the Olmecans, whom the Tlafcalans had
rant who commanded them, though unable to walk, driven out. The inhabitants were very numerous;
caufed himfelf to be carried in a litter among the but dreading the power of Montezuma, called in thofe
combatants ; notwithftanding which they were totally of Tiafcala, together with the Huexotzincas, to their
defeated, and the moft fevere vengeance executed up- affiftance. Along with thefe the allies drew the Cho-
on them. lulans alfo into the confederacy ; fo that this ap-
Montezuma, on his return, found himfelf obliged pears to have been the moft formidable combination
to encounter an enemy more formidable on account that had yet been formed againft the Mexican power,
of his vicinity, than more powerful ones at a diftance. Montezuma colle&ed an excellently equipped army ;
This was the king of Tlatelolco, who had formerly which, however, he did not on this occalion com-
confpired againft the life of Itzcoatl; and finding him- mand in perfon. It contained a great rfumber of per-
felf difappointed in this, had tried to reduce his power fons of very high rank, among whom were three
by entering into a confederacy with fome of the princes of royal blood, and Moquihui^\i\vi<g of Tlate-
neighbouring lords. At that time his defigns proved lolco already mentioned. The combination of the three
abortive, but he refumed them in the time of Monte- republics againft Mexico was not known at court
zuma; the confequence of which was, that he was when the army fet out; but Montezuma, being in-
defeated and killed. One Moquihuix was chofen in formed of it foon after, fent an order to his generals
his room; in whofe ele&ion it is probable that Mon- to return. This accorded fo ill with the romantic no-
tezuma had a confiderable ffiare. This was follow- tions of valour entertained by the Mexicans, that a
ed by conquefts of a much more important nature, confultation of the generals was held whether they
The province of Cuihtxcas, lying to the fouthward, ffiould obey it or not. At laft it was determined that
was added to his dominions, comprehending a tra6t the king’s order fhould be obeyed ; but no foonerwas
of country, more than 150 miles in breadth ; then, this agreed to than Moquihuix' accufed them all of
turning to the weltward, he conquered another na- cowardice, and threatened, with his own troops,
med .- zompahacuan. This fuccefs, however, was unaffifted, to go and conquer the enemy. His fpeech
for a Ihort time interrupted by a war with Atonalt- had fuch an eftedl upon them all, that they went to
An, lord of a territory in the country of the Mix- meet the confederates. The Cotaftefe fought with
tacas. This prince, puffed up on account of the great valour, but were unable to refill the royal forces;
great wealth he poffelfed, took it into his head that and their allies were almoft totally deftroyed. Six
he would allow no Mexican to travel through his thoufand two hundred of them were taken prifoners,
country. Montezuma fent ambaffadors to know the and foon after facrificed to the Mexican god of war
reafon of fuch ftrange condudl; but Atonaltzin gave in the barbarous manner already deferibed. The vic-
them no other anfwer than Ihowing them fome part tory was faid to have been owing principally to the
of his wealth, making a prefent to the king, and de- valour and good condudl of Moquihuix, infomuch that
firing him from thence to obferve how much the fub- to this day a fong made in his praife on that ocoafion
jedls of Atonaltzin loved him ; and that he willingly is known in Mexico. Montezuma was fo well pleafed
accepted of war, which was to determine whether he with the vidlory, that he not only forgave the dif- -
Ihould pay tribute to the Mexicans or the Mexi- obedience of his orders, but bellowed upon Moqui-
cans to him. Montezuma having informed his allies huix a princefs, one of his own coufins, to wife,
of this infolent anfwer, fent a confiderable army againlt The next exploit of this great warrior was the en-C|ia/4fe •
Atonaltzin, but had the mortification to be informed tire deftrudlion of the Chalcefe, whofe relllefs difpo- rtl'ef and
of its defeat; in confequence of which the pride of filion continually brought mifehief upon themfelves.are deltroy.]
Atonaltzin was incrcafed to a great degree. Monte- They had, it feems, formed a defign of making theired*
zuma, greatly chagrined at thisfirft check, determined city a rival to Mexico ; and with this view had taken
to head his next army in perfon ; but before he could prifoner one of the brothers of Montezuma himfelf,
call together another, Atonaltzin had drawn into a whom they attempted to make their fovereign abfo-
confederacy with him the Huexotzincas and Tlafca- lutely againft his own inclination. The prince, find-
lans, who were glad of the opportunity, as they fup- ing it irnpoffible to refill, pretended to comply with
ppfed, of reducing the power of the Mexicans. Their their willies ; but that the adl of exalting him to this
numbers, however, availed but little; Montezuma in dignity might,be more confpicuous, he defired them
the very firll engagement: totally defeated the confe- to plant in the market-place one of the higheft trees,
derate army. The allies of Atonaltzin were particu- and place a fcaffold upon it, from whence every body
larly unfortunate ; for fuch of them as were not kill- might fee him. This being done, the Mexicans who
ed in the field of battle, were dellroyed by their own had been taken along with him affernbled round the
party out of revenge for the unfortunate event of the tree ; and the prince having afeended the fcaffold with
t>attle- ... a bunch of flowers in his hand, addreffed thumto the
By this vi&ory the Mexican monarch became ma- following purpofe: “ Ye know well, my brave Mexi-
Her not only of the dominions of Atonaltzin, but of cans, that the Chalcefe wilh to make me their king ;
many other neighbquring princes, againit whom he but it is not agreeable to our god that I Ihould be-
made war on account of their having put to death tray our native country ; I choofe rather to teach you,
fome Mexican merchants .or couriers without any juil by my example, to place higher value on fidelity to
5 h.x
M E X [ 646 ] M E X
Mexico, it than on life itfelf.” With thefe words he threw
' himfelf from the fcaffold, and was killed. The Chal-
cefe were fo enraged at this, that they inftantly fell
upon the Mexicans and killed them with their darts.
Next evening they were terrified by a fcreech owl; the
difmal voice of which animal they interpreted into an
omen of their approaching ruin. They were not de¬
ceived in their predictions, which indeed they might
have made without any fcreech-owl. They were quick¬
ly attacked by Montezuma ; who @n this occafion was
fo much exafperated, that he caufed fires to be light¬
ed on the tops of the adjacent mountains, as fymbols
■of the punifiiment to which he condemned the rebels.
The havock he made among them was fuch, that the
province was almoli; depopulated. Vaft numbers were
flaughtered, while thofe who efcaped with life fled into
the caves of the neighbouring mountains. Some fled
into diftant countries, leaving their city to be deftroy-
ed by the enemy. At laft Montezuma, fatiated with
revenge, proclaimed a general pardon, and invited the
fugitives to return ; but many of them, not putting
airy confidence in his fincerity, chofe to remain in
their ilate of exile. The remainder of this emperor’s
reign was taken up in making new conquefts ; fo that
by the time of his death, which happened in 1464,
he had extended his dominions as far as the gulf of
Mexico on the call; to the middle of the country of
the Mixtecas on the fouth-eaft ; fomething farther than
Chilapan on the fouth ; to the valley of Toluca on the
weft ; the centre of the country of the Otomies on
the north-weft ; and, on the north, to the extremity
of the vale of Mexico.
Inundation During the reign of this great monarch a violent
and famine inundation happened in Mexico. The lake, fwelled
at Mexico, by theexceffive rains which fell in the year 1446, pour¬
ed its waters into the city with fo much violence that
many houfes v/ere deftroyed, and the ftreets inundated
to fuch a degree that boats were every where made
ufe of. To prevent accidents of this kind for the
future, Montezuma, by advice of the king of Tez-
cuco, conftrufted a great dyke nine miles in length,
eleven cubits in breadth, and confifting of two parallel
lines of palifades, the interval betwixt which was filled
up with ftones and fand. The greateft difficulty in
the conftru&ion lay in being obliged occafionally to
work in the lake itfelf, which in fome places was of
confiderable depth ; but this was furmounted by the
fkill and perfeverance of the workmen. The dyke,
when conftru&ed, proved of great fervice in keeping
out the waters, though it did not entirely remedy the
evil; nor indeed have the Spaniards been able to fecure
this city effeftually from inundations, after being in
pofleffion of it for more than two centuries.
The inundation was foon followed by a famine.
This was occafioned by the Hinting of the crop of
maize in 1448 ; the ears vyhile young and tender be¬
ing deftroyed by froft. In 1450 the crop was totally
loft for want of water ; and in 1451, befides the un¬
favourable feafons, there was a fcarcity of feed. Hence,
in 1452, the neceffities of the people became fo great,
that they were obliged to fell themfelves for flaves in
order to procure fubfiftence. Montezuma permitted
them to go to other countries for fupport; but being
informed that many fold themfelves for a few days
provifion, he ordered by proclamation, that no wo¬
man ffiould fell herfelf for lefs than 400 ears of wheat, Mexico,
nor any man for lefs than 500. He opened alfo the »
public granaries for the relief of the lower clafles j
but nothing was able to ftop the progrefs of the fa¬
mine. Many who went for relief to other countries
periffied with hunger on their journey ; and great num¬
bers who fold themfelves for flaves never returned to
their native country Moft of the populace fupport-
ed themfelves, like their anceftors, on the produce of
the lake, until all their diftrefles were relieved by a
moft plentiful harveft in the year 1454. 58
Montezuma was fucceeded by Axayacatl, who like A*ayacatl
his predeceflbr inftantly commenced a war, for no 0.(^cceeds
ther reafon than that he might have prifoners to facri-ma.nteZU~
fice at his coronation. The people whom he now at¬
tacked inhabited the province of Tecnantepec on the
coaft of the Pacific Ocean, and fituated at 400 miles
diftance from the city of Mexico. A very defperate
battle enfued on this occafion, in which, however,
the Mexicans at laft prevailed ; and, befides the poor
wretchesr doomed to deftruftion whom they carried,
off, acquired a confiderable fpoil, as well as a traft of
territory extending to Coatulco, a maritime place
much frequented in the next century by the Spa¬
niards.
Axayacatl purfued Montezuma’s-plan of conqueft ; His con-
in which, however, he was lefs fuccefsful, many ofquefts.
the provinces reduced by that monarch having revolt¬
ed after his death, fo that it was neceffary t recon¬
quer them. On his returning fuccefsful from one of
thefe expeditions, he built a new temple, to which he
gave the name of Coatlon ; but the Tlatelolcos, whofe
ancient rivalihip feems to have revived on the death of
Montezuma, built another in oppofnion, which they
called Coaxolotl. Thus the former hatred between the
two nations was renewed,'and a difeord took place
which ended iu the ruin of the Tlatelolcos. 60
The Mexicans fuftained an irreparable lofs in I469^ea'h
and 1470 by the death of their alliesthe kings °f Tacuba^6^!"^
and Acolhuacan; for though the league which had been acan and
concluded between the three nations continued withoutTacuba.
any violation till the arrival of the Spaniards, we can¬
not fuppofe that any of the fucceffors of the Tacu-
ban and Acolhuacan princes would have the fame cor¬
dial affeftion for thofe of Mexico which was enter¬
tained by thofe who lay under fuch great obligation*
to Montezuma. The king of Tacuba was fucceeded
by his fon Chimalpopoca, and the Acolhuan monarch
by his fon Nezahualpilli. A ftiort time after the ac-
ceffion of the latter, the war broke out between the
Tlatelolcos and Mexicans, which ended in the deftruo-
tion of the former. King Moquihuix had been mar¬
ried by Montezuma to a fifter of Axayacatl, now on
the throne of Mexico; but it appears that this prin-
cefs never was greatly the obje£t of his affeftion. On
the contrary, he took all methods of expreffing his
diflike, either out of enmity to herfelf, or envy of the
fuperior greatnefs of her brother. Not content with
this, he entered into an alliance with a great number
of the neighbouring ftates, in order to reduce the
Mexican greatnefs. His wife, however, being in¬
formed of this fcheme, communicated the particulars
to her brother ; and foon after, being impatient of
the ill ufage (he received, came to Mexico with her
four fons to claim the prote&ion of her brother. This
6 uncommon
M E X C 647 ] M E X
l\ Me*ieo. uncommon accident exafperated the Mexican# and
■ v—-v— Tlatelolcans againft each other to fuch a degree, that
wherever they met, they fought, abufed, and murder-
6' ed each other. The king of Tlatelolco prepared for
^o4yced° war many horrid ceremonies, of which the drink-
and'the ing human blood was one. A day was appointed
king kill- for attacking Mexico. Xiloman, lord of Colhuacan,
ed« was to begin the attack, afterwards to pretend flight,
in order to induce the Mexicans to follow him ; after
which the Tlatelolcos were to fall upon their rear.
For fome reafon, however, with which we are n.ot
acquainted, the Tlatelolcos began the attack without
waiting far Xiloman ; the confequence of which was,
that he retired in difguft, leaving them to finifh their
battle the beft way they could. The engagement laft-
ed till night, when the Tlatelolcos were obliged to
retire. Axayacatl, during the night, difpofed of his
troops in all the roads which led to Tlatelolco, ap¬
pointing them to meet in the market-place. The Tla-
teloleos, finding themfelves attacked on all fides, re¬
tired gradually before the Mexicans, until at laid
they were forced into the market-place, where they
found themfelves worfe than ever on account of its
narrownefs, which did not allow them room to a£l.
The king Hood on the top of the great temple,
encouraging his men to exert themfelves againft the
enemy. His words, however, had now loft their ufual
influence. He not only was not obeyed, but was re¬
proached with cowardice becaufe he did not come
down and fight among the reft. At laft the Mexicans
I arrived at the temple, and afeended to the balcony
where the king was. He made a defperate defence
for a little ; but by a violent pufh ‘in the breall was
thrown backward upon the fteps of the temple, and
ftunned or perhaps killed by the fall. The foldiers
took him up and carried him to Axayacatl; who with
his own hand cut open his breaft and tore out his
heart. His people then attempted to fly acrofs the
I market-place ; but a great number of them were
killed, among whom were many officers of diftinc*
tion. The city of Tlatelolco was then united with
Mexico, as a part or kind of fuburb, which it ftill
continues to be.
The Tlatelolcos being thus reduced, Axayacatl next
fet out on an expedition againft the Matlatzincas, a
tribe in the vale of Toluca, who ftill refufed to fub-
mit to the Mexican yoke. Having proved fuccefsful
in this expedition, he undertook to fubduc alfo the
northern part of the valley, now called Valle (P Ixt-
labuacan, particularly XiquipUco% a confiderable city
and ftate of the Otomies, whofe chief was much re¬
nowned for ftrength and bravery. Axayaeatl, who
6a likewife valued himfelf on thefe qualities, encounter-
■ Axayacatl ed him in Angle combat. In this, however, he was
jj over-matched, and received a violent wound on the
) great dan- ^igh ? after which he would have been taken prifon-
I ger. er, had not fome young Mexicans made a defperate
effort for his refeue. Notwithftanding this difafter,
Axayacatl’s army gained a complete victory, carrying
off 11060 prifoners, among whom was the chief of
the Otomies himfelf, and two of his officers who hail
attacked the king. Thefe chiefs were put to death at
an entertainment of the allied kings, the fight of their
agonies not interrupting in the leaft the mirth of the
feaft j fo much were they familiarized to the {bedding '■TTca.
of human blood. b
Axayacatl continued to extend his territories to the fuc,ce<£.
eaft and weft, till his progrefs was ftopped by death in a 1 by TL-
1477. He was fucceeded by his elder brother Tizoc ;
of whofe reign we know little, but that he conquered
fourteen cities, fome of which had been in rebellion.
He intended to have built a larger temple than any
that had yet been feen in Mexico, though that ori¬
ginally built had been greatly enlarged by fome of
his predeceffors. For this purpofe he collefteda great
quantity of materials; but before he could biing his
projects to bear, he was taken off by a confpiracy of
his fubjefts. We are not informed in what manner he
died ; moft probably it was by poifon, as the coufpi-
rators wifhed his'death to pafs for natural.. It being
difeovered to be otherwife, however, diligfcnt fearch
was made for the criminals, who were puniihed ac¬
cording to their deferts. During the reign of Tizoc,,
the Acolhuacans made war upon the Huexotzincas,
ruined their city, and conquered their territory. Ne-
zahualpilli alfo, the Acolhuacan monarch, though be
had already feveral wives, had not made any of them
queen, having wilhed to confer that honour upon one
of the royal family of Mexico. Tizoc readily gave
him one of his grand-daughters, who had a filter of
Angular beauty named Xocbtzin. The friendfliip be¬
twixt thefe two ladies was fuch, that the one could
not think of being feparated from the other; for
which reafon the new queen fought and obtained per-
miffion to take her lifter along with her to Tezeuco-
Xocotzin had not been long there before the king
fell in love with her, and married her with the title
of queen likewife. Soon after this fecond marriage,,
the firft queen brought forth a fon named Cacamat-zm,
who fucceeded him in the throne, and was afterwards
taken prifoner by the Spaniards.
Ahuitzotl, the brother of Tizoc, fucceeded him in , ^ .
the kingdom of Mexico. His firft objedl was to finilh jej,^,
the great temple begun by his predeceffor ; and fuch a t-mple
was the number of workmen, that it was completed in 'yithamub-
four years. During the time that it was building,thehumanvic-*-
king employed himfelf in making war with different c^,anV10^
nations^ referving all the prifoners he took for vidtims
at the dedication of the temple. The number of pri¬
foners facrificed at this dedication is faid by Torque-
mada to ha-vebeen 72,324 ; by other hiftorians 64,060,
The miferable victims were ranged in two files, each
a mile and an half in length, terminating at the tem¬
ple. The fame year another temple Was built by a>
feudatory lord, in imitation of the great one built by
the king ; at the dedication of which a vaft number
of prifoners were alfo facrificed. Thefe temples were
dedicated in i486. In 1487 happened a violent earth¬
quake ; and Chimalpopoca king of Acolhuacan died,,
who was fucceeded by Totoqnihuatzin II. '
The remainder of the life of Ahuitzotl was a con-His ci>5*
tinued ferres of wars, in-all of which he proved uki-<luefts-
mately fuccefsful, extending the Mexican dominions
as far as Guatimala, 900 miles to the fouth-eaft of
Mexico. In, only one expedition the Mexicans were
defeated with difgrace. This happened in 1496,
when they fuddenly, and as appears without any
provocation* entered, the vale of AUixco in an hoftila
xsauner*.
M E X . [ 648 1 M E X
manner. So unexpected was the invafion, that the in- the duration of their happinefs or of their empire Mex'.
^ habitants of Atlixco knew only of the intention of vvas to be.  v~
their enemies by feeing them in arms in their country. The firft care of the new monarch, as ufual, was
Finding it impofiible to raife in an inffant a fuffirient to procure victims for the barbarous facrifices to be
force among themfelves, they applied to their neigh- made at his coronation. The people of Atlixco, who
hours, the Huexotzincas. On their arrival at the had again lhaken off the Mexican yoke, were the
city, which it feems had already been rebuilt fince its fufferers on this occafion, being once more reduced,
deftruftion by the Acolhuacans, they found a moft though not without great lofs on the part of the Mexi-
celebrated captain, named Toltecatl, amufing himfelf cans, fome of whpfe bravdt officers periffied in the
at foot-ball. Being informed of the arrival of the war. The ceremony of coronation was performed 6S
Mexican army, he inftantly quitted his diverfion to with fuch pomp as had never been feen before in H‘s excef- ?
repair to Atlixeo ; where, to ffiow his contempt Mexico ; but no fooner was this ceremony over than J
for the enemy, he entered the battle unarmed.—- Montezuma began to difcover a pride which nobody
He fupplied himfelf with armour by knocking down had fufpefted before. All Iris predecefibrs had been
the firft Mexican he met with his fift, and feizing his accuftomed to confer offices upon perfons of merit,
armour. He then attacked the enemy with fuch fury, and thofe who appeared the moft able to difcharge
and was fo well feconded by his troops, that the Mexi- them, without any partiality as to birth or wealth,
cans were totally defeated; and, in confideration of Montezuma, however, difapproved of the conduft of
his fignal bravery, the Huexotzincas made him the chief his predecdfors, under pretence that the plebeians
of their republic. He had not continued in his new fhbuld be employed according to their rank ; for that
office more than a year, however, when, finding him- in all their aftions the bafenefs of their birth and the
felf unqualified for being legiflator to fuch turbulent meannefs of their education appeared ! and in confe-
fubje&s as he had to deal with, he quitted his dignity quence of this maxim he deprived all the commoners of
and his country at once ; and croffing the mountains the offices they held about the court, declaring them
with fome other nobles, came to Tlalmanalco, where he incapable of holding any for the future. All the
was put to death, with all his companions, by order royal fervants npw were people of rank. Befidea
of Ahuizotl. thofe who lived in the palace, 600 feudatory lords and
1. Ahuizotl died in 1502, of a diforder produced by nobles came to pay court to him. They pafled the
a contufion in his head.' Of the caufe of which tve whole day in the antichamber, where none of their
have the following account: In 1498, the king, think- fervants were permitted to enter ; jeonverfing in a low
ing that the navigation of the lake of Mexico was voice, and waiting the orders of their fovereign.—
become difficult on account of the fcarcity of water, The fervants of thefe lords were fo numerous that they
formed a projeft of fupplying the deficiency from & occupied three final! courts of the palace, and many
fountain which fupplied the Cojoacanefe, and called waited in the ftreets. The women were not lefs nu-
upon the lord of the diftridl to give Orders for that merous. All thefe laft were confined in one vaft fe-
purpofe. This nobleman reprefented that the fpring raglio, under the care of fome noble duennas, who
was not conftant; that fometimes it was dry, and at kept a ftrift watch over their conduct. From this
others ran fo abundantly that it might occafion fome. colleftion the emperoi feledled fuch as he liked, beft.
difafter in his court. Ahuizotl, however, fuppofing for himfelf, giving away the reft ; and fo well did
this to be a pretence, renewed his order, and put the he acquit himfelf in his matrimonial capacity, that an
nobleman to death for infilling upon his objedrion. He hundred and fifty of his wives are faid to have been
then caufed a fpacious aquedudl to be conftrudled from pregnant at once.
Coioacan to Mexico; and the water was brought in The pride of Montezuma was no lefs confpicuous
•with a great many fuperftitious ceremonies. That in the ceremonials than in the magnificence of his
very year, however, there fell fuch quantities of rain, court. None durft enter the palace without pulling
that the waters of the lake, augmented alfo by thofe off his (hoes and ftockings at the gate; neither durft
of the fpring, overflowed the city, fo that the ftreets they appear pompoufly dreffed in the imperial prefence;
were, filled with failing veffels, and fome houfes were this being deemed a want of refpedf to majefty.—
deftroyed. The king happening to be one day in a All who entered the hall of audience, before fpeaking
lower apartment of his palace, the waters entered to the king, made three bows; at the firft, faying
with fuch rapidity and violence that he was obliged Lord! at the fecond, My Lord! and at the third, Great
to fly ; and the door being low, he ftruck his head Lord! They fpoke low, and with the head inclined,
with fuch force againft the top, that he never recover- receiving the anfwer which the king gave them by fe¬
ed the effects of the contufion. This inundation was cretaries, with as great humility as if it had been the
followed by a famine, all the maize being rotted by voice of a deity ; and no perfon in taking leave ever
the water. turned his back on the throne. When this mighty
At the time of Ahuizotl’s death, the Mexican emperor went abroad, he was carried on the fhoulders
1 empire was brought to its utmoft extent. His fuccef- of the nobility, in a litter covered with a rich canopy,
for, Montezuma Xccojotzin, or Montezuma Junior, and attended by a numerous retinue of courtiers;
was a perfon of great bravery, befides which he was and wherever he paffed, every perfon (hut their eyes,
likewife a prieft, and held in great eftimation on ac- as fearing to be dazzled with the fplendor of Majefty
count of his gravity and the dignity of his deport- When he alighted from the litter to walk on foot,
ment. His election was unanimous ; and the nobles carpets were fpread on the ground, that the emperor
congratulated themfelves on the happinefs the coun- might not be permitted to touch the earth with his
try was to enjoy under him, little thinking how ihort feet.
N5 217
In
M E X [ 649 1 M E X
Mexico. In every refpeft Montezuma kept up, as far as was the inhabitants, and thus to deprive them of the mean* Mexico.
—v—— poflible, this extravagant appearance of dignity. His of obtaining fome of the neceflaries of life. The Tla- nr”"
[68] kitchen-utenfds were of the fin eft earthenware, and fcalans complained ; but received no other anfwer than
Magnifi- jjjg table.cloths and napkins of the fineft cotton ; but that the king of Mexico was lord of all the world, and
layed in none of thefe ever ferved the emperor more than once,
is palace, being immediately made a prefent of to fome noble¬
man. The veffels in which his chocolate and other
drinks from cocoa were prepared, were all of gold, or
fome beautiful fea-fhell, or naturally-formed veflels,
curioufly Varnifhed. He had alfo gold-plate, but it
was ufed only on particular occafions in the temple.
The number and variety of his dilhes aftonilhed the
Spaniards. Cortes fays, that they covered the floor
of a great hall; and that there were difhes of every
kind of game, filh, fruit, or herbs, in the country.
This dinner was carried in ftate by three or four hun¬
dred of the young nobility, who retired as foon as the
king fat down to table : and that the meat might not
grow cold, each plate was furnilhed with a chafing
diih. The king marked with a rod the diflies he
chofe for himfelf, and the reft were diftributed among
the nobility in the antichamber. Before he fat down,
four of the molt beautiful women of his feraglio fup-
plied him with water to wafll his hands, and continued
(landing all the time of his dinner, along with fix of
his principal minifters and his carvers.
Montezuma took great delight in the cleanlinefs of
his own perfon, and of every thing about him. He
bathed regularly every day, and had baths in all his
palaces. Every day he wore four drefles, never ufing
again thofe which he had put off, but referving them
as largeffes for the nobility, or thofe who had diftin-
guiflied themfelves in war.
IHfl.lt afes The expence of all this, and many other inftances
ho fubjcifb. 0f magnificence, rendered the emperor very difagree-
able to a great number of his fubje&s; though others
were pleafed with the readinefs he fliowed to relieve
the neceffities of individuals, and his generofity in re¬
warding his generals and minifters who deferved it.
Among other actions worthy of imitation, he appoint¬
ed the city of Colhuacan as an hofpital for all invalids,
who after having faithfully ferved the crown either in
the civil or military line,required a provifion on account
of their age and infirmities. In this place they were
maintained and attended at the expence of the king.
The reign of Montezuma, even before the arrival
of the Spaniards, was far from being fo glorious with
regard to his fucceffes in war as thofe of his predecef-
fors had been. He reduced indeed one rebellious pro¬
vince, and conquered another which had never before
been fubjugated ; but in his war with Tlafcala he was
unfuc- by no means fuccefsful. This was but a fmall repu-
vef-ful war bile at no great diftance from the capital, but the in-
with 1 laf. habitants were remarkable for their bravery and inde-
ca a’ pendent fpirit. The neighbouring ftates, however,
who had beefi reduced by the Mexicans, envious of
their liberty and profperity, exafperated the Mexicans
againft them, by reprefenting that the Tlafcalans were
defirous of making themfelves mafters of the maritime
provinces on the Mexican gulf, and that by their com¬
merce with thefe provinces they were encreafing their
wealth and power, and gaining the hearts ol the peo¬
ple with whom they were to traffic. In confequence
of this ; eprefentation, ftrong garrifons were placed oft
the frontiers of Tlafcala, to obftruct the commerce of
Vcl. XI. Part H.
that the Tlafcalans muft fubmit and pay tribute to him.
The Tlafcalans returned a fpirited anfwer to this in-
folent fpeech, and began to fortify their frontier.
They had already inclofed all the lands of the repu¬
blic with intrenchments; and to thefe they now ad¬
ded a wall of fix miles in length on the weft fide, where
an invafion was moft to be apprehended ; and fo well
did they defend themfelves, that though they were
frequently attacked by the neighbouring ftates in al¬
liance with Mexico, or fubjedt to it, not one of them
was able to wreft a foot of ground from them. Thus
a continual feries of wars and engagements took place
betr. een the ftates of Mexico and this republic, which Exploit^
continued till the arrival of the Spaniards. The moft and death
remarkable occurrences in thefe wars, are the exploits lab11**
of a Tlafcalan general named Tlahuicol. His courage
and ftrength were fo great, that his enemies fled where-
ever he appeared. The fword with which he fought
was fo weighty, that no man of ordinary ftrength could
lift it from the ground. At laft, however, having in
the heat of an engagement got into a marlh, his great
ftrength was of no ufe to him, fo that he was taken
prifoner, put into a ttrong cage, and carried to Mex¬
ico. The emperor, in confideration of his extraordi¬
nary qualities, gave him liberty to return to his own
country : but this he abfolutely refufed, faying, that
he wilhed to die, like other prifoners, in honour of
their god. In this he perfifted obftinately for feveral
years; until at laft Montezuma refolved to comply
with his barbarous defire ; and he was permitted to
die by the gladiatorian facrifice, to be afterwards de-
feribed, in which the prifoner was allowed, though
under great difadvantages, to fight for his life. He
was oppofed by feveral brave men, one at a time, of
whom he killed eight, and wounded twenty more ;
until, falling almoft dead by a violent blow he received
on the head, he waS carried to the temple and there
facrificed. > yj
During the remainder of Montezuma’s reign the Apprehan-
empire was difturbed by various rebellions, of which
the accounts are not fufficiently interefting to merit
a particular detail; but in the year 1506, Monte-cans of the
zuma began to entertain apprehenlions of that fatal arrival of
event which at length overtook him. An expedition a liew
having been undertaken againft a very' diftant region P6 '!**2,
named Amatla, the army in marching over a lofty
mountain were attacked by a furious north-wind, ac¬
companied with fnow ;-which made great havock in the
army, many of them perifliing with cold, and others
being killed by the trees rooted up by the wind. The
remains of the army continued their march to Amat¬
la, where they were almoft all killed in battle. By this
and other calamities, together with the appearance of
a comet, the Mexicans were thrown into the utmoft
confternation. Montezuma was fo terrified by thefe
omens, that having in vain confulted his aftrologers,
he applied to the king of Acolhuacan, who was re¬
ported to be very flulful in divination. Nezahualpilli
having conferred with him at length upon the fubject,
told Montezuma that the comet prefaged fome cala¬
mity which was about to befal their kingdoms by the
4 N arrival
M E X [6;
Me*"™, arrival of a pew people : but this being unfatiafa&ory
» to the emperor, the king of Acolhuacan challenged
him to a game at foot-ball, flaking the truth of his
preditlion on the iffue of the game. Montezuma loft
the game, but did not yet acquiefce in the truth of
his predi&ion. He therefore applied to a celebraced
aftrologer, whom It feems he had not yet confulted;
but he confirmed the interpretation of Nezahualpilli:
for which the emperor caufed his houfe to be pulled
in down, and himfelf buried in the ruins.
Stoty of the Many other prefages of the arrival of the Spaniards
tiorTof6 are related- The following, though apparently the
puuccfs. moft incredible of them all, feems to be believed by
Clavigero. “ A After of Montezuma named Papant-
zin, who had been married to the governor of Tlate-
loleo, lived in his palace after he was dead to the year
1509, when ftie died of old age. The day after-her
burial a child of five or fix years old happened to pafs
from her mother’s apartment to that of the major
domo of the deceafed princefs. In paffing by, the
child faw the princefs fitting upon the fteps of the
fountain where ftie had been accuftomed te bathe, and
heard herfelf called by the name of cocoton, a Mexican
exprefiion of endearment, fignifying “little girl.” The
child, incapable from its age of refle&ing on the death
of the princefs, approached without fear, and was de-
fired to call the wife of her major-domo. The wo¬
man carefied the child, and told her that the princefs
was dead ; but being importuned and pulled by the
gown, fhe at laft w ent; but no fooner faw the princefs
than ftie fainted. The child then ran to call her mo¬
ther, who with two other women came to the alfift-
ance of the wife of the major-domo ; but they alfo
would have fainted, had not the princefs called to them,
and allured them that ftie was really alive. Having
caufed them call the major-domo, ftie defired him
to go and tell Montezuma what he had feen : but he,
dreading the feverity of the emperor, durft not under¬
take the talk. She then defired him to go to Tezeuco,
and tell Nezahualpilli that ftie wiftied to fee him. He
came accordingly, and at her defire brought Monte¬
zuma ; whom ftie informed, that during the time ftie
lay entranced ftie had feen a vifion. The main pur¬
port of this vifion was to announce to her, that all her
forefathers were damned; that another race of men
ftiould- arrive, who ftiould conquer the kingdom, and
introduce the true religion ; and “ as foon as the bath
fhould be publiftied and made known, which would
74 walh away fin, ftie ftiould be the firft to accept of it.”
The expec- There can be very little doubt that this ftory is
tation of a fi&ion of the Spaniih priefts, though it cannot be
caus ae^1" d°ukted t^lat t^ie Mexicans had fome expe&ations of
founted the arrival of the Spaniards among them at the time
for, they adually came. This, however, we may account for
without having recourfe to any thing the leaft fuperna-
tural, or out of the ordinary courfe of things. The Weft
India iflands had been difcovered by Columbus in
1492 : he had made frequent voyages, and had even
difcovered the continent. Settlements had been made;
the Spaniards had ftiown their prowefs and their cru¬
elty ; and we are not to doubt, that many of the
Iflanders would quit their habitations to efcape the fu¬
ry of the invaders. It would naturally occur to thefe
fugitives, that the arms of thefe new comers could
not be rdifted by thofe of the weftern nations, while
0 1 M E X
their relentlefs cruelty might eafily fuggeft that they Mexico.
would deftroy all before' them. From the year 1492, 
therefore, to 1508, there was time enough for this
report to have reached Mexico : and we can only at¬
tribute it to the barbarous ftate in which the Ameri¬
cans were, that the Spaniards were not perfedtly
known and defcribed before their arrival.
But whatever were the omens by which the arrival ST
of the Spaniards was announced, they appear to havej^^
had no effedt in working any reformation upon Mon-„,an facri*
tezuma or his Mexicans. Inftead of relaxing any thing fices.
from the barbarity of their religion, they feem to have
augmented it. Wars were carried on every where, and
prifoners facrificed by thoufands; infomuch,that Mon¬
tezuma finding the ftone on which the prifoners were
facrificed too fmall, he caufed one of mohftrous fize
to be put in its place. It was dragged along by an
immenfe number of people : but, in paffing a wooden
bridge over a canal, in the entry to the city, the bridge
broke, down by its enormous weight, and dragged
feveral people into the water, among whom was the
high-prieft, who had accompanied it on the road,
fcattering incenfe as he went along. This misfor¬
tune difconcerted them confiderably: neverthelefs the
ftone, by dint of exceffive labour, was got up again,
and confecrated by the murder of 12,200 prifoners.
The time, however, was now at hand when this hor¬
rible and never-ceafing butchery was to be ended, and
a moft fevere vengeance to overtake the perpetrators.
The Spaniards having eftabliftied themfelves pretty well
in the ifland of Cuba and Hifpaniola, now prepared to
explore the continent alfo, with a view to extend the
dominions of their fovereign, and to fatiate, if poffible,
their own appetites for wealth.
Mexico itfelf was firft difcovered, though imper.
fedtly, by a Spaniard named Nunez de Balboa ; but in
1518 the conqueft of it was undertaken by a celebra-G 0f
ted adventurer named Ferdinando Cortes. It was not, Mexico un-
however, without great difficulty that he got his ex- dertaken by
pedition fet on foot; being perfecuted by the Spanifti Cortes,
governors in the Weft Indies, fo that he was at laft
obliged to throw off his allegiance to them, and pro¬
ceed without any commiffion. However, on the 10th
of February 1519, he fet fail from the Havannah in
Cuba ; and foon landed on the ifland of Cozumel, on
the coaft of Yucatan, difcovered the preceding year.
Here he joined one of his officers named Pedro d’Al-
'varedo, who had arrived fome days before, and collefted
fome booty and taken a few prifoners. But the gene¬
ral feverely cenfured his conduct; and the prifoners
were difmiffed, after they had been informed by an
Indian interpreter named Melchior, that fuch injuries
were entirely difagreeable to the intentions and wiflies
of Cortes. Here he muftered his army, and found
that it amounted to 508 foldiers, 16 horfemen, and
109 mechanics, pilots, and mariners. Having encou¬
raged his men by a proper fpeech, and releafed, by
means of fome Indian ambaffadors, a Spaniard named
‘Jerom de Aguilar, who. had been detained a prifoner
for eight years, he proceeded to the river Tabafco,
where he hoped to be received in a friendly manner,
as one Grijalva had been a ftiort time before ; but,
from fome unknown caufe, ^e was violently attacked
by them: however, the fuperiority of the Spanifti
arms foon decided the vi&ory, and the inhabitants
7 were
M E X
JVfcsiea. werg obliged to own the king of Caftile as their fo-
' vereign.
77 The Spaniards then continued their courfe weft.
emhaffy93*1 Ward, to the harbour of St Juan de Ullua ; where they
from the were met by two Mexican canoes, who carried two
emperor of ambaffadors from the emperor of that country, and
Mexico, /bowed the greateft figns of peace and amity. Their
language was unknown to -Aguilar; but one of the
female prifoners above-mentioned underdood it, and
tranflated it into the Yucatan tongue; after which
Aguilar, interpreted the meaning in Spanifli. This
Have was afterwards named Donna Marina, and proved
78 very ufeful in their conferences with the natives.
State of the At tbJs time the Mexican empire, according to
I that time. •^0kerti'0n_> was arrived at a pitch of grandeur to
r 65 \ ]
M E X
The next day the ambauadors had a formal audi*
ence ; at which Cortes acquainted them, that he came v—'
from Don Carlos of Auftria, king of Caftile, the
greateft monarch of the eaft, and was intruded with
propofitions of fuch moment, that he would impart
them to none but the emperor himfelf, and therefore
required to be conducted immediately to the capi- So
tal. This demand produced the greateft uneafinefs ; The Indi-
and the ambaffadors did all in their power to dii- v^r "cAlff.
fuade Cortes from his defign, endeavouring to con- fua(ie hjm
ciliate his good-will by the prefents fent him by from going
Montezuma. Thefe they introduced with great pa- “ d'6 capi*
rade, and confided of fine cotton-cloth, of plumes of ut m
virious colours, and of ornaments of gold and filver
to a confiderable value, the workmanfhip of which
which no fociety had ever attained in fo diort a pe. appeared to be as curious as the materials were rich,
riod. Though it had fubfifted only for 130 years, its But thefe prefents ferved only to excite the avidity of
dominion extended from the north to the fouth fea ,
over territories ftretching about 500 leagues from call
to weft, and more than 200 from north to fouth; com¬
prehending provinces not inferior in fertility, popula¬
tion, and opulence, to any in the torrid zone 
the Spaniards, and to increafe their defire for be¬
coming mailers of a country which abounded with fo
many precious commodities. Cortes indeed could
fcarcely reftrain himfelf fo far as to hear the argu¬
ments made ufe of by the ambaffadors to diffuade
Though by nature Montezuifla poffefTed a good him from going to the capital; and, in a haughty,
deal of courage and refolution ; yet from the firil determined tone, infilled on his former demand of
moment that the Spaniards appeared on his coall, being admitted to a personal interview with their fo-
he difeovered fymptoms of timidity and embarralfment, vereign.
and all his fubjefts were embarraffed as well as himfelf. During this converfation, fome painters in the
The general difmay which took place on this occafion retinue of the Mexican chiefs had been diligently em-
was partly owing to the ftrange figure the Spaniards ployed in delineating, qpon white cotton cloths, figures
made, and the prodigious power of their arms; but of the (hips, horfes, artillery, foldiers, and whatever
partly alfo to the following circumftance. An opi- elfe attracted their eyes as fingular. When Cortes
11 ion prevailed almoll. univerfally among the Ameri- obferved this, and was informed that thefe pictures
cans, that fome dreadful calamity impended over were to be fent to Montezuma, he refolve.d to render
their heads, from a race of formidable invaders who the reprefentation Hill more ftriking and interelling.
fhould come from regions .towards the rifing fun, to The trumpets, by his orders, founded an alarm ; the
over-run and defolate their country. The origin of troops formed in order of battle, and Ihowed their
this we have already attempted to explain; but as agility and llrength in the bell manner they could;
the Mexicans were more- prone to fuperllition than while the arfillery was pointed againft the neighbour-
any people in the new world, they were more deeply
affedted with the appearance of the Spaniards, whom
they inftantly fuppofed to be the inllruments de-
flined to bring about that fatal revolution > which
ing trees, among which it made dreadful havock.
The Indians for fome time looked on with filent a-
ftonilhment; but at the explofion of the cannon, fome
„ -     fled, others fell to the ground, and all were fo con-
they dreaded : and this produced the embalfy above- founded, that Cortes found it difficult to quiet and
mentioned. compofe their minds. gf
By means of his two interpreters, Donna Marina When the painters had exerted their utmoft efforts Mome-
and Aguilar, Cortes learned that the chiefs of the in reprefenting all thefe wonderful things, meffengers z-.m* made
Mexican embaffy were deputies from Pilpatoe and were immediately difpatched to Montezuma with the acft“;lint.e^
Teutiie; the one governor of a province under the pictures, and a full account of every thing that had n"s
emperor, and the other the commander of all his forces palled lince the arrival of the Spaniards, together ^
in that province : the purport of their embaffy was, with fome European curiofities to Montezuma; which,
to inquire what his intentions were in vifiting their though of no great value, Cortes believed would be
coalls, and to offer him what affillance he might need acceptable on account of their novelty. The Mexi-
in order to continue his voyage. Cortes, in his turn, can monarchs, in order to obtain the earliell informa-
alfo profeffed the greateft l!-iend(hip ; and informed the tion of every occurrence in all parts of their empire,
ambalfadors, that he came to propofe matters of the had couriers polled at proper llations along the prin-
utmoft confequence to the welfare of'the prince-and cipal roads ; and as thefe were trained to agility
^ his kingdom; vdiich he would more fully unfold in by a regular education, they conveyed intelligence
Cortelands perfon to the governor and the general. Next with furprifing rapidity. Though the city in which
and fortifies morning, without waiting for any anfwer, he land- Montezuma refided was above 180 miles from St Juan
us camp. ecj his troops, his horfes, and his artillery ; began to de Ullua, Cortes’s prefents were carried thither, and
eredt huts for his men, and to fortify his camp.— an anfwer returned to his demands, in a few days.
1 he natives, inllead of oppofing the entrance of thefe As the anfwer was unfavourable, Montezuma had en-
fatal guefts into their country, affifted them in all deavoured to mollify the Spanilh general by the rich-
their operations with an alacrity which they had ere nefs of his prefents. Thefe confided of the manufac-
•long reafon to repent. turesof the country; cotton-fluffs fo fine, and of fuch
4 N 2 delicate
M E X [
Mcxice. delicate texture, as to referable filk ; pictures of
mals, trees, and other natural obje&s, formed with
Sends an feathers of different colours, difpofed and mingled
unfavour- with fuch (kill and elegance as to rival the works of
able an- the pencil in truth and beauty of imitation. But
accOTnpa- w^at ehiefly attra&ed their attention, were two large
nied vvi'h plates of a circular form ; one of maffive gold repre-
sich pre- fenting the fun, the other of lilver reprefenting the
fvnts. moon. Thefe were accompanied with bracelets, col¬
lars, rings, and other trinkets of gold ; and that no¬
thing might be wanting which could give the Spaniards
a complete idea of what the country afforded, fome
boxes tilled with pearls, precious ftones, and grains of
gold unwrought, as they had been found in the mines
or rivers, were fent along with the reft. - Cortes re¬
ceived all with an appearance of the moft profound
refpeft for Montezuma; but when the Mexicans,
prefuming upon this, informed him, that their mailer,
though he defired him to accept of what he had fent
as a token of his regard for the prince whom he repre-
fented, would not give his confent that foreign troops
fhould approach nearer to his capital, or even allow
83
flill them to continue longer in his dominions, Cortes de-
i s on clareci? in a manner more refolute and peremptory
mauds.
than formerly, that he muft infift on his firft demand;
as he could not, without difhonour, return to his own
fovereign until he was admitted into the prefence of
the prince whom he was appointed to vifit in his
name. The Mexicans were aftonifhed at the fight
of a man who dared to oppofe the will of their
emperor; but not being willing to come to an open
rapture with fuch formidable enemies, with much ado
they prevailed upon Cortes to promife that he would
not move from his prefent camp until the return of a
meffenger whom they fent to Montezuma for further
inftru&ions.
The pufillanimity of the Indian monarch afforded
time to the Spaniards to take meafures which would
have been out of their power had they been vigoroufly
attacked on their firft refufal to obey his orders.
. Cortes ufed every method of fecuringthe affe&ions of
the foldiers; which indeed was very neceffary, as
many of them began to exclaim againft the raftinefs
of his attempt in leading them againft the whole force
Monte- t^le Mexican empire. In a fliort time Teutile
2uma pe- arrived with another prefent from Montezuma, and
remptonly together with it delivered the ultimate orders of that
himtoleave moilarc^ to depart inftantly out of his dominions ; and
Cortes, inftead of complying with his demands,
nions. renewed his requell of audience, the Mexican imme¬
diately left the camp with ftrong marks of furprife and
refentment. Next morning, none of the natives ap¬
peared ; all friendly correfpondence feemed to be at an
end, and hoftilities were expefted to commence every
moment. A fudden confternation enfued among the
Spaniards, and a party was formed againft him by the
adherents of Velafques; who took advantage of the oc-
cafion, and deputed one of their number, a principal of¬
ficer, to remonftrate, as if in name of the whole army,
againft his ralhnefs, and to urge the necefiity of his
returning to Cuba. Cortes received the meffage with¬
out any appearance of emotion ; and as he well knew
the temper and wilhes of his foldiery, and forefaw how
they would receive a propofition fo fatal to all the fplen-
did hopes and fchemes which they had been forming
2 1 M E X
with fuch complacency, he pretended to comply with Mexico,
the requeft now made him, and iffued orders that the
army fliould be in readinefs next day to embark for
Cuba. Upon hearing this, the troops, as Cortes had
expelled, were quite outrageous: they pofitively
refufed to comply with thefe orders, and threatened
immediately to chpofe another general if Cortes con¬
tinued to infift on their departure.
Our adventurer was highly pleafed with the difpo-
fition which now appeared among his troops: never-
thelefs, diffcmbling his fentiments, he declared, that
his orders for embarking had proceeded from a per-
fuafion that it was agreeable to his fellow-foldiers,
to whofe opinion he had facrificed his own ; but now
he acknowledged his error, and was ready to refume
his original plan of operation. This fpeech was highly
applauded ; and Cortes, without allowing his men
time to cool, fet about carrying his defigns into exe- 3y
cution. In order to give a beginning1 to a colony, heyiI!a
affembled the principal perfons in his army, and byfouudetl*
their fuffrages elefted a council and magiftrates, in
whom the government was to be veiled. The perfons
chofen were moft firnily attached to Cortes; and the
new fettlement had the name of Vil/a Rica de la Vera
Cruz ; that is, the rich town of the true crofs.
Before this court of his own making, Cortes did
not hefitate at refigning all his authority, and was gs
immediately re-el eft td chief-juflice of the colony, The go- ;
and captain-general of his army, with an ample com- v^r^let^tvr
miffion, in the king’s name, to continue in force ^colony vd^..
the royal pleafure Ihould be farther known. The te,i ;,i
foldiers eagerly ratified their choice by loud acclama-Cortes,
tions; and Cortes, now confidering himfelf as no longer
accountable to any fubjeft, began to affume a much
greater degree of dignity, and to exercife more exten-
five powers than he had done before. Some of the
foldiers began to exclaim againft the proceedings of
the council as illegal; but the ringleaders were in-
llantly fent on board the fleet loaded with irons. By
this timely feverity the reft were overawed; and-
Cortes, knowing of how great importance unani¬
mity was to his future fuccefs, foon found means
to reconcile thofe who were moft difaffefted; to
which purpofe a liberal diftribution of the Mexican
gold, both among friends and foes, contributed not a
little. _ gy
Cortes having thus ftrengthened himfelf as well as-Makes an •
he qould, refolved to advance into the country ; and alliance ;
to ihis he was encouraged by the behaviour of the j
cacique or petty prince of Zempoalla, a confiderable zempoalla,J
town at no great diftance. This prince, though fub¬
jeft to Montezuma, was exceedingly impatient of the
yoke; and fo filled with dread and hatred of the em¬
peror, that nothing could 6e more acceptable to him
than an appearance of being delivered from that fub-
jeftion ; and a deliverance of this kind he now hoped!
from the Spaniards. For this reafon, he fent ambaf-
fadors to Cortes, with offers of friendfliip, which were
gladly accepted by him ; and in confequence of the
alliance, he very foon vifited Zempoalla. Here he
was received in the moft friendly manner imaginable,
and had a refpeft paid towards him almoft equivalent S8
to adoration. The cacique informed him of man7
particulars relating to the charafter of Montezuma.—Zuma g1Vea
He told him that he was a tyrant,, haughty, cruel, by the ca-
8 and«<is>e.
89
The ca
ciques of
Zempoalla,
Quiabiflan,
and fome
The magi-
ftrates of
Villa Rica
fend a let¬
ter to the
king of-
Spain in
favour of
Genes*
M E X [ 653 ] M E X
and fufpiclous ; who treated his own fubjc&s with that the whole might be fent to the king. Porto- Mexico,
arrogance, ruined the conquered provinces by his ex- carrero and Montejo,-the chief magiftrates of the v "
tortions, and often tore their fons and daughters from colony, were appointed to carry this prefent to Ca-
them by violence; the former to be offered as vidlims Itile, with exprefs orders not to touch at Cuba in their
to his gods, the latter to be referred as concubines paffage thither. But while a veffel was preparing for
for himfelf and favourites. Cortes, in reply, artfully their departure, an unexpe&ed event produced a ge-
infinuated, that one great object of the Spaniards in neral alarm. Some foldiers and failors, fecretly dif-
vifiting a country fo remote from their own was, to affefted to Cortes, formed a delign of feizing one of
redrefs grievances, and to relieve the oppreffed ; and the brigantines, and making their efcape to Cuba, in
having encouraged him to hope for this interpofi- • order to give fuch intelligence to the governor as
tion in due time, continued his march to Quiabiflan, might enable him to intercept the veffel which was to
the territory of another cacique, and where, by the carry the treafure and difpatches to Spain. This
friendly aid of the Indiums, a Spanifh colony was foon confpiracy was condudled with profound fecrecy ; but
formed. at the moment when every thing was ready for exe-
During the refidence of Cortes in thefe parts, he fo cution, the fecret was dilcovered by one of the affo- g*
far wrought on the minds of the caciques of Zem- ciates. The latent fpirit of difaffedlion which Cortes Cortes^
poalla and Quiabiflan, that they ventured to infult was now too well convinced had not been extinguilhed ^
the Mexican power, at the very name of which they amongft his troops, gave him very great uneafmefs.
had been formerly accuftomed to tremble. Some of The only method which he could think of to prevent
Montezuma’s officers having’ appeared to levy the fuch confpiracies for the future was, to deftroy his
ufual tribute, and to demand a 0 itain number of hit- fleet; and thus deprive his foldiers of every refource
man vi&ims, as an expiation of their guilt in pre- except that of conqueil : and with this propofal he
fuming to hold intercourfe with thofe ftrangers whom perfuaded his men to comply. With univerfal con-
the emperor had commanded to leave his dominions; fent therefore the fhips were drawn afhore, and, after
inilead of obeying his orders, they made them pri- being ftripped of their fails, rigging, iron-work, and
foners, treated them with great indignity, and, as whatever elfe might be of ufe, they were broke in
their fuperftition was no lets barbarous than Mon- pieces.
tezuma’s, they threatened to facrifice them to their Cortes having thus rendered it neceffary for his-
gods. From this laft danger, however, they were troops to follow wherever he chofe to lead, began his
delivered by the interpofition of Cortes, who mani- march to Zempoalla with 500 infantry, 15 horfe,
felled the utmoft horror at the mention of fuch a and fix field-pieces. The reft of his troops, confifting
deed. This ad of rebellion firmly attached the two chiefly of fuch as from age or infirmity were lefs fit
caciques to the intereft of Cortes ; and without hefi- for adive fervice, he left as a garrifon in Villa Rica,
tation they acknowledged themfelves vaffals of the under the command of Efcalante, an officer of merit,
king of Spain. Their example was followed by the and warmly attached to his intereft. The cacique of
Totonaques, a fierce people who inhabited the moun- Zempoalla fupplied him with provifions; and with 200
tainous parts ef the country. They willingly fub- of thofe Indians called Tamamesy whofe office, in a
jeded themfelves to the crown of Caftile ; and offered country where tame animals Were unknown, was to
to accompany Cortes with all their forces in his march carry burdens, and perform all manner of fervile la-
towards Mexico. hour. He offered likewife a confiderable body of
Though Cortes had now taken fuch meafures as in troops ; but Cortes was fatisfied with 400 ; taking
a manner enfured his fuccefs; yet as he had thrown care, however, to choofe perfons of fuch note, that
off all dependence on the governor of Cuba, who was they might ferve as hoftages for the fidelity of their
his lawful fuperior, and apprehended his intereft at mafter.
court, he thought proper, before he fet out on his in- Nothing memorable happened till the Spaniards
tended expedition, to take the moft effedual meafures arrived on the confines of the republic of Tlafcala.
againft the impending danger. With this view, he The inhabitants of that province were warlike, fierce,
perfuaded the magiftrates of his colony to addrefs a and revengeful, and had made, confiderable progefs
letter to the king, containing a pompous accoimt of in agriculture and fome other arts. They were im«
their own fervices, of the country they had difcovered, placable enemies to Montezuma ; and therefore Cortes
&c. and of the motives which had induced them to hoped that it would be an eafy matter for him to pro- ^
throw off their allegiance to the governor of Cuba, cure their friendlhip. With this view, four-Zem-Sends am'
and to fettle a colony dependent on the crown alone, poallans of high rank were lent ambaffadors to Tlaf-twfladors to
in which the fupreme power civil as well as military cala, dreffed with all the badges of that office ufual ^^jT^^
had been veiled in Cortes ; humbly requefting their among the Indians. The fenate were divided in their
fovereign to ratify what had been done by his royal opinions with regard to the propofals of Cortes : but
authority. Cortes himfelf wrote in a fimilar ftrain j at laft Magifcatzin, one of the oldeft fenators, and a
but as he knew that the Spanifh court, accuftomed to perfon of great authority, mentioned the tradition of
the repeated exaggerations of American adventurers, their anceitors, and the revelations of their priefls;
would give little credit to the fplendid accounts of that a race of invincible men, of divine origin, who-
New-Spain, if they were not accompanied with fuch had power over the elements, fliould come from the-
a fpecimen of what it contained as would excite an eafl to fubdue their country. He compared the re-
high idea of its opulence, he folicited his foldiers to femblance which the ftrangers bore to the perfons
relinquifh what they might claim as their part of the figured in the tradition of Mexico, their dominion
treafures which had hitherto been collefted, in order over the elements of fire, air, and water; he reminded
the.
M EX [ 654 1 M E X
• tl>e fenate of their prodigies, omens, and fignals, The Tlafoalans being taught by this, and fame MrxV».
which had lately terrified the Mexicans, and indicated fequent encounters, how much they were inferior to v~—^
fome very important event; and then declared his the Spaniards, began to conceive them to be really
opinion, that it would be raftmefs to oppofe a force what Magifcatzin had faid ; a fuperior order of beings,
apparently affifted by heaven, and men who had al- againft whom human power could not prevail, in this
•ready proved, to the fad experience of thofe who op- extremity they had recourfe to their prieils, requiring
pofed them, that they were invincible. This orator them to reveal the caufes of fuch extraordinary events,
was oppofed by Xicqtencal, who endeavoured to prove and to declare what means they (hould take to repel
that the Spaniards were at bell but powerful magi- iuch formidable idvaders. The prietts, after many fa-,
cians : that they had rendered themfelves obnoxious crifices and incantations, delivered their refponfe, That
to the gods by pulling down their images and altars, thefe itrangers were the offspring of the fun, piocrea-
(which indeed Cortes had. very imprudently done at ted by his animating energy in the regions of the eaft :
Zempoalla) ; and of confequence, that they might that, by day, while cherifhed with the influence of his
eafily be overcome, as the gods would not fail to parental beams, they were invincible; but by night,
refent fuch an outrage. He therefore voted for when his reviving heat was withdrawn, their vigour
war, and advifed the crufhing of thefe invaders at one declined ,and faded like herbs in the field, and they
blow. dwindled down into mortal men. In confequence of
The advice of Xicotencal prevailed; and in confe- this, the Tlafcalans a died in contradidtion to one of
quence of it, the ambaffadors were detained ; which their moft eftablifhed maxims in war, and ventured to
giving Cortes the alarm, he drew nearer the city of attack the enemy in the night-time, hoping to deftroy
Tlafeala. In this tranfadfion we may eafily fee how them when enfeebled and furprifed. But the Spanifh
little the Tlafcalans, notwithftanding all their ferocity, centinels having obferved fome extraordinary move- 94
were fkilled in military affairs. They fuffered Cortes, ments among the Tlafcalans, gave the alarm. Imme-^'e ^
with his army drawn up in good order, to pafs a ftrong diately the troops were under arms, and fallying out, fUc £t)’
wall between two mountains, which might have been defeated their antagonifts with great flaugliter, with-j eaca.
very advantageoufly defended againfl him. He had out allowing them to approach the camp. By this dif-
not advanced far beyond this pafs, however, before a after the Tlafcalans were heartily difpofed to peace ;
•party of Tlafcalans with plumes were difeovered, which but they were at a lofs to form an adequate idea of ,
denoted that an army was in the field. Thefe he drove the enemies they had to deal with. They could not
‘before him by a detachment of fix horfe, obliged them afeertain the nature of thefe furprifing beings, or whe-
to join another party, and then reinforcing the advan- therthey were really of a benevolent or malignant dif-
ced detachment, charged the enemy with fuch vigour pofition. There were circumftances in their behaviour
‘that they began to retire. Five thoufand Tlafcalans, which feemed to favour each opinion. On the one
whom Xicotencal had placed in ambufh, then rufhed hand, as the Spaniards conftantly difmifled• the pri-
out of their hiding places, juft as the infantry came foners whom they took, not only without injury, but
up to affift their (lender body of cavalry. The enemy often with prefents of European toys, and renewed
attacked with the utmoft fury ; but were fo much their offers of peace after every vi&ory ; this lenity a-
difconcerted by the firft difeharge of the fire-arms, mazed people accuftomed to the exterminating fyftem
that they retreated in confufion, furnifhing the Spa- of war known in America, and who facrificed and de-
.niards with an opportunity of purfuing them with great voured without mercy all the captives taken in battle ;
(laughter. Cortes, however, fuppofing that this could and difpofed them to entertain fentiments favourable
not he their whole'force, advanced with the utmoft • to their humanity. But, on the other hand, as Cortes
caution, in order of battle, loan eminence, from whence had feized 50 of their countrymen who brought pro¬
be had a view of the main body of the Tlafcalan army vifions to their camp, and cut off their heads; this
.commanded by Xicotencal, confifting of no fewer than bloody fpedlacle, added to the terror occafioncd by
40,000 men. By thefe the fmall army of Cortes was the fire-arms and horfes, filled them with dreadful ideas
entirely furrounded; which Xicotencal no fooner per- of their ferocity. Accordingly they addrefied them
ceived, than he contra&ed the circle with incredible imhe following manner: “ If (faid they) you are
diligence, while the Spaniards were almoft overwhelm- divinities of a cruel and favage nature, we prefent to
ed with (bowers of arrows, darts, and ftones. It is im- you five flaves, that you may drink their blood and eat
poffible but in this cafe many of the Spaniards muft their flefh. If you are mild deities, accept an offer-
have perifhed, had it not been for the infufficiency of ing of incenfe and variegated plumes. If you are
the Indian weapons. Their arrows and fpears were men, here is meat, bread, and fruit, to nouriih you.”
headed only with flint, or the bones of fifties ; their After this addrefs, the peace was foon concluded, to Which is
flakes hardened in the fire, and wooden fwords, though the great fatisfa&ion of both parties. The Tlafcalans granted,
deftru&ive weapons among naked Indians, were eafily yielded themfelves as vaflals to the crown of Caftile,
turned afide by the Spanifh bucklers, and could hardly and engaged to affift Cortes in all his operations; while
penetrate the quilted jackets which the foldiers wore, he took the republic under his proteftion, and promi-
Thefe circumftances gave the Spaniards a prodigious fed to defend their perfons and pofleflions from injury
advantage'over them; and therefore the Flafcalans, and violence. 96
notwithhanding their valour and fuperiority in num- This reconciliation took place at a very feafonable f’reat ^
her, could accdmplifli no more in the prefent in- jundfure for the Spaniards. They were not only worn ^
ftance, than to kill one horfe and flightly wound out with inceffant toil, hut fo deftitute of neceflaries, niarfoT"
nine foldiers. that they had no other falve to drefs their wounds but
what
M E X L 65* ] M E X
wfiat was compofed of the fat of Indians whom they
had flain. Their' diftrefies, in ihort, were arifen to
fuch an height, that they had begun to murmur, and
even to defpair, infomuch that Cortes had much diffi¬
culty in retraining them within any kind of bounds ;
but the fubmifiion of the Tlafcalans, and their own
triumphant entry into the city, where they were recei¬
ved with the reverence due to a fuperior order of be¬
ings, banifhed at once all memory of paft fufferings,
difpelled every anxious thought, and fully convinced
them that they could not be refilled by any power in
America.
Cortes left no method untried to gain the favour
and confidence of the Tlafcalans ; which, however, he
had almoll entirely loft, by his untimely zeal in de-
ftroying their idols as he had done thofe of Zempo-
alla. But he was deterred from this ralh aftion by his
chaplain, father Bartholomew de Qlmedo ; and left
the Tlafcalans in the undifturbed exercife of their fu-
perftition, requiring only that they Ihould defift from
• their horrid pra&ice of offering human viftims. As
foon as his troops were fit for ferviee, he refolved to
continue his march towards Mexico, notwithftanding
the remonftrances of the Tlafoalans, who looked upon
his deftrudlion as unavoidable if he put himfelf into
the power of fuch a faithlefs prince as Montezuma.
But the emperor, probably intimidated with the fame
of his exploits, had refolved to admit his vifit; and in¬
formed Cortes that he had given orders for His friendly
reception at Gholula, the next place of any confequence
on the road to Mexico. In this, however, he was Ijy
no means fincere. Cholula was looked upon by all the
inhabitants of the empire as a very holy place; the
fandluary and chief feat of their gods, to which pil¬
grims reforted from every province, and a greater
number of human vidlims were offered in its principal
temple than even in that of Mexico. Montezuma
therefore invited the Spaniards thither, either from
fome fuperftitious hope that the gods would not fuffer
this facred manfion to be defiled ; or from a belief, that
he himfelf might there find an opportunity'of cutting
them off with more certainty of fuccefs, when under
the immediate prote&ion of his gods. Cortes, how¬
ever, was received with much feeming cordiality ; but
60co Tlafcalan troops who accompanied him were ob¬
liged to remain without the town, as the Cholulans re-
fufed to admit their ancient enemies within their pre-
cinfts. Yet two of thefe, by difguifing themfelves,
got into the city, and acquainted Cortes that they ob-
ferved the women and children belonging to the prin¬
cipal citizens retiring every night in a great hurry,
and that fix children had been facrificed in the great
temple; a fign that fome warlike enterprife was at
hand. At the fame time Donna Marina, the inter¬
preter, received information from an Indian woman
of diftin&ion, whofe confidence Ihe had gained, that
the deftru&ion of the Spaniards was concerted ; th^t
a body of Mexican troops lay concealed near the town;
that fome of the ftreets were barricaded, inothers deep
pits or trenches wer| dug, and flightly covered over,
as traps into which the horfe might fall; that ftones
and miffive weapons were colle&ed on the tops of the.
temples, with which to overwhelm the infantry ; that
the fatal hour was already at hand, and their ruin un¬
avoidable. Cortes, alarmed at this news, fecretly ar-
refted three of the chief priefts, from whom he extort- Meslea.
ed a confeflion that confirmed the intelligence he had ^
already received. As not a moment was to be loft, $evere pU-
he inftantly refolved to prevent his enemies, and to in-nilhment of
flitt on them fuch dreadful vengeance as might ftriketfie Choi*.
Montezuma and his fubje&s with terror. For this pur-1^0'
pofe the Spaniards and Zempoallans were drawn up in
a large court, which had been allotted for their quar¬
ters, near the centre of the town ; the Tlafcalans had
orders to advance; the magiftrates and chief citizens
were fent for under, various pretexts, and feized. On
a fignal given, the troops rulhed out, and fell upon the
multitude, deftitute of leaders, and fo much aftoniftied,
that the weapons dropped from their hands, and they
flood motionlefs, and incapable of defence. While the
Spaniards attacked them in front, the Tlafcalans did
the fame in the rear ; the ftreets were filled with daugh¬
ter ; the temples, which afforded a retreat to the priefts
and fome leading men, were fet on fire, and they pe-
rifhed in the flames. This fcene of horror continued
two days, during which the wretched inhabitants fuf-
fered all that the deftrudlive rage of the Spaniards, or
the implacable revenge of their Indian allies, could in-
flidt. At length the carnage ceafed, after the daugh¬
ter of 6000 Cholulans, without the lofs of a Angle
Spaniard. Cortes then releafed the magiftrates ; and
reproaching them bitterly for their intended treachery,
declared, that as juftice was now appeafed, he forgave
the offence but required them to recal the inhabi¬
tants who had fled, and re-eftablifh order in the town.
Such was the afcendant that the Spaniards had now*
obtained over this fuperftitious race, that this order
was inftantly complied with ; and the city was in a few
days again filled with people, who paid the moil re-
fpedlful fervice to thofe men whofe hands were ftained
with the blood of their relations and fellow-citizens. IOO .
From Cholula, Cortes advanced direflly towardsDififf-.eKon
Mexico ; and throughout the whole of his journey was ot M'r'Bte'
entertained with accounts of the opprefiions and cruel-
ty of Montezuma. This gave him the greateft hopeJ
of accomp.liihing his defign ; as he how perceived that
the empire was entirely divided, and no fort of unani¬
mity prevailed among them. No enemy appeared to
check his progrefs. Montezuma was quite irrefolute ;
and Cortes was alrhoft at the gates- of the capital be¬
fore the emperor had determined whether to receive
him as a friend or oppofe him as an enemy. But as -
no fign of open hoftility appeared, the Spaniards, with¬
out regarding the fluftuations of Montezuma’s fenti-
ments, continued their march to Mexico, with great
circumfpeflion and the ttrifleft difcipline, though
without feeming to fufpedl the prince whom they were
about to vifit. I0J i
When they drew near the city, about 1000 perfons, Meeting of:
who appeared to be of diftin&ion, came forth to meet Corns and ■
them, adorned with plumes, and clad in mantles of fine Monte‘
cotton Each of thefe, in his order, paffed by Cortes, , 11
and faluted him according to the mode deemed moft *
refpe&ful and fubmiffive in their country. They an¬
nounced the approach of Montezuma himfelf, and foon
after his harbingers came in fight. There appeared
firft 200 perfons in an uniform drefs, with large plumes
of feathers, alike in faftrion, marching two and two, .
in deep filence, barefooted, with their eyes fixed on the
ground. Thefe were followed by a company of higher
rank/
M E X r 656 ] M E X
rank, In their moft ihdwy apparel; in the midft of
whom was Montezuma, in a chair or litter richly or¬
namented with gold, and feathers of various colours.
Four of his principal favourites carried him on their
fhoulders, others fupported a canopy of curious work-
manfliip over his head. Before him marched three of¬
ficers with rods of gold in their hands, which they
lifted up on high at certain intervals; and at that fig-
nal all the people bowed their heads, and hid their
faces, as unworthy to look on fo great a monarch.
When he drew near, Cortes difmounted, advancing
towards him with officious hafte, and in a refpeftful
poflure. At the fame time Montezuma alighted from
his chair, and leaning on the arms of two of his near
relations, approached with a flow and ftately pace, his
attendants covering the fireet with cotton cloths, that
he might not touch the ground. Cortes accofted him
with profound reverence, after the European fafhion.
He returned the falutation, according to the mode of
his country, by touching the earth with his hand, and
then killing it. This ceremony, the cuftomary expref-
.fion of reverence from inferiors towards thofe who are
above them in rank, appeared fuch amazing condefcen-
fion in a proud monarch, who fcarcely deigned to con-
Jider the reft of mankind as of the fame fpecies with
himfelf that all his fubjefts firmly believed thofe per-
fons, before whom he humbled himfelf in this man¬
ner, to be fomething more than human. Accord¬
ingly, as they marched through the crowd, the Spa¬
niards frequently, and with much fatisfatftion, heard
themfelves denominated teules^ or divinities. Nothing
material pafled in this firft interview. Montezuma con¬
ducted Cortes to the quarters which he had prepared
for his reception ; and immediately took leave of him,
with a politenefs not unworthy of a court more refined.
•“ You are now (fays he), with your brothers, in
your own houfe ; refrefh yourfelves after your fatigue,
and be happy until 1 return.” The place allotted to
the Spaniards for their lodging was a houfe built by
the father of Montezuma. It was furrounded by a
ftone-wall, with towers at proper diftances, which fer-
ved for defence as well as for ornament; and its apart¬
ments and courts were fo large as to accommodate
Both the Spaniards and their Indian allies. The firft
care of Cortes was to take precautions for his fecurity,
by planting the artillery fo as to command the dif¬
ferent avenues which led to it, by appointing a large
.divifion of his troops to be always.on guard, and by
polling centinels at proper .ftations, with injunctions
to obferve the fame vigilant difcipline as if they were
within fight of an enemy’s camp.
In the evening Montezuma returned to vifit his
guefts with the fame pomp as in their firft interview ;
and brought prefents of fuch value, not only to Cortes
and to his officers, but even to the private men, as
proved the liberality of the monarch to be fuitable to
the opulence of his kingdom. A long conference en-
fued, in which Cortes learned what was the opinion of
Montezuma with refpeCl to the Spaniards. It was an
■eftablilhed tradition, he told him, among the Mexicans,
that their anceftors came originally from a remote re¬
gion, and conquered the provinces now fubjeft to his
dominion ; that after they were fettled there, the great
captain who conducted this colony returned to his own
country, promifing, that at feme future period his de-
N° 217-
feendants ffiould vifit them, aflume the government, Mexico.
and reform their conftitutions and laws; that, from  
what he had heard and feen of Cortes and his follow¬
ers, he was convinced that they were the very perfons
whofe appearance and prophecies taught them to ex-
peCt; that accordingly he had received them, not as
ftrangers, but as relations of the fame blood and pa¬
rentage, and defired that they might confider them¬
felves as matters in his dominions 5 for both himfelf and
his fubjeCls ffiould be ready to comply with their will,
and even to prevent their wiffies. Cortes made a re¬
ply in his ufual ftyle with refpeCl to the dignity and
power of his fovereign, and his intention in fending
him into that country ; artfully endeavouring fo to
frame his difeourfe, that it might coincide as much as
poffible with the idea which Montezuma had formed
concerning the origin of the Spaniards. Next morn¬
ing, Cortes and fome of his principal attendants were
admitted to a public audience of the emperor. The
three fubfequent days were employed in viewing the
city ; the appearance of which, fo far fuperior in the
order of its buildings and the number of its inhabi¬
tants to any place the Spaniards had beheld in Ame¬
rica, and yet fo little refembling the ftruCture of an
European city, filled them with furprife and admira-
tion. _ to*
Mexico, Tenuchlitlan, as it was anciently called Defcrij tiort
by the natives, is lituated in a large plain, environed of the
by mountains of fuch height, that though within the of Meue0*
torrid zone, the temperature of its climate is mild and
healthful. All the moifture which defeends from the
high grounds is colleded in feveral lakes, the two
largeft of which, of about 90 miles in circuit, commu-
ijicate with each other. The waters of the one are
freffi, fhofe of the others brackiffi. On the banks of
the latter, and on fome fmall iflands adjoining to them,
the capital of Montezuma’s empire was built. The ac-
cefs to the city was by artificial caufeways or ftreets,
formed of ftones and earth, about 30 feet in breadth.
As the waters of the lake, during the rainy feafon,
overflowed the flat country, thefe caufeways were of
confiderable length. That of Tacuba on the weft a
mile and a half; that of Tezenco on the north-weft
three miles ; that of Cuoyacan towards the fouth fix
miles. On the eaft ther^ was no caufeway, and the
city could be approached only by canoes In each of
thefe caufeways were openings, at proper intervals,
through which the waters flowed ; and over thefe
beams of timber were laid, which being covered with
earth, the caufeway or ftreet had every where an uni¬
form appearance. As the approaches to the city were
Angular, its conftru&ion was remarkable. Not only
the temple of their gods, but the houfes belonging to
the monarch and to perfons of diftindion, were of
fuch dimenfions, that, in comparifon with any other
buildings which had been difeovered in America, they
might be termed magnificent. The habitations of the
common people were mean, refembling the huts of
other Indians. But they were all placed in a regular
manner, on the banks of the canals which pafled thro’
the city, in fome of its diftrids, <5r on the fides of the
ftreets which interfeded it in ether quarters.. In feve¬
ral places were large openings or fquares, one of which,
allotted for the great market, is faid to have been fo
fpacious, that 40,00.0 or 50,000 perfons carried on
traffic
M E X
Msxie". traffic there. In this city, the pride of the Nei
World, and the nobleft monument of the induftry and
[ 655 1
M E X
munication was very imperfect, he had pnfhed forward
fituation, where it was difficult to continue, and
art of man, while unacquainted with the ufe of iron, from which it was dangerous to retire. Difgrace, and
and deftitute of aid from any domeftic animal, the perhaps ruin, was the certain confequence of attempt-
Spaniards, who are moft: moderate in their computa- ing the latter. The fuccefs of his enterprife depend-
tions, reckon that there were at lead 60,000 inhabi¬
tants.
But how much foever the novelty of thofe objefts
of* the Spa- "light amufe or aftoniffi the Spaniards, they felt the
niarJs. utmofh folicitude with refpeft to their own fituation.
ed upon fupporting the high opinion which the people
of New Spain had formed with refpeft to the irrelift-
ible power of his arms. Upon the firft fymptom of
timidity on his part, their veneration would ceafe, and
Montezuma, whom fear alone reftrained at prefent.
From a concurrence of circumftances, no lefs unexpec- would let loofe upon him the whole force of his cm
ted than favourable to their progrefs, they had been pire. At the fame time, he knew that the countenance
allowed to penetrate into the heart of a powerful king¬
dom, and were now lodged in its capital, without ha¬
ving once met with open oppofition from its monarch.
The Tlafcalans, however, had earneftly diffuaded them
of his own fovercign was to be obtained only by a fu¬
ries of victories ; and that nothing but the merit of
extraordinary fuccefs could fcreen his condudf from the
cenfure of irregularity. From all thefe confiderations.
from placing fuch confidence in Montezuma as to en- it was neceffary to maintain his ftation, and to extri-
ter a city of fuch a peculiar fituation as Mexico, where cate himfelf out of the difficulties in which one bold
that prince would have them at mercy, fiuit up as it
a fnare, from which it was impoffible to efcapc.
ftep had involved him, by venturing upon another ftill
bolder. The fituation was trying, but his mind v
They affured them that the Mexican prieits had, in the equal to it; and after revolving the matter with deep
name of the gods, counfelled their fovereign to admit attention, he fixed upon a plan no lefs extraordinary
the itrangers into the capital, that he might cut them
off there at one blow with perfect fecurity. The Spa¬
niards now perceived, too plainly, that the apprehen-
fions of their allies were not deftitute of foundation ;
that, by breaking the bridges placed at certain inter¬
vals on the caufeways, or by deftroying part of the
caufeways themfelves, their retreat would be rendered
than daring. He determined to feize Montezuma in Cortes re-
his palace, and carry him a prifoner to the Spaniih1 ,!v'is to
quarters. From the fuperftitious veneration of the[®zz®ma
Mexicans for the perfon of their monarch, as well as hi, palace,
their implicit fubmiffion to his will, he hoped, by ha¬
ving Montezuma in his power, to acquire the fupreme
diredfion of their affairs ; or at leaft, with fuch a fa-
pradficable, and they muff remain cooped up in the cred pledge in his hands, he made no doubt of being
centre of a hoflile city, furrounded by multitudes fuf-
ficient to overwhelm them, and without a poffibility
fecure from any effort of their violence.
^ , This he immediately propofed to his officers. The
of receiving aid from their allies. Montezuma had, in- timid ftartled at a meafure fo audacious, and raifed ob-
deed, received them with diftinguifhed refpeft. But jediions. The more intelligent and refolute, confcious
ought they to reckon upon this as real, or to confider that it was the only refource in which there appeared
.. r j > Tr”“ 'c'* “ 11 ~.~u .1 profpe(ffc 0f fafety, warmly approved of it, and
brought over their companions fo cordially to the fame
opinion, that it was agreed inftantly to make the at¬
tempt. At his ufual hour of vifiting Montezuma,
ight Cortes went to the palace, accompanied by Alvarado,
Sandoval, Lugo, Velafquez de Leon, and Davila, five
of his principal officers, and as many trufty foldiers.
it as feigned ? Even if it were fincere, could they pio-
mife on its continuance i Their fafety depended upon
the will of a monarch in whofe attachment they had
no reafon to confide ; and an order flowing from his
caprice, or a word uttered by him in paffionj
104 decide irrevocably concerning their fate.
Some'hofti- Thefe reflexions, fo obvious as to occur to the
meanefl foldier, did not efcape the vigilant fagacity of Thirty chofen men followed, not in regular order, but
fauntering at fome diflance, as if they had no objeft
but curiofitv; fmall parties were polled at proper in¬
tervals, in all the flreets leading from the Spanifhquar-
Spaiiiards their general. Before he fet out from Cholula, C5r-
and Mexi- tes had received advice from Villa Rica, that Qual-
can®. popoca, one of the Mexican generals on the frontiers, ,      
having affembled an army in order to attack fome of ters to the court; and the remainder of his troops,
^ the people whom the Spaniards had encouraged to with the Tlafcalan allies, were under arms, ready to
throw off the Mexican yoke, Efcalante had marched r "
out with part of the garrifon to fupport his allies; that
an engagement had enfued, in which, though the Spa¬
niards were viXorious, Efcalante, with feven of his
men, had been mortally wounded, his horfe killed, and
fally out on the firft alarm. Cortes and his attendants
were admitted without fufpicion 5 the Mexicans reti¬
ring, as ufual, out of refpeX. He addrefled the mo¬
narch in a tone very different from that which he had
employed in former conferences; reproaching him bit¬
one Spaniard had been furrounded by the enemy and terly as the author of the violent affault made upon the
taken alive; that the head of this unfortunate captive, 0— r ' ' rr ’ ’
after being carried in triumph to different cities, in or¬
der to convince the people that their invaders were
Spaniards by one of his officers, and demanding public
reparation for the lofs which he had fuftained by the
. A - death of fome of his companions, as well as for the in¬
immortal, had been fent to Mexico. Cortes, though fult offered to the great prince whofe fervants they
alarmed with this intelligence, as an indication^Mon¬
tezuma’s hoftile intentions, had continued his march.
But as foon as he entered Mexico, he became fenfible,
that, from an excels of confidence in the fuperior va¬
lour and difeipline of his troops, as well as from the
difad vantage of having nothing to guide him in an un¬
known country bur the defeXive intelligence which
were. Montezuma, confounded at this unexpeXed ac-
cufation, and changing colour either from the confci-
oufnefs of guilt, or from feeling the indignity with
which he was treated, afferted his own innocence with
great earneftnefs 5 and, as a proof of it, gave orders
inftantly to bring Qualpopoca and his accomplices pri-
foners to Mexico. Cortes replied, with feeming c
he received from people with whom his mode of com- plaifance, that a declaration fo refpeXable left no doubt
Vol. XI. Part II. ~ • •
40
remaining
M E X
C 656 1
M E X
Mexico, remaining in his own mind ; but that fomething more
v ~ was requifite to fatisfy his followers, who would never
be convinced that Montezuma did not harbour hoftile
intentions againft them, unlefs, as an evidence of his
confidence and attachment, he removed from his own.
palace and took up his refidence in the Spanifh quar¬
ters, where he (liould be ferved and honoured as be¬
came a great monarch. The firft mention of foftrange
a propofal bereaved Montezuma of fpeech, and almoft
of motion. At length he haughtily anfwered, “ That
perfons of his rank were not accuftomed voluntarily to
give up themfelves as prifoners; and were he mean
enough to do fo, his fubjefts would not permit fuch an
affront to be offered to their fovereign.” Cortes, un-
fpirit excited his jealoufy and fubftituted in their Mexico,
place perfons who- he imagined would be more obfe- * “ 1 }
quious. One thing, however, was ffill wanting to com¬
plete his fecurity. He wifhed to have-fuch a command
of the lake as might eniure a retreat, if, either from
levity or difguft, the Mexicans Ihould take arms againft
him, and break down the bridges or caufeways, in or¬
der to inclofe him in the city. In order to obtain 108
this without giving difguft to the emperor or his court, ^e
Cortes artfully inflamed the curiofity of the Indians
with accounts of the Spanifh (hipping, and thofe float- leave to
ing palaces that moved with fuch velocity on the wa-build two
ter, without the afliftance of oars; and when he found ^”^tines
that the monarch himfelf was extremely defirous of lakei
walling to employ force, endeavoured alternately to feeing fuch a novelty, he gave him to underftand,
foothe and intimidate him. The altercation became that nothing was wanting to his gratification befides
warm; and having continued above three hours, Ve- a few neceffaries from Vera Cruz, for that he had
lafquez de Leon, an impetuous and gallant young man, workmen in his army capable of building fuch veffels.
exclaimed with impatience, “ Why wafte more time The bait took with Montezuma ; and he gave imme-
in vain ? Let us either feizehim inftantly, or ftabhim diate orders that all his people (hould affift Cortes in
to the heart.” The threatening voice and fierce gef- whatever he fhould direft concerning the (hipping.
By this means, in a few days, two brigantines were
got ready, full-rigged and equipped ; and Montezuma
was invited on board, to make the firft trial of their
failing, of which he could form no idea. According-
tures with which thefe words were uttered, (truck Mon¬
tezuma. The Spaniards, he was fenfible, had now
proceeded fo far, as left him no hope that they would
recede. His own danger was imminent, the neceffity
unavoidable. He faw both ; and abandoning himfelf ly he embarked for this purpofe, and gave orders for
to his fate, complied with their requeft. a great hunting upon the water, in order that all his
The empe- ^*s °fficers were called. He communicated to them people might be diverted with the novelty prefented
ror carried his refolution. Though aftoniftied and aiflidled, they by the Spaniards. On the day appointed, the royal
to the prefumed not to queftion the will of their mailer, but
equipage was ready early in the morning; and the
lake was covered with a multitude of boats and canoes
loaded with people. The Mexicans had augmented
the number"of their rowers on board the royal barges,
with an intention to difgrace the Spanifh veffels, which
they regarded as clumfy, unwieldy, and heavy. But
they were foon undeceived; a frefh gale darted up,
the brigantines hoifted fail, to the utter aftonilhment
of all the fpeftatois, and foon left all the canoes be^
hind ; while the monarch exulted in the viftory of the
Spaniards, without once confidering that now he had
effectually rivetted his own chains. ro<>
Cortes having obtained this important point, refol- M°nte-
ved to put the condefcenlion of the emperor to a himfelf a
ftill more fevere. He urged Montezuma to acknow-vafl-ai to
know that he was entirely in their power. Cortes wifh- ledge himfelf a vaffal to the crown of Caftile; to hold 1 he king 6£
ed that the (bedding the blood of a Spaniard Ihould his crown of him as fuperior, and to fubjeft his domi-^P^11*
1 11 1 ^ • —,J 1 ■■ nions to the payment of an annual tribute. With this
carried him in filent pomp, all bathed in tears, to the
Spaniflr quarters. When it was known that the ftran-
gers were conveying away the emperor, the people
broke out into the wtldeft tranfports.of grief and rage,
threatening the Spaniards with immediate deftruftion,
as the puniflrment juftly due to their impious audacity.
But as foon as Montezuma appeared with a feeming
gaiety of countenance, and waved his hand, the tumult
was huflred; and upon his declaring it to be of his
own choice that he went to reiide for fome time among
his new friends, the multitude, taught to revere every
intimatioH of their fovereign’spleafure, quietly difperfed.
The Spaniards at firft pretended to treat Montezu¬
ma with great refpeft ; but foon took care to let hii
Corfes
r: les the
empire.
appear the mod heinous crime that could be commit¬
ted ; and therefore not only took a mod -exemplary
vengeance on thofe who had been concerned in the af¬
fair of Villa Rica, but even put the emperor himfelf in
chains till the execution of the Mexican general was
over. By thefe, and other infults, he at laft gained
entirely the afeendant over this unhappy monarch ;
and he took care to improve his opportunity to the
utmoft. He fent his emiffaries into different parts of
the kingdom, accompanied with Mexicans of diitinc-
tion, who might ferve both to guide and to protedl
them. They vifited mod of the provinces, viewed
their foil and produ&ions, furveyed with particular
care the diftrifts which yielded gold or fiTver, pitched
upon feveral places as proper for future colonies, and
endeavemred to prepare the minds of the people for
fubmitting to the Spanifh yoke: and while they were
thus employed, Cortes, in the name and by the au¬
thority of Montezuma, degraded fome of the principal
•fficers in the. empire, whofc abilities or independent
requifition, humiliating as it was, Montezuma com¬
plied. He called together the chief men of his em¬
pire, and, in a folemn harangue, reminded them of the
traditions and prophecies which led them to expedt the
arrival of a people fpru.ng from the fame dock with
themfelves, in order to take poffeflion of the fupreme
power; he declared his belief that the Spaniards were
this promifed race ; and that therefore he recognifed
the right of their monarch to govern the Mexican em¬
pire, would lay his crown at his feet, and obey him as
a tributary.^ While uttering thefe words, Montezuma
difeovered how deeply he was affedted in making fuch
a facrifice. Tears and groans frequently interrupted
his difeourfe. The firft mention of fuch a refolution
(truck the affembly dumb with aftonifiiment. This
was followed by a fallen murmur of forrow mingled
with indignation ; which indieated fome violent erup¬
tion of rage to be near at hand. This Cortes forefaw;
and feafonably interpofed to prevent it, by declaring
that
M E X
r 657 ]
M E X
The Spa-
luardt di¬
vide their
treafure.
Cortes at-
temj t< to
dcflroy the
Mexican
Which pro¬
duces a ge¬
neral diUf-
fedlion.
that his mafter had no intention to deprive Montezuma
of the royal dignity, or to make any innovation upon
the conftitution and laws of the Mexican empire. This
alfurance, added to their dread of the Spanilh arms,
and the authority of their monarch's example, extort¬
ed the confent of the affembly ; and the adl of fubmif-
fion and homage was executed with all the formalities
which the Spaniards pleafed to prefcribe.
Montezuma, at the requeft of Cortes, accompanied
this profeffion of fealty and homage with a magnifi¬
cent prefent to his new fovereign ; and, after his ex¬
ample, his fubjefts brought in very liberal contribu¬
tions. The Spaniards then collefted all the treafure
which had been either voluntarily bellowed upon them
at different times by Montezuma, or had been extort¬
ed from his people under various pretences; and ha¬
ving melted the gold and filver,.the value of thefe, with¬
out including jewels and ornaments of various kinds,
which were preferved on account of their curious work-
manlhip, amounted to 6oo;®qo pefos. The foldiers
were impatient to have it divided and Cortes com¬
plied with their defire. A fifth of the whole was fet
apart as the tax due to the king. Another fifth was
allowed to Cortes as coipmander. The fums advan¬
ced by the governor of Cuba, who had originally fit¬
ted out the expedition, were then dedudted. The re¬
mainder was then divided among the army, including
the garrifon of Vera Crpz, in proportion to their dif¬
ferent ranks; and after fo many deductions, the lhare
of a private man did not exceed 100 pefos. This fum
fell fo far below their fanguine expectations, that it re¬
quired all the addrefs, and no fmall exertions of the li¬
berality of Cortes, to prevent an open mutiny. How-
fver, he at lalt reftored tranquillity ; but had no foon-
er efcaped this danger, than he involved himfelf, by his
imprudent zeal for religion, in one much worfe. Mon¬
tezuma, though often importuned, had obftinately re¬
futed to change his religion, or abolilh the fuperlliti-
Ous rites which had been for fuch a long time praCli-
fed throughout his dominions. This at lalt tranfport-
that more might be gained by a feigned compliance Mexico.
than by open refillance ; and therefore replied with  V
great compofure, that he had already begun to prepare
for his return ; but as he had dellroyed the velfels in
which he arrived, fame time was requifite for building
other Ihips. This appeared reafonable ; and a num¬
ber of Mexicans were fent to Vera Cruz to cut down
timber, and fome Spanilh carpenters were appointed
to fuperintend the work. ij4
Cortes flattered himfelf, that, during this interval, he An anna-
might either find means to avert the threatened danger,
or receivefuchreinforcementsaswould enable him to de- *
fend himfelf. Nine months had now elapfed fince Por-Cortes,
tocanero and Montejo had failed with his difpatches to
Spain ; and he daily expeCted a return with a confir¬
mation of his authority from the king, without which
all that he had done ferved only to mark him out as an
objeCt of punilhment. While he remained in great
anxiety on this account, news were brought that fome
Ihips had appeared on the coall. Thefe were imagined
by Cortes to be a reinforcement fent him from Spain:
but his joy was of Ihort continuance, for a courier very
foon arrived from Vera Cruz, with certain information
that the armament was fitted out by Velafquez, the
governor of Cuba ; and inltead of bringing fuccours,
threatened them with immediate deltruftion.
Velafquez had been excited to this holtile meafure
chiefly through the indifcretion, or rather treachery,
of the meflengers of Cortes; who, contrary to his ex-
prefs injunctions, had landed on the ifland of Cuba,
and given intelligence of all that had palled : and Ve¬
lafquez, tranfported with rage at hearing of the pro¬
ceedings of Cortes, had now fent againlt him this ar¬
mament ; confilting of 18 Ihips, which carried 80 horfe-
men, 800 infantry, of which 80 were mulketeers, and
120 crofs-bowmen, commanded by a brave officer na¬
med Pamphllo de Narvaez ; whofe inltruCtions were,
to feize Cortes and his principal officers, to fend them
prifoners to him, and then to complete the difcovery
and conquelt of the country in his name. This proved
ed the Spaniard with fuch rage, that, in a fally of a molt alfliCting piece of news to Cortes. However,
zeal,- he led out his foldiers in order to throw down the
idols in the great temple by force. But the priells
taking arms in defence of their altars, and the people
crowding with great ardour to fupport them, Cortes’s
prudence over-ruled his zeal, and induced him to deiill
from his ralh attempt, after diflodging the idols from
one of the Ihrines, and placing in their Head an image
of the Virgin Mary.
From this moment the Mexicans began to meditate
the expuliion or the deltruftion of the Spaniards. The
prielts and leading men held frequent meetings with
thinking it imprudent to attempt any thing againll hi*
countrymen at firll by force, he fent his chaplain 01-
medo with propofals of accommodation. Narvaez re¬
jected his propofals with fcorn; but his followers were
lefs violent in their refentmenta. Olmedo delivered
many letters -to them, either from Cortes himfelf, or
from his officers their ancient friends and companions.
Thefe Cortes had artfully accompanied with prefents
of rings, chains of gold, and other trinkets of value ;
which infpired thofe needy adventurers with high ideas
of the wealth he had acquired, and with envy of the
Montezuma for this purpofe. But as any violent at- good fortune of thofe who were engaged in his fervice.
113
TheS^a-
commaiid-
tempt might have proved fatal to the captive monarch,
it was thought proper firft to try more gentle means.
Having called Cortes into his prefence, he obferved,
that now, as all the purpofes of his embafly were fully
accomplifhed, the gods had declared tlieir will, and the
people fignified their defire, that he and his followers
fiiould initantly depart out of the empire. With this
he required them to comply, or unavoidable deilruc-
tion would fall fuddenly on their heads. This unex¬
pected requilition, as well as the manner in which it
was delivered, alarmed. Cortes. However, he fuppofed
Some, from hopes of becoming ffiarers in thefe rich
fpoils,declared for an immediate accommodation; while
others were for the fame pacific meafure, through fear
of fubverting the Spaniffi power entirely in a country
where it was fo imperfeCtly ellabliflied. Narvaez dif-
regarded both ; and, by a proclamation, denounced
Cortes and his adherents rebels and enemies to their
country. Ils
Cortes having now no refource but in war, left Which i*
150 men under the command of Pedro de Alva-Jefeate<i
rado, an officer of great bravery, and much refpeCted
4 O 2 by*1 '
M E X [6.
Me*ie<\ by the Mexicans, to guard the capital and the cap-
v tive emperor; while he himfelf marcned with the re¬
mainder, to meet his formidable opponent, who had
taken poflVflion of Zempoalla. Even after being rein¬
forced by Sandoval his governor of Vera Cruz, the
force of Cortes did not exceed 2 50 men. He hoped
for fuccefs chiefly from the tapidity of his motions and
the poffibil'ty of furprifing his enemies ; and as he
chiefly dreaded their cavalry, he armed his folditrs
* with long fpears, accufloming them to that deep and
compaft arrangement winch the ufe of this formidable
weapon enabled them to aflume. As he advanced,
however, he repeated his propofals of accommoda¬
tion ; but thefe being conftantly reje&ed, and a price
fet upon Iris head, he at laft attacked Narvaez in
the night-time, entirely defeated and took him pri-
foner, obliging all his troops to own allegiance to
himfelf.
Nothing could be more feafonable than this viftory,
bv which Cortes found his army very coniiderably in-
creafed ; for moft of the foldiers of Narvaez chofe
rather to follow Cortes than to return to Cuba,
IT6 whither the conqueror had offered to fend them if they
Dangerous chofe. His affairs at Mexico, in the mean time,
fuuation of were in the utmoft danger of being totally ruined ;
iiiard'-j'cfc an(l hac* decifrve vi&ory been delayed but a few
a-. Meii- days longer, he mud have come too late to fave his
to. companions. A ihort time after the defeat of Nar¬
vaez, a -courier arrived from Mexico with the dif-
agreeable intelligence that the Mexicans had taken
arms; and having feized and deftroyed the two brigan¬
tines which he had built in order to fecure the com¬
mand of the lake, had attacked the Spaniards in their
quarters, killed fome, and wounded many more, burnt
their magazine of provifions, and, in fhort, carried
on hoftilities with fuch fury, that though Alvai ado
and his men defyided themfelves with undaunted re-
folution, they muff either be cut off by famine, or
fink under the multitude of their enemies. This re¬
volt was excited by motives which rendered it ftill
more alarming. On the departure of Cortes for
Zempoalla, the Mexicans flattered themfclves, that the
long-expe&ed opportunity of refforing their fovereign
to liberty, and driving out the Spaniards, was arrived;
and confultations were accordingly held for bringing
about both thefe events. The Spaniards in Mexico,
confcious of their own weaknefs, fufpe&ed and dreaded
thefe machinations ; but Alvarado, who had neither
the prudence nor the addrefs ©f Cortes, took the worll
method imaginable to overcome them. Ipftead of at¬
tempting to foothe or cajole the Mexicans, he waited
the return of one of their folemn feftivals, wdien the
principal perfons in the empire were dancing, ac¬
cording to cuftom, in the court of the great temple ;
he feized all the avenues which led to it; and, allured
partly by the rich ornaments which they wore in
honour of their gods, and partly by the facility of
cutting off at once the authors of that confpiracy
which he dreaded, he fell upon them, unaimed and
unfufpicious of danger, and raaffacred a great num¬
ber ; none efcaping but fuch as made their way
over the battlements of the temple. An aftion fo
cruel and treacherous filled not only the city, but the
whole empire, with indignation and irage ; and the
,8 ] M E X
Mexicans immediately proceeded in the manner above- Mexico-,
mentioned. - i
Cortes advanced with the utmoft celerity to the re- II7
lief of his diftrefled companions; but as he paffed along,
had the mortification to find that the Spaniards were retu«i to
generally held in abhorrence. The principal inhabi- .vlexico;
tants had deferred the towns through which he paffed;
no perfon of note appeared to meet him with the ufual
refpeft; nor were provilions brought to his camp as
ufual. Notwithftandmg thefe figns of averfion and
horror, however, the Mexicans w ere fo ignorant of
the military art, that they again permitted him to
enter the capital without oppofition ; though it was
in their power to have eafily prevented him, by
breaking down the bridges and caufeways which led
to it.
Cortes was received by his companions with the
utmoft joy ; and this extraordinary fuccefs fo far in¬
toxicated the general himfelf, that he not only ne-
glefted to vifit Montezuma, but expreffed himfelf very
contemptuoufly concerning him. Thefe expreffions
being reported among the Mexicans, they all at once ,,0,,/]^ a't-
flew to arms, and made fuch a violent and fudden tacked by
attack, that all the valour and flail of Cortes were ^ na*
fcarce fufficient to repel them. This produced great tives‘
uneafinefs among the foldiers of Narvaez, who had
imagined there was nothing to do but to gather the
fpoils of a conquered country. Difcontent and mur-
murings, however, were now of no avail; they were
inclofed in an hoftile city, and, without fome extra¬
ordinary exertions, were inevitably undone. Cortes
therefore, made a dtfperate lally ; but,, after exerting
his utmoft efforts for a whole day, was obliged to
retire with the lofs of .2 killed, and upwards of 60
wounded. Another fally was attempted with the like
bad fuccefs, and in it Cortes himfelf was wounded in
the hand.
The Spanilh general was now thoroughly convinced
of his error; and therefore betook himfelf to the
only refource which was left; namely, to try what
effe& the interpofition of Montezuma would have to
foothe or overawe his fubje&s. When the Mexicans
approached the next morning to renew the affault,
that unfortunate prince, at the mercy of the Spaniards,
and reduced to the fad necelfity of becoming the in-
ftrument of his own difgrace, and of the flavery of his
people, advanced to the battlements in his royal robes,
and with all the pomp in which he ufed to appear on
fplemn occafions. At the fight of their fovereign,
whom theyhadbeen longaccuftomedto reverence almoll
as a god, the Mexicans inftantly forebore their hofti¬
lities, and many proftrated themfelves on the ground:
but when he addrtffed them in favour of the Spaniards,
and made ufe of all the arguments he could think of
to mitigate their rage, they teftified their refentment
with loud murmuring?; and at length broke forth
with fuch fury, that before the foldiers, appointed r,9
to guard Montezuma, had time to cover him with Montezu-
their fhields, he was wounded with two arrows, andma killed-
a blow on his temple with a ftose ftruck him to the
ground. On feeing him fall, the Mexicans inftantly
fled with the utmoft precipitation : but the unhappy
monarch, now convinced that he was become an ob-
jeft of contempt even to his own fubje&s, obftinately
refufed
Mexico.
Spaniards
and Mexi¬
cans.
HEX _ [ 6*9 1 M E X
refufcd all nourifhment; and thus in a fliort time end¬
ed his days.
On the death of Montezuma, Cortes having loft all
hope of britigin;; the Mexicans to any terms of pea e,
prepared for retreat. But his antagonifts, having
taken pofleflion of a high tower in the great temple,
which overlooked the Spanifh quarters, and placing
there a garrifon of their principal warriors, the Sj>a-
nia'ds were lo much expofed to their miffile weapons,
that none could ftir without danger of being killed or
wounded. From this poll, therefore, it was neceffary
to diflodge them at any rate 5 and Juan de Efcobar,
with a large detachment of chofen foldiers, was ordered
to make the attack. But Efcobar, though a valiant
officer, and though he exerted his utmoft efforts, was
thrice repulfed. Cortes, however, fenfible that not
only his reputation, but the fafety of his army, de¬
pended on the fuccefs of this affault, caufed a buckler
to be tied to his arm, as he could not manage it with
his wounded hand, and rufhed with his drawn fword
among the thickeft of the combatants. Encouraged
by the prefence of their general, the Spaniards re¬
turned to the charge with fuch vigour, that they gra¬
dually forced their way up the fteps, and drove the
Mexicans to the platform at the top of the tower.
There a dreadful carnage began ; when two young
Mexicans of high rank, obferving Cortes, as he ani¬
mated his foldiers, refolved to facrifice their own lives
in order to cut off the author of fo many calamities
which defolated their country. They approached
him in a fuppliant pofture, as if they intended to lay
down their arms; and feizing him in a moment, hur¬
ried him towards the battlements, over which they
threw themfelves headlong, in hopes of dragging him
along with them. But Cortes, by his ftrength and
agility, difengaged himfelf from their grafp ; fo that
the two- Mexicans periftred alone.
As foon as the Spaniards became mailers of the
tower, they fet fire to it, and without further mole-
ilation continued the preparations for their retreat.
This became the more neceffary, as their enemies,
aftonifhed at this laft effort of their valour, had now
entirely changed their fyftem of hoftility ; and, inftead
of incelfant attacks, endeavoured, by barricacling the
ftreets, and breaking down the cauieways, to cut off
the communication of the. Spaniards with the conti¬
nent, and thus to ftarve an enemy whom they could
net fubdue. The firft point to be determined was,
whether they fhould march out openly in the face of
day, when they could difeern every danger, or whether
they Ihould endeavour to retire fecretly in the night.
The latter was preferred, partly from hopes that the
fuperftition of the Mexicans would prevent them from
attacking them in the night, anti partly from their
own fuperftition in giving credit to the predictions of
a private foldier, who pretended to aftrology, and
affured them of fuccefs if they retreated in this manner.
Towards midnight, therefore, they began their march,
in three divifions. Sandoval led the van ; Pedro Alva¬
rado and Velafquez de Eeon had the condutl of the
rear; and Cortes comrtianded in the centre, where he
placed the prifoners, among whom were a fon and
two daughters of Montezuma, together with feveral
Mexicans of diftin&ion ; the artillery, baggage, and
a portable bridge of timber intended to be laid over
the breaches in the caufeway. They marched in Mexico-
profound lilence along the caufeway which led to  v-—*
i acuba, becaufe it was fhorter than any of the reft,
and, lying moft remote from the road towards Tlafcala
and the fea coaft, had been left moft entire by the
Mexicans. J2r
They reached the firft breach in the canfeway with- Cores re-
out moleftation, hoping that their retreat was uridif 1 1 ts 'vith
covered. But the Mexicans had not only watched ail irca;;
their motions, but made preparations for a moft for¬
midable attack. While the Spaniards were intent up¬
on placing their bridges in the breach, and occupied
in conducting their iiorfes and artillery along it, they
were fuddenly alarmed with the found of warlike in-
ftruments, and found themfelves affaulted on all Tides
by an innumerable multitude of enemies. Unfortu-
narely the wooden bridge was wedged fo fall in the
mud by the weight of the artilley, that it was impof-
fible to remove it. Difmayed at this accident, the
Spaniards advanced with precipitation to the fecond
breach. The Mexicans hemmed them in on every
fide ; and though they defended themfelves with their
ufual courage, yet, crowded as they were in a narrow
caufeway, their difeipline and military fkill were of
little avail ; nor did the obfeurity of the night allow
them to derive much advantage from their fire-arms
or the fuperiority of their other weapons. At laft the
Spaniards, overborne with the numbers of their ene¬
mies, began to give way, and in a moment the confufion
was univerfal. Cortes, with about too foot-foldiers,
and a few horfe, forced his way over the two remain¬
ing breaches in the caufeway, the bodies of the dead
ferving to fill up the chafms, and reached the main
land. Having formed them as foon as they arrived, he
returned with fuch as were yet capable of fervice, to
affift his friends in their j-etreat. He met with part
of his foldiers who had forced their way through the
enemy, but found many more overwhelmed by the
multitude of their aggreffors, or perifhing in the lake;
and heard the grievous lamerftations of others whom
the Mexicans were carrying off in triumph to be fa-
crificed to the god of war.
In this fatal retreat more than one half of Cortes’s
army periihed, together with many officers of diftinc-
tion. All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage,
were loft; the greater part of the horfes and above
2000 Tlafcalans were killed, and only a very fmall part
of their treafure faved. The firft care of the Spanifh
general was to find fome fhelter for his wearied troops;
for, as the Mexicans infefted them on every fide, and
the people of Tacuba began to take arms, he could
not continue in his prefent ftation. At laft he difeo-
vered a temple feated on an eminence, in which he
foend not only the fhelter he wanted, but fome provi-
fions; and though the enemy did not intermit their
attacks throughout the day, they were without much
difficulty prevented from making any impreflion. For
fix days after, they continued their march through &
barren, ill cultivated, and thinly peopled country,
where they were often obliged to feed on berries, roots,
and the ftalks of green maize; at the fame time they
were haraffed without intermilfion by large parties of
Mexicans, who attacked them on all fides. On the
fixth day they reached Otumba, not far from the road
between Mexico and Tlafcala. Early next morning
* they
M E X
M E X [ 660 ]
they began to advance towards it, flying parties of the difpofition as much as poffible ; for which purpofe he Mexic*
enemy ftili hanging on their rear ; and amidft the in- diftributed among them the rich fpoils taken at Otum- *■*’•*■*■
fults with which they accompanied their hoftilities, ba with fuch a liberal hand, that he made himfelf fure
Donna Marina remarked, that they often exclaimed of obtaining from the republic whatever he Ihould de-
 — « z'1 —uu™ . ~~ 4.« fire. He drew a fmall fupply of ammunition, and
two or three field-pieces, from his ftores at Vera Cruz.
with exultation, “ Go on, robbers ; go to the place
where you fhall quickly meet the vengeance due to
your crimes.” The meaning of this threat the Spa-
niaids did not comprehend, until they reached the fum-
mit of an eminence before them. There a fpacious
valley opened to their view, covered with a vaft army
as far as the eye could reach. The Mexicans, while
with one body of their troops they harafied the Spa¬
niards in their retreat, had affembled their principal
122 force on the other fide of the lake ; and marching
The battle along the .road which led dire&ly to Tlafcala, polled
of Otumba.ft Jn the plain of.Otumba, through which they knew
Cortes muft pafs. At the fight of this incredible mul¬
titude, which they could furvey at once from the rifing
ground, the Spaniards-were aftonifhed, and even the
boldeft began to defpair. But Cortes, without allow¬
ing their fears time to operate, after warning them
briefly that no alternative remained but to conquer
or die, led them inftantly to the charge. The Mexi¬
cans waited their approach with unufual fortitude :
yet fuch was the fuperiority of the Spanifh difcipline
and arms, that the impreflion of this fmall body was
irrefiflible ; and which ever way its force was direfted,
it penetrated and difperfed the moft numerous batta¬
lions. But while thefe gave way in one quarter, new
combatants advanced from another; and the Spa¬
niards, though fuccefsful in every attack, were ready to
fink under thefe repeated efforts, without feeing any
end to their toil, or any hope of vidlory. At that
time Cortes obferved the great flandard of the empire,
which was carried before the Mexican general, advan-
Hc difpatched an officer of confidence with four ftiips
of Narvaez’s fleet to Hifpaniola and Jamaica, to en¬
gage adventurers, and to purchafe horfes, gunpowder,
and other military ftores. And as he knew that it
would be in vain to attempt the reduftion of Mexico,
unlefs he could fecure the command of the lake, he
gave orders to prepare, in' the mountains of Tlafcala,
materials for building 12 brigantines, fo that they
might be catried thither in pieces, ready to be put to¬
gether, and launched when he flood in need of their
fervice. But, in the mean time, his foldiers, alarmed
at the thoughts of being expofed to fuch calamities a
fecond time, prefented a remonllrance to. their general,
in which they reprefented the imprudence of attack¬
ing a powerful empire with his fhattered forces, and
formally required him to return back to Cuba. All
the eloquence of Cortes could now only prevail with
them to delay their departure for fome time, when he
promifed to difmifs fuch as fhould defire it. How¬
ever, this was only a pretence ; for Cortes, in fad:,
had the conqueft of Mexico as much at heart as ever.
Without giving his foldiers an opportunity of cabal¬
ling, therefore, he daily employed them againft the
people of the neighbouring provinces, who had cut off
fome detachments of Spaniards during his misfortunes
at Mexico; and by which, as he was conftantly at¬
tended with fuccefs, his men foon refumed their wont¬
ed fenfe of fuperiority. I24
But all the efforts of Cortes could have been of little Cortes re-
cing ; and fortunately recolle&ing to have heard, that avail, had he not unexpectedly obtained a reinforcement —
the fate of it depended the event of every battle, of Spanifti foldiers. The governor of Cuba, to whom“^j^e_
he affembledh few of his braveft officers, whofe horfes
were ftili capable of fervice, and, placing himfelf at
their head, puflied towards the ftandard with fuch im-
pctuofity that he bore down every thing before him.
A chofen body of nobles, who guarded the ftandard,
made fome refiftance, but were foon broken. Cortes,
with a ftroke of his lance, wounded the Mexican ge¬
neral, and threw him to the ground. One of his fol¬
lowers alighting, put an end to his life, and laid hold
the fueccfs of Narvaez appeared an event of infallible n,
certainty, having fent two fmall ftiips after him with
new inftru&ions, and a fupply of men and military
ftores, the officer whom Cortes had appointed to com¬
mand on the coaft artfully decoyed them into the
harbour of Vera Cruz, feized the veffels, and eafily
perfuaded the foldiers to follow the ftandard of a more
able leader than him whom they were deftined to join.
Soon after, three ffiips of more confiderable force
of the imperial ftandard. The moment that their leader came into the harbour feparately. Thefe belonged to
I13 fell, and the ftandard, towards which all direcled their
Mexicans eyes, difappeared, an univerfal panic ftruck the Mexi-
defeated. cans. as if the bond which held them together
had been diffolved, every enfign was lowered, each
foldier threw away his weapons, and fled with preci-
an armament fitted out by Francifco de Garay, gover¬
nor of Jamaica, who had long aimed at dividing with
Cortes the glory and gain of annexing the empire of
Mexico to the crown of Caftile. They had, however,
unadvifedly made their atempt on the northern pro-
pitation to the mountains. The Spaniards, unable to vinces, where the country was poor, and the inhabitants
purfue them far, returned to collect the fpoils of the
field ; and thefe were fo valuable as to be fome
compenfation for the wealth which they had loft in
Mexico; for in the enemy’s army were moft of
their principal warriors dreffed out in their richeft
ornaments, as if they had been marching to affured
viftory.
The day after this important adtion (being July
8th 1520), the Spaniards entered the Tlafcalan terri¬
tories, where they were received with the moft cordial
fxiendfhip. Cortes endeavoured to avail himfelf of this
fierce and warlike ; fo that, after a fucceffion of dif-
afters, they were now obliged to venture into Vera
Cruz, and call themfelves upon the mercy of their
countrymen; and here they alfo were foon perfuaded
to throw off their allegiance to their mafter, and to
enlift with Cortes. About the fame time a Ihip arrived
from Spain, freighted by fome private adventurers,
with military ftores; and the cargo was eagerly pur-
chafed by Cortes, while the crew, following the ex¬
ample of the reft, joined him at Tlafcala.
From thefe various quarters, the army of Cortes
was
146
■epa ra¬
ms of the
[csicans
M E X [66
Mexico■ ^ was augmented with 180 men and 20 horfes; by
which means he was enabled to difmifs fuch of the fol-
diers of Narvaez as were moil troublefome and difcon-
tented ; after the departure of whom he ftill muttered
550 infantry, of whom 80 were armed with mufkets
or crofs-bows, 40 horfemen, and] nine pieces of artil¬
lery. At the head of thefe, with 10,000 Tlafcalans
and other friendly Indians, he began his march to¬
wards Mexico, on the 28th of December, fix months
after his fatal retreat from that city.
The Mexicans, in the mean time, had made the beft
preparations they could for oppofing fuch a formidable
enemy. On the death of Montezuma, his brother
Quetlavaca was raifed to the throne ; and he had an
immediate opportunity of fhowing that he was worthy
of their choice, by conducing in perfon thofe fierce
attacks which obliged the Spaniards to retire from his
capital. His prudence in guarding againft the return
of the invaders was equal to the fpirit he had fhown in
driving them out. He repaired what the Spaniards
had ruined in the city, ftrengthened it with fuch for¬
tifications as his people could ereft ; and befides fill¬
ing his magazines with the ufual implements of war,
gave diredlions to make long fpears, headed with the
fwords and daggers which they had taken from the
Spaniards, in order to annoy the cavalry. But in the
midft of thefe preparations he was taken off by the
fmall-pox ; and Guatimozin, his nephew and fon-in-
law, raifed to the throne.
As foon as Cortes entered the enemy’s territories,
he difcovered various preparations to obttrudt his pro-
grefs. But his troops forced their way with little dif¬
ficulty ; and took poffeffion ofTezeuco, the fecond
city of the empire, fituated on the banks of the lake,
about 20 miles from Mexico. Here he determined to
eftablifh his head-quarters, as the moft proper ttation
for launching his brigantines, as well as for making his
approaches to the capital. In order to render his re-
fidence there more fecure, he depofed the cazique or
chief, who was at the head of that community, under
pretence of fome deleft in his title, and fubftituted in
his place a perfon whom a faftion of the nobles pointed
out as the right heir of that dignity. Attached to
him by this benefit, the new cazique and his adherents
ferved the Spaniards with inviolable fidelity.
As the conftruftion of the brigantines advanced
flowly under the unfkilful hands of foldiers and In.-
dians, whom Cortes was obliged to employ in affifting
three or four carpenters who happened fortunately to
be in his ferviee, and as he had not yet received the
reinforcement which he expefted from Hifpaniola, he
was not in a condition to turn his arms direftly againft
the capital. To have attacked a city fo populous, fo
well prepared for defence, and in a fituation of fuch
peculiar ftrength, mutt have expofed his troops to ine¬
vitable deftruftion. Three months elapfed before the
materials for conftrufting the brigantines were finifti-
ed, and before he heard any thing with refpeft to the
■ 7 fuccefs of his negociation in Hifpaniola. This, how-
ever, was not a feafon of inaftion to Cortes. He at-
s _ tacked fucceffively feveralof the towns fituated around
*'r° the lake ; and though all the Mexican power was ex¬
erted to obftruft his operations, he either compelled
them to fubmit to the Spanilh crown,, or reduced
them, to ruins. Other towns, he endeavoured to con-
1 ] M E x
ciliate by more gentle means ; and though he could
not hold any intercourfe with the inhabitants but by
the intervention of interpreters, yet, under all the dif-
advantage of that tedious and imperfeft mode of com¬
munication, he had acquired fuch thorough knowledge
of the ftate of the country, as well as of the difpofitions
of the people, that he condufted his negociations and
intrigues with aftoniflii'ng dexterity and fuccefs. Mott
of the cities adjacent to Mexico were originally the
capitals of fmall independent ftates ; and fome of them
having been but lately annexed to the Mexican empire,
ftill retained the remembrance of their ancient liberty,
and bore with impatience the rigorous yoke of their
new matters. Cortes having early obferved fymptoms
of their difaffeftion, availed himfelf of this knowledge
to gain their confidence and friendfhip. By offering
with confidence to deliver them from the odious do¬
minion of the Mexicans, and by liberal promifes of
more indulgent treatment if they would unite with
him againft their oppreffors, he prevailed on the peo¬
ple of feveral confiderable diftrifts, not only to ac¬
knowledge the king of Caftile as their fovereign, but
to fupply the Spanifh camp with provifions, and to^
ftrengthen his army with auxiliary troops. Guatimo¬
zin, on the firft appearance of defeftion among his
fubjefts, exerted himfelf with vigour to prevent or to
puniih their revolt ; but, in fpite of his efforts, the fpi¬
rit continued to fpread. The Spaniards gradually ac¬
quired new allies; and with deep concern he beheld
Cortes arming againft his empire thofe very hands
which ought to have been aftive in his defence, and
ready to advance againft the capital at the head of a.
numerous body of his own fubjefts.
While, by thefe various methods, Cortes was gra¬
dually circumfcribing the Mexican power within fuch
narrow limits that his profpeft of overturning it feemed
neither to be uncertain nor remote, all his fchemes
were well nigh defeated by a confpiracy againft his
own perfon, and which was difcovered only a fhort time
before it was to have been executed. Though many
were concerned, Cortes did not think proper to punifh-
any more than the principal ringleader, whom he.
caufed immediately to be hanged ; and then, without,
allowing them leifure to ruminate on what had hap¬
pened, and as the moft effeftual means of preventing
the return of a mutinous fpirit, he determined to calk
forth his troops immediately to aftion. Fortunately
a proper occafion for this occurred, without his feeming ,
to court it. He received intelligence, that the mate¬
rials for building the brigantines were at length com¬
pletely finilhed, and waited only for a body of Spa¬
niards to conduft them to Tezeuco. The -command
of this convoy, confifting of zoo foot-foldiers, 2 f
horfemen, and 2 field-pieces, he gave to Sandoval,,
who by the vigilance,, aftivity, and courage, which
he manifefted on every occafion, was growing daily
in his confidence, and in the eftimation of his fellow.
foldiers. The fervice was no lefs fingular than im¬
portant; the beams, the planks, the mafts,, the cor¬
dage, the fails, the iron-work,, and all the infinite va¬
riety of articles requifite fortheconituiftion of 13 bri--
gantines. were to be carried 60 miles over land, thro’
a mountainous country, by people who were unac¬
quainted with the miniftry of domeftic animals, or the
aid of. machines to facilitate any work of labour. The.
TkL-
M E X [ 662 ] M E X
Mexico. Tlafealans furnifhed 8000 Taments, an inferior order
©f men deftined for fervile talks, to carry the mate¬
rials on their (houlders, and appointed 15,000 war¬
riors to accompany and defend them. Sandoval made
the difpofition for their progrefs with great propriety,
placing the Tamenes in the centre, one body of war¬
riors in the front, another in the rear, with confider-
able parties to cover the flanks.’ To each of thefe he
joined fome Spaniards, not only to affift them in dan¬
ger, but to accuilom them to regularity and fubordi-
nation. Parties of Mexicans frequently appeared ho¬
vering around them on the high grounds : but percei¬
ving no profpeA of fuccefs in attacking an enemy conr
tinually on his guard, and prepared to receive them,
they did not venture to moleft him ; and Sandoval had
the glory of condudting fafely to Tezeuco a convoy
on which all the future operations of his countrymen
11g depended.
The Sj a- This was followed by another event of no lefs mo-
niards re- ment. Four fliips arrived at Vera Cruz from Hifpa-
ther^e’!'0 n*°^a’ w,'t^ 200 foldiers, 80 horfes, two battering can-
fcrcement non> and a confiderable fupply of ammunition and arms.
Elevated with obferving that all his preparatory
fchemes, either for recruiting his own army or im¬
pairing the force of the enemy, had now produced their
full effedf, Cortes, impatient to begin the fiege in form,
haftened the launching of the brigantines. To facili¬
tate this, he had employed a vaft number of Indians,
for two months, in deepening the fmall rivulet which
runs by Tezeuco into the lake, and in forming it in¬
to a canal near two miles in length ; and though the
Mexicans, aware of his intentions, as well as of the
danger which threatened them, endeavoured frequent¬
ly to interrupt the labourers, 01; to burn the brigan¬
tines, the work was at lalt completed. On the 28th of
April, all the Spanilh troops, together with auxiliary
Indians, were drawn up on the banks of the canal;
and with extraordinary military pomp, heightened and
rendered more folemn by the celebration of the molt
facred rites of religion, the brigantines were launch¬
ed. .As they fell down the canal in order, Father Ol-
medo bleffed them, and gave each its name. Every
eye followed them with wonder and hope, until they
entered the lake, when they hoifted their fails, and
bore away before the wind. A general Ihout of joy
was railed; all admiring that bold inventive genius,
which, by means fo extraordinary, that their fuccefs
almoft exceeded belief, had acquired the coinmand of
a fleet, without the aid of which Mexico would have
continued to fet the Spanifh power and arms at de¬
fiance.
*19 Cortes determined fo attack the city from three dif-
The city ferent quarters ; from Tezeuco on the eaft fide of the
foeiiege . £rom q’acu]Da on we(^ anci from Cuyocan to¬
wards the fouth. Thofe towns wrere fituated on the
principal caufeways which led to the capital, and in-
tcuded for their defence. He appointed Sandoval to
command in the firft, Pedro de Alvarado in thefecond,
and Chriftoval de Glid in the third ; allotting to each
a numerous body of Indian auxiliaries, together with
an equal divifion of Spaniards, who, by the jundlion
of the troops from Kifpaniola, amounted now to 86
horfemen, and 8 1 8 foot-foldiers ; of whom 1 18 were
armed with mulkets or crofs-bows. Their train of ar¬
tillery confilled of three battering cannon, and 15 field-
N ; 217.
pieces. He referved for himfelf, as the ftation of great- Mexico
eft importance and danger, the conduft of the brigan- v—■<
tines, each armed with one of his fmall cannon, and
manned with 25 Spaniards.
As Alvarado and Olid proceeded towards the pofts
afiigned them, they broke down the aquedu&s which |
the ingenuity of the Mexicans had eretted for convey¬
ing water into the capital, and, by the diftrefs to !
which this reduced the inhabitants, gave a beginning
to the calamities which they were deftined to fuffer.
Alvarado and Olid found the towns, of which they ?
were ordered to take poffeffion, deferted by their in¬
habitants, who lied fled for fafety to the capital, where
Guatimozin had colle&ed the chief force of his empire,
as there alone he could hope to make a fuccefsful ftand
again!! the formidable enemies who were approaching
to aflault him. I3C>
The firft effort of the Mexicans was to deftroy the The Spa!
fleet of brigantines, the fatal effe&s of whole opera-n'ard^,u!
turns they forefaw and dreaded. Though the brigan-^lexical
tines, after all the labour and merit of Cortes in form- and becoi
ing them, were of inconliderable bulk, rudely con- mailers e
ftrudfed, and manned chiefly with landmen, hardly pof- ^lc k*kc.
feffed of ikill enough to condudl them, they mull have
been ojedls of terror to a people unacquainted with
any navigation but that of their lake, and poffeffed of
no veffel larger than a canoe. Neceffity, however, ur¬
ged Guatimozin to hazard the attack ; and hoping to
lupply by numbers what he wanted in force, he affem-
tled i'uch a multitude of canoes as covered the face of
the lake. They rowed on boldly to the charge, while
the brigantines, retarded by a dead calm, could fcarce-
ly advance to meet them. But as the enemy drew
near, a breeze fuddenly fprung up ; in a moment the
fails were fpread, and the brigantines with irrefiftible
impetuofity broke their feeble opponents, overfet many
canoes, and diffipated the whole armament with fuch
flaughter, as convinced the Mexicans, that the pro¬
grefs of the Europeans in knowledge and arts ren¬
dered their fuperiority greater on this new element
than they had hitherto found it by land.
From that time Cortes remained mafter of the lake;
and. the brigantines not only preferved a communica¬
tion between the Spaniards in their different ftations,
though at confiderable diftance from each other ; but
were employed to cover the caufeways on each fide,
and keep off the canoes, when they attempted to an¬
noy the troops as they advanced towards the city. He
formed the brigantines in three divifions, ailotting one
to each ftation, with Orders to fecond the operations
of the officer who commanded there. From all the
three ftations he puflied on the attack again!! the city
with equal vigour ; but in a manner fo very dift’erent
from that whereby fieges are conduced in regular war,
as might appear no lels improper than lingular to per-
fons unacquainted with his fituation. Each morning his j
troops affaulted the barricades which the enemy had
erefted on the caufeways, forced their way over the
trenches which they had dug, and through the canals
where the bridges were broken down, and endeavoured
to penetrate into the heart of the city, in hopes ol
obtaining fome decifive advantage, which might force
the enemy to furrender, and terminate the war at once;. . J
but when the obftinate valour of the Mexicans rendered
the efforts of the day ineffectual, the Spaniards retired
1 in
M E X
M<*ico. in the evening to their former quarters. Tints their toil
t***V~- and danger were* in fome meafure, continually renew¬
ed, the Mexicans repairing in the night what, the Spa¬
niards had deftroyed through the day, and recovering
the polls from which they had driven them. But ne-
ceflity prefcribed this flow and untoward mode of ope¬
ration. The number of his troops was fo fmall, that
[ 665 1 M E X
the error which the Spaniards had committed, and,
with admirable prefence of mind, prepared to take ad¬
vantage of it. He commanded the ti'oops polled in
the front to Hacken their efforts, in order to allure the
Spaniards to pulh forward, while he difpatched a large
body of chofen warriors through different flreets, fome
by land, and others by water, towards the great
Cortes du'rll not, with a handful of men, attempt to breach in the e.iufeway. which had been left open.
make a lodgment in a city where he might be fuf-
rounded and annoyed by fuch a multitude of enemies.
The remembrance of what he had already fuffered by
the ill-judged confidence with which he had ventured
into fuch a dangerous fituation, was flill frelh in his
mind. The Spaniards, exhaufled with fatigue, were
Unable to guard the various pods which they daily
gained 5 and though their camp was filled with Indian
auxiliaries, they durfl not devolve this charge Upon
them, becaufe they were fo little accuftomed to difei-
pline, that no confidence could be placed in their vi¬
gilance. Befides this, Cortes was extremely felicitous
to prefevve the city as much as pofiible from being de-
flroyed, both as he deflined it to be the capital of his
conquefts, ahd wifhed that it might remain as a mo¬
nument of his glory. From all thefe cohfiderations,
he adhered obftinately, for a month after the fjege was
opened, to the fyftem which he had adopted. The
Mexicans, in their own defence, difplayed valour
which was hardly inferior to that with which the Spa¬
niards attacked them. On land, on water, by night
and by day, one furious confii£t fucceeded to another.
Several Spaniards were killed, more wounded, and all
Were ready to fink under the toils of unintermitting
fervice, which were rendered more intolerable by the
injuries of the feafon, the periodical rains being now
fet in with their ufual violence.
Aftonifhed and difeoheerted with the length and dif¬
ficulties of the fiege, Cortes determined to make one
great effort to get poffeffion of the city before he re-
linquilhed the plan which he had hitherto followed,
and had rtcourfe to any other mode of attack. With
On a fignal which he gave, the priefls in the great
temple ftrtick the great drum eonfecrated to the god
of war. No fooner did the Mexicans hear its dole¬
ful folemn found, calculated to infpire them with con¬
tempt of death and with enthufiaflic ardour, than they
rulhed upon the enemy with frantic rage. The Spa¬
niards, unable to refill men urged on no lefs by reli¬
gious fury than hope of fuccefs, began 'to retire, at
firfl leifurely, and with a good countenance ; but as
the enemy preffed on, and their own impatience to
efcape increafed, the terror and confufion became fo
general, that when they arrived at the gap in the
caufew?y, Spaniards and Tlafcalans, horfemen and in¬
fantry, plunged in promifeuoufly, while the Mexicans
rufhed upon them fiercely from every fide, their light
canoes carrying them through fhoals which the bri- ^
gantines could not approach. In vain did Cortes at-Cortes 1
tempt to flop and rally his flying troops 5 fear render-pul fed in
ed them regardlefs of his intresties or commands, attac^•
Finding all his endeavours to renew the combat fruit-
lefs, his next care was to fave fome of thofe who had
thrown themfelves into the water; but while thus em¬
ployed, with more attention to their fituation than to
his own, fix Mexican captains fuddenly laid hold of
him, and Were hurrying him off in triumph ; and tho*
two of his officers refeued him at the expence of
their own lives, he received feveral dangerous wounds
before he could break loofe. Above 60 Spaniards pe-
rifhed in the rout ; and what rendered the difafler
more afflicting, 40 of thefe fell alive into the hands
of an enemy never known to fhew mercy to a captive.
The approach of night, though it delivered the de-
this view, he fent inflruftions to Alvarado and Sando- je&ed Spaniards from the attacks of the enemy, ufher-
val to advance with their divifions to a general afiault.
and took the command in perfon of that polled on the
caufcway of Cuyocan. Animated by his prefence, and
the expectation of fome decifive event, the Spaniards
pufhed forward with irrefiflible impetuofity. They
broke through one barricade after another, forced their
Way over the ditches and canals, and having estered
the city, gained ground inceffantly, infpite of the mul¬
titude and ferocity of their opponents. Cortes, though
delighted with the rapidity of his progrefs, did not
forget that he might ftill find it necefiary to retreat;
and in order to fecure it, appointed Julian de Alderete,
a captain of chief note in the troops which he had re¬
ed in, what was hardly lefs grievous, the noife of theif
barbarous triumph, and of the horrid feflival with
which they celebrated their viClory. Every quarter
of the city was illuminated ; the great temple fhone
with fuch peculiar fplendor, that the Spaniards could
plainly fee the people in motion, and the priefls bufy
in haflening the preparations for the death of the pii-
foners. Through the gloom they fancied that they
difeerned their companions by the whitenefs of their
fkins, as they were flripped naked and compelled po
dance before the image of the god to whom they were
to be offered. They heard the (bricks of thofe who
were facrificed, and thought-they could diftinguifh each
tewed from Hifpaniola, to fill up the canals and gaps unhappy vi&im by the well-known found of his voi.ee.
in the caufeway as the main body advanced. That of¬
ficer deeming it inglorious to be thus employed, while
his companions were in the heat of atflioh and the ca¬
reer of vitlory, negle&ed the important charge com¬
mitted to him, and hurried on inconfiderately to mingle
with the combatants. The Mexicans, whole military
attention and (kill were daily improving, no fooner ob-
ferved this, than they carried an account of it to their
monarch.
Guatimozin inflantly difeerned the confequences of
Von. XL Part II.
Imagination added td what they really faw or heard,
and augmented its horror. The mofl unfeeling melted
into tears of compaffion, and the flouted heart trem¬
bled at the dreadful fpedtacle which they beheld.
Cortes, who, befides all that he felt in common with
his foldiers, was oppreffed with, the additional load of
anxious refk&ions natural to a general on fuch an un¬
expected calamity, could not like them relieve his mind
by giving vent to its anguifh. He was obliged to af-
fume an air of tranquillity in order to revive the fpirits
4 P 'and
The Mesi-
M E X [ 666 ] M E X
anti hopes of his followers. The junsure, indeed, re- which they had employed with fuch fuccefs againfl: Mexico.
quired an extraordinary exertion of fortitude. The Narvaez ; an.d» by the firm array in which this en- >" "*
Mexicans, elated with their vi£lory, fallied out next abled them'to range themfelves, they repelled, with
" morning to attack him in his quarters. But they did little danger, the loofe afiault of the Mexicans : in-
not rely on the efforts of their own arms alone : they credible numbers' of them fell in the confiifts, which
with great fent the heads of the Spaniards whom they had facri- they renewed every day. While war wafted without,
(ary. ficecj t0 ^ leading men in the adjacent provinces, and famine began to confume them within the city. The
affured them that the god of war, app; < fed by the blood Spanifh brigantines, having the entir^ command of the
of their invaders, which had been fhed fo plentifully on lake, rendered it impoffible to receive any fupply of
Lis altars, had declared with an audible voice, that provilions by water. The vaft number of his Indian
in eight days time thofe hated enemies fhould be final- auxiliaries enabled Cortes to fhut up the avenues to
ly dellroyed, and peace and profperity re-eflablifhed the city by land. The ftores which Guatimozin had
in the empire. laid up were exhaufled by the multitudes which crowd-
A prediction, uttered with fuch confidence, and in ed into the capital to defend their fovereign and the
terms fo void of ambiguity, gained univerfal credit temples of their gods. Not only the people, but per-
among a people prone to fuperilition. The zeal of fons of the highefl rank, felt the utmoil diftrefles of
the provinces which had already declared a^ainit the want. What they fuflered brought on infectious and
Spaniards augmented, and feveral which had hitherto mortal diftempers, the lafi calamity that vifits be-
remained inactive took arms with enthufiaftic ardour iieged cities, and which filled up the meafure of their
to execute the decrees of the gods. The Indian auxi- woes.
liaries who had joined Cortes, accuflomed to venerate But, under the prefliire of fo many and fuch various Guaumo-
the fame deities with the Mexicans, and to receive the evils, the fpirit of Guatimozin remained firm and un z‘!1 refufes.
refponfes of their priefls with the fame implicit faith, fubdued. ^ He rejeCIed with fcorn every overture oft0 fubmil
abandoned the Spaniards as a race of men devoted to peace from Cortes ; and, difdaining the idea of fubmit-^
certain deftrudlion. Even the fidelity of the Tlafca- ting to the opprefibrs of his country, determined not
Ians was fhaken, and the Spanifh troops were left al- to furvive its ruin. The Spaniards continued their
moil alone in their ftations. Cortes, finding that he at- progrefs. At length all the three diviiions penetrated
tempted in vain to difpel the fuperltkious fears of his into the great fquare in the centre of the city, and
confederates by argument, took advantage, from the made a fecure lodgment there. Three-fourths of the
imprudence of thofe who had framed the prophecy city were now reduced, and laid in ruins. The re¬
in fixing its accompliihment fo near at hand, to give maining quarter was fo clofely prefied, that it could
them a firiking demonftration of its falfity. He fufpend- not long wichftand aflailants who attacked it from their
edall military operations during the period marked out hew flation with fuperior advantage, and more afiured-
by the oracle. Under cover of the brigantines, which _ expe&ation of fuccefs. The Mexican nobles, folk
kept the army at a di fiance, his troops lay in fafety, citous to fave the life of a monarch whom they reve-
and the fatal term expired without any difailer. red, prevailed on Guatimozin to retire from a place
His allies, afiramed of their own credulity, returned where refiftance was now vain, that he might roufe the
to their flation. Other tribes, judging that the gods, more diflant provinces of the empire to arms, and
who had now deceived the Mexicans, had decreed fi- maintain there a more fuccefsful flruggle with the pub-
nally to withdraw their prote&ion from them, joined lie enemy. In order to facilitate the execution of thia-
his flandard ; and fuch was the levity of a fimple meafure, they endeavoured to amufe Cortes with over-
Covtesad- people, moved by every flight impreflion, that, in a tures of fubmiffion, that, while his attention was ero-
«pts a more fhort time after fuch a general defedlion of his confe- ployed in adjufling the articles of pacification, Gua*
cautious derates, Cortes faw hinrfelf, if we may believe his own timozin might efcape unperceived. But they made this
picceediM^ account> at t^ie ^ea<^ 15c>oco Indians. Even with attempt upon a leader of greater fagacity and difeern-
' fuch a numerous army, he found it neceffary to adopt ment than to be deceived by their arts. Cortes fufpec-
a new and more wary fyfiemof operation. Inflead of ting their intention, and. aware of what moment it was
renewing his attempts to become mailer of the city at to defeat it, appointed Sandoval, the officer on whofe
once, by fuch bold but dangerous efforts of valour as vigilance he could mofl perfe&ly rely, to take the
he had already tr ied, he made his advances gradually, command of the brigantines, with flridl injundlions to
and with every poffible precaution againfl expofing watch every motion of the enemy. Sandoval, attea-
his men to any calamity fimilar to that which theyflill tive to the charge, obferving fome large canoes crowd-
bewailed. As the Spaniards pufhed forward, the In- ed with people rowing along the lake with extraordi-
dians regularly repaired the caufeways behind them, nary rapidity, inflantly gave the iignal to chace.
As foon as they gotpofleffion of any part of the town, Gracia Holguin, who commanded the fleetefl brigan-
the houfes were inflantly levelled with the ground. Day tine, foon overtook them, and was preparing to fire-
by day, the Mexicans, forced to retire as their ene- on the foremofl canoe, which feemed to catry fome
mies gained ground, were hemmed in within more perforv whom all the reft followed and obeyed. At
narrow limits. Guatimozin, though unable to flop once the rowers dropt their oars, and all on board,
the career of the enemy, continued to defend his capi- throwing down their arms, conjured him with cries
tal with obftinate refolution, and difputed every inch and tears to forbear, as the emperor was there* Hoi-He is
of ground. But the Spaniards, having not only va- gain eagerly feizedhis prize ; and Guatimozin, with a pSkner.
ried their mode of attack, but, by order of Cortes,, dignified compofure, gave himfelf up into his hands,
having changed the weapons with which they fought, requefting only that no infult might be offered to the
were again armed with the long Chinantlan fpears, emprefs or his children. When conducted to Cortes*
M E X
[ 667 1
M E X
135
"Mexico
lubmifc?.
he appeared neither with the fallen fiercenefs of a bar-
“ barif.i, nor with the deje&ion of a fupplicant. “ I
have done,” faid he, addrefling himfelf to the Spaniih
general, “ what became a monarch. I have defended
my people to the laft extremity. Nothing now re¬
mains but to die. Take this dagger,” laying his
hand on one which Cortes wore, “ plant it in my
breaft* and put an end to a life which can no longer
be of ufe.”
As foon as the fate of their fovereign was known,
the refiftance of the Mexicans ceafed; and Cortes took
pofiefiion of that fmall part of the capital which yet
remained undeftroyed. Thus terminated the liege of
the riches which Ihonld have been-brought into the Mexico,
common flock ; others againll Guatiraozin, whom 1
they accufed of obflinacy, in refilling to difeover the
place where he had hidden his treafure.
Arguments, intreaties, and promifes, were em¬
ployed in order to foothe them; but with fo little ef-
fedt, that Cortes, from folicitude to check this grow¬
ing fpirit of difeontent, gave way to a deed which
ftained the glory of all his great ndtions. Without
regarding the former dignity of Guatimozin, -or feel- Guatimn.
ing any reverence for thofe virtues which he had dif-zin tomi-
played, he fubjedled the unhappy monarch, together1^*
with his chief favourite, to torture, in order to force
Mexico, the moll memorable event in the conquell of from them a difeovery of the royal treafures, which it
America. It continued 75 days, hardly one of which was fuppofed they had concealed. Guatimozin bore
palled without fome extraordinary effort of one party whatever the refined cruelty of his tormentors could
in the attack, or of the other in the defence of a city, inflidl, with the invincible fortitude of an American
on the fate of which both knew that the fortune of warrior. His fellow-fufferer, overcome by the vio-
the empire depended. As the ftruggle here was more lence of. the ang.uifh, turned a dejedled eye towards his
obllinate, it was likewife more equal, than any be- mailer, which feemed to implore his permiffion to r
tween the inhabitants of the Old and New Worlds.
The great abilities of Guatimozin, the number of his
troops, the peculiar fituation of his capital, fo far
counterbalanced the fuperiority of the Spaniards in
arms and difeipline, that they mull have relinquilhed
the enterprife, if they had trailed for fuccefs to them-
real all that he knew. But the high-fpirited prince,
darting on him a look of authority mingled with fcorn,
checked his weaknefs, by alking, “ Am I now repo-
fing on a bed of flowers?” Overawed by the reproach,
he pe'rfevered in his dutiful filence, and expired. Cor¬
tes, alhamed of a feene fo horrid, refeued the royal
felves alone. But Mexico was overturned by the jea- victim from the hands of his torturers, and prolonged
loufy of neighbours who dreaded its power, and by
the revolt of fubje&s impatient to lhake off its yoke.
By their effetHual aid, Cortes was enabled to accom-
pIHh what, without fuch fupport, he would hardly
have ventured to attempt. How much foever this
account of the redudlion of Mexico may detradl, on
a life referved for new indignities and fufferings. 138
1 he fate of the capital, as both parties had fore-"bhe sra-
feen, decided that of the empire. The provinces fub- nian’8 l>e'
mitted one after another to the conquerors. Small fters 0f tha
detachments of Spaniards marching through them whole
ithout interruption, penetrated, in different quarters, Mexican
the one hand, from the marvellous relations of fome to the great Southern Ocean, which, according to theemi?ire*
Spanilh writers, by aferibing that to Ample and ob¬
vious caufes which they attribute to the romantic va¬
lour of their countrymen, it adds, on the other, to the
merit ar.d abilities of Cortes, who, under every difad-
vantage, acquired fuch an afeendant over unknown na¬
tions, as to render them inftruments towards carrying
his fcheme into execution.
The exultation of the Spaniards, on accomplilhing
this arduous enterprife, was at firft. exceflive. But this
ideas of Columbus, they imagined would open a Ihort
as well as eafy paflage to the Eail Indies, and fecure
to the crown of Callile all the envied wealth of thofe
fertile regions; and the adlive mind of Cortes began
already to form fchemes for attempting this important
difeovery. In his after fchemes, however, he was dif-
appointed ; but Mexico hath ever fince remained in the
hands of the Spaniards.
The ancient kingdom of Mexico, properly fo called, Ancien
•was quickly damped by the cruel difappointment of was divided into feveral provinces, of which the vale v:fi°ns °f
thofe fanguine hopes which had animated them amidfl of Mexico itlelf was the fineft in every refpecl. It ii
fo many hardfiiips and dangers. Inftead of the inex-
hauilible wealth which they expe&ed from becoming
mailers of Montezuma’s treafures, and the ornaments
of fo many temples, their rapacioufnefs could colledl
only an inconfiderable booty arnidll ruins and defola-
tion(A). Gnatimozip, aware of his impending fate.
furrounded by verdant mountains, meafuring upwards
of 120 miles in circumference at their bafe. A great
part of this vale is occupied by two lakes, the upper
one of frefli v/ater, but the lower one brackilh, com¬
municating with the former by means of a canal. All
the water running from the mountains is colledled in
had ordered what remained of the riches amaffed by this lower lake, on account of its being in the bottom
his anceflors to be thrown into the lake. The Indian of the valley ; hence it was ready, when fwelled by-
auxiliaries, while the Spaniards were engagied in con- extraordinary rains, to overflow the city of Mexico,
fli£t with the enemy, had carried off the moll valuable as has already been obferved. This delightful region
part of the fpoil. The fum to be divided among the contained the three imperial cities of Mexico, Acol-
conquerors was fo fmall, that many of them difdained huacan, and Tlacopan ; betides 40 others, with innu-
to accept of the pittance which fell to their (ban , and merable villages and hamlets; but the moll confide-
all murmured and exclaimed ; fome againlt Cortes rable of thele, according to Clavigero, now fcarcely
And his confidents, whom they fufpedled of having fe- retain one-twentieth part of their former magnificence,
(/etly appropriated to their own ufe a large portion of The principal inland provinces to the northward were
4 P 2 the
(a) The gold and filver, according to Cortes, amounted? only to 120,000 pefos, R-elat. 280, A. a fum far
inferior to that which the Spaniards had formerly divided in Mexico.
M E X
[ 66B ]
M E X
the Otomieb; to the fouth-weft the Maktzincas and bliflied their former ariilocratical government. The
  .e. r- -_ j Cholulans pofleffed a fmall hamlet called Cuitlax£oa- -
pan, in the place where the Spaniards afterwards
founded the city of Afigelopoli, which is the fecond
of New Spain.
To the eaftward of Cholula lay a confiderable Hate
were the provinces of Tepayacac, the Popolocas, and named Tepeyacac ; and beyond that the Popolocas,
Totonacas. The maritime provinces on the Mexican whofe principal cities were Tecamachalco and Que-
Gulf were Coatzaeualco and Cuetlachtlan, called by cholac. To the fouthward of the Popolocas was thte
Cuitlatecas; to the fouth the Tlahuicas and Cohu-
ixcas; to the fouth-eaft, after the dates of Itzocan,
Jauhtepac, Quauhquecollon, Atlixco, Tehuacan, and
others, were the great provinces of the Mixtecas, the
Zapotecas, and the Chiapanecas j towards the ea!t
the Spaniards Cotajla. On the Pacific Ocean were
thofe of Coliman, Zacatollan, Tototepec, Tecuante-
pec, and Zoconochco.
The province of the Otomies began in the northern
date of Tahuacan, bordering upon the country of the
Mixtecas ; to the ead, the maritime province of Cuet¬
lachtlan ; and to the north the Totonacas. The ex¬
tent of this province was 150 miles, beginning from
part of the vale of Mexico, extending through the the frontier of Zacatlan, a date didant about 80 miles
mountains to the north to the didance of 90 miles from the court, and terminating in the Gulf of Mexi-
from the city of Mexico ; the principal cities being co. Befides the capital, named Mizquihuacant this
Tollan or Tula, and Xilotepec: the latter made the country had the beautiful city of Chempoallan, fitua-
capital of the country by the Spaniards. Beyond the ted on the coad of the Gulf; remarkable for being
fettlements of the Otomies, the country for more than that by which the Spaniards entered the Mexican em-
a thoufand miles in extent was inhabited only by bar- pire.
barous and wandering favages. Coliman was the mod northerly of the provinces on
The Malatzinca province contained the valley of the Pacific Ocean ; the capital, named alfo Coliman,
Tolocan, and all the country from Taximaroa to the being in lat. 19. long. 272. Towards the fouth-eait
frontier of the kingdom of Michuacan. The valley was the province of Zacotlan, with its capital of the
of Tolocan is upwards of 40 miles long from fouth- fame name ; then came the coall of the Cuitlatecas ;
ead to noith-wed, and 30 in breadth where broaded. after it that of the Cohuixcans, in which was the cele-
Its principal city, named alfo Tolocan’, is fituated at brated port of Acapulco. The 'Jop'i bordered on the
the foot of a high mountain covered with fnow, 30 Cohuixca coad ; and adjoining to that the Mixteca
miles didant from Mexico.
The country of Ihe Cuitlatecas extended from north-
ead to fouthwed, upwards of 200 miles, extending as
far as the Pacific Ocean. Their capital was named
Mexcaltepec, once a great and populous city, fituated
country, now called X'uayan; next to that was the
large province of Tecuantepec; and ladly, that of
Xochonochco.
This province, the mod foutherly of the Mexican
empire, was bounded on the ead and fimth-ead by the
upon the fea-coad ; but of which the ruins are now country of Xochitepec, which did not beldng to Mexi-
fcarcely vifible. That of the Tlahuicas was named co; on the wed by Tecuantepec ; and on the fouth
Quauhnahuac, and fituated about 40 miles to the fouth- by the ocean. The capital, called alfo Xoconochco, was
ward of Mexico. The province extended almod 60 fituated between two rivers, in 14 degrees of latitude
miles fouthward, commencing from the fouthern moun- and 283 of longitude. On the Mexican G ;lf there
tains of the vale of Mexico. . were, befides the country of the Totonecas, the pro-
The country of the Cohuixcas extended on the vinces of Cuetlachtlan and Coatzacualco ; the latter
fouthward as far as the Pacific,Ocean, through that bounded on the ead by the dates of Tabafco and the
part where at prefent the port and city of Acapulco peninfula of Yucatan. The province of Cuetlachtlan
lie. It was divided into the dates of Tzompanco, comprehended all the coad between the rivers Alva-
Chilapan, Tlapan, and Tidla ; the latter a very hot rado and Antigua, where the province of the Toton£-
and unwholefome country. To this province belong- cas began.
ed a place named Tlachco, celebrated for its filver- The climate of this vad country varies very much climate,
mines. according to the fituatron of its different parts. The
'i he province of the Mixtecas extended from Acat- maritime places are hot, unhealthy, and moid ; the
lan, a place didant about 120 miles from Mexico, as heat being fo great as to caufe people fweat even in
far as the Pacific Ocean towards the fouth-ead. The the month of January. This heat is fuppofed to be
inhabitants carried on a confiderable commerce, and owing to the datnefs of the coads, and the accumula-
had feveral well inhabited cities and villages. To the tion of fand upon them. The moidure arifes from the
ead of the Mixtecas were the Zapotecas, fo called from vad evaporation from the fea, as well as from the great
their capital Teotzapotlan. In their didrift was the torrents of water defeending from the mountains. The
valley of Huaxyacac, now Oaxaca or Guaxaca. lands which lie in the neighbourhood of high moun-
The province of Mazatlan lay to the northward of tains, the tops of which are always covered with fnow,.
the Mixtecas 5 and to the northward and eadward of mud of neceffity be cold ; and Clavigero informs us,
the Zapotecas was Chimanlla, having their capitals of that he has been on a mountain not more than 25
the fame name with their provinces. The Chiapane- miles didant from the city of Mexico, where there
cas, Zoqui, and Queleni, were the lad of the Mexican was white frod and ice even in the dog-days. “ All
provinces towards the fouth-ead. On the fide of the the other inland countries (fays our author), where
mountain Popocatepec and around it lay feveral dates, the greated population prevailed, enjoy a climate fo
of which the mod confiderable were Cholallan and Hu- mild and benign, that they neither feel the rigour
exotzinco. Thefe two having, with'the aflidance of of winter nor the heats of dimmer. It is true, in.
the Tlafcalans, ftiakeu off the Mexican yoke, re-eda- many of thefe countries, there is frequently white frod,
4 ia
M E X f 669 ] M E X
Mex'co. In the three months of December, January, anti Fe-
‘—‘■"v bruary", and fometimes even it fnows ; but the fmall
inconvenience which fuch cold occafions continues on¬
ly till the riling fun : no other tire than his rays is ne-
c^flary to give warmth in winter ; no -other relief is
wanted in the feafon of heat but the lhade : the fame
clothing which covers men in the dog-days defends
them in January, and the animals ileep ad the year
under the open iky.
*4* “ This mildnefs and agreeablenefs of climate under
nuldnel* of ^ torr^ zone >s the effect of feveral natural caufes
the climate. ent‘rcly unknown to the ancients, who did not believe
it to be inhabited ; and not well underflood by fome
moden s, by whom it is believed unfavourable to thofc
who live in it. The purity of the atmofphere, the
fmaller obliquity of the folar rays, and the longer ftay
of this luminary above the horizon in winter, in com-
parifon of other regions farther removed from the
equator, concur to leffen the cold, and to prevent all
that horror which disfigures the face of nature in
other climes. During that feafon a ferene Iky and
the natural delights of the country are enjoyed; where¬
as, under the frigid, and even for the molt part under
the temperate zones, thq clouds rob man of the pro-’
fpeft of heaven, andlhe fnow buries the beautiful pro¬
ductions of the earth. No lefs caufes combine to tem¬
per the heat of fummer. The plentiful Ihowers which
frequently water the earth after mid-day from April
or May to September or O&ober ; the high moun-
' tarns, continually loaded with fnow, feattered here and
there through the country of Anahuac ; the cool winds
which breathe from them in that feafon; and the Ihorter
ftay of the fun above the horizon, compared with the
circumftances of the temperate zone, transform the
climes of thofe happy countries into a cool and cheer¬
ful fpring. But the agreeablenefs of the climate is
counterbalanced by thunder-ftorms, which are frequent
in fummer, particularly in the neighbourhood of the
mountain of Tlafcala ; and by earthquakes, which are
at all times felt, though with lefs danger than terror.
Storms of hail are neither more frequent nor more fe-
vere than in Europe.”
Mexican ^ne unft°ut't;ed inconvenience which Mexico has is
volcanoes, °f volcanoes, of which our author enumerates
five. One named by the Spaniards Volcan d'Orizaba
is higher than the peak of Teneriffe, according to the
account of the Jefuit -Tallandier, who meafured them
both. It began to fend forth fmoke in the year 1545,
and continued burning for' 20 years, but has not dif-
covered any fymptoms of eruption fince that time. It
is of a conical figure ; and, by reafon of its great
height, may be feen at 50 leagues diftance. The top
is always covered with fnow, but the lower part with
woods of pine and other valuable timber. It is about
90 miles to the eaftward of the capital.
Two other mountains, named Popocatepec and Iz-
taccihuatl, which lie near each other, at the diftance of
33 miles to the fouth-eaft of Mexico, are likewife
furprifingly high. Clav.igero fuppofes the former
to be higher than the higheft of the Alps, con-
fidering the elevated ground on which the bafe of
it Hands. It has a crater more than half a mile wide ;
from which, in the time of the Mexican kings, great
quantities of fmoke and flame iffued. In the laft cen¬
tury it frequently threw out great ihowers of aihes
upon the adjacent places; but in this century hardly Mt-xic-n
any fmoke has been obferved. This mountain is named
by the Spaniards Volcan, and the other Sierra Nevada.
The latter has alfo fometimes emitted flames. Both
of them have their tops always covered with fnow in
fuch quantities, that the maffes which fall down upon
the neighbouring rocks fupply the cities of Mexico,,
Gelopoli, Cholula, and' all the adjacent country to the
diftance of 40 miles, with that commodity; of which
the confumpt is fo great, that in 1746 the import up¬
on what was confumed in the city of Mexico amount¬
ed to I5,za2 Mexican crowns; fome years after it
amounted to 2o,oco ; and is now in all probability a
great deal more. Befides thefe, there are the two-
mountains of Coliman and Tochtlan, both of which
have occafionally emitted flames. Our author does not
include in the lift of Mexican volcanoes either thofe of
Nicaragua or Guatimala; becaufe tlrefe countries were
not fubjeft to the Mexican fovereigns. Thofe of Gua-
timala fometimes break forth in a moft furious man¬
ner, and in the year 1773 entirely deftroyed that beau¬
tiful city. The Nicaraguan volcapo called Juruyo
was only a fmall hill before the year 1 760. In that
year, however, on the 29th of September, it began to
burn with furious explofions, ruining entirely the fu-
gar-wOrk and the neighbouring village of Guacana ;
and from that time continued to emit fire and burning
rocks in fuch quantities, that the erupted matters in,
fix years had forced themfelves into three high moun¬
tains nearly fix miles in circumference. During the
time of the firft eruption, the afhes were carried as far
as the city of Queretaro, 130 miles dirtant from the
volcano ; and at Valladolid, diftant 60 miles from it,
the fhower was fo abundant, that the people were
obliged to fweep the houfe-yards two or three times,
a-day.
Befides thefe volcanoes, there are others in Mexico-
of a very remarkable height. The great chain of.
mountains called the Andes are continued through the
ifthmus of Panama and through all Mexico, until,
they are loft in the unknown mountains of the north..
The moft confiderable of that chain is known in Mexi¬
co by the name of Afai/ny particularly in (Jina-
loa and Parahumara, provinces no lefs than 1200 miles
diftant from the capital.
Mexico is well watered by very confiderable rivers, Rwlrs^andi
though none of them are comparable to thofe of South lakes.
America. Some of thefe run into the gulf of Mexi¬
co, and others into the Pacific Ocean. The Alvarado
has its principal fource among the mountains of the
Zapotecas, and difeharges itfelf by three navigable
mouths into the Mexican gulf, at the diftance of 30
miles from Vera Cruz. The Coatzocualco rifes among
the mountains of the Mixtecas, and empties itfelf into
the gulf near the country of Onohualco. i he river.
Chiapan, which likewife runs into this gulf, rifes
among the mountains which feparate the diftrift of
Chiapan from that of Guatimala. The Spaniards call
this river Tabafco; by which* name they alfo called-
that trail of land which unites Yucatan to the Mexi¬
can continent. It was alfo called the Grijalva, from
the name of the commander of the firft Spaniih fleet
who difeovered it.
The moft celebrated of the rivers which run into,
the Pacific Ocean is that called by the Spaniards
Gnu?-
GcnidcJaxara or Great River. It rlfes in the moun¬
tains of Toloccan ; and after running a courfe of more
than 600 miles, difcharges itfelf into the ocean in 22°
latitude.
There are likevvife in this country feveral lakes of
very confiderable magnitude ; but thole of Nicaragua,
Chapallan, and Pazquaro, which are of the greateft
extent, did not belong to the ancient Mexican em¬
pire. The molt remarkable were thofe in the vale of
Mexico, upon which the capital of the empire was
founded. Of thefe, the frefh water one called the*
lake ofChakot extended in. length from call to Well
12 miles, as far as the city of Xochimilco ; from
thence, taking a northerly direction, it incorporated
itfelf by means of a canal with the lake of Tezcuco ;
but its breadth did not exceed fix miles. The other,
named the lake of Tezcuco, extended 15, or rather 17,
miles from eall to weft, and fomething more from
fouth to north ; but its extent is now much lefs, by
reafon of the Spaniards having diverted the courfe of
many of the ItreamS which run into it. This lake
.is fait, which Clavigero fuppofes to arife from the
nature of the foil which forms its bed.
Befides thefe, there are a number of fmaHer lakes,
feme of which are very delightful. There is a vail
variety of mineral waters, of the nitrous, fulphureous,
and aluminous kinds, fome of them fo hot that meat
might be boiled in them. At Tetuhuacan is a kind
of petrefying water, as well as in feveral other parts
of the empire. One of them forms a kind of fmooth
white ftones, not difpleafing to the tafte ; the ferap-
ings of which taken in broth are celebrated as a dia¬
phoretic, probably without any good reafon. The
. dofe for a perfon not difficult to be fweated is one
drachm of the ferapings. Many of the rivers of
Mexico afford furprifing and beautiful cafcades ; par¬
ticularly the great river Guadalaxara, at a place call¬
ed Tempizque, 15 miles to the fouthward of that city.
Along a deep river called Atoycnjue is a natural bridge,
confifting of a vaft mound of earth, along which car¬
riages pafs conveniently. Clavigero fuppofes it to
have been the fragment of a mountain thrown down
by an earthquake, and then penetrated by the river.
The mineral productions df Mexico are very va¬
luable. The natives found gold in feveral provinces
of the empire. They gathered it principally from
among the fands of their rivets in grains ; and the
people in whole country it was found, were obliged
to pay a certain quantity by way of tribute to the
emperor. They dug filver out of mines in Tlochco,
and fome other countries, but it was lefs prized by them
than by other nations. Since the conqueft, however,
fo many filver mines have been difeovered in that
country, efpccially in the provinces to the northweft
of the capital, that it is in vain to attempt any enu¬
meration of them. They had two forts of copper;
one hard, which ft rved them inftead of iron, to make
axes and other inftruments for war and agriculture ;
the other kind, which was foft and flexible, ferved
for domeftic utenfik as with us. They had alfo tin
from the mines of Tlaehc*, and dug lead out of mines
in the country of the Otomies; but we are not in¬
formed what ufes they put this laft metal to. They
had likewife mines of iron in Tlafcala, Tlachcp, and
fome other places; but thefe were either unknown to
3
the Mexicans, or they did not know how to benefit Mex'e'*.
themfelves by them. In Chilapan were mines of quick-
filver j and in many places they had fulphur, alum, vi¬
triol, cinnabar, ochre, and an earth greatly refembling
white lead. Thefe minerals were employed in paint¬
ing and dyeing ; but we know not to what ufe they
put their quickfilver. There was great abundance
of amber and afphaltum upon their coafts ; both of
which were paid in tribute to the king of Mexico
from many parts of the empire. The former wis
wont to be fet in gold by way of ornament, and af¬
phaltum was employed in their facrifices. ^
Mexico produces fome diamonds, though but few prea »us
in number; but they had in greater plenty fome Stones,
other precious ftones, fuch as amethyfts, cats-eyes,
turquoifes, cornelians, and fome green ftones refem¬
bling emeralds, and very little inferior to them ; of
all which a tribute was paid to the emperor by the
people in whofe territories they were found. They
were likewife furnished with cryftal in plenty from
the mountains which lay on the coaft of the Mexican
gulph, between the port of Vera Cruz and the river
Coatzacualco. In the mountains of Celpolalpan, to
the eaftward of Mexico, were quarries of jafper and
marble of different colours: they had likewife alaba-
fter at a place called Tecalco, now Tecale, in the neigh¬
bourhood of the province of Tapeyacac and many
other parts of the empire. The ftone tetzontli is
generally of a dark red colour, pretty hard, porous,
and light, and unites moll firmly with lime and fand; on
which account it is of great requeft for buildings in
the capital, where the foundation is bad. There are
entire mountains of loadftohe, a veiy confiderable one
of which lies between Teoitztlan and Chilapan, in the
country of the Cohuixcas. They formed curious
figures of nephritic ftone, fome of which are Hill pre-
ferved in European mufeums. They had a kind of
fine white talc which burnt into an excellent plafter,
and with which they ufed to whiten their paintings.
But the mofl ufeful ftone they had was that called
itztli, of which there is great abundance in many
parts of Mexico. It has a gloffy appearance, is ge¬
nerally of a bkek colour, and femitranfparent ; though
fometimes alfo of a blue or white colour. In South
America this ftone is called fietra del galinazzo ; and
CountCaylusendcavourstofhow,inamanufcriptdifferta-
tion quoted by Bomare, that the olftdiona, of which the
ancients made their vafes murini, were entirely fimilar
to this ftone. The Mexicans made of it looking-glaf-
fes, knives, lancets, razors, and fpears. Sacred vafes
alfo were made of it after the introdudlion of Chri-
ftianity.
The foil of Mexico, though various, produced every Veytv.bl*
where the neceffaries and even the luxuries of life, produc-
“ The celebrated Dr Hernandez, the Pliny of Newuons*
Spain (fays Clavigero), has deferibed in his Natural
Hiftory about 1200 plants natives of the country;
but his defeription, though large, being confined to
medicinal plants, has only comprifed one part of what
provident nature has produced there for the benefit of
mortals. With regard to the other claffes of vege¬
tables, fome are efteemed for their flowers, fome for
their fruit, fome for their leaves, fome for their root,
fome for their trunk or their wood ; and others for
their gum, refin, oil, or juice/’
Mexico
M E X [671] M E X
Mexica. Mexico abounds with a great variety of flowers,
v ''  many of which are peculiar to the country, while
yi0^Jsajjdmultitudes of others imported from Europe and Afia
jtuus. rival in luxuriance the natives of the country it-
felf. The fruits are partly natives of the Canary
iflands, partly of Spain, befides thofe which grow
naturally in the country. The exotics are wa¬
ter-melons, apples, pears, peaches, quinces, apricots,
pomegranates, figs, black cherries, walnuts, almonds,
olives, chefnuts, and grapes; though thefe laft are
likewife natives. There are two kinds of wild vine
found in the country of the Mixtecas; the one re-
fcinbling the common vine in the fhoots and figure of
its leaves. It produces large red grapes covered with
an hard fkin, but of fweet and grateful tafte, which
would undoubtedly improve greatly by culture. The
grape of the other kind is hard, large, and of a very harlh
tafte, but they make an excellent conferve of it. Our
author is of opinion that the cocoa tree,-plantain, ci¬
tron, orange, and lemon, came from the Philippine
iflands and Canaries; but it is certain that thefe, as
well as other trees, thrive in this country as well as
in their native foil. All the maritime countries abound
with cocoa-nut trees; they have feven kinds of oran¬
ges and four of lemons, and there are likewife four
kinds of plantains. "The largeft, called the •z.apalat, is
from 15 to 20 inches long, and about three in dia¬
meter; it is hard, little elteemed, and only eat when
roailed or boiled. The platano largo, or “ long plan¬
tain,” is about eight inches long and one and a half
in diameter ; the lkin is at firll green, and blackifti
when perfe&ly ripe. The guinea is a fmaller fruit, but
richer, fofter, and more delicious, though not fo
wholefome. A fpecies of plantain, called the domi-
nico, is fmaller and more delicate than the others.
There are whole woods of plantain trees, oranges, and
lemons; and the people of Michuacan carry on a con-
fiderable commerce with the dried plantains, which
are preferable either to raifins or figs. Clavigero enu¬
merates 28 different forts of fruit natives of Mexico,
befides many others, the names of which are not men¬
tioned. Hernandez mentions four kinds of cocoa
nuts; of which the fmalleft of the whole was in moft
life for chocolate and other drinks daily made ufe of;
the other kinds ferved rather for money in commerce
than for aliment. The cocoa was one of the plants
moft cultivated in the warm countries of the empire ;
and many provinces paid it in tribute to the empe-
tor, particularly that of Xoconocho, the cocoa nut
of which is preferable to the others. Cotton was one
of the moll valuable produftions of the country, as it
.ferved inftead of flax ; though this laft alfo was pro¬
duced in the country. It is of two kinds, white and
tawny-coloured. They made ufe of rocou or Braiil-
wood in their dying, as the Europeans alfo do. They
made cordage of the bark, and the wood was made
J4g life of to produce fire by friAion.
Cram. The principal grain of Mexico, before the intro-
duttion of thofe from Europe, was maize, in the
Mexican language called tluolli ; of which there were
leveral kinds, differing in fize, weight, colour, and
tafte. This kind of grain was brought from Ame¬
rica to Spain, and from Spain to the other countries
of Europe. The French bean was the principal kind
«f pulfe in ufe among them, of which there were more
fpecies than of the maize. The largeft was called Mexico.
ayacotli, of the fize of a common bean, with a beauti-
ful red flower; but the moft efteemed was the fmall,
black, heavy, French bean. This kind 6f pulfe, which
is not good in Italy, is in Mexico fo excellent, that
it not only ferves for fuftenance to the poorer clafs of
people, but is efteemed a luxury even by the Spanilh
nobility. _ r4Sl
Of the efculent roots of Mexico, the following were Efculenfi
the moft remarkable. 1. The xicama, called by theroots*
Mexicans catsuotl, was of the figure and fize of an
onion; folid, frefti, juicy, and of a white colour; it
was always eat raw. 2. The camotc, is another very-
common in the Country, of which there are three forts,
white, yellow, and purple: they eat belt when boiled.
3. The cacomite, is the root of a plant which has a
beautiful flower called the tyger-fluiver, with three red
pointed petals, the middle part mixed with white and
yellow, fomewhat refembling the fpots of the crea¬
ture whence it takes its name. 4. The huacamote, is
the root of a kind of Caffava plant, and is likewife boil¬
ed. 5. The papa, a root tranfplanted into Europe,
and greatly valued in Ireland, was brought from South
America into Mexico. Befides all which they have a
number of kitchen vegetables imported from the Ca¬
naries, Spain, and other countries of Europe. The
American aloe is very fimilar to the real one, and is
a plant of which the Mexicans formerly, and the Spa¬
niards ftill, make great ufe. , _
They have a variety of palm trees. From the fibres Trjcay.
of the leaves of one fpecies they make thread. The
bark of another kind, to the depth of three fingers,
is a mafs of membranes, of which the poor people
make mats. The leaves of another kind are ufed for
ornaments in their feftivals. They are round, grofs,
white, and ftrining ; Jraving the appearance of flrells
heaped upon one another, A fourth kind bears nuts
called cocoas, cr nuts of oil. Thefe nuts are of the
fize of a nutmeg, having in the infide a white, oily,
eatable kernel, covered by a thin, . purple, pellicle.
The oil has a fweet feent, but is eafily condenfed,
when it becomes a foft mafs, as white as fnow.
Of timber trees there are great variety, of a quality
not inferior to any in the.world; and as there are a
variety of climates in the country; every one produces
a kind of wood peculiar to itfelf., There are whole
woods of cedars and ebonies, vaft quantities of agal-
lochum or wood of aloes ; befides others valuable oa
account of their weight, durability, and hardnefs ;
or for their being eafily, cut, pliable, of a fine colour,
or an agreeable flavour. There are alfo in Mexico
innumerable trees remarkable for their fize. Acofta
mentions a cedar, th? trunk of which was 16 fathoms
in circumference ; and Clavigero mentions one of the
length of 107 Paris feet. In the city of Mexico he
mentions very large tables of cedar made out of
Tingle planks. In the valley of Atlixco is a very an-
cient fir tree, hollowed by lightning; the cavity of
which could conveniently hold fourteen horfemen ;
nay, we are informed by the arehbifhop of To¬
ledo, that, in j 770, he went, .to view it -along with
the archbiftiop of Guatimala, at which time he caufed*
an hundred young lads enter its cavity. Our author •
mentions fome other trees, of the fpecies called cetbes,
winch, for. magnitude may be compared with this ce- ..
IcbaatedA
M E X r 67
lebrated fir. “ The largenefs of thefe trees (fays he) *
v~“" is proportioned to their prodigious elevation ; and
they afford a moft delightful profpett at the time they
•are adorned with new leaves and loaded with fruit,
in which there is inclofed a particular fpecies of fine,
white, and moft delicate cotton. This might be, and
actually has been, made into webs as foft, delicate,
and perhaps more fo than filk ; but it is toilfome to
fpin, on account of the fmallnefs of the threads, and
* the profit does not requite the labour, the web not
being lafting. Some ufe it for pillows and matrafles,
which have the fingular property of expanding enor-
moufly when expofed to the heat of the fun. De Bo-
mare fays, that the Africans make of the thread of
the ceiba that vegetable taffety which is fo fcarce,
and fo much efteemed in Europe. The fcarcity of
fuch cloth is not to be wondered at confidering the
difficulty of making it. The ceiba, according to this
author, is higher than all other trees y^t known.”
Clavigero mentions a Mexican tree, the wood of
which is very valuable, but poifonous, and if incau-
tioufly handled, when frefh cut, produces a fwelling
in the fcrotum. Our author has forgot the name
given to it by the Mexicans; nor has he ever feen the
tree itfelf, nor been witnefs to the effedt.
IMedfcinal This country abounds alfo with aromatic and me-
andaroma- dicinal trees, producing gums, refins, &c. From one
tic gums. ,0f thefe a balfam is produced not in the leaft inferior
to the celebrated balfam of Mecca. It is of a reddifh
black or yellowifh white, of a fharp bitter tafte, and
of a ftrong but moft grateful odour. It is common
in the provinces of Panuco and Chiapan, and other
warm countries. The kings of Mexico caufed it to
be tranfplanted into their celebrated garden of Huax-
tepec, where it flourifhed, and was afterwards multi¬
plied in all the neighbouring mountains. The In¬
dians, in order to procure a greater quantity of this
balfam, burn the branches, which affords more than
mere diftillation, though undoubtedly of an inferior
quality ; nor do they regard the lofs of the trees,
which are very abundant. The ancient Mexicans
were wont to extraft it alfo by deco£lion. The
fiift parcel of this balfam brought from Mexico
to Rome was fold at one hundred ducats per ounce;
and was, by the apoftolic fee, declared to be matter
fit for chrifm ; though different from that of Mecca,
as Acofta and all other writers on this fubjeft ob-
fcrve. An oil is likewife drawn from the fruit of this
tree, fimilar in tafte and fmell to that of the bitter
almond, but more acrimonious. From two other
trees named the huaconex and mar'ipenda, an oil was
extra&ed equivalent to the balfam. The former is a
tree of a moderate height; the-wood of which is aro¬
matic, and fo hard, that it will keep freffi for feveral
years, though buried under the earth. The leaves
are fmall and'yellow.; the flowers likewife fmall and
white, and the fruit fimilar to that of the laurel. The
oil was diftilled from the bark of the tree, after break¬
ing it, and keeping it three days in fpring-water, and
then drying it in the fun. The leaves likewife af¬
forded an agreeable oil by diftillation. The Mari-
penda is a fhrtib with lanceolated leaves, the fruit of
a red colour when ripe, and refembling the grape.
The oil is extracted by boiling the branches with a
mixture of fome of the fruit.
N°2i7.
2 ] M E X
The tree producing liquid amber, the liquid ttorax Mexico,
of the Mexicans, is of a large fize, the leaves fimilar ’^r***^
to thofe of the maple, indented, white in one part
and dark in the other, difpofed of in threes; the fruit
is thorny and round, but polygonous, with the fur-
face and the angles yellow ; the bark of the tree part-*
ly green and partly tawny. By incifions in the trunk
they extraft that valuable fubftance named liquid am¬
ber, and the oil of the fame name, which is ftill more
valuable. Liquid amber is likewife obtained from a
decoftion of the branches, but it is inferior to that
obtained from the trunk.
The name copalli in Mexico is 'generic, and com¬
mon to all the refins; but efpecially fignifies thofe
made ufe of for incenfe. There are ten fpecies of
thefe trees yielding refias of this kind ; the principal
of which is that from which the Cornt is got, fo
well known in medicine and varniflies. A great quan¬
tity of this was made ufe of by the ancient Mexicans,
and is ftill ufed for fimilar purpofes by the Spaniards.
The tecopalli or tepccopalli is a refin fimilar to the in¬
cenfe of Arabia ; which diftils from a tree of mode¬
rate fize that grows in the mountains, having a fruit
like an acorn, and containing the nut inveloped in a
mucilage, within which there is a fmall kernel ufeM
in medicine.
The mizquitl, or mezquite, is a fpecies of true aca¬
cia, and the gum diftilling from it is faid tf>be the true
gum arabic. It is a thorny Ihrub, with branches ir¬
regularly difpofed, the leaves fmall, thin, and pinna¬
ted ; the flowers being like thofe of the birch-tree.—■
The fruits are fweet and eatable, containing a feed,
of which the barbarous Chichemecas were wont to
make a kind of pafte that ferved them for bread.
The wood is exceedingly hard and heavy, and the
trees are as common in Mexico as oaks are in Europe,
particularly on hills in the temperate countries.
Of the elaftic gum, which is found in plenty in
Mexico, the natives were in ufe to make foot-balls,
which, though heavy, have a better fpring than thofe
filled with air. At prefent they varnifli with it their
hats, cloaks, boots, and great coats, in a manner
fimilar to what is done in Europe with wax 5 and
by which means they are rendered all water-proof.
Our author laments that the natural hiftory of ve- Mexican
getables in Mexico is very little known, and that ofanim*I&
animals no better. The firft Spaniards (fays he)
who gave them names, were more fkilful in the art of
war than in the ftudy of nature. Inftead of retain¬
ing the terms which would have been moft proper,
they denominated many animals tygers, wolves, bears,
dogs, fquirrels, &c. although they were very different
in kind, merely from fome refemblance in the colour
of their Ikin, their figure, or fome fimilarity in habits
and difpofition. The quadrupeds found in Mexico
at the arrival of the Spaniards, were lions, tygers,
wild cats, bears, wolves, foxes, the common ftags,
white ftags, bucks, wild goats, badgers, pole-cats,
weafles, martins, fquirrels, polatucas, rabbits, hares,
otters, and rats. All thefe animals are fuppofed by
our author to’be common to both-continents The
white ftag, whether it be the fame fpecies of the other
or not, is undoubtedly common to both, and was
known to the Greeks and Romans. The Mexicans
call it the king of the flags. M. Buffon imagines the
white
M E X
Mflxiio. white colour of this creature to he the effect of cap-
  tivity ; but Clavigero fays, that it is found wild, and
of the fame white colour, on the mountains of New
Spain. . In many other points, he alfo controverts the
opinions of this celebrated naturalift, who will not al¬
low the lion, tyger, or rabbit, to be natives of Ame¬
rica. “ The rni%tli of the Mexicans (fays he) is no
other than the lion without hair mentioned by Pliny,
r 673 ]
M E X
voracious animal named the tapir. Oviedo informs Mexico,
us, that he has feen it at one bite tear off two or three " ~v 1 '**
hand-breadths #of lie in from a hound, and at another
a whole leg and thigh. The flefh is eatable, and its
Ikin is valued on account of its being fufficiently
ftrong to refill; mulket-balls. There are likewiie
great numbers of monkeys of many difierent kinds ;
iome of which have heads refi^mbling thofe of dogs.
and totally diftindl froth the African lion ; and the Some of them are flrong and fierce, equalling a man
ocelotl is no way different from the African tyger, ac- in ftature when they Hand upright.
cording to the teftimony of Hernandez, who knew
both the one and the other. The tochtli of Mexico
is exaftly the rabbit of the old continent $ and at leaft
as ancient as the Mexican calendar, in which the fi-
Among the animals peculiar to Mexico, is one na-Defcri;ti<nt
med by our author coyntoy which appears to have been ot fome
inaccurately deferibed by other natural hiftorians jr*nimaU per-
fome making it one fpecies and fome another. He
gure of the rabbit was the firfl: fymbolical chara&er fays it has the voracity of a wolf, the cunning of a
of their years. The wild cats, in fize much larger fox, the form of k dog, and in fome properties refem-
bles the adive and chacal. It is about the fize of a
maftiff, but more (lender. The eyes are yellow and
fparkling, ears fmall, pointed, and erett ; the fnout
blackilh, ftrong limbs, and the feet armed with large
crooked nails. The tail is thick and hairy, the flein
a mixture of black, brown, and white ; and the voice is
compounded of the howl of the wolf and the bark of
than the domeftic cats, are fierce and dangerous
the bears are all black, and .more corpulent than thofe
which are brought from the Alps into Italy. The
hares are diftinguilhed from thofe of Europe by-their
longer ears, and the wolves by a groffer head. Ac¬
cording to M. Buffpn, the Mexicans give the name
of polutaca to the quimicpaltan, or flying rat of the
Mexicans. We call it rat, becaufe it refembles a rat the dog. It is one of the moft common quadrupeds in
in the head, though it is much larger and flying; Mexico, and moft deft rudlive to the flocks. When it
becaufe in its natural ftate, the fldn of its fides is loofe invades a Iheep-fold, if it cannot find a lamb to carry
and wrinkled, which it diftends and expands together off, it feizes a Iheep by the neck with its teeth, and
with its feet like wings, when it makes any confide- coupling with it, and beating it on the rump with its
rable leap frorti one tree to another. This is con- tail, condufts it whether it pleafes. It purfues the
founded wnth the common fquirrel on account of their deer, and will fometimes even attack men. Its ufual
likenefs, but they are undoubtedly different. Mice pace is a trot, but fo quick that a horfe at the gallop
were brought to Mexico in European fhips ; the rats can fcarce overtake it. The tlalcojotl or tlalcoyoto is
were not fo, but known in the country by the name about the fize of a middling dog, and in our author’s
of qutmiebin, a word metaphorically applied to fpies.” opinion is the largeft animal that lives under the earth.
Our author now proceeds to enumerate the qua- Its head has fome refemblance to that of a cat; but
drupeds common to New Spain wnth the reft of the in colour and length of hair it refembles the lion.-—
continent of America. Among thefe he will not It has a long thick tail, and feeds upon poultry and
allow a place to the Peruvian Iheep, the huanaeby fmall animals, vdrich it catches in the night-time,
and fioth ; all of which are peculiar to South A- The tepeizuintli, or mountain-dog, though it is but of
merica. Hernandez indeed makes mention of the the fize of a fmall dog, is fo bold that it attacks deer,
Peruvian Iheep, and gives a drawing of it; but" this and fometimes kills them. Its hair and tail are long,
was only on account of a few individuals brought the body black, but the head, neck, and breaft, white,
thence from Peru, which the Mexicans called by that Mr Buffon reckons this animal the fame with the
name, in the fame manner as he defertbes feveral ani- glutton, but Clavigero denies it. Another animal,
orals of the Philippine illes ; not that they had ever larger than the two foregoing, is called the xoloit'zcwnt-
been bred in Mexico, or found in any country of h. Some of thefe are no lefs than four feet in length.
North America, unlefs it was fome individual carried It has a face like the dog, but tufles like the wolf,
there, as they are carried as a curiofity from Europe, with ereft ears, the neck grqfs, and the tail long  
The animals which he allows to be common to both It is entirely deftitute of hair, excepting only the
countries are, the Mexican hog, the moufete, the fnout, where there are fome thick crooked briftles.
opoffum, the armadillo, the tec hie hi, a fmall animal re- The whole body is covered with a fmooth, foft, afh-
fembling a dog ; which being perfectly dumb, gave coloured Ikin, fpotted partly with black arid tawney.
occafion to a report that the Mexican dogs could not This fpecies of animals, as well as the two former,
bark. The flelh of this animal was eat by them, and are almoft totally extindt. A Lyncean academician
was efteemed agreeable and nourifhing food. Af- named Giovanni Fabri, has endeavoured to prove .that
ter the conqueft of Mexico, the Spaniards having nei* the xoloitzcuintli is the fame with the wolf of Mexi-
ther large cattle nor Iheep, provided their markets co; but this is denied by our author,
with this quadruped ; by which means, the fpecies An animal called ocotochtli, a kind of wild cat, is
foon came to be extindl, though it had been very remarkable more for the fabulous account of it than
numerous. The land-fquirrel is very numerous in for any Angular property with which it is really en¬
tire kingdom of Michuacan, has great elegance of dowed. According to Dr Hernandez, when this
form, and is extremely graceful in its movement; but ' creature takes any prey, it covers it with leaves, and
it cannot be tamed, and bites moft furioully every afterwards mounting on fome neighbouring tree, it
perfon who approaches it. begins howling to invite other animals to eat its prey;
Befides thefe, there are fea-lions, rattoons, and that being itfelf always the laft to eat; becaufe the poifon
Vol. XI. Part II. 4 CL oF
Jltexko.
0 (XJ3)
Curious
kind of
Uiele.
154
M< xican
kirdt..
M E X r C74 T M E X
of its tongue is fo ftron^, that if it eat firft, the prey king’s fifhers, pelicans, Sic. The multitude of ducks Mejdce.
would be infedled, and other animals which eat of it is fometimes fo grea;, that they cover the fields, and - v~mmJ
would die. appear at a dillance like flocks of flieep. Some of
A curious animal of the mole kind is called lozan the herons and egrets are perfe&ly white, fome afli-
or tuza. It is about the fize of an European mole, coloured ; others have the plumage of the body
but very different otherwife. The body is about fe- white, while the neck, with the tops and upper part
ven or eight inches lorg„ and well made ; the fnout of the wings, and part of the tail, are enlivc'ned with
like that of 9 moufe, the ears fmall and round, with a bright fcarlet, or beautiful blue. Clavigero men- ^
the tail fhort. • The mouth is armed with very ftrong tions a Angular quality of the pelican, in which **property of
teeth, and its paws are furnilhed with itrong crooked differs from all other birds hitherto known, viz,. thatthe pel»can»
nails, with which it digs its habitation in the earth, it affifts fuch of its own fpecies as are hurt or fick.
It is extremely deftrudtive to tire corn fields by the Of this difpofition the Americans fometimes take the
•quantity of grain it fteals, and to the highways by advantage to procure fifh without any trouble. They
the number of holes' it makes in them ; for when, take a live pelican and break its wing, and, after ty-
on account of the dimnefs of its fight, it cannot find ing it to a tree, conceal themfelves in the neigh-
its firft hole, it makes another, and fo on. It digs bourhood : there they watch the coming of the other
the earth with its claws and two canine teeth which pelicans with their provifions; and as foon as they
it has in the upper jaw. In digging, it puts the fee them throw up the fifh from the-pouch they have
earth into two membranes like purfes, which are un~ below their bill, they run in, and leaving a little for
der its ear, and which are furnifhed with mufcles ne- the captive bird carry off all the reft. The j/oa/-
ccffary for Contraftion and diltenfion When the quachUH is a fmall aquatic bird, with a long narrow
, membranes are full, it> empties them by ftriking the neck, fmall head, long yellow bill, long legs, feet,
bottom with its paws, and then digs again as before, and claws, and a fhort tail. It is remarkable for the
Thefe creatures are very numerous-; but our author weapons with which it is naturally provided^ On the
does not remember to have feen them in the place head is a little circle or coronet, of a horny fub-
where knd-fquirrels inhabit. fiance, which is divided into three very fharp points.
The birds are fo numerous, and of fuch various up- and there are two others on the fore-part of the
pearances and qualities, that Mexico has been called wings.
the country of birds as Africa is of quadrupeds. Numbers of the other claffes of birds are valuable
Though Hernandez paffes over a great number of for their flefh, plumage, or fong, while fome are
fpecies, he yet deferibes above 200 peculiar to the remarkable for their extraordinary inftinct or other
country. He allows to the eagles and hawks of Me- properties. Our author enumerates more than 70
xico a fuperiority over thofe of Europe ; and the fal- fpecies of thofe which afford an agreeable and whole-
cons of this country were formerly efteemed fo ex- fome food. Befides the common fowls which were
cellent, that, by the defire of Philip II. an hundred brought from the Canaries to the Antilles, and from
of them were fent every year over to Spain. The thefe to Mexico, there were, and ftill are, fowls pe-
largeft, the moft beautiful, and the moft valuable kind culiar to the country itfelf. Thefe partly refemble
»f eagles, is called by the Mexicans hzquauhHiy and the common fowl and partly the peacock, whence
will purfue not only the larger kind of birds, but qua- they had the name of gallipa’oos from the Spaniards,
drupeds, and even men. From Mexico they were imported into Europe,.
The ravens of Mexico do not, like thofe' of other where they have multiplied very fall, efpecially in
sountries, feed upon carrion, but fubfift entirely by Italy, though the common fowls have multiplied much
Sealing corn. The carrion is devoured by the birds more in Mexico. There are three kinds-of phea-
ealled in South America ga/linqzzi, in Mexico zopi- fants ; one of which is as large as a goofe, and very
lots and aure. By Hernandez they are faid to be a docile. It will become fo tame as to pick food from-
fpecies of ravens^; but, according to Clavigero, they its mailer’s hand, and run to meet him with figns of-
are very different, not only in their fize, but in the joy when he comes home, (hut the door with its bill,
ftape of their head, their flight, and their voice.— &c. ' By keeping in a yard along with other poultry,.
They fly fo high, that though pretty large, they are it learns to fight like a cock, raifing the feathers of
loft to the fight: before a hail-llorm they may be feen its crelt, as cocks do thofe of their neck,
wheeling in great numbers in the air, until they en- There are great numbers of birds valuable on ac¬
t-ire! y difappear. They difeover carrion by the acute- count of their plumage, which was made ufe of by
nefs of their fight and fmell at a great height in the the Mexicans in their excellent mofaic works ; an art
air, and defeend upon it in a fpiral flight. They are which feems now to be totally loft. Peacocks have
extremely numerous, and are very ufeful to the coun- been carried from the old continent t6 Mexico; but,
try, becaufe they not only clear the fields of carrion, not being attended to, have propagated very (lowly,
but attend the crocodiles, and deftroy the eggs of The birds remarkable for their fong are likewife very
fhefe terrible animals. There is another bird, called numerous ; among which that called the centzumtl, by
by the Mexicans the king of the zopilots, on account, Europeans the mocking-bird, is the. moft remarkable*,
as it is faid, that the true zopilot will not touch a on account of its counterfeiting naturally the notes
bit of carrion till the other has firft tailed it. of all others it hears. It has been attempted to bring
The aquatic birds are very, numerous, and of great it to Europe, but without fuccefs. The cardinals
variety.—There are at leaft 20 fpecies of ducks, a arc very remarkable, not only on account of their
vaft number of geefe, with feveral kinds of herons, fine colours, but likewife of their notes; and even
great numbers of fwans, quails, water-rails, divers, the fparrews have a moft delightful and various fong;
4 There
M E X [ 675 ] M E X
Mexico. There are great numbers of beautiful parrots; and
there is a bird which counterfeits the human voice,
but in' a kind of burlefque tone, and will follow tra¬
vellers a great way. The t%acua is remarkable for its
inftinft. Birds of this kind live in fociety, every tree
being a village or city to them, having great numbers
of nells in the neighbourhood of each other, all hang¬
ing from the boughs. One of them, whofe office it
is to be the head or guard of the village, reiides in
the middle of the tree ; from which it flies about
from one neft to another, vifiting them all, and after
finging a little, returns to its place, while the reft
continue perfectly filent. If any bird of a different
fpecies approaches the tree, he flies to it, and with
his bill and wings endeavours to drive it off; but if
a man or any large animal comes near, he flies feream-
ing to another tree; and if at that time any of his
fellow's happen to be returning to theii nefts, he
meets them, and, changing his note, obliges them to
retire again: as foon as he perceives the danger
over, he returns to his wonted round of vifiting the
156 nefts.
Reptiles. Mexico, like all other American countries, abounds
with reptiles, many of them of an enormous fize.
The crocodiles are not lefs to be dreaded than thofe
of Africa or Afia; and there are likewife fome of
thofe monftrous ferpents met with in the Haft Indies
and in South America; though happily the fpecies
of thofe terrible creatures feems to be nearly extinift,
as they are feldom to be found but in fome folitary
wood, or other remote place. There are great num¬
bers of lizards, fome of which the people fuppofe to
be poifonous; but our author thinks this opinion
ill founded. There are feveral kinds of poifonous
ferpents, of which the rattle-fnake is one. The ceno-
coatl is another poifonous ferpent, and remarkable for
having a luminous appearance in the dark ; by which,
as by the rattle in the tail of the former, travellers
are warned to avoid it. Among the harmlefs fnakes
is a very beautiful one about a foot in length, and
of the thicknefs of the little finger. It appears to
take great pleafure in the fociety of ants, infomuch
that it will accompany thefe infedls upon tndlr expe¬
ditions, and return with them to their ufual neft.—
It is called both by the Mexicans and Spaniards the
mother of the ants; but our author fuppofes that all
the attachment which the fnake fiiows to the ant-
Ifills proceeds from its living on the ants themfelves.
The ancient Mexicans were wont to take delight in
keeping an harmlefs green fnake which they catched
in the fields, and which, when well fed, would grow
to the length of five or fix feet. It was generally
kept in a tub, which it never left but to receive food
from the hand of its mafter; and this it would take
either mounted on his ftioulder or coiled aboufchis
*5 7 leg*‘
Aquatic The aquatic animals are innumerable. Clavigero
animals. mentions a fpecies of frogs fo large that a Angle one
will weigh a pound, and which are excellent food.—
Of fiffi proper for food, our author fays that he has
counted upwards of 100 fpecies, without taking in
the turtle, crab, lobfter, or any other cruftaceous ani¬
mal. i he lharks are well known for their voracity.
A whole fheep’s fkin, and even a large butcher’s knife,
lias been found in. the belly of one of them. They
are accuftomed to follow veffels, to devour any filth
that is thrown overboard; and, according to Oviedo,
they have been known to keep up with ftiips failing
before a fair wind for no lefs than yoo miles. The
bottetto is a fiffi about eight inches in length, but ex-
ceffively thick. While this fiffi lies alive upon the
beach, it fwells whenever it is touched to an enormous
fize, and boys often take pleafure in making it burft
with a kick. The liver is fo poifonous as to kill
with ftrong convulfions in half an hour after it is eaten.
The oechione is a round flat fiffi, of eight or ten
inches in diameter; the under part of the body be¬
ing perfeftly flat, but the upper part convex ; and in
the centre, which is the higheft part, it has a Angle
eye as large as that of an ox, furniffied with eye-lids
like the eyes of land animals. This eye remains open
even after the fiffi is dead, and has an hideous appear¬
ance, fo as fometimes to ftrike the fpe&ators with
horror. Campoi endeavours to prove, that this is
the fiffi named by Pliny uranofeopos. The Roman hi-
ftorian does not deferibe this fiffi; but Clavigero ob-
ferves, that the name of uranofeopos might be equally
applicable to all fiffi which have eyes upon the head
that look up to the fley, as Ikates and other flat fiffi.
The axolotl is a great ugly water-lizard, remarkable
for having a periodical evacuation of blood from the
uterus, like the human fpecies. It is eatable, taftes
like an eel, and the fleffi is looked upon to be good
in -confumptions. There are likewife a vaft variety of
ffieils, iponges, and lithophyts. Hernandez gives the
figure of a fponge fent to him from the Pacific O-
cean, which was of the ffiape of a man's hand, but
with ten or more fingers ; of a clay colour, with
black backs and red Itreaks, harder than the common
fponges.
Ot flying and other minute infers, the number is Infers,
prodigioufly great. There are a variety of beetles:
fome of a green colour make a great noiie in flying ; on
which account children are fond of them. There
are great numbers of ffiining beetles, which make a
delightful appearance at night, as well as the lumi¬
nous flies which abound in the country. There are
fix kinds of bees and four kinds of wafps ; of, which
la ft, one collects wax and- honey' of a very fweet
tafte: another is called the 'wandering tvafp from
its frequent change of abode ; and in confequence of
thefe changes, it is conftantly employed in colle&ing
materials for its habitations. There is alfo a black
hornet with a red tail, the fting of which is fo large
and ftrong, that it will not only penetrate a fugar-
cane but even the trunk of a tree. The lake of
Mexico abounds with a kind of fly, the eggs of
which are depolited upon the flags and ruffies in fuch
quantities as to form large maffes. Thefe are collec¬
ted by the fiiffiermen, and carried to market for fale.
They are eaten by both Mexicans and Spaniards, and
have much the fame tafte as the caviare of fifli. The
Mexicans eat alfo the flies themfelves ground and
made up with falt-petre. There are abundance of
gnats in the moift places and lakes; but the capital,
though fituated upon a lake, is entirely free from
them. There are other flies which make no noife in
their flight, but caufe a violent itching by their bite ;
and if the part be fcratched, an open wound is ape
to eufue. The butterflies are in vaft numbers, and
4 Q_2 their
159
Curious
Zoophytes.
M E X [67
their wings glow with colours far fuperior to thofe
of Europe ; the figures of fome of them are given by
Hernandez. But notwithftanding its beauties and
advantages, Mexico is fubjedf to the dreadful devalua¬
tions of loculis, which fometimes occifion the moft
deflru&ive famines.
There are fdme of the worms of Mexico made ufe
of by the inhabitants as food ; others are poifonous.
There are great numbers of fcolopendrse and fcor-
pions, fome of the former growing to an immenfe
fize. Hernandez fays, that he has feen fome of them
two feet long and two inches thick. The fcorpions
are very numerous ; and in the hot parts of the coun¬
try their poifon is fo ilrong as to kill children, and
give terrible pain to adults. Their fting is moft dan •
gerous during thofe hours of the day in which the fun
is hotteft. In the province of Michuaean is a Angular
fpecies of ant, larger than the common one, with a
greyifh body and black head. On its hinder part isa
little bag full of a fweet fubftance, of which children
are very fond. The Mexicans fuppofe this to be a
kind of honey collefted by the infedf; but Clavigero
thinks it rather is its eggs. There is a mifchievous
kind of tick, which in the hot countries abounds’
among the grafs. From thence it eafily gets upon the
cloaths, and from them upon the Hein. There it fixes*
with fuch force, from the particular figure of its feet,
that it can fcarccly be got off. At firft it. feems no¬
thing but a fmall black fpeck, but in a fhort time en¬
larges to fuch a degree, from the blood which it fucks,-
that it equals the lize of a bean, and then affumes a*
leaden colour. Oviedo fays, that the heft and fafeft
method of getting fpeedily rid of it is by anointing
the part with oil, and then, fcraping it with a knife.—
If it is not fpeedily removed, a wound is made fimilar
to that which the nigera or chegoe makes. The fol¬
lowing infedts were eaten by the ancient Mexicans ;
1. The atelepitz, a marlh beetle, refembling in (hape
and fize the flying beetles, having four feet, and co¬
vered with an hard Ihell. 2. The atopinan, a marfli-
grafshopper of a dark colour, and great fize, being
not lefs than fix inches long and two broad. 3. The
ahuthuitia, a worm which inhabits the Mexican lake,
four inches long, and of the t-hicknefs of a goofe-quill,
of a tawney colour on the upper part of the body, and
white upon the finder part. It flings with its tail,
which is hard and poifonous. 4. The ocuiliztac, a
black marfh-worm, which becomes white on being
roafted.
Among the curious productions of the animal kind
to be met with in this country, Clavigero mentions a
kind of zoophytes which he faw in the year 1751, in
a houfe in the country, abo-ut ten miles from Angelo-
poli, towards the' fouth-eail. They were three or four
inches long, and had four very flender feet, with two
antennas; but their body was nothing more than the
fibres of the leaves, of the fame fhape, fize, and colour
with thofe of the other leaves of the trees upon which
thefe creatures were found. Gemelli defcribes another.
kind of thefe zoophytes which are found in Manilla.
Mexico produces alfo filk-worms: and the manufac¬
ture of filk might be carried on to great advantage,
were it not prohibited for fome political reafons. Be-
fides the common filk, there is another found in the
woods, very white, foft, and ftrong. It grows on the
6 1 HEX
trees in feveral maritime places, particularly in dry fea- Mexico,
fons. Unlefs by poor people, however, this filk is not
turned to any ufe, partly from inattention to their in-
terefts, but “ chiefly (fays our author) to the obftruc-
tions which would be thrown-in the way ©f any one
who fhould attempt a* trade of that kind. We know-
from Cortes’s letters to CharlesvV. that filk ufed to-
be fold in the Mexican markets ; and fome pkftures are
Hill preferved, done by the ancient Mexicans upon a-
paper made of filk.” ’ j
Cochineal is one of the moft valuable prodmfts o£
Mexico, and great care is taken to rear the infeift in¬
different parts ; but the bell is that which comes from1
the province of Mizteca. Some have reckoned that
more than 2500 bags of cochineal are fent every year
from Mizteca-to Spain ; and the trade in that article
carried on by the city of Oaxaca is computed at
200,000 crowns value. jgp
Though Mexico, as we have feen, was originally Genera!
inhabited by a number of different nations, yet all opfit*cr’Pt'on
them refembled each-other pretty much, not only in
chara&er, but in external appearance. “ They gene¬
rally rather exceed (fays our author) than fall under
the middle fize, and are well proportioned in all their
limbs. They have good complexions, narrow fore¬
heads, black eyes, clean, firm, white, and regular teeth ;
thick, black, coarfe, glofly hair ; thin beards, and ge¬
nerally no hair upon their legs, thighs, and arms, their
ikln being of an olive colour. There is fcarcely a na¬
tion on earth in which there are fewer perfons deform¬
ed ; and it would be more difficult to find a Angle
hump-backed, lame, or fquint-eyed man among a thou-
i’and Mexicans, than among an hundred of any other
nation. The- unpleafantnels of their colour, the fmall-
nefs of their foreheads, the thinnefs of their beards,
and the coarfenefs of their hair, are fo far compenfa-
ted by the regularity and fine proportion of their
limbs, that they can neither be called very beautiful
nor the contrary, but feem to hold a middle place be¬
tween the extremes. Their appearance neither en¬
gages nor difgufts; but among the young women of
Mexico, there are many very beautiful and fair, whofe
beauty is at the fame time rendered more winning by
the natural fweetnefs of their manner of fpeaking, and
by the pleafantnefs and natural modefty of their whole
behaviour. Their fenfes are very acute, efpecially
that of fight, which they enjoy unimpaired to the latell
age. Their conftitutions aie found, and their health
robuft. They are entirely free of many diforders
which are common among 'the Spaniards; but of the
epidemical difeafes to which their country is occafion-
ally fubjeeft, they are generally the vidtims : with them
thefe difeafes begin, and with them they end. One
never perceives in a Mexican that ftinking breath which
is oceafioned in other people by the corruption of the
humours or indigeftion. Their conftitutions are phleg¬
matic ; but the pituitous evacuations from their heads
are very fcanty, and they feldom fpit. They become
grey-headed and bald earlier than the Spaniards; and
although moft of them die of acute difeafes, it is not
very uncommon amoftg them to attain the age of an
hundred. They are now, and ever have been, mode¬
rate in eating, but their paffion for ftrong liquors is
carried to the greateft excefs. Formerly they were
kept within bounds by the feverity of the laws; but
M E X J 677 1 M E X
Mexico, now-that thefe liquors are become fo common, and
drunkennefs is. unpunifhed, one half of the people feem
to have loft their fenfes ; and this', together with the
poor manner in which they live, expofed to all the
baieful impreffions of diteafe, and deftitute of the
means of correcting them, is undoubtedly the principal
caufe of the havoc which is made among them by epi¬
demical diforders.
“ Many perfons allow the Mexicans to pofiefs a
great talent of imitation, but deny them that of in¬
vention ; a vulgar error, which is contradi&ed by the
ancient hiftory of that people. Their minds are af-
fedted by the fame variety of paffions with thofe of
other nations, but not to an equal degree. The
Mexicans feldom exhibit thefe trantports of anger, or
frenzies of love, which are fo common in other coun¬
tries. They are flow in their motions ; and fhow a
wonderful tenacity and fteadinefs in thofe works which
require time and long continued attention." They
are moft patient of injury and hardfhip ; and where
they fufped no evil intention, are moft grateful for
any kindnefs fhown; but fame Spaniards, who cannot
diitinguifh patience from infenfibility, nor diftruft from
ingratitude, fay proverbially, that the Indians are alike
infenfible to injuries or benefits. That habitual diftruft
which they entertain-of all who are not of their na¬
tion, prompts them often to lie and betray; fo that good
faith certainly has not been refpe&ed among them fo
much as it deferves. They are by nature taciturn, fe-
cious, and auftere ; and fhow more anxiety to punifh
crimes than to feward virtues.
“ Generofity and perfeft difintereftednefs are the
principal features of their charader. Gold with the
Mexicans has not that value which it enjoys elfewhere.
They feem to give without reluftance what has coft
them the utmoft labour to acquire. The negled of
felfifh interefts, with the diflike which they bear to
their rulers, and confequently their averfion to per¬
form the tafks impofed by them, feem to have been
the only grounds of that much exaggerated indolence
with which the Americans have been charged; and,
after all, there is no fetof people in that country who
labour more, orwhofe labour is more neceflary. The
refpeft paid by the yottng people to the old, and by
children to their parents, feem to be feelings that are
born with them. Parents are very fond of their chil¬
dren ; but the affe&ion which hufbands bear to their
wives is certainly lefs than that which wives bear to
their hufbands ; and it is very common for the men to
love their neighbours wives better than their own.
Courage and cowardice feem alternately fo to affeft
their minds, that it is often difficult to determine whe»-
ther the one or the other predominates. They meet
dangers with intrepidity, when they proceed from na¬
tural caufes, but are eafily terrified by the ftern look
of a Spaniard. That ftupid indifference about death
and eternity,. which many authors have thought inhe¬
rent in the character of every American, is peculiar
only to thofe who are yet fo rude and uninformed as
to have no idea of a future ftate.”
Thus much with refped to the general charader of
the Mexicans : but our author obferves, that “ the
modern Mexicans are not in all refpe&s fimilar to the
ancient, as the Greeks of thefe days have little .refem-
blance to thofe who lived in the times of Plato and
Pericles. The ancient Mexicans fhowed more fire, Mexico.-
and were more fenfible to the impreffions of. honour. —v—^
They were more intrepid, more nimble, more attive,
more induftrious; but they were at the fame time more
fuperftitious and cruel.” 1^2
TJae Toltecas, who firft inhabited Mexico, were ac-of tbe Tol-
counted much more polished than thofe who came af-^f and
ter them, infomuch that in after ages it was cuilomary caslc eme*
to diftinguifh people of ingenuity and learning by the
name of Toltecas. They always lived in fociety,
colleded into cities, under the government of kings,
and had regular laws. They were more addided to
the arts of peace than of war; and it was to them that
the fucceeding nations owned themfelvcs indebted for
their knowledge of the culture of grain, cotton, pep¬
per, See. They underftood the art of calling gold
and filver, and melting them, in whatever forms they
pleafed, acquiring alfo great reputation from their /kill
in cutting gems of all kinds; and they were befides
well verfed in the fciences of aftronomy and chrono-
Jogy.
According to the ancient hiftories of thefe people,
they obferved, about an hundred years. before the
Chriflian era, how far the folar year exceeded the ci¬
vil one ; fupplying the defed, as we do, by the addi¬
tion of a day once in four years. In the year 660,
while their monarchy continued in Tula, a celebrated
aftronomer, named Huematzin, affembled with the
king’s confent all the wife men of the nation ; and,
with their affiftance, painted a famous book named
Tcoamoxtli, or “ divine book,” in which were repre-
fented, in very plain figures, the origin of the Indiansj ,
their difperfion after the confufion of tongues of Ba¬
bel, their journey in Afia, their firft fettlements in
America, the founding of the kingdom of Tula, and
their progrefs till that time : but thefe, and other ac¬
counts ofitheir great knowledge and accuracy, favour
too much of exaggeration, or perhaps invention, from
both which it is impoffible to clear the Spaniards when
fpeaking of American affairs*--
The Chichemecas derived, their knowledge of -agri- Their"iiro»
culture from the Toltecas, and of cpnfequence the Mcx-ref* in a-
icans alfo. Being deftitute of ploughs or animals griculture. .
of fufficient ftrength to affift them in their labour, they
made ufe of au inllrument of hard copper, which they
called coatl or coa, but differing in ihape either from
a fpade or mattock. They ufed copper axes to cut
trees, the figure of which was the fame with ours;
only that they put the ax into the eye of the handle,
inftead of putting the handle into the eye of the ax as
we do. They had feveral other inftruments of agri¬
culture, but the forms of them are not mentioned by .
hiftorians. They watered their fields by means of the
rivers and fmall torrents which came from the moun¬
tains; railing dams to,colled them, and forming ca¬
nals to condudt them properly to the places which re¬
quired moillure. They ufed inclofures of ftone, as
well as hedges for the fields, ufing for their hedges the
aloe plant, which is. well calculated for the purpofe
and what reparations were neceffary they gave in De¬
cember. They dibbled their maize : a method of
fowing more flow indeed than the ordinary one, but
which certainly repays the trouble by a vaftly larger
crop, as well as by faying.a very confiderable quantity -
ef iced. Clofe to the newly-fown fields they com-,.
monlyy
M E X [ 678 ] M E X
Mexico, monly creeled a fmall tower of wood, where a man
'""™v " kept watch, in order to drive av/ay the birds that came
to feed upon the grain ; a cuftom itill preferved among
,6+ the Spaniards.
Ma>;nifi- In the cultivation of their gardens, the Mexicans
*ent gar- were extremely fkilful and magnificent; planting in
l“cus' them not only kitchen herbs, but fruit trees, medici¬
nal herbs, and flowers, with great tafte and regularity.
Some of the royal gardens excited the admiration of
the Spaniards fo much, that Cortes, in a letter to
Charles V. informed him that the garden at Huax-
tepec was the moft extenfive, the moft; beautiful, and
moft delightful, that had ever been beheld. It was fix
miles in circumference, and watered by a beautiful
river which croffed it; and there were pleafure-houfes
eredled at proper diflances from one another. It was
for many years preferved by the Spaniards. The
plants moft cultivated, next to maize, were cotton,
cacao, and aloe ; which laft ferved a great many ufe-
165 ful purpofes. See Aloe.
Tame ani- Though they had not the advantage of the larger
quadrupeds, as horfes, oxen, or ftieep, they bred up
an immenfe number of quadrupeds unknown in Europe.
Private perfons brought up the fmall quadrupeds al¬
ready mentioned, refembling little dogs; as well as
turkeys, quails, geefe, ducks, and other kinds of
fowl. In the houfes of the great men were bred filh,
deer, rabbits, and a variety of birds ; and in the roy¬
al palaces, almoft all the fpecies of quadrupeds and
winged animals to be found in thefe kingdoms were
kept, as well as a great number of aquatic animals and
reptiles. According to Clavigero, Montezuma II. fur-
■paffed ail the kings in the world ip this kind of magni¬
ficence ; and there never was a nation equal to the Mex-
j icans in the care they took in taming animals.
Painting?. Painting was an art in great requeft among the
Mexican?, and one of very great ufe ; as it was only
by means of paintings that they recorded their hifto-
ries. This art they derived, like others, from the
Toltecas. Some of thefe paintings were mere images
of their gods, kings, heroes, or of terreftrial objeds.
Others, were hiftorical, containing an account of parti¬
cular events ; others mythological, of which a volume
is preferved in the great library of the order of Bo¬
logna : others were codes of laws, civil and religious;
while feme were chronological, aftronomical, or aftro-
logical; in which was reprefented their calendar, the
pofition of the ftars, changes of the moon, eclipfes,
and prognofticadons and variations of the weather.
Great numbers of thefe were burned by the fuperfti-
tious Spaniards, who imagined that they contained fome
emblems of heathen worlhip. Ihey had likewife geo¬
graphical paintings, which ferved not only to Ihow the
extent and boundaries of their pofieflions, but likewife
the fituation of places, the dire&ion of the coatls,
and the courfe of the rivers. In his firft letter to
Cha. V. Cortes fays, that having made inquiries if there
was any fecure harbour for veflels on the Mexican
coaft, Montezuma prefented him with a painting of
the whole coaft, from the port of Vera Cruz, at'that
time called Chalchiuhuecan, to the river Coatzacualco.
Another author informs us alfo, that Cortes, in a long
and difficult voyage which he made to the bay of Hon¬
duras, made ufe of a chart prefented to him by the
lords of Coatzacualco; in which all the places and ri- Mexico.
vers were marked from the coaft of Coatzacualco to t—*
Huejacallan.
As every thing relating to the Mexican empire was
thus delineated in painting, the artifts were innume¬
rable : and had the numerous paintings been preferved,
we'might by means of them have had a complete hiftory
of Mexico ; but vaft numbers were deftroyed by the fu-
perftitious zeal of the Spaniards- The chief fchool of
painting was in Tezcuco : and of the paintings made
there they collected fuch a mafs, that it refembled
a little mountain ; and to all thefe they fetfite at once,
to the inexpreffibie grief of the Indians, and even of
themfelves, when they came to know their error : for
they were compelled afterwards to attempt to remedy
the evil, by colie&ing all the paintings that could be
found throughout the empire, and to obtain what in¬
formation they could from the mouths of the Indians.
But though they recovered many, thefe were ftill not
fufficient; for, from that time forward, the poffefibrs of
paintings became fo jealous, that they concealed them
from the Spaniards with the utmoft care ; and it was
in a manner impoffible to make them part with a fingle
piece.
The cloth on which thefe paintings were done was
made of the thread of the aloe or a kind of palm; or
they painted on (beeps (kins or upon paper. This laft
was made of the leaves of a certain kind of aloe, deep¬
ed like hemp, and afterwards waftied, ftretched, and
fmoothed. They ufed alfo the bark of other trees,
prepared with gum ; but we are ignorant of-the me¬
thod they ufed in the manufa&ure. This paper is fi-
milar in thicknefs to the European pafleboard, but
fofter, fmoother, and moie eafy for writing. In ge¬
neral it was made up in very long (beets, which they
preferved in rolls, or folded like bed-lkreens. The
volume of Mexican paintings, preferved in the library
of Bologna, is a thick (kin, ill-dreffed, compofed of
different pieces painted all over, and folded up in that
manner. The beautiful colours which they employed
both in their paintings and in their dyes, were obtain¬
ed from wood, leaves, and the flowers of different
plants, as well as from various animal fubftances.
Their white was made from a kind of (lone which
burns into a fine plafter; or from a mineral, which
after being made into a pafte worked like clay, and
formed into fmall balls, turns white in the fire like
Spanilh white. Their black was got from another
mineral, which has a difagreeable fmell, or from the
foot of a kind of pine collected in fmall earthen veffela.
They obtained blue a-zure colours from indigo; but
their mode of obtaining thefe was very different from
that ufed by the moderns. They put the branches of
the plant into hot, or rather lukewarm, water: and
after having (tirred them about for a fufficient time
with a (lick or laddie, they paffed the water, when
impregnated with the dye, into certain pots or cups
in which they let it remain until the folid part of the
dye was depofited ; after which they poured ofl the
water. This fediment was firft dried in the fun, and
afterwards put between two plates before a fire until
it grew hard. They had another plant which likewife
afforded a blue colour, but inferior to the indigo.
Red was obtained from the feeds of the achiot or
rocou.
M E X l 679 ] M E X
Mexico, rocou, and purpk from cochineal. Their yellows were
  ochre> and a colour extra&ed from the beautiful flower
of a plant refembling artemifia. With nitre thefe flowers
afforded a fine orange colour ; and by means of alum
they extracted other colours.
The Mexican painters were by no means arrived at
much perfection in the knowledge of light and fhade,
or of defign ; neverthelefs, in fome of the ancient
paintings, particularly in the portraits of the kings,,
the proportions were exaCtly obferved. But this was
by no means the cafe in their common paintings:
though this is aferibed by Clavigero, not to the want
of fkill in thefe painters, but to the hafle with which the
^ figures were executed, and of which the Spaniards
They (!id were witnefles. Befides paintings, however, the Mex-
not ufe hie- icans are faid to have employed hieroglyphics and cha-
rogfyTic* raCters : but this is abfolutely denied by our author;
fcrv. a'aC* te^s us> t^lat “ they reprefented material things
by their proper figures; but, in order to fave labour,
paper, and colours, they contented themfelves with
reprefenting part of an objeCt, which was fufficient to
make it underftood. But as we cannot underftand the
writings of others till we have learned to read them,
in like manner thofe American authors, who fay that
the Mexicans made ufe of characters, required to have
been firft inilruCted in the Mexican manner of repre¬
fenting objeCfs, in order to have been able to under-
fland the paintings which ferved them in place of
writing. When they would reprefent any perfon,
they painted a man, or a human head, and over it a
figure exprefiing the meaning of his name, as appears
in the figures of the Mexican kings. To exprefs a
city or village, they painted in like manner a figure
which figniiied the fame thing, with its name. To
form their hiilories or annals, they painted on the
margin of the cloth or paper the figures of the years
in fo many fquares, and at the fide of each fquare the
event or everts which happened that year: and if, on
account of the number of years, the hiftory of which
they meant to relate, they could not all be contained
in one canvas, they were continued on another. Wdth
refpeef to the order of reprefenting the years and e-
vents, it was at the liberty of the hiftorian to begin
at whichever angle of the piece he plcafed ; but at the
fame time conftantly obferving, that if the painting
began at the upper angle of the light-hand, he pro¬
ceeded towards the left ; but if it began, as it moll
commonly did, at the upper angle of the left hand,
he proceeded firaigbt downwards. If he painted the
firft year at the lower angle of the left, he continued
towards the right ; but if he began at the lower an¬
gle of the right, he painted flraight upwards : fo that
on the upper part of his canvas he never painted from
leit to right, nor ever oi».the lov/er part from right to
left ; never advanced upwards from the left, nor down-
I wards from the right. When this method of the
Mexicans is underltood, it is eafy to difeover at firft
fight which is the beginning and which the ending
of any hiftorical painting. Their paintings, hiwever,
ought not to be confidered as a regular full hiftory,
i63 but only as monuments and ards of tradition. We
tareful to cannot exprefs too ftrongly the care which parents
heir tra an^ mafters took to inftruft their children and pupils
itioj.s. tf.e hiftory of the nation. They made them learn
fpeeches and difeourfes which they could not exp refs
by the pencil; they put the events of their anceftors Mexico,
into verfe, and taught them to fing them. This tra- —
dition difpelled the doubts and undid the ambiguity
which paintings alone might have occafioned ; and, by
the afiiftance of thofe monuments, perpetuated the
memory of their heroes and of virtuous examples;
their mythology, rites, laws, and cuftoms. 169
“ Nor did that people only make ufe of tradition, Preferved
paintings, and fongs, to preferve the memory of events,t}ie "iemo*
but alfo of threads of different colours and differently knotted
knotted. This curious method of the reprefentation thread:,
of things, however much ufed in Peru, does not appear
to have been employed in the province of Anahuac, if
not in the moft early ages ; for no traces of fuch mo¬
numents are now to be found. Boturini fays, that
after the moft diligent fearch, he with difficulty found
one in a place in Tlafcala, the threads of which were
already wafted and confumed by time. If thofe who
peopled South America ever palled the country of A-
nahuac, they poffibly might have left there this art,
which was afterwards abandoned for that of painting,
introduced by the Toltecans or fome other nation Hill
more ancient.”
The Mexicans arrived at greater perfection in fculp-Their
ture, calling of metals, and mofaic works, than in.kn'uvle,,g*
painting. Sculpture was likewife one of the arts ex in ^culP*
ercifed by the ancient Toltecans; but the Mexicans
had fculptors among them when they left their native
country of Atztlan. Several of the foltecan ftatues,
however, were preferred till the time of the eonqueft,
particularly that of the idol Tlaloc, placed upon the
mountain of the fame name, and fome gigantic ftatues
in one of their temples. Stone and wood were the
ufual materials of their ftatues : the former was work¬
ed with a chiffel made of flint; and, in fpite of the-
unfitnefs of the inftrument, fuch was the phlegmatic
nature of the people, that they furmounted every diffi¬
culty arifing from the tedioufnefs of the work. In
their ftatues they learned to exprefs all the attitudes
and poftures of which the human body is capable.
They obferved the proportions exadlly, and could when-
neceffary execute the moft delicate ftrokes with the
chiffel. They not only made entire ftatues, but cut out
in wood and in Hone figures in baffo relievo; of which,
kind are thofe of Montezuma II. and one of his fons,
recorded with praifes by Acofta. They alfo made
ftatues of clay and wood, employing for thefe a chiffel
of copper. The number of their ftatues was in pro¬
portion to that of their idols ; but fo active were the
Spanifh priefts in deftroying thefe, that there is now
fcarce any veftige of them remaining. '1 he founda¬
tion of the firft church in Mexico was-laid with idols ;
on which occafion many thoufand ftatues of their gods
were neceffarily broke in pieces. In cafting of metals, 11T ...
however, the Mexicans greatly excelled their works thwart of*
either of painting or fculpture. “ The miracles they catling re¬
produced of this kind (fays Clavigero),. would not bera!f*
credible, if, befides the teftimony of tbofe who few
them, a great number of curiofities of this kind had
not been fent from Mexico to Europe. The works of
gold and filver fent in prefents from- the conqueror
Cortes to Charles V. filled the goldfmiths of Europe
with aftonilhment; who, as feveral authors of that pe¬
riod atteft, declared that they were altogether inimii-
table. The Mexican founders made both of rold and?
fibcit
M E X r 680 1 M E X
Mexico, fllver the moO. perfect images of natural bodies. They
made a fifh in this manner, which had its fcales alter¬
nately one of filver and the other of go'd; a parrot
with a moveable head, tongue, and wings ; and an
ape with a moveable head and feet, having a fpindle
in its hand in the attitude of fpinning. They fet
gems in gold and fdver, and made moft curious jewel¬
lery of great value. In fhort, thefe fort of works were
fo admirably finifhed, that even the Spaniih foldiers,
all (lung with the fame wretched third for gold, va¬
lued the workmanlhip above the materials. This won¬
derful art, formerly pra&ifed by the Toltecas, the in¬
vention of which they afcribed to one of their gods,
has been entirely loft by the debafement of the In¬
dians, and the indolent neglecft of the Spaniards. We
are doubtful if there are any remains of thofe curious
works; at leaft we apprehend that it would be more
eafy to find them in fome of the cabinets of 'Europe
than in all New Spain. Covetoufnefs to profit by the
materials muft unqueftionably have conquered all de-
lire to preferve then: as curiofities.” The works of the
Mexicans in gold and filver, executed with the ham¬
mer, were much inferior to thofe of the Europeans.
Beautiful But of all the works executed by the ancient Mexi-
mofaic. cans, thofe of mofaic were the moft; curious', as well
as moft highly valued by themfelves. Thefe were made
of the feathers of birds ; and for procuring them they
reared a great number of thofe birds of fine plumage,
with which the country abounded, not-only in the
royal palaces, but alfo in private houfes; and at cer¬
tain feafons they carried off the feathers for thefe pur-
pofes, or to fell them at market. They valued parti-
, cularly the feathers of the humming birds, on account
of their fmallnefs, finenefs, and various colours ; and
in thefe, as well as other birds of fine plumage, nature
fupplied them not only with all the -colours produ¬
cible by art, but likewife with many which art cannot
imitate. Their mofaic works, as well as indeed all
others of the Mexicans, required infinite patience. At
the undertaking of every work of this kind feveral ar-
tifts affembled ; and having agreed upon a defign, and
fixed their meafures and proportions, each artift charged
himfelf with the execution of a certain part of the
image, and exerted'himfelf fo diligently in it, that he
frequently fpent a whole day in adjufting a feather ;
firft trying one and then another, viewing it fometinr.es
one way, then another, until he found one which gave
his part that ideal perfeflion propofed to be attained.
When the part which each artift undertook was done,
-they affembled again to form the entire image from
them. If any part happened to be in the leaft de¬
ranged, it was wrought again until it was perfectly
finiihed. They laid hold of the feathers with fmall
pincers, that they might not do them the leaft Injury,
and pafted them on the cloth with feme glutinous
matter: then they united all the parts upon a little
table or a plate of-copper, and flattened them foftly
until they left the furface of-the image fo equal and
fmooth, that it appeared to be the work of a pencil.
Thefe works were prodigioufly admired by the Spa-
-niards. “It is wonderful, (fays Acofta) how it was
.poflible with the feathers of birds to execute works fo
.fine and fo equal, that they appear the performance of
,the pencil; and what neither the pencil nor the co-
.I.nirs in painting can, effect, they have, when viewed
JvT03I7.
from a fide, an appearance fo beautiful, fo lively, and Mexico. |
fo animated, that they give delight to the fight. Some i
Indians, who are able artifts, copy whatever is paint¬
ed with a pencil fo exactly with plumage, that they
rival the btft painters of Spain.” The laft artift in
this admirable kind of work lived lately in Paxcuaro,
the capital of Michuacan ; but it is moft probable that
the art either has already died or will die with him.
A beautiful kind of mofaic was likewife done with
broken fhells; and this is ftill carried on in Gua-
timala. There were many other artifts who formed
figures in imitation of the mofaic works, with flowers
and leaves upon mats, which were made ufe of at fefti-
vals; and thefe were eagerly fought after by the Spa¬
niih nobility, on account of their ■ lingular beauty.
Others imitated with filk the figures done-with fea¬
thers; but thefe laft were always greatly fuperior. 173 \
The Mexicans were (killed in architecture even be- Their ar» ,
fore they left their native country; and many edifices ctllteCture,
ftdl remain which were conftmbted by them during ^
their frequent journeys from one. place to another.
At their firft arrival on the lake, they had no other
materials to build their houfes with but reeds and mud, ■
•until the fuccefs of their commerce allowed them to
:purchafe better materials. When the city came to
its perfection, the houfes of the.principal people were
conftruCted of ftone and lime: they confilted of two
floors, having halls, large court-yards, and chambers
fitly difpofed; the roofs were flat and terraced; the
-walls fo well whitened, polifhed, and fliining, that they
•appeared to the Spaniards when at a diftance to have
•been conftrufted of filver. The floor was paved with
plafter, perfefijy level, plain, • and fmooth. ■ Many of
■their houfes were crowned with battlements and tur¬
rets ; and their gardens had filh-ponds, and the walks
of them fymmetrically laid out. The large houfes
had' in general two entrances, the principal one to the
ftreet, the other to the canal: they had no wooden
doors to their houfes, but covered the entrance with
fmall reeds, from whence they fulpended a ftring of
cocoa Ihells, or fome other materials which would make
a noife, fo as to awake the attention of the family when
any perfon lifted up the reeds to enter the houfe.
-—The houfes of the poorer fort were conftrucfted of
reeds, unburnt bricks, ftone, or mud ; and the roofs
made of a kind of long hay which grows plentifully
in the fields, particularly in the warm parts of the
country. For this purpofe they ufed alfo the leaves
•of the aloe placed in the manner of tiles, to which
they bear fome refemblance both in thicknefs and
fhape. One of the columns orfupports of thefe houfes
•was generally a tree in the vigour of its growth ; by
which means, befides the pleafure derived from *;
•its foliage and lhade, they faved themfelves fome
labour and expence. Thefe houfes had one or more
apartments according to the cireumftances of the fa¬
mily.
Our authfsr is of opinion, that the ancient Mexicans
underftood the method of conftru&ing arches or vaults,
«s appears, he fays, from fome remains of their build¬
ings as well as from Ibeir paintings. They had like-
wife cornices and other ornaments of architecture.
They had alfo fquare or cylindrical columns; but it
is not known whether ihefe had any capitals or not.
They frequently adorned them with figures in bajb
5 relievo;
M E X
t 681 ]
ife aque-
itls.
llent
il Hers.
relievo; bat their great ambition was to have them
all made out of one ftope. The foundations of the
large houfes in the capital were laid upon beams of
cedajr driven into the ground, on account of its want
of folidity j and the fame method is ftill pra&ifed by
the Spaniards. The roofs of thefe were made of ce¬
dar, fir, cyprefs, pine, &c. In the royal palaces the
columns were of marble or even of alabaftet, which
the Spaniards miftook for jafper. In the reign of
Ahuizotl a new kind of ftone, named tetzontli, was
difcovered in the Mexican lake, which was ever af¬
terwards made life of for building. It is hard, light,
and porous like a fponge; by which means the lime
adheres very firmly to it. It is valued likewife on ac¬
count of its colour, which is a blood red. Some of
the pavements were chequered with marble and Other
valuable ftones.
The moft remarkable pieces of Mexican architec¬
ture, however, were their aquedufts. There were
two which conveyed the water to the capital from the
diftance of two miles. Thefe were conftru&ed of
ftone and cement five feet high, and two paces broad,
upon a road for that purpofe upon the lake; by
which the water was brought to the entrance of the
city, from whence it was fent forth in fmaller chan¬
nels to fupply the different fountains. The famous
aqueduft of Chempoallan, which was done in the 16th
century, is worthy of being ranked among the greateft
in Europe, The conduftor of this work was a Fran-
cifcan miffionary named Tembleque; and it was ex¬
ecuted with great fid 11 by the Chempoallefe. The
water was brought from a great diftance, and the
country through which it muft pafs was mountainous
and rocky; but every difficulty was overcome by the
induftry of the Mexicans. The aqueduft, including
all the turnings and windings, exceeded 30 miles in
length. The principal difficulty confifted in Croffing
three great precipices, over which they were obliged
to eonftruft three bridges, the firft of 47, the fecond
of 13, and the third of 67 arches. The largeft arch
was 100 feet high, and 61 broad; fo that a large vef-
fel could have paffed under it. It muft, however, be
obferved, that, in executing this undertaking, the Mex¬
icans were undoubtedly affifted by European tools', and
the dire&ionsof European workmen; fo that we can¬
not with ftrict propriety call it one of their works.
Though the ancient Mexicans never ufed any in-
ftruments of iron in their works, they neverthelefs
executed beautiful engravings by means of tools made
of flint ftone. They wrought alfo marble, jafper,
alabafter, itztli, and other valuable ftones. Of itztli
they made their looking-glaffes, which were fometimes
fet in gold, the ffiarp pieces which were fet in their
fwords, and razors to ffiave with. Thefe laft were
made with fuch expedition, that an artift could finiffi
upwards of an hundred in an hour.
They were, as has already heen obferved, expert
jewellers, and underftood the art of cutting and po-
liftiing the ftones, as well as of fetting them. The
• gems moft; common in their country were the eme¬
ralds, amethyfts, cornelians, turquoifes, and others un¬
known in Europe. Emeralds were fo common, that
no lord or noble wanted them ; and none of them
died without having one fixed to his lip, that it might
fcrve him, as they imagined, in the other world, in-
Vgu XI. Part II-
M E X
Head of a heart. When Cortes returned the firft Meifco. ^
time to Spain, he brought with him five emeralds f
valued, by the jewellers there, at ioo,coo ducats. The
firft was in the form of a rofetthe fecond of an horn;
the third of a little fiffi with eyes of gold ; the fourth
in the form of a bell, with a fine pearl for a clapper.
The fifth was a fmall cup with a foot of gold, and
four little golden chains which united in a pearl in
the form of a button. For this alone the Genoefe
merchant^ offered 40,000 ducats, in order to fell it
again to the grand fignior. Befides thefe, he had two
emerald vafes valued at 300,00a ducats; but thefe
laft were loft by ffiipwreck in the unfortunate expedi¬
tion of Charles V. againft Algiers. There are no fuch
gems wrought at prefent, nor is it even known where
the emerald mines are fituated; though there aye ftilt
extant fome enormous maffes of this precious ftonc,
particularly two in as many churches ; but the priefts
take care to lecure them with iron chains, left any
body ffiould carry them off.
In other more common manwfaftures the Mexicans Manufae-
were by no means deficient. The earthen ware 0f mres ot difV
Cholula was much praifed by the Spaniards; and they
had the art of ornamenting this kind of ware with va¬
rious colours, though they did not underftand the
making of glafs. Their carpenters wrought with in-
ftruments of copper; and there are ftill remains of
their labours whichdifplay a tolerable flcill. Almoftevery
one was acquainted with the method of making cloth.
Being deftitute of wool, common filk, lint, or hemp,
they were obliged to fupply the deficiency by other
materials. For wool they fubftituted cotton, for filk
they ufed feathers, the wool of the hare or rabbit; and
inftead of lint and hemp, they ufed the fibrous part of
the leaves of the aloe. From thefe laft they obtained a
thread as fine as from lint; and from fome fpecies they
had a coarfer fort refembling hemp. To obtain this
thread they foaked the leaves in water, cleaned them,ex-
pofed them to the fun, and then beat them till they were
fit to be fpun. Sometimes they interwove with their
cotton the fineft down on the belly of the rabbits or
hares, after having fpun it into thread ; and of thefe
they made moft beautiful cloths, which were particu¬
larly ufed for winter waiftcoats for the lords. Their
cotton manufaftures were equal to any produced in
Europe; they wove them with different figures and
colours, reprefenting different animals and flowers.
Of feathers interwoven with cotton they made mantles
and bed-curtaina, carpets, gowns, &c. Thefe were
exceedingly beautiful; but this kind of manufadtory
is now loft, though there are ftill fome of thefe gar¬
ments in the poffeffion of the principal lords, who
wear them upon folemn occafions.
All thefe advances towards civilization, however,
in the ancient Mexicans, were much more than coun--iMe reli-'
terbalanced by the horrible barbarities they commit gion.
ted in their religious ceremonies, and in which they
exceeded every nation on earth. Human facrifices
were indeed in ufe among all the ancient heathens;
but fuch prodigious maffacres as have been already
related at the dedication of their temples, are unheard
of in hiftory. _ Whether they ufed thefe barbarous
facrifices in their own country, or whether the prac¬
tice began with that of the four Xochimilca prifoners,
of whom we have already given an account, is not
4 known;.
M E X [ 68j ] M E X
Mexico, known; but as they only ufed their prifoners or flaves fharpeil fp’nes of the aloe, and bored fevend parts of WPexieo, |
whom they bought in this way, it is impofiible that, their bodies, particularly their ears, lips, tongue, and "
during the infancy of their ftate, the number of hu- the fat of their arms and legs. t hrough the holes
man viftims could have been very great. Moft of which they made with thefe fpines they introduced
thofe unhappy creatures periflied by having their pieces of cane, the firft of. which were fmall; but
breads opened, and their hearts pulled out ; feme
were drowned, others ftarved to death with hanger;
and fometimes they were burnt. Prifoners of high
rank were allowed to die by what Clavigero calls the
gladiatormn facrifice, which was performed in the fol-
every time this penitential fuffering was renewed at
thicker piece was made ufe of. .The blood which
flowed from them was carefully colledted in the leaves
of the plant acznjatl. They fixed the bloody fpines
in little balls of hay, which they expofed upon the
’ladia,£n'Tpwing mannef. Near to the greater temple of large' battlements of the walls of the temple, to teflify
u wennee. . . .  ,  r , <- re • . . .i   u   1„
"cities, in an open fpace of ground fufficient to contain
an immenfe number of people, was a round terrace
eight feet high, upon which was placed a large round
done refembling a milldone in fhape, but much larger,
almod three feet high, well polifhed, and having figures
cut upon it. On this done, which was called temal-
catl, the prifoner was placed, armed with a fhield and
diort fword, and tied by one foot. Here he was en¬
countered by a Mexican officer or foldier better arm¬
ed than himfelf. If the prifoner was vanquifhed, he
was carried, dead or alive, to the temple, where his
heart was taken out and offered in the ufual manner j
but if he conquered fix combatants, he gained his life
and liberty. An indance, however, is given in which
this cudom was infringed ; for the Huetzotzincas ha¬
ving taken the principal lord of Cholula, a man of
fingular bravery, he overcame feven combatants; not-
withdanding which he was put to death ; but on this
account the Huetzotzincas were rendered forever in¬
famous among thefe nations.
the penance which they did for the people. Thole
who exercifed fuch feverities upon themfelves within
the inclofure of the greater temple of Mexico, bathed
in a pond that was formed there, and which, from
being always tinged with blood, was called ezapan.” jgr
The drefs of the Mexicans was very dmple ; that Their d
of the men confided only of a large belt or girdle, the
two ends of which hung down before and behind; the
women wore a fquare mantle, about four feet long ;
the two ends were tied upon the bread or upon one
dioulder. The Mexican gown was alfo a piece of
fquare cloth, in which the Women wrapped themfelvea
from the waid down to the middle of the leg. They
wore alfo a fmall under-ved or waidcoat without fleeves,
named huepilli.
The drefs of the poorer fort was made of the thread
of the mountain palm, or of coarfe cotton ; but thofe
of better dation wore the dned cotton embellifhed
with various colours, and figures of animals or do vers;
or woven with feathers, or the fine hair of the rab-
jNumDer oi Hidorians differ concerning the number of viftims- bit, &c. The men wore two or three mantles, and
human vh. who perifhed annually in thefe facrifices ; Clavige- the women three or four veds, and as many gowns,
t ms annii. ro inclines to think it was 20,000, but others putting the longed undermod, jfo that a part of each
ally facri- make it much more. Zumarraga, the fird bilhop of of them might be feen. Their Ihoes were only foies
Mexico, fays in a letter of the rath of June 1531,
addreded to the general chapter of his order, that in
that capital alone there were above 20,©eo viftims
annually facrificed. Some authors, quoted by Go-
mara, fay that 50,000 were annually facrificed in the
various parts of the empire. Acoda fays, that there
was a certain day of the year on which they facrificed
5000 vidlims, and another on which 20,000 were
facrificed. According to others they facrificed, on
the mountain Tepeyacac only, 20,000 annually to
e of their female deities. On the other hand.
of leather, or coarfe cloth of the mountain palm tied
with drings; but thofe of the great people were adorn¬
ed with ribbands of gold and jewels. They all wore
long hair, and thought themfelves dilhonoured by be¬
ing fhaved, or having their hair clipped, except the
confecrated virgins in the temple. . i he women wore
it loofe; but the men tied it up in different forms,
and adorned their heads with bne feathers, both when
they danced and went to war. With this fimplicity,
however, they mixed no fmall quantity of extravagance.
Befides feathers and jewels, with which they ufed to
Bartholomew de las Cafas reduces the number of adorn their heads, they wore ear-rings, pendants at
human vi&ims to 50 or at moft to 100. “ We
are ftrongly of opinion (fays Clavigero), that all
thefe authors have erred in the number; Las Ca¬
fas by diminution, and the reft by exaggerating the
truth.”
Befides thefe cruelties which they praftifed up-
Their-moif-on others, the Mexicans were accuftomed to treat
ftrous
Jbricies.
their upper lip, as well as many at their nofes, neck¬
laces, bracelets for the hands and arms, as well as
certain rings like collars which they wore about their
legs. The ear-rings of the poor were Ihells, pieces of
cryftal, amber, &e.; but the rich wore pearls, emeralds,
amethyfts, or other gems, fet in gold.
Inftead of foap the Mexicans ufed a kind of fruit
themfelves with the moft inhuman aufterities, think- called copalxocotl; the pulp of which is white, vifeous,
ing that the diabolical rage of their deities would and very bitter, makes water white, raifes a froth, and
be appeafed by human blood. “ It makes one fhud- will clean linen like foap. They ufed alfo a kind of root
der (fays Clavigero), to read the aufterities which named ams/li, which is not unlike the faponaria of the
they praftifed upon themfelves, either in atonement old continent. It is now more ufed for wafhing the
for their tranfgrefiions, or in preparation for their body, efpecially the head, than for clothes. Clavi-
feftivals. T hey mangled their fldh as if it had been gero fays that there is a kind of this root which dyes
infenfibl?, and let their blood run in fueh profufion as the hair of a golden colour, and that he has been wit-
if it had been a fuperfluous fluid in the body. The nefs to this effe& on the hair of an old man.
effufion of blood was frequent and daily with fome
©f their priefts. They pierced themfelves with the
The principal inhabitants of Mexico, in modern Mode
times, are Spaniards fent hither by the court, to fill habit.
the ^
M E X
[ 683 1
M E X
the ports of government. They are obliged, Hke thofe more induftrious, than thofe of the other colonies,
;n the mother-country who afpire to any ecclefiaftical, they have hardly introduced any Africans except fuch
rmwa f li o f qo Aire re rpninrpH Pifher tn tnrlnlorp thp s-arArl^p nr rtpr-
civil, or military employments, to prove that there
have been neither heretics, Jews, Mohammedans, nor
any perfon in their family who have been called be¬
fore the inquifition for four generations. Merchants
who are defirous of going to Mexico, as well as to
other parts of America, without becoming colonifts,
are compelled to obferve the fame forms. They
were required either to indulge the capriee, or per¬
form the domeftic fervice, of rich people. Thefe
flaves, who are much beloved by their mailers, on
whom they abfolutely depend, who purchafed them at
an extravagant price, and who make them the minf-
llers of their pleafures, take advantage of the high
favour they enjoy, to opprefs the Mexicans. They
alfo obliged to fwear that' they have 300 palms of affume oyer thefe men, who are called free, an afcen-
merchandife, their own property, in the fleet in which
they embark, and that they will not carry their wives
with them. On thefe abfurd conditions they become
the principal agents of the European commerce with
dant which keeps up an implacable hatred between
the two nations. The law has ftudied to encourage
this averfion, by taking effectual meafures to prevent
all connexion between them. Negroes are prohibited
the Indies. Though their charter is only to continue from having any amorous correfpondence with the
three years, and a little longer for countries more re- Indians; the men, on pain of being mutilated ; the
mote, it is of great importance. To them alone be- women, of being feverely punilhed. On all thefe ac-
longs the right of felling, as commiflioners, the major counts, the Africans, who in other fettlements are
part of the cargo. If thefe laws were obferved, the enemies to Europeans, are in the Spanilh Indies their
merchants ftationed in the new world would be con- warm friends.
fined to difpofe of what they have received on their Authority has no need of this fupport, at leall in
own account. Mexico, where population is no longer what it was
The predile&ion which adminiftration has for Spa- formerly. The firit hiftorians, and thofe who copied
niards born in Europe, has reduced the Spanifh Creoles them, have recorded, that the Spaniards found there
to acquiefce in fubordinate ftations. The defcendants 1 o,coo,000 of fouls. This is fuppofed to have been
of the companions of Cortes, and of thofe who came the exaggerated account of conquerors, to exalt the
after them, being conftantly excluded from all places magnificence of their triumph ; and it was adopted,
of honour or of truft that were any way confiderable, Without examination, with fo much the more readi-
have feen the gradual decay of the power that fup-
ported their fathers. The habit of being obliged to
bear that unjuft contempt with which they have been
treated, has at lait made them become really
nefs, as it rendered them the more odious. We need
only trace with attention the progrefs of thofe ruffians
who at firft defolated thefe fine countries, in order to
be convinced that they had not fuccceded in multi-
temptible. They have totally loft, in the vices which plying men at Mexico and the adjacent parts, but by
originate from indolence, from the heat of the climate, depopulating the centre of the empire ; and that the
and from a fuperfiuous enjoyment of all things, that provinces which are remote from the capital, differed
firmnefs and that fort of pride which have ever cha- in nothing from the other deferts of South and
ra&erifed their nation. A barbarous luxury, fhame- North-America. It is making a great conceffion, to
ful pleafures, and romantic intrigues, have enervated allow that the population of Mexico has only been
all the vigour of their minds, and fuperftition hath exaggerated one-half: for it does not now much ex-
completed the ruin of their virtues. Blindly devoted
to priefts too ignorant to enlighten them by their in-
ftruftions, too depraved to edify them by their ex¬
ample. and too mercenary to attend to both thefe du-
ceed 2,000,000.
It is generally believed, that the firft conquerors Mexicans
maffacred the Indians out of wantohnefs, and that crue!1y
even the priefls incited them to thefe atfts of ferocity. tfeat,ed.
ties of their function, they have no attachment to any Undoubtedly thefe inhuman foldiers frequently fhed
part of their religion but that which enfeebles the blood without even an apparent motive; and certainly
mind, and have negledted what might have contributed their fanatic miffionaries did not oppofe thefe barba-
to redtify their morals. rities as they ought to have done. This was not.
The Meftees, who conftitute the third order of however, the real caufe, the principal fource of the
citizens, are held in ftill greater contempt. It is well depopulation of Mexico ; it was the work of a flow
known that the court of Madrid, in order to replenilh tyranny, and of that avarice which exafted from its
wretched inhabitants more rigorous toil than was com*
patible with their conftitation and the climate.
This opprelfion was coeval with the conqueft of
the country. All the lands were divided between the
crown, the companions of Cortes, and the grandees
or minifters who were moft in favour at the court of
Spain. The Mexicans, appointed to the royal do¬
mains, were deftined to public labours, which origi*
nally were confiderable. The lot of thofe who were
employed on the eftates of individuals was itill more *
a part of that dreadful vacancy which the avarice and
cruelty of the conquerors had occafioned, and to re¬
gain the confidence of thofe who had efcaped their
fury, encouraged as much as poffible the marriage of
Spaniards with Indian women. Thefe alliances, which
became pretty common throughout all America, were
particularly frequent in Mexico, where the women
had more underitanding and were more agreeable than
in other places. The Creoles transferred to this mix¬
ed progeny the contemptuous flight they received
from the Europeans. Their condition, equivocal at wretched. All groaned under a dreadful yoke; they
firft, in procefs of time was fixed between the whites
and the blacks.
Thefe blacks are not very numerous in Mexico.
As the natives are more intelligent,, more robuft, and
were ill-fed ; they had no wages given them; and fer- 184
vices were required of them, under which the moft ro- Bartholo-
buft men would have funk. Their misfortunes ex-plT
cited the compaflion of Bartholomew de las Cafas. th-irpart
4 R' * This
M E X [ 684 ] ME*
Mtxlto. 'Ph;s man, fo famous in the annals of the new
v'' world, had accompanied his father in the fir 11 voyage
made by Columbus. The mildnefs and fimplicity of
the Indians affe&ed him fo ftrongly, that he made
himfelf an ecclefiaitic, in order to devote his labours
to their converfion. But this foon became the leaft
of his attention. As he was more a man than a
priejl, he felt more for the cruelties exercifed againft
them than for their fuperfiitioas. He was continually
hurrying from one hemifphere to the other, in order
to comfort the people for whom he had conceived an
attachment, or to foften their tyrants. This con-
dudf, which made him be idolized by the one and
dreaded by the other, had not the fuccefs he expefted.
The hope of ftriking awe, by a charafter revered
among the Spaniards, determined him to accept the
bilhoprick of Chiapa in Me dco. When he was con¬
vinced that this dignity was an ine fficient barrier
againft that avarice and cruelty which he endeavoured
to check, he abdicated it. It was then that this
courageous, firm, difinterefted man, accufed his coun¬
try before the tribunal of the whole univerfe. In his
account of the tyranny of the Spaniards in America,
he accufes them of having deftroyed 15,000,000 of
Indians. They ventured to find fault with the acri¬
mony of his ftyle j but no one convidled him of
exaggeration. His writings, which indicate the ami¬
able turn of his difpofition, and the fublimity of his
fentiments, have ftamped a difgrace upon his barba¬
rous countrymen, which time hath not, and never will,
185 efface.
Jn confe- The court of Madrid, awakened by the reprefenta-
«ll‘c.nc*f. lions of the virtuous Las Cafas, and by the indigna-
*onditioiTi&tion of the whole world, became fenfible at laft, that
rendered the tyranny it permitted was repugnant to religion,
fomewhat t0 humanity, and to policy, and refolved to break the
eafier. chains of the Mexicans. Their liberty was now only
eonftrained by the foie condition, that they fhould
not quit the territory where they were fettled. This
precaution owed its origin to the fear that was enter¬
tained of their going to join the wandering favages to
the north and fouth of the empire.
With their liberty their lands ought alfo to have
been reftored to them ; but this was not done. This
injuftice compelled them to work folely for their op-
preffors. It was only decreed* that the Spaniards, in
whole fervice they laboured, fhould ftipulate to keep
them well, and pay them to the amount of 5 1. 5 s. a-
year.
From thefe profits the tribute impofed by govern¬
ment was fubtradled, together with 4 s. 4J d. for an
inftitution which it is aftonifhing the conquerors
fhould have thought of eftablifhing. This was a
fund fet apart in each community, and appropriated
to the relief of fuck Indians as were decayed or in-
difpofed, and to their fupport under private or public
calamities.
fhe diftribution of this fund was committed to
their caciques. Thefe were not the defeendants of
thofe whom they found in the country at the time of
the conqueft. The Spaniards chofe them from among
thofe Indians who appeared the moft attached to their
interefts ; and were under no apprehenfions at making
thefe dignities hereditary. Their authority was li¬
mited to the fupporting the police in the it diftridf,
which in general extended eight or ten leagues ; to
the colle&ing the tribute of thofe Indians who la¬
boured on their own account, that of the others being
ftopt by the mailers whom they ferved; and to the
preventing their flight by keeping them always under
their infpedlion, and the not fuffering them to contradl
any engagement without their confcnt. As a reward
of their fervices, thefe magiftrates obtained from go¬
vernment a property. They were permitted to take
out of the common flock d. annually for every In¬
dian under their jurifdiftion. At laft they were em¬
powered to get their fields cultivated by fuch young
men as were not .yet fubjeft to the poll tax ; and to
employ girls, till the time of their marriage, in
fuch occupations as were adapted to their fex, with¬
out allowing them any falary except their mainte*
nance.
Thefe Inftitutions, which totally changed the con¬
dition of the Indians of Mexico, irritated the Spa¬
niards to a degree not to be conceived. Their pride
would not fuffer them to confider the Americans as
free men; nor would their avarice permit them to
pay for labour which hitherto had cofl them nothing.
They employed themfelves fucceffively, or in combi¬
nation, craft, remonftrances, and violence, to effe£t
the fubverfion of an arrangement which fo ftrongly
contradifted their warmeft paffions; but their efforts
were ineffedlual. Las Cafas had raifed up for his
beloved Indians proteftors who feconded his defign
with zeal and warmth. The Mexicans themfelves,
finding a fupport, impeached their oppreffors before
the tribunals ; and even the tribunals that were either
weak or in the intereft of the court. They carried
their refolution fo far, as even unanimoufly to refufe
to work for thofe who had treated any of their coun¬
trymen with injuftice. This mutual agreement, more
than any other circumftance, gave folidity to the re¬
gulations which had been decreed. The other, pre-
feribed by the laws, was gradually eftabliihed. There
was no longer any regular fyftem of oppreffion ; but
merely feveral of thofe particular vexations which a
vanquifhed people, who have loft their government,
can hardly avoid from thofe who have fubdued it.
Thefe clandeftine afts of injuftice did not prevent
the Mexicans from recovering, from time to time,
certain detached portions of that immenfe territory of
which' their fathers had been defpoiled. They pur-
chafed them of the royal domain, or of the great pro¬
prietors. It was not their labour which enabled them
to make thefe acquifitions : for this they, were indebt¬
ed to the happinefs of having difeovered fome of them
mines, others treafures, which had been concealed at
the time of the conqueft. The greateft number de¬
rived their refources from the priefts and monks, to
whonj they owed their exiftence.
Even thofe who experienced a fortune lefs propi¬
tious, procured for themfelves, by the foie profits of
their pay, more conveniences than they had enjoyed
before they underwent a foreign yoke. We fhould
be very much deceived if we fhould judge of the an¬
cient profperity of the inhabitants of Mexico by what
has been faid of its emperor, its court, its capital,
and the governors of its provinces. Defpotifin had
there produced thofe fatal effe&s which it produces
every-where* The whole ftate was facxificed to the
M E
X r.68,- 1
ignificence, of a finall num- to cultivate them,
■Mexico, -caprices, pleafures, and
W-yx-. Jjgj. 0f perf0nS>
The government drew confiderable advantages from
the mines which it caufed to be worked, and ftill
greater from thofe which were in the hands of indi¬
viduals. The falt-works greatly added to its revenue.
M E X
The attempts have not proved Me»ce<
fuccefsful. The trials, indeed/that have been made, 
have not been abandoned; but no perfon has folicited
the liberty of following an example which did not
promife any great emoluments. Other cultures have
been more fuccefsful. Cotton, fugar, filk, cocoa, to-
Thofe who followed agriculture, at the time of har- bacco, and European corn, have all thriven in fomd
veil paid in a kind of a third of all the produce of the degree. The Spaniards are encouraged to profecute
lands, whether they belonged to them as their own the labours which thefe cultures require, from the
property, or w'hether they were only the farmers of happy circumftance of their having difeovered iron
them. Men who lived by the chace, fiihermen, pot- mines, which were entirely unknown to the Mexicans,
ters, and all mechanics, paid the fame proportion of as well as fome mines of a kind of copper that is hard
their indultry every month. Even the poor were enough to ferve for implements of hulbandry. All
taxed at certain fixed contributions, which their la¬
bour or their alms might put them in a condition to
pay*
The Mexicans are now/lefs unhappy. Our fruits,
our corn, and our cattle, have rendered their food
more wholfefome, agreeable, and abundant. Their
houfes are better built, better difpofed, and better
furnilhed. Shoes, drawers, Ihirts, a garment of wool
or cotton, a ruff, and a hat, conftitute their drefs.
thefe articles, however, for want of men and indu-
ftry, are merely confumed within the country.—
There is only the vanilla, indigo, and cochineal,
which make part of the trade of Mexico with other
nations.
Ncw-Mexico, fo called becaufe of its being difeo--
vered later than Old-Mexico, a country of America,
is bounded on the north by high mountains, beyond
rhich is a country altogether unknown ; by Louiiiana
The dignity which it has been agreed to annex to on the eaft; by New Spain on the fouth ; and on the
thefe enjoyments has made them better economifts, weft by the gulph of California, and the Rio Colorado^
and more laborious. This cafe, however, is far from extending, it is faid, above 100 miles from eaft to
weft, and about 900 from fouth to north; but the
twentieth part of the country within thefe limits is nei¬
ther cultivated nor inhabited either by Spaniards or
Indians. As it lies in the midft of the temperate"
zone, the climate, in general, is very pleafant j the-
fummers, though very warm, are neither fultry nor
being univerfal; it is even very uncommon in the vi¬
cinity of the mines, towns, and great roads, where
tyranny feldom fleeps : but we often find it with fa-
tisfaftion in remote parts, where the Spaniards are
not numerous, and where they have in fome meafure
become Mexicans.
The employments of this people are very various, unwholefome ; and the winters, though pretty fliarp.
The molt intelligent, and thofe who are in eafy cir- are far from being infupportable, and, for the moft-
cumftanccs, devote themfelves to the moft necefiary part, clear and healthy.
and moft ufeful manufaftures, which are difperfed The greateft encomiums are lavifhed on the fertility"
-through the whole empire. The moft beautiful ma- of the foil, the richnefs of the mines, and the variety’
nufaftures are eftablifhed among the people of Tlaf- of valuable commodities produced in this country. It
cala. Their old capital, and the new one, which is is faid to be beautifully diverfified with fields, meadows,
called Angelos, are the centre of this induftry. Here rifing grounds, and rivers ; abounding, with fruit and
they manufa&ure cloth that is pretty fine, callicoes timber-trees, turquoifes, emeralds, and other precious
that have an agreeable appearance, certain flight fllks, ftones, mines of gold and filver, a great variety of wild
good hats, gold lace, embroidery, lace, glaflfes, and a and tame cattle, filh and fowls. Upon the whole,
great deal of hard-ware. we may fafely affirm, that New-Mexico is among the
The care of flocks affords a maintenance to fome pleafanteft, r-icheft, and moft plentiful countries in
and" ^ex‘cans> whom fortune or nature have not called to America, or any other part of the world. - There are
produce of nrore diftinguifhcd employments. America, at the few great or navigable rivers in it :.the moft confider*
-the couu- time it was difeovered, had neither hogs, fheep, oxen, able are, the Rio Solado and Rio del Norte, which,
**7. horfes, nor even any domeftic animal. Columbus with feveral fmaller ftreams, fall into, the gulph of
carried fome of thefe ufeful animals to St Domingo, Mexico. On the coaft of the gulph are divers bays,
from whence they were generally difperfed, and at ports, and creeks, which might be eafily converted into
, Mexico more than in any other place. Thefe have excellent harbours if the Spaniards were poffeffed of
multiplied prodigioufly. They count their horned any portion of that commercial fpirit which animates
cattle by thoufands, whofe Ikins are become an object the other maritime nations of Europe,
of confiderable exportation. The horfes are degene- The Spaniih writers tell us, that New-Mexico is in¬
rated, but the quality is compenfated by the number, habited by a great variety of Indian nations or tribes.
Hog’s lard is here fubftituted for butter. Sheep’s totally unconnected with each other : but the princi-
wool is dry, coarfe, and bad, as it is every where be- pal are the Apaches^a brave, warlike, refolute people; ;
Uveen the tropics. fond of liberty, and the inveterate enemies of tyranny
The vine and olive-tree have experienced the fame and oppreflion. About the clofe of the laft century,.
degeneracy. The cultivation of them was at firft pro- thinking themfelves aggrieved-by the Spaniih govern-
hibited, with a view of leaving a free market for the ment, they made a general infurredtion, and did sr*
commodities of the mother-country. In 1706, per- great deal of mifehief; but were at laft obliged to^
miffion was given to the Jefuits, and a little afterwards fubmit, and have fince been curbed by ftronger garri-
to the marquis Del Valle, a defeendant from Cortes, £bns. Moft of the natives are now Chriftiaus. When:
the:
M E Z [ 6SS ] M E Z
t1i« Spaniards firft entered this country, they found warded by the king with a penfion of 4000 Hvrea.' In Meaeray
the natives well clothed, the>'r lands cultivated, their 1668, he publifhed an Abridgerpent of his Hiitory of (1
villagerneat, and their houfes built with ftone. Their France, in three volumes 4to, which was well received ^ezu lacs,
flocks alfo were numerous, and they lived more com- by the public: but as he inferted in that work the origin v '*
fortably than moft of the other favages of America, of moft of the taxes with very free reflexions, Mr C©1-
As to religion, they were idolaters, and worfhipped the bert complained of it, when Mezeray promifed to cor-
fun and moon 5 but whether they offered human facri- reX what he had done in a fecond edition ; but thofe
flees, we are not fuffieiently informed. correXions being only palliations, the minifter caufed
As to the numlier of the provinces of this country, half of his penfion to be fuppreffed. Mezeray com-
we can advance nothing certain; fome writers making plained of this in very fevere terms; when he obtained
them only five, others 10, ty, 20, and 25 ; but ad- no other anfwer than the fuppreflion of the other half,
ding no defeription, either of them or the towns con- Vexed at this treatment, he refolved to write on fub-
tained in them, excepting the capital, Santa Fe, which jeXs that could not expofe him to fuch difappoint-
we are told {lands near the fource of the Rio del ments; and compofed his treatife on the origin of the
Norte, in 36° of north latitude, and about 130 French, which did him much honour. He was elec-
leagues from the gulph : that it is a well-built, hand- ted perpetual fecretary to the French academy ; and
fome, rich town ; and the feat of the bifhop, fuffragan died in 1682. He is faid to have been a man extreme-
of Mexico, as well as the governor of the province, ly negligent in his perfon ; and fo carelefs in hisdrefs,
who is fubordinate to the viceroy of Mexico, or New- that he might have paffed for a beggar rather than
Spain. for what he was. He was aXually feized one morning
MEYER (Felix), an eminent landfcape painter, by the archers des pauvres, or parifh-officers ; which
was born at Winterthur in 1653, and received his miftake was fo far from provoking him, that he was
earlieft inftruXion from a painter at Nuremburg: but highly diverted with it, and told them,- that “ he was
be was afterwards a difeiple of Ermels, a good land- not able to walk on foot, but that as foon as a new
fcape painter, whofe manner he entirely followed.—• wheel was put to his chariot, he would attend them
In fearch of ftill greater improvement, however, he wherever they thought proper.” He ufed to ftudy
travelled to Italy: but the climate not agreeing with and write by candle-light, even at noon-day in fum-
bis conftitution, he retired to Switzerland 5 where, mer; and, as if there had been no fun in the world,
as he was indefatigable in furveying all the beauty, always waited upon his company to the door with a
the wildnefs, and magnificence of nature in thofe candle in his hand. With regard to religion, he affec-
romantie feenes, he made a multitude of noble de- ted Pyrrhonifm ; which however was not, it feems, fo
figns, which procured him very high reputation. As much in his heart as in his mouth. This appeared
be was not expert at painting figures, thofe which he from hislaft ficknefs: for having fent for thofe friends
inferted in his own piXures being very indifferent, who had been the moft ufual witneffes of his licentious
fuch of ids landfcapes as were fnpplied with figures talk about religion, he made a fort of recantation,
by Roos or Rugendas, are accounted moft eftimable. which he concluded with deiiring them “ to forget
He died in ' 713. what he might formerly have faid upon the fubjeX of
MEYSENS (John), a painter of confiderable emi- religion, and to remember, that Mezeray dying was
nence, was born at Bruffels in 1612 ; and at firft was a better believer than Mezeray in health.” Befides
taught the principles of painting by Anthony van his hiftory, he alfo wrote, 1. A continuation of the
Opftal, but afterwards he became a difciple of Nicho- hiftory of the Turks. 2. A French tranflation of
las vander Horft When he commenced painter, he John de Sarilbury’s Latin treatife on the vanities of the
undertook both hiftory and portrait: but the latter court. 3. There are attributed to him fever al fat ires
feems to have been his principal employment; and his againft the government j and in particular, thofe that
reputation for that ftyle of painting became very bear the name of Sandricourt.
great throughout the Low Countries. His remarkable MEZIERS, a ftrong town of France in Cham-
excellence confifted in his producing a very ftrikiifg pagne, with a citadel. It was befieged with a power-
refemblance, in bis finifhing his piXures with a great ful army by Charles V. who was obliged to raife the
deal of care, and in giving them a lively and good fiege in 1521. It is feated on the river Meafe, partly
expreffion. upon a hill, and partly in a valley, in E. Long. 3.48.
MEZERAY{FrancisEudjcede),aneminentFrench N. Lat. 49. 46.
hiftorian, the fon of Ifaac Eudes a furgeon, was born MEZIRIAC (Claude Gafpar Backet Sieur de),
at Rye, in Lower Normandy, in 1610; and took the one of the moft ingenious men of the 17th century,
furname of Mezeray, horn a hamlet near Rye. Ha- was born ^at Breffe, of an ancient and noble family,
ving performed his {Indies at Caen, be difeovered a He was a good poet in French, Italian, and Latin ;
ftrong inclination to poetry 5 but going to Paris, be, an excellent grammarian, a great Greek feholar, and an
by the advice of one of his friends, applied himfelf to admirable critic. He was well verfed in the controver-
the ftudy of politics and hiftory, and procured the fies, both in philofophy and religion ; and was deepiy
place of commiffary at war, which he held for two {killed in algebra and geometry, of which laft he gave
campaigns. He then {hut himfelf up in the college proof by publifhing the fix books of Diophantes, en-
of St Barbe, in the midft of books and manuferipts ; riched with a very able Commentary and Notes. In
and, in 1643, publilhed the firft volume of the Hiftory his youth he fpent a confiderable time at Paris and at
of France, in folio; and fome years after, throther two Rome : at which laft place he wrote a fmall colleXicm
volumes. Mezeray in that work furpaffed all who had ef Italian poems, in competition with Vaugelas, who
written the hiftory of France before him, and was re- was there at the fame time ; among which there are
imitations
M E Z [ 687 T M E Z
M«*ujoth, imitation* of the mo‘1 beautiful ftmtlie* contuiued in it into England when he came over the fecund time
^mto0' t^e books of the iEneid. He alio tranfla- with Charles II. Prince Rupert’s print of An Exe-
^ ^ , ted Ovid’s Epiftles; a great part of which he illuftra- cutioner holding a Sword in one Hand and a Head
ted with very curious Commentaries of his own. While in the other, a half length, from Spagnoletto, isda-
he was at Paris, they talked of making him preceptor ted 1658. This art has never been cultivated with
of Louis XIII.: upon which he left the court in great fuccefs in any country but England
hafte, and afterwards declared that he had never felt fo The prince laid his grounds on the plate with a
much pain upon any occafion of his life; for he feemed channelled roller; but one Sherwin, about the fame
tohavealready upon his fhoulders the important weight time, laid his grounds with a half-round file, which
of the whole kingdom. He undertook the tranflation was prelfed down with a heavy piece of lead. Both
of all Plutarch’s works, with notes ; which he had thefe grounding tools have been laid afide for many
brought nearly to a conclufion, when he died at Bourg, years ; and a hand-tool, refembling a ihoemaker’s cut-
in Brefle, anno 1638, at 45 years of age- He left ting-board-knife, with a fine crenelling on the edge,
behind him feveral finifhed works, that were not was introduced by one Edial, a fmith by trade, who
printed. afterwards became a mezzotinto painter. 7
MEZtTZOTH, in the JewKh cuftoms, certain It is very different from the common way of en-
pieces of parchment which the Jew’s fix to the door- graving. To perform it, they rake, hatch, or punch,
polls of their houfes, taking that literally which Mo- the furface of the plate all over with a knife, or in-
fes commands them, faying, “ Thou lhalt never for- llrument made for the purpofe, firfl one way, then
get the laws of thy God, but thou (halt write them the other, acrofa. See. till the furface of the plate be
upon the polls of thy houfe, and on thy gates.” thus entirely fumuved with lines or furrows, elofe
This expreffion means nothing elfe, hut that thou and as it were contiguous to each other; fo that, if
fhalt always remember them, whether thou comeft an impreffion was then taken from it, it would be one
• into thy houfe or goeil out. But the Hebrew doc-, uniform blot or fmut. This done, the defign is
tors imagined, that the lawgiver meant fomething drawn or marked on the fame face ; after which, they
more than this. They pretended, that, to avoid ma- proceed with burnifhers, ferapers, See. to expunga and
king themfetves ridiculous, by writing the command- take out the dents or furrows, in all the parts where
ments of God without their doors, or rather to avoid the lights of the piece are to be ; and that more or
expofing themfelves to the profanation of the wick- lefs as the lights are to be ftronger or fainter ; leaving
ed, they ought at lead to write them on a parchment, thofe parts black which are to reprefent the fhadows
and to enclofe it in fomething. Therefore they wrote or deepenings of the draught.
thei’e words upon a fquare piece of parchment prepa- As it is much eafier to ferape or burnilh -away
red on purpofe, with a particular ink, and a fquare parts of a dark ground correfponding with the outline
kind of charadler. Deut. vi. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. “Hear, of any defign flcetched upon it, than to form fhfctdes
O Ifrael, the Lord our God is one Lord, &c.”—— upon a light ground by an infinite number of hatches^
Then they left a little fpace, and afterwards went on, drokes, and points, which mud all terminate with ex-
Deut. xi. 13. “ And it fhall come to pafs, if thou a&nefs on the outline, as well as differ in their force
(halt hearken diligently to my commandments, &c.” and manner ; the method of feraping, as it is called,,
as far as, “ Thou fhalt write them upon the door- in mezzotinto, confequently becomes much. more-
pods of thy houfe, &c.” After this they rolled up eafy and expeditious than liny other method of
the parchment, and put it into a cafe of reeds or other engraving. The indruments ufed in this kind of en-
matter; they wrote on the end of the cafe the word graving are cradles, ferapers, and burnifhers..
Shadat, which is one of the names of God ; and they In this engraving, the plate mud be prepared and.'
ptit it at the doors of their houfes, chambers, and all polifhed in the fame manner as for other engraving 4
places mod frequented ; they fixed it to the knockers and afterwards divided equally by lines parallel to
of the door, on the right fide; and as often as they each other, and traced' out with very foft chalk.—-
entered in or went out they touched it in this place, The didance of thefe lines fnould be about one-third;
with the end of their finger, which they afterwards of the length of the face of the cradle which is to-
kiffed out of devotion. The Hebrew word mezuza. be ufed, and thefe lines flisuld be marked with cap!-
properly fignifies the door-pods of a houfe; but it tal letters, or drokes of the chalk. The cradle is.
is alfo given to this roll of parchment now men- then to be placed exa&ly betwixt the two fird lines,,
tioned. and paffed forwards in the fame diredtion ; being kept
MEZZOTINTO, a particular manner of reprefent- as deady as pofiible, and preffed upouwithamode-
ing figures on copper, fo as to form prints in imitation rate force. The fame operation mud be repeated;
of painting in Indian ink. See Engraving. with refpedl to all the other lines ; till the indrument'
The invention of this art has been ufually attribu- has thus paffed over the whole furface of the plate.—-
ted te prjpce Rupert. But Baron Heinikin, a very Other lines mud be then drawn from the extremities
judicious and accurate writer upon the fubjedl of en- of the other two fides, in the fame manner-; which,
graving, afferts, with great appearance of truth, that interfering the fird at right angles, will with them
it was a lieutenant-colonel de Siegan, an officer in the form fquarcs ; and the fame operation mud be re-
fervice of the landgrave of Heffe, who fird engraved peated with the cradle as in the cafe of the fird.
in this manner; and that the print which he produ- New lines mud then be drawn diagonally, and the-
Ced was a portrait of the princefs Amelia Elizabeth cradle paffed betwixt them as before ; and when the
of Heffe, engraved in the year 1643. Prince Rupert fird diagonal operation is performed, the lines mud
learned the fecret from this gentleman, and brought be crofted at right angles as the former, and the-
7 cradles
Me? 7.0*
M E Z r 688 ] M E Z
cradles paflcd betwixt them in the Tame manner—
The plate having undergone the a&ion of the cradle,
according to the difpofition of the firft order of lines,
a fecond fet mull be farmed, having the fame diftances
from each other as the firft. But they muft be fo
placed as to divide thofe already made into fpaces
one-third lefs than their whole extent; i. e. every one
after the firft on each fide will take in one-third of that
before it, e. g. beginningat A, of which the firft third
muft he left out; a third of B will confequently be
taken in, and fo of the reft. Thefe lines of the fecond
order muft be marked with fmall letters, or leffer ftrokes
to diftinguifti them from the firft ; and the fame treat¬
ment of the plate muft be purfued with refpedf to them
as was praftifed for the others. When this fecond
Operation is finilhed, a third order of lines muft be
made ; the firft of which, e. g. in A, muft omit two-
thirds of it, and confequently take in two-thirds of
B, &c. By thefe means, the original fpaces will be
exaftly divided into equal thirds; and the cradle muft.
be again employed betwixt thefe lines as before.-—
When the whole of this operation is finifiled, it is
called one turn ; but in order to produce a very dark
and uniform ground, the plate muft undergo the re¬
petition of all thefe feveral operations for above
twenty times 5 beginning to pafs the cradle again be¬
twixt the firft lines, and proceeding in the fame man¬
ner through all the reft. When the plate is prepared
with a proper ground, the iketCh muft be chalked on
it, by rubbing the paper on the backfide with chalk.
It is alfo proper to overtrace it afterwards with black
lead or Indian ink. The fcraping is then performed,
by pairing or cutting away the grain of the ground
in various degrees ; fo that none of it is left in the
-original ftate except in the touches of the ftrongeft
ihade. The general manner of proceeding is the fame
as drawing with white upon black paper. The maf-
fes of light are firft begun with; and thofe* parts
which go off into light in their upper part, but are
brown below: the refleftions are then entered upon 5
after which the plate is bladkened with a printer’s
blacking-ball made of felt, in order to difcover the ef-
ie<ft: and then the work is proceeded with ; obferving
always to begin every part in the places where the
ftrongeft lights are to be.
The art of fcraping mezxotintoes has been applied
to the printing with a variety of colours, in order to
produce the refemblance of paintings. The inventor
of the method of doing this was J. C. Le Blon, a na¬
tive of Frankfort, and pupil of Carlo Marata, between
the years 1720 and 1730. It was eftabliihed by the
inventor on this principle, that there are three primi¬
tive colours, of which all the reft may be compofed
by mixing them in various proportions; that any two
of thefe colours being mixed together, preferve their
original power, and only produce a third colour fuch
as their compound muft neceffarily give ; but if tranf-
parent colours be mixed, and three primitive kinds com¬
pounded together, they deftroyeach other, and produce
black, or a tendency to it, in proportion to the equa¬
lity or inequality of the mixture ; and that if, there¬
fore, thefe three colours be laid, either feparately or
upon each other, by three plates, engraved correfpon-
tlently on thefe principles to the colouring of the de-
fign, the whole variety of teints neceffary may bepro-
N.? 218. 8
duced. The requifites, therefore, to the execution of
any defign in this method of printing are as follow: t'nto'
1. To fettle a plan of the colouring to be imitated; "v ’
fliowing where the prefence of each of the three
fimple colours is neceflary, either in its pure ftate or
combined with fome other, to produce the effedt re¬
quired ; and to reduce this plan to a painted fketch of
each, in which not only the proper outlines, but the
degree of ftrength, ftiould be expreffed. 2. To en¬
grave three plates according to this plan, which may
print each of the colours exadtly in the places where,
and proportion in which, they are wanted. • 3. Ta
find three tranfparent fubftances proper for printing
with thefe three primitive colours. Tha manner in
which Mr Le Blon prepared the plates was as fol¬
lows : The three plates of copper were firft well fitted
with refpedi to fize and figure to each other, and
grounded in the fame manner as thofe defigned for
mezzotinto prints : and the exaft place and boundary
of each of the three primitive colours, conformably
to the defign, were iketched out on three papers,
anfwering in dimenfions to the plate. Thefe (ketches
were then chalked on the plates; and all the parts of
each plate that were not to convey the colour to which
it was appropriated to the print, were entirely fcrap-
ed away, as in forming the light of mezzqtinto prints.
The parts that were to convey the colours were then
worked upon ; and where the moft light or diluted
teints of the colour were to be, the grain in the
ground was proportionably taken off; but where the
full colour was required, it was left entire. In this
regard was had, not only to the effects of the colour
in its fimple ftate, but to its combined operation, ei¬
ther in producing orange-colour, green, or purple, by
its admixture with one alone; and likewife to its
forming brown, grey, and (hades of different degrees,
by its co-operation with both thC others. But though
the greateft part of the engraving was performed in
the mezzotinto manner, yet the graver was employed
occafionally for ftrengthening the (hades, and forcor-
refting the outline where it required great accuracy
and fteadinefs. It was found neceffary fometimes to
have two feparate plates for printing the fame colour,
in order to produce a ftronger effe&: but the fecond
plate, which was ufed to print upon the firft, was in¬
tended only to glaze and foften the colours in parti i
cular parts that might require it. With refpect to
the black and brown teints, which could not be fo
conveniently produced in a due degree by the mix¬
ture of the colours, umber and black were likewife
ufed.
With refpeft to the order in which the plates are
to be applied, it may be proper to obferve, that the
colour which is leaft apparent in the picture (hould be
laid on firft ; that which is betwixt the moft and
leaft apparent next; and that which predominates
laft ; except where there may be occafion for two
plates for the fame colour, as was before-mentioned ;
or where there is any required for adding browns and
(hades.
Mr Le Blon applied this art to portraits, and (bow¬
ed, by the fpecimtns he produced, the poffibility of
its being brought, by farther improvements, to afford
imitations of painting which might have fome value.
It is neverthelefs much better adapted to the (impler
fubjedts,
M I e l 689 ] MIC
Mfafma, fuhjefts, where there are fewer intermixtures of co-
Mica‘ lours ; and where the accuracy of the reflections, and
v demi-teints, are not fo effentially neceflary to the
truth of the defign, from the greater latitude of form,
and difpofition of the colour, as in plants, anatomical
figures, and fome fuhjefts of architecture. But per¬
haps plates engraved or rather firtifhed with the tool,
particularly with refpeCt to the outline, would be bet¬
ter accommodated in forae of thefe cafes than thofe
prepared only by fcraping.
Mr Cochin remarks, at the end of an account he
has given of Mr Le Blon’s manner, that though this
ingenious artifl: confined his method principally to the
ufe of three colours; yet, fhould this invention be
again taken up and cultivated, there would be more
probability of fuccefs in ufing a greater variety ; and
that feveral different kinds might be printed by one
plate ; provided they were laid on in their refpeCtively
proper places by printing-balls, which fliould be ufed
for that colour only. His hint might however be
very greatly improved, by the further afiiltance of
pencils, accommodated to the plates, for laying on the
colours in the proper parts.—For the method of
taking off mezzotinto prints on glafs, fee Back-
painting.
MIASMA, among phyficians, a particular kind of
effluvia, by which certain fevers, particularly intermit-
tents, are produced.
MICA, Daze, Tak, Mufcovy-glafs, Glimmer, or
Clift ; a genus of magnefian earths, known by the fol¬
lowing characters: t. They coniifl of thin flexible
particles, divifible into plates or leaves, having a fliining
furface. 2. Thefe leaves or fcales, expofed to the fire,
lofe their flexibility and become brittle, feparating af¬
terwards into, thinner leaves: but in a quick and ftrong
fire they curl or crumple, which is a ftep towards fu-
iion ; though it is very difficult to reduce them into
ure glafs without addition. jfThey melt eafily with
orax, the microcofmic fait, and alkaline fait; and,
by means of the two former falts, may be brought to
a clear glafs before the blow-pipe. That which con¬
tains iron, however, is more fufible than the uncolour¬
ed earths of this kind. No loofe or friable mica has
yet been difcovered, but all of an indurated kind. Its
Ipecific gravity, according to Fabroni, is about 3000.
Kirwan tells us, that the fpecific gravity of this fub-
ftance, when it contains much iron, is from 2535 to
3oco. An hundred parts of the colourlefs kind con¬
tain 38 of filex, 28 of argill, 20 of magnefia, and l4of
the mo ft dephlogifticated calx of iron. Martial mica
contains alio 10 or 12 per cent, of a more phlogifti-
cated calx pf iron ; whence its various colours are de¬
rived, and a proportionably fmaller quantity of the
other ingredients. The fpecies are,
I. Mica alba, colourlefs or pure mica; of which
there are the following varieties. 1. Mufcovy glafs,
coniifting of large parallel plates, and as tranfparent as
glafs, found in Siberia and Sweden. This differs ex¬
ternally from the common talc, in being more foapy
to the touch. An hundred parts of it contain 50 of
filex, 45 of mild magnefia, and 5 of argill or clay.
Venetian talc is white, grey, yellowifh, or greenilh,
and femitranfparent. It is much more tender and
brittle than mica, and fo foft that it may be fcratch-
«d with the nail. Its fpecific gravity is 2729 2. Mica
Von. XI. Part II.
fquamofa, compofed of fmall plates, found in Sweden M
and other countries of Europe. 3. Compofed of fine
particles like chaff. 4. Talcum officinale, crumpled
mica, compofed of crumpled plates.
II. Mica colorata martialis,colouif.d and martial glim¬
mer. Of this there are many varieties. 1. Brow n and
femitranfparent, found in Lapland. 2. Confifting of
fine and minute fcales, of a brown, deep-green, light*
green, or black colour, found in different parts of Swe¬
den. 3. Twifted or crumpled glimmer, of a light
green colour, found alfo in Sweden. 4. Chaffy glim¬
mer, of a black colour, found in the ftone called horn-
berg, occurring in moft of the Swedifh copper mines*
as at Norberg, Flodberg, &c. 5. CryftaUized glim¬
mer, with ere‘t fcales, or with hexagonal horizontal
plates, found alfo in Sweden.
Moft of thefe ftones are fuppofed abfohitely to re¬
fill the fire ; but this is to be underftood only of cer¬
tain degrees of heat, and when they are mixed with
certain bodies. Cronftedt obferves, however, that they
may with equal propriety be called vitrefeent; becaufe
they melt with that degree of heat in which nei¬
ther quartz nor limeftone are in the fmalleft de¬
gree altered. They are ftill more readily melted
when cither naturally or artificially combined with
a martial earth. Hence fome ores, though much
mixed with mica, may be very readily melted; while
others, in which the fame fubftance is mixed with
quartz, it may be impoflible to melt; becaufe the mica
renders the quartz fo compadl as to prevent it from
cracking. It does the fame with an apyrous clay*
which is the reafon why the lapis ollaris refills the fire
fo ftrongly.
M. Margraaf afferts, that he has obtained Epfom
fait from talc; and Mr Fabroni jnforms us, that in
decompofing nitre by means of a micaceous fubllance,
as foon as the acid is dillilled there rifes fome othet
fubftance hitherto unknown at the end of the opera¬
tion : he adds, that on employing aqua regia or marine
acid to diffolve this fubftance, the yellow colour which
refults from the folution fliows that it contains fome
iron. This laft affertion is confirmed by M. Monnet,
who found that phlogifticated alkali and folution of
galls produce a bluilh colour with that of mica. He
adds, that its component parts are the fame with thofe
of albeftos, excepting only that the latter contain*
more iron.
Cronftedt informs us, that the martial mica acquires
a Ihining yellow colour in a calcining heat, which has
induced many to examine it in hopes of finding gold ;
though no metal can be obtained from it except iron,
which may be diffolved by means of aqua regia. A
late German author indeed has pretended, that he pro¬
duced from mica an unknown femimetal which refem-
bled iron mixed with zinc. He owned, however, that
he made ufe of a flux compofed of feveral metals, fome
of which probably united with the talc, and thus de¬
ceived him. The talc cubes, which are micaceous bo¬
dies of the figure of aluminous cryftals, are much va¬
lued and fought after by fome mineralogifts. They
are met with in fome parts of Sweden 5 and when bro¬
ken are found to confift of an iron ore frequently mix¬
ed with a marcaiitical copper ore, and are only cover¬
ed with a very thin coat of mica. The broad and
tranfparent talc named Mvfcovy-glafs is ufed inftead o£
4 S
MIC L 690 ] MIC
glafs for windows ; and has this advantage above corn-
men glafs, that it refifts the explofion of cannon.
Cronftedt thinks that it might be advantageoufly ufed
for covering houfes. The twifted or crumpled mica,
found in fome places of Sweden, is manufactured into
kettles and other veffels, likewife into hearths for
ehirnneys; “and the powder which falls in the work¬
ing (fays our author) may be mixed with the common
fait for the diftillation of the muriatic acid.”
According to M. Magellan, many mineral fubftan-
ces may have the glittering appearance of talc without
really belonging to that genus. An artificial produc¬
tion of this kind he happened to obferve in Mr Wedge-
wood’s work. It was an unexpe&ed refult from vi¬
triol calcined to rednefs, then mixed without being
waflied with common fait. It now underwent a fe-
cond calcination under a muffle, with a heat fomewhat
ftrohger; about the tenth degree of his thermometer.
The colour was of a dark purple, and the fhining par¬
ticles fo bright as to fhow their glaffy form, very diffe¬
rent from true mica.
MIC AH, or 'The Book of Micah, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament, written by the prophet Micah,
who is the feventh of the twelve lefier prophets. He is
cited by Jeremiah, and propheiied in the days of Jo-
tham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He cenfures the reign¬
ing vices of Jerufalem and Samaria, and denounces the
judgments of God againft. both kingdoms. He like¬
wife foretels the confufion of the enemies of the Jews,
the coming of the Mefiiah, and the glorious fuccefs of
his church.
MICHAEL, or Michel, (i. e. who is like to
God ?) The fcripture account of Michael is, that he
was an archangel, whoprefided over the Jewifh nation,
as other angels did over the Gentile world, as is evi¬
dent of the kingdoms of Perfia and Greece, (Dan.
x. 13.); that he had an army of angels under his
command (Rev. xii. 7.) ; that he fought with the Dra¬
gon, or Satan and his angels; and that, contending
with the Devil, he difputed about the body of Mofes,
(Jude 9.) As to the combat between Michael and
the Dragon, fome authors underhand it literally, and
think it means the expulfion of certain rebellious
angels, with their head or leader, from the prefence
of God. Others take it in a figurative fenfe ; and re¬
fer it, either to the conteft that happened at Rome
between St Peter and Simon Magus, in which the
apollle prevailed ever the magician, or to thofe violent
perfecutions under which the church laboured for three
hundred years, and which happily ceafed when the«
powers of the world became Chriftians. Among the
commentators who maintain the former opinion is
Grotius; and among thofe who take it in a figurative
fenfe are Hammond and Mede.
The cor.tcft-about the body of Mofes is likewife ta¬
ken both literally and figuratively. Thofe who under-
IHnd it literally are of opinion, that Michael by the
erdet,of God hid the body of Mofes after his-death ;
and that the Devil endeavoured to difcover it, as a fit
means to entice the people to idolatry, by a fuperffi-
tious worlhip of his relics. But this difpute is figura¬
tively underftood to be a controverfy about rebuilding
the temple, and reitoring the fervice of God among
the Jews at Jerufalem ; the Jewiffi church being fitly
enough fly led the body of Mofes. It is thought by
fome, that this ftory of the conteft. between Michael
and the Devil was taken by St Jude out of an apocry¬
phal book called, The Afjumption of Mofes.
The Romifh church celebrates three appearances of
Michael, of which no mention is made in fcripture,
and which have happened, they fay, a long time after
the age of the apoltles. ~ The firft appearance of this
archangel was at Colofiae in Phrygia, but at what time
is uncertain. The fccond is that of mount Garganus,
in the kingdom of Naples, about the end of the fifth
century. The third is his appearance to Aubert bi-
ftiop of Avranches, upon a rock called the Toml,
where at this day is the abbey of St Michael. This
was about the year 706. The firft of thefe feftivals
is obferved on the 6th of September, the fecond on
the 8th of May, and the laft on the 16th of Ofto-
ber. It has been fuppofed, that it was Michael the
archangel who conducted the Ifraelites in their jour¬
ney through the wildernefs, (fee Ex. xxxii. 20, 23^
and xxxiii. 2.) ; that it was he who appeared to Mofes
in the burning bufh ; who appeared to Jofhua in the
fields of Jericho, and to Gideon and Manoah the father
of Samfon ; and, in a word, to him have been impu¬
ted the greateft part of the moft remarkable appear¬
ances either in the Old or New Teftament.
Michael Angelo. See Angelo.
Mount Michael., one of the moft celebrated ftate-
prifons of France, lies about 20 miles from Granville.
It is a rock fituated in the middle of the bay of Av¬
ranches ; and is only acceffible at low water. Nature
has completely fortified one fide, by its craggy and
almoft perpendicular defeent, which renders it imprac¬
ticable to mount it by any addrefs or courage, how¬
ever confummate. The other parts are furrounded by
walls fenced with femilunar towers after the Gothic
manner; but fufficiently ftrong, together with the ad¬
vantage of its fituation, to render it impregnable to
any attack. At the foot of the mountain begins a
ftreet or town, which winds round its bafe to a confi-
derable height. Above are chambers where ftate-pri-
foners-are kept, and where there are other buildings
intended for refidence. On the fummit is eredled the
abbey itfelf, occupying a prodigious fpace of ground,
and of a ftrength and folidity equal to its enormous
fize ; fince it has for many centuries withftood all the
injuries of the weather, to which it is fo much expo-
fed. In an apartment, called the Sale de Chavalerle,
the knights of St Michael ufed to meet in folemn con¬
vocation on important occafions. They were the de¬
fenders and guardians of this mountain and abbey, as
thofe of the temple, and of St John of Jerufalem, were
of the holy fepulchre. The hall in which they met is
very fpacious, but rude and barbarous. At one end
is a painting of the archangel, the patron of their or¬
der ; and in this hall Louis XL firft inftituted and in¬
verted with the infignla of knighthood the chevaliers of
the crofs of St Michael. There is a miferable dark
apartment, or rather dungeon, in which many eminent
perfons were formerly confined. In the middle of it
is a cage, compofed of prodigious bars of wood ; and
the wicket which gives entrance into it is 10 or 12.
inches in thicknefs. The infide of it comprifes about
12 or 14 feet fquare, and it is nearly 20 in height. To¬
wards the latter end of the laft century, a certain newf-
writer in Holland, who had prefumed to print fome
vei-j
MIC [ 691 3 MIC
Michael, very fevere and farcaftic reflexions on Madame de
'"■'-V’—' Maintenon, was confined in this place. Some months
after his publication, he was induced, by a perfon fent
exprefsly fer that purpofe, to make a tour into French
Flanders, The moment he had quitted the Dutch ter-
ritores, he was put under arreft; and immediately, by
his majefty’s exprefs command, conducted to Mount
Michael, where he was fliutup in this cage. Here he
lived upwards of 23 years; and here he at length ex¬
pired. During the long nights of winter, no candle
or fire was allowed him. He was not permitted to
have any book. He faw no human face, except the
gaoler, who came once every day to prefent him,
through a hole in the wicket, with his little portion of
bread and wine. No inftrument was given him with
which he could deftroy himfelf: but he found means
at length to draw out a nail from the wood, with
which he engraved, or cut on the bars of his cage,
certain fleurs de lis and armorial bearings, which form¬
ed his only employment and recreation. They are
very curioufly performed confidering the rudenefs of
his tool.
The fubterraneous chambers in this mountain are
faid to be fo numerous, that the gaolers themfelves do
not know them. There are certain dungeons called
aublieites, into which they were accuilomed anciently
to let down malefaXors guilty of very heinous crimes:
they provided them with a loaf of bread and a bottle
of wine, and then they were totally forgotten, and left
to jaerifli by hunger in the dark vaults of the rock.
This puniihment, however, has not been inflifted by
any king in the laft or prefent century.
Here alfo is a remarkable chamber, in one corner
of which is a kind of window: between this and the
wall of the building is a very deep fpace, of near 100
feet perpendicular, at the bottom of which is another
window opening to the fea. It is called the Hole of
Montgomcri; and the hiftory of it is as follows: In
the year 1559, Henry II. king of France was unfor¬
tunately killed at a tournament by the count de Mont-
See gomeri f. He was a Huguenot; and having efcaped
‘"'"i the maifacre of Paris, made head againft the royal
I4°' forces in Normandy, fupported by qu\.en Elizabeth
with arms and money. Being driven from his fortrefl’es
in thefe parts, he retired to a rock called the Tortile-
lame. This is another fimilar to Mount Michael; only
three quarters of a league from it, and of nearly equal
dimenfions. At that time there was a caltle upon it,
which has fince been demolifhed, and of which fcarce
any veftiges now remain. From this fortrefs, accef-
fible only at low-water, he continually made excurfions,
and annoyed the enemy, who never dared to attack
him. He coined money, laid all the adjacent country
trader contribution, and rendered himfelf univerfally
dreaded. Defirous, however, to furprife Mount Mi¬
chael, he found means to engage one of the monks re-
fident in the abbey ; who promifed to give him the fig-
r.al for his enterprife by difplaying a handkerchief.
The monk having made the fignal, betrayed him, and
armed all his afibciates, who waited Montgomeri’s ar¬
rival. The chieftain came, attended by 50 chofen fol-
diers, all defperate, and capable of any attempt. They
crofled the fand ; and having placed their fcalingdad-
ders, mounted one by one. As they came to the top,
they were difpatched, each in turn, without noife.
Montgomeri, who followed laft, difeovered the per-
4
fidy, and efcaped with only two of his men, with whom
he regained the Tombelaine. They preferve with great
care the ladders and grappling irons ufed on this oc-
cafion. The count was at laft befieged and taken pri*
foner by the mareihal de Matignon, in 1574, at Dom-
front, in Normandy; and Catharine de Medicis, who
hated him for having been, though innocently, the
caufe of het hufband’s death, caufed him to be imme«
diately executed.
The church of Mount Michael is a great curiofity.
It Hands on nine pillars of moft enormous dimenfions,
built on the folid rock. Each of them appears to be
about 25 feet in circumference : befides thefe, there are
two others much inferior in fize, on which the centre
of the church refts, and over which is the tower. The
following is the legendary account of the origin of this
church: In the reign of Childebert II. there was a
bifhop of Avranches named St Hubert. To this holy
man the archangel Michael was pleafed to appear one
night, and ordered him to go to this rock to build a
church. St Aubert treated this as a dream ; upon
which the angel appeared a fecond time ; and being Hill
difobeyed, he returned a third time, when, by way of
imprinting his command upon the faint’s memory, he
made a hole in his flcull, by touching it with his thumb.
The flcull is Hill preferved in the treafury of the church.
It is inclofed in a little (hrine of gold, and a cryftal,
which opens over the orifice, admits the gratification
©f curiofity by the minuteft examination of it. The
hole is of a fize and fliape proportionable to the thumb
faid to have produced it; but it is impoflible to deter¬
mine whether it has been really made by a knife or
ally other way. It is not to be fuppofed that the faint
would forget fuch a fenfible mark of the angel’s dif-
pleafure ; he therefore immediately repaired to the
rock, and conftruXed a fmall church, as he had been
commanded. Here, however, true hiftory fupplies the
place of fable ; and informs us, that it was in 966
when Richard the fecond duke of Normandy began t®
build the abbey. It was completed about the year
1070, under William the Conqueror, though many
other additions were made by fucceeding abbots.
In the treafury of the church are innumerable other
relics ; among which fome few have a real and intrin-
lic value. There is a fine head of Charles VI. of France,
cut in a cryftal, and the reprefentation of a cockle-lhell
in gold, weighing many pounds, given by Richard II.
duke of Normandy, when he founded the abbey. There
is an arm faid to belong to St Richard king of Eng¬
land ; but who this faint was it mull be very difficult
to determine.
St MICHAEL’S, a borough town of Cornwal,
between St Columb and Truro, 247 miles from Lon¬
don. Though one of the oldeft boroughs in the coun¬
ty by prefeription, and of great note in the Saxons
time, it is a mean hamlet in the pari flies of Newland
and St Enidore ; yet it is'governed by a portreeve,
yearly chofen by a jury of the chief inhabitants, out
of the fix chief tenants, called deputy lords of the
manor, becaufe they hold lands in the borough. Here
is no market, but two fairs. A court-leet is held
here twice a year. This place was formerly called
Modiftiole, and afterwards Michel. Its lift of mem¬
bers begins in the 6th of Edward VI.
St Mlchael’s Mount, in the county of Cornwal,
in the corner »f Mount’s-Bay, is a very high rock,
4 S 2 only
mic r 69
M'cha^lis. only divided by the tide from the main-land} fo that it
is land and ifland twice a-day. The town here was
burnt by the French in the reign of king Henry VIII.
At the bottom of this mount, ii) digging for tin, there
have been- found fpear-heads, battle axes, and fwords,
- of brafs, all wrapt up in linen. The county is con-
tracted hete into a fort of ifthmus, fo that it is fcarce
four miles between the Channel and the Severn fea.—
There have been large trees driven in by the fea be¬
tween this mount and Penzance.
MICHAEL1S (John David), a celebrated biblical
critic, and author of many efteemed works, was the
eidell fon of Dr Chriitian Benedift Michaelis, profeifor
in the univerfity of Halle in Lower Saxony, and was
born at that place Feb. 27. 1717. His father devoted
him at an early age to an academical life; and with
that view he received the firlt part of his education in
a celebrated Pruffian feminary, called the Orphan-hoirfr,
at Glanche, in the neighbourhood of his native place.
He commenced his academical career at Halle in 1733,
and took his mailer’s degree in the faculty of phrlo-
fophy in 1739. In 1741 he-made an excurfion to this
country, where his fuperior knowledge of the oriental
languages, which was confiderably increafed by his in¬
defatigable refearches in the Bodleian library at Ox¬
ford, introduced him to the acquaintance, and gained
him the eileem, of our firft literary charadlers; with
feveral of whom, and particularly biihop Lowth, he
was in correfpondence for many years. On his return
to Halle, after an abfence of fifteen months, he began
to read leftures on the hiftorical books of the Old le-
ftament, which he continued after his removal to Got¬
tingen in 1745. In 1746 he was appointed profeilbr
extraordinary, and foon after profefior of philofophy,
in that univerfity. The next year he obtained a place
of fecretary to the royal fociety there, of which he
•was dire&or in 1761, and was foon after wards made
Aulic counfellor by the court of Hanover. In 1764
bis diftinguifhed talents, but chiefly a publication rela¬
tive to a journey to Arabia, which was undertaken by
feveral literary men, at the expence of the king of
Denmark, in confequence of his application by means
of Count Bernfdorff, procured him the honour of be¬
ing chofen a correfpondent, and afterwards foreign
member, of the academy of inferiptions at Paris, of
whom the inftitution .admitted only eight; and in the
fame year he became a member of the fociety of Haar¬
lem. In 1775, Count Hopkin, wLo eighteen years
before had prohibited the ufe of his writings at Upfal,
when he was chancellor of that univerfity, prevailed
upon the king of Sweden to confer on him the order
of the polar ftar, as a national compenlation. In x 786
he was raifed to the diftinguilhed rank of privy coun-
fellor of juftice by the court of Hanover; and in 1788
received his laft literary honour, by being unanimouf-
ly defied a fellow of the royal fociety of London.—
His great critical knowledge of the Hebrew language,
which he difplayed in a new tranllation cf the Bible,
and in other works, raifed him to a degree of eminence
almotl unknown before in Germany; and his indefa¬
tigable labours were only equalled by his defire of
communicating the knowledge he acquired to the nu¬
merous ftudents of all countries who frequented his ad¬
mirable leftures, which he continued to deliver on va-
xious parts of the faaxd writings in half-yearly courLs,,
2 ] MIC
and on the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac languages, Michael-
to the laft year of his life. He was profeffor in the ma,»
urtiverfity of Gottingen forty-five years, and, during Mlclcle; ,
thdt long period, he filled the chair with dignity, ere- ;
dit, and uiefulnefs. He died October 22. 1791, aged
74. He is faid to have left behind him feveral valu¬
able MSS. Of the works that were publifhed during
his life time, and which are very numerous, a cata¬
logue, in the order of their publication, is given in
the Gent’emnn’s Magazine for March 1792.
MICHAELMAS, or Feq/} of St Michael and all
Slngth, a feftival of the Chriltian chbrch, obferved on
the 29th ©f September. See Michael.
MICKLE (William Julius), the celebrated tranf-
lator of the Luliad, was the fon of the reverend Alex¬
ander Mickle a Scottifh clergyman, who had formerly
beeri a diffentihg minifier in London, an affiftant to the
reverend Dr Watts, and one of the trahflators of
Bayle’s Didlionary. This gentleman having refided
a few years in London, was prefented to the chinch,
of Langholm near Kelfo in Scotland, where he mar¬
ried; and our author was one of the younger fons.
He was born about the year 173 c, and was educated
by his father. In his early years bis paflion for poetry
frequently difeovered itfelf; though till the age of 13
he did not Ihow any particular attachment to books.
At that time having accidentally met with Spencer’s
Fairy Queen, he became enamoured of his manner of
writing, and inftantly began to imitate him. After
the death of his father, he came to Edinburgh to refide-
with an uncle -who was a brewer there, and who ad¬
mitted him into a (hare of his bufinefs; but not being
qualified to fucceed in this line, he went to London-
about the time of the conclufion of the war which be¬
gan iri 1755, with a view to procure a commiffion in
the marine fervice. Here he was difappointed ; but
introduced himfelf to the firft Lord Lyttelton, to-
whom he fent one of his poems. From his lordlhip,
however, he received no other favour than being ad¬
mitted to feyeral interviews, and encouraged to perfe-
vere in his poetical plans.
So clofely did our author cultivate the ftudy of the.
mufes, that be'foie he was 18 years of age he had writ¬
ten two tragedies and half an epic poem; but allthefe
were committed to the flames. The firft of his poems-
which appeared in print was publifhed in one of the
Edinburgh magazines, and intitled, “ On pafling thro!
the Parliament Clofe of Edinburgh at Midnight.P
This was afterwards inferted in A Colle&Jon of Ori¬
ginal Poems by a Scotch gentleman, Vol. II. p. 137.
From the time of Mr Mickle’s arrival at London
till the year 1765, it is not known how he employed:
his time, though it is probable that he v/as employed'
in fome branch of the printing bufinefs; and in 1765 he
engaged himfelf as corre&or to the Clarendon prefs.
This year he publilhed the poem which firft brought
him into notice, intitled, “ Pollio, an Elegiac Ode,
written in the Wood near R  (Roflin) Caftle,’*'
4to. This was an elegy written on the death of his
brother ; which, previous to its publication, had been,
fhown to Lord Lyttelton, and received Come correc¬
tions from him. The latter, in an epiftle to the au¬
thor, fpoke of it as equal to any thing of the kind in
our language. In 1767 he publifhed a poem called1
“ The Concubine, in two Cantos, after the manner of-
3 Spencer2(,’
:
MIC [ 693 ] MIC
Spencer,” 4*0 ; and in 1769 he publifhed, *• A Let- Hiftorical Errors of Dr Adam Smith, in his Reafons Middt,
ter to Mr Harwood, wherein fome of his evafive for the Abolition of the faid Company,” 4to. About
Gloffes, falfe Tranflations, and blundering Criticifms, this time fome of his friends thought of recommend-
in fupport of the Arian Herefy, contained in his Li- ing him to the king as deferving of a penfion ; but —»
teral i ranflation of the New Teftament, are pointed out this fcheme was never put in execution. Dr Lowth,
and confuted,” 8vo: and next year he publiftied “ Ma- bilhop of London, would have put him into orders,
ry Queen of Scots, an Elegy “ Hengift and Mary, and provided for him in the church ; but this was not
a Balladand “ Knowledge, an Ode in Pearch’s agreeable to our author’s difpofition. While he was
Colleftion of Poems. In 1770 he publifhed “ Vol- meditating a publication of all his poems, in which he
taire in the Shades, or Dialogues on the Deiftical Con- would moft probably have found his account, he was
troverfy,” 8vo. The Elegy on Mary had been fub- appointed fecretary to Commodore Johnftone, who
mitted to the judgment of Lord Lyttelton, who de- had lately obtained the command of the Romney man
dined to criticife it, not for its deficiency in poetical of war. In November 1779 he arrived at Lifbon, and
merit, but from thinking differently from the author was named by his patron joint agent for the prizes «
concerning that unfortunate princefs. which were taken. In this capital and its neighbour-
About this time Mr Mickle was a frequent writer hood he refided more than fix months, being every
in the Whitehall Evening Poll; but a more important where received with every mark of politenefs and at-
. work nowr engaged h's atention. When no more than tention; and during this period he compofed his poem
17 years of age he had read Callara’s tranflation of called “ Almada Hill,” wdiich in 1781 was publifhed
the Lufiad of Camoens into French, and then pro- in quarto. He collefted alfo many particulars con-
jeded the defign of giving an Englifh tranflation of it. cerning the manners of the Portuguefe, which he in-
Fi;om this, however, he w'as prevented by various avo- tended alfo to have publifhed. During his flay at
cations till the year 1771, when he publifh^d the firft Lifbon the royal academy was opened; and Mr Mickle,
book as a fpecimen : and having prepared himfelf by who was prefent at the ceremony of its commencement,
acquiring fome knowledge of the Portuguefe language, had the honour to be admitted a member under the
he determined to apply himfelf entirely to this wrork. prefidency of Don John of Braganza duke of4 La-
With this view he quitted his refidence at Oxford, and foens. His prefence being thought neceffary in Eng-
went to a farm-houfe at Foreft hill, where he purfued land to attend to the proceedings of the courts of law
his defign with unremitting affiduity till the year 1775, refpedting the condemnation of fome of the prizes, he
when the wmrk was entirely finifhed. did not accompany the commodore in his laft expedi-
During the time that Mr Mickle was engaged in tion, nor did he go any more to fea. In 1782 he pub-
this work, he fubfifted entirely by his employment as lifhed “ The Prophecy of Queen Emma, an ancient-
correftor of the prefs; and on his quitting that em- Ballad lately difeovered, written by Johannes Turgot-
ployment he had only the fubferiptions he received tus, prior of Durham, in the reign of William Rufus;,
for his tranflation to fupport him. Notwithflanding to which is added by the Editor, an Account of the
thefe difficulties, he adhered fteadily to the plan he Difcovery, and Hints towards a Vindication of the
had laid down, and completed it in about five years. Authenticity, of the Poems of Ofiian and Rowley
When his work was finifhed, Mr Mickle applied to 8vO.
a perfon of great rank, with whom his family had been In June this year Mr Mickle married Mifs Tomkins,,
connected, for permififion to dedicate it to him. Per- daughter of the perfon with whom he refided at Fo-
miffion wasgftnted, and his patron honoured him with reft-hill, wK;V engaged in tranflating the Lufiad. Ha—
a very polite letter; but after receiving a copy, for ving received fome fortune with this lady, as well as-
which an extraordinary price was paid for the binding, made fome money himfelf when in the fervice of Com-
he did not think proper to take any notice of the au- modore Johnftone, he now enjoyed a comfortable in-
thor. At hft a gentleman of high rank in the poll- dependence. Having fixed his refidence at Wheatley
tical world, a firm friend to the author, and who af- in Oxfordfhire, he devoted his time to the revifion oF
terwards took him under his prote&ion, waited on the his poetical works, which he' propofed to publifh by
patron, and heard him declare that he had not read fubfeription; but the plan has net yet been carried in-
the work, but that it had been.reprefented not to have to execution. The laft feven-years of his life were
the merit it was at firft faid to poffefs. The applaufe employed in writing for the European Magazine,
with which the work was received, however, foon ba- The Fragments of Leo, and fome of the molt ap-
niftied from the author’s mind thofe difagreeable fen- proved reviews of books, in that performance, were of
Ltions which had been occafioned by the contemptu- his production. He died after a Ihoi t jllnefs on the
ous negleCf of his patron, as well as fome fevere cri- 25th of October 1788 at Wheatley, leaving one fon
ticifms which had been circulated concerning it. A behind him. His poetry poffeffcs much beauty, va-
Lcond edition was prepared in 1778, with a plate riety, harmony of numbers, and vigour of imagination:
prefixed to it, executed by the celebrated artift Mor- his life was without reproach; his foibles were few
timer; on whom Mr Mickle wrote an epitaph in 1779, and in offenfive ; his virtues many ; and his genius
This year alfo he publiftied a pamplet, intitled, “ A very confiderable.
Candid Examination of the Reafons for depriving the MICROCOSM,, a Greek.term fignifying the little
Eaft India Company of its Charter, contained in The tvorld; ufed by fome for man, as being fuppofed an?
Hiftory and Management of the Eaft India Company epitome of the univerfe or great world.
from its Commencement to the FyefentTime; together MICROCOSMIC acid. See Phosphorus
with £ome Suiftures oa the Sdf-Contradibtions and., eld of}*.
MICRO
M I G
Microgra- MICROGRAPHY, the defcriptlon of objefts too
minute to be viewed without the afliftance of a micro-
^en*116" Rope- See Microscopic ObjeSs.
W-y——^ MICROMETER, an inftrument, by the help of
which the apparent magnitudes of objedfs viewed thro’
telefcopes or microfeopes are meafured with great ex-
aftnefs.
I. The firft telescopic micrometers were only me¬
chanical contrivances for meafuring the image of an
object in the focus of the objeit-glafs. Before thefe
contrivances were thought of, ailronomers were accu-
ftomed to meafure. the held of view in each of their
telefcopes, by obferving how much of the moon they
could fee through it, the femidiameter being reckoned
at 15 or 16 minutes; and other diilances were efti-
mated by the eye, comparing them with the field of
view. Mr Gafcoigne, r,n Englifh gentleman, however,
fell upon a much more exaft method, and had a Ttea-
tife on Optics prepared for the prefs; but he was kill¬
ed during the civil wars in the fervice of Charles I.
and his manufeript wrs never found. His inilrument,
however, fell into the hands of Mr R Townly, who
fays, that by the help of it he could mark above
40,000 divifions in a foot.
Mr Gafcoigne’s inftrument being ihown to Dr
Hooke, he gave a drawing and defeription of it, and
propofed feveral improvements in it, which may be
feen in Phil. Tranf. abr. Vol. I. p 217. Mr Gafcoigne
divided the image of an objeft, in the focus of the ob-
jedl-glafs, by the approach of two pieces of metal
ground to a very fine edge, in the place of which Dr
Hooke would fubftitute two fine hairs ftretched paral¬
lel to one another. Two other methods of Dr Hooke’s,
different from this, are deferibed in his Pofthumous
Work’, p.497, 498. An account of feveral curious
obfervations that Mr Gafcoigne made by the help of
his micrometer, particularly in the menfuration of the
diameters of the moon and other planets, may be feen
in the Phil. Tranf. Vol. XLVIII, p. 190.
Mr Huygens, as appears by his Syftem of Saturn,
publiftied in 1659, ufed to meafure the apparent dia¬
meters of the planets, or any fmall angles, by firft mea¬
furing the quantity of the field of view in his telefcope;
which, he fays, is bell done by obferving the time
which a ftar takes up in palling over it, and then prepa¬
ring two or three long and flender brafs plates, of va¬
rious breadths, the fides of which were very ftraight,
and converging to a fmall angle. In making ufe of
thefe pieces of brafs, he made them Hide in two Hits,
that were made in the fides of the tube, oppofite to the
place of the image, and obferved in what place it juft
covered the diameter of any planet, or any fmall di-
ftance that he wanted to meafure. It was obferved,
however, by Sir Ifaac Newton, that the diameters of
planets, meafured in this manner, will be larger than
they Ihould be, as all lucid objefts appear to be when
they are viewed upon dark ones.
In the Ephemerides of the Marquis of Malvafia,
publilhed in 1662, it appears that he had a method of
meafuring fmall diftances between, fixed liars and the
diameters of the planets, and alfo of taking accurate
draughts of the fpots of the moon ; and this was by a
net of filver wire, fixed in the common focus of the
objefk and eye-glafs. He alfo contrived to make one of
two liars to pafs along the threads of this net, by turn-
ing it, or the telefcope, as much as was neceffary for
M I G
that purpofe ; and he counted, by a pendulum-clock,
beating feconds, the time that elapfed in its palfage
from one wire to another, which gave him the number
of the minutes and feconds of a degree contained be¬
tween the intervals of the wires of his net, with refpedt
to the focal length of his telefcope.
In 1666, Meffrs Azout and Picard publilhed a de¬
feription of a micrometer, which was nearly the fame
with that of the Marquis of Malvafia, excepting the
method of dividing it, which they performed with more
exactnefs by a ferew. In fome cafes they ufed thteads
of filk, as being finer than filver wires. Dechales alfo
recommends a micrometer confifting of fine wires, or
filken threads, the diftances of which were exadly
known, difpofed in the form of a net, as peculiarly
convenient for taking a map of the moon.
M. de la Hire fays, that there is no method more
iimple or commodious for obferving the digits of an
eclipfe than a net in the focus of the telefcope. Thefe,
he lays, were generally made of fiiken threads; and
that for this particular purpofe fix concentric circles
had alfo been made ufe of, drawn upon oiled paper ;
but he advifes to draw the circles on very thin pieces
of glafs with the point of a diamond. He alfo gives
feveral particular directions to alfift perfons in the ufe
of them. In another memoir he ihows a method of
making ufe of the fame net for all eclipfes, by ufing
a telefcope with two objeft-glaffes, and placing them
at different diftances from one another.
Different Conjlrudions of Micrometers. The firft we Plate
lhall deferibe is that by Mr Huygens. Let ABCD CCXCVa
be a fection of the telefcope at the principal focus of g' **
the objedt-glafs, or where the wires are fituated, which
are placed in a Ihort tube containing the eye-glafs, and
may be turned into anyqpoiition by turning that tube;
m n is a fine wire extended over its centre ; wv, xy,
are two ftraight plates whofe edges are parallel and
well defined, and perpendicular to mn ; vw is fixed,
and xy moves parallel to it by means of a ferew, which
carries two indexes over a graduated plate, to fhow
the number of revolutions and parts of a revolution
which it makes. Now to meafure any angle, we mull
firft afeertain the number of revolutions and parts of
a revolution conefponding to fome known angle,
which may be thus done : ill, Bring’ the inner edges
of the plates exa&ly to coincide, and fei each index
to o; turn the ferew, and feparate the plates to any
diftance; and obferve the time a ftar m is in paffing
along the wire mn from one plate to the other: for
that time, turned into minutes and feconds of a de¬
gree, will be the angle anfwering to the number of re¬
volutions, or the angle correfponding to the diftance.
Thus, if d—cof. of the ftar’s declination, we have
1 dm, the angle correfponding to this diftance and
hence, by proportion, we find the angle anfwering to
any other, idly. Set up an objedl of a known diame¬
ter, or two objeds at a given diftance, and turn the
ferew till the edges of the plates become tangents to
the objed, or till their opening juft takes in the di¬
ftance of the two obje&s upon the wire mn; then
from the diameter, or diftance of the two obje&s
from each other, and their diftance from the glafs,
calculate the angle, and obferve the number of revolu¬
tions and parts correfponding. $dly. Take the dia-.-
meter of the fun on any day, by making the edges of
fhe plate« tangents to the oppofite limbs, and find,
from
[ 694 ]
MIC [ 695 J MIC
Microme- from the nautical almanac, what is his diameter on of the ilars being oblique to them, it is not quite fa
tCyr' that day- Here it will be bell to take the upper and eafy to get them parallel to becaufe if one liar
lower limbs of the fun when on the meridian, as he has be brought near, and the eye be applied to the other
then no motion perpendicular to^the horizon. If the to adjuit the wires to it, the forme/liar will have got-
edges do not coincide when the indexes Hand at o, ten a little away from the wire. Dr Bradley, in his
we mull allow for the error. Inftead of making a pro- account of the ufe of this micrometer, published by
portion, it is better to have a table calculated to Ihow Dr Malkeleyne in the Philofophical Tranfanftions
the angle correfponding to every revolution and parts for 1772, thinks the bell way is to move the eye back-
of a revolution. But the bbferver muft remember, that wards and forwards as quick as pofiible ; but it feems
when the micrometer is fixed to telefcopes of different to me to be bell to fix the eye at fome point between,
focal lengths, a new table muff be made. The whole by which means it takes in both at once fufficiemly
fyftem of wires is turned about in its own plane, by well defined to compare them with B£. In finding
turning the eye-tube round with a hand, and by the difference of declinations, if both bodies do not
that means the wire mn can be thrown into any poll- come into the field of view at the fame time, make
tu>n, and confequently angles in any pofition may be one run along the wire H O R, as before, and* fix the-'
meafured. Dr Bradley added a fmall motion by a telefcope and wait till the other comes in, and then
rack and piaion to fet the wires more accurately in any adjufl one of the moveable wires to it, and brinn- it up
pofition. _ to H O R, and the index gives tke difference of their
Inftead of two plates, two wires were afterwards declinations. The difference of time between the p«f-
put; and Sir Ifaac Newton obferved, that the diame- fage of the liar at either of the crofs moveable wires,
ters of the planets meafured by the plates were fome- and the tranfit of the other ftar over the crofs fixed
What bigger than they ought, as appeared by compa- wire (which reprefents a meridian), turned into de-
nng Mr Huygens’s meafures with others taken with the grees and minutes, will give the difference of right
wires; and alfo by comparing the diameter of mercu- afeenfion. The ftar has been here fuppofed to be bi-
ry obferved in and out of the fun’s difk, .the latter fedlcd by the wire; but if the wire be a tangent to it,
being the grenteft. Dark objects on bright ones ap- allowance muft be made for the breadth of the wire^
pear lefs, and light objedls on dark ones appear greater, provided the adjuftment be made for the coinci-
than if they were equally bright ; owing, perhaps, to dence of the wires. In obferving the diameters of the
the brighter image on the retina diffufing itfelf into the fun, moon, or planets, it' may perhaps be molt con-
| darker : and the bright image of the planet being in- venient to make ufe of the outer edges of the wires,
tercepted by the plates, the taint diffufed light becomes becaufe they appear moft diftinft when quite withiit
move fenlible, and is miftaken for the edge of the pla- the limb : but if there thould be any fcnfible infleftion
net- . _ of the rays of light in palling by the wires, it will be
But the micrometer; as now contrived, is of ufe, bell avoided by ufing the inner edge of one wire and'
not only to find the angular diftance of bodies in the outward edge of the other ; for by that means,
the field of view at the fame timey bur alfo of thofe the infkaion at both limbs will be the fame way,
which, when the telefcope is fixed, pafs through the and therefore there will be no alteration of the rela-
field of view fuccefiively ; by which means we can find tive pofition of the rays palling by each wire. And
the difference of their right afeeniions and declinations, it will be convenient in the micrometer to note at what
I a. Let A a, B Cc, be three parallel and equidiftant divifion the index Hands when the moveable wire co¬
wires, the middle one bifefting the field of view; incides with H O R,-for then you need not bring the
H O R a fixed wire perpendicular to them palling wire when a ftar is upon it up to H O R, only reckon
through the centie of the field; and Yf, G^, two from the divifion at which the index then Hands to the
wires parallel to it, each moveable by a micro- above divifion.
meter ferew, as before, fo that they can be brought With a micrometer therefore thus adapted to a te-
up to H O R, or a little beyond. '1 hen to find lefcope, Mr Servington Savery of Exeter propofed.
the angular diftance of two objectir, bring them very anew way of meafuring the difference between the
near to B3, and in a line parallel to it, by turning greateft and leaft apparent diameters of the fun, al-
about the wires, and bring one upon HOR, and by the though the whole of the fun was not vifible in the field
micrometer ferew make F/or Gg pafs through the of view at once. The method we lhall briefly deferibe.
other; then turn the ferew till that wire coincides Place two objeft-glaffes inftead of one, fo as to farm-
Iwuth H O R, and the arc which the index has paffed two images whole limbs lhall be rft a fmall diliance-
over Ihows their angular diftance. If the objects be from each other ; or inftead of.two perfeft lenfes, he-
further remote than you can carry the diftance of one propofed to cut a Angle lens into four parts of equal
| of the wires F/, Gg, from HOR, then bring one breadths by parallel lines, and to place the two feg-
objedl to Yf and the other to Gg; and turn each ments with their ftraight lides again! each other, or
micrometer ferew till they meet, and the fum of the the two middle fruOrums with their oppofite edges.
I arcs paffed over by each index gives their angular di- together ; in either cafe, the two parts which before
fiance. If the obje&s be two liars, and one of them had a common centre and axis,, have now their centres:
be made to run along HOR, or either of the move- and axes feparated, and confequently two images will
I able wires as occafion may require, the motion of the be. formed as before by two perfeil lenfes. Another
other will be parallel to thefe wires, and their differ- method in refledlors was to cut the large concave re¬
duce of declinations may be obferved with great exaft- fleftor through the centre, and by a contrivance toi
aefsbut in taking any other diftances, the motion turn up the outer edges whilft the ftraight ones re¬
mained*
Microme-
MIG t 696 ] MIC
Microme- tnalned fixed ; by which means the axis of the two take the horizontal diameter of the fun on any day,
. *er‘ patta became inclined, and formed two images. Two by feparating the images till the contrary limbs coin-
images being formed in this manner, he propofed to cide, and read off by the vernier the interval of thef-
meafure the diftance between the limbs when the dia¬
meters of the fun were the greateft and leaft, the dif¬
ference of which would be the difference of the diame*
ters required. Thus far we are indebted to Mr Sa-
very for the idea of forming two images ; and the ad¬
mirable ufes to which it was afterwards applied, we
fhall next proceed to deferibe.
The divided objeft-ghfs micrometer, as now made,
was contrived by the late Mr John Dollond, and by
him adapted to the objedt-end of a reflecting telefcope,
and has been fince by the prefent Mr P. Dollond his fon
applied with equal advantage to the end of an achromatic
telefcope. The principle is this : The objeCt-glafs is
divided into two fegments in a line drawn through the
centres, and look into the nautical almanac for the di¬
ameter of the fun on that day, and you have the cor-
refponding angle. Or if greater exattnefs be required
than from taking the angle in proportion to the diitan-
ces of their centres, we may proceed thus :—Draw
FG perpendicular to EH, which therefore bifeCts it;
then one half EH, or EG, is the tangent of half the
angle EFH; hence, half the diftance of their centres :
tangent of half the angle correfponding to that diftance
:: half any other diftance of the centres i tangent of
half the correfponding angle (a).
Hence the method of meafuring fmall angles is
manifeft ; for we confider P, either as two ob-
jefts whofe images are brought together by feparating
centre 5 each fegment is fixed in a feparate frame of the two fegments, or as the oppofite limbs of one ob-
brafs, which is moveable, fo that the centres of the jeCt PBQA, whofe images, formed by the two feg-
two fegments may be brought together by a handle
for that purpofe, and thereby form one image of an
objeCt; but when feparated they will form two ima¬
ges, lying in a line palling through the centre of each
fegment; and confequently the motion of each image
will be parallel to that line, which can be thrown into
any pofition by the contrivance of another handle to
turn the glafs about in its own plane. The brafs-work
carries a vernier to meafure the diftance of the centres
of the two fegments. Now let E and H be the cen¬
tres of the two fegments, F their principal focus, and
ments E, H, touch at F: in the former cafe, EH
gives the angular diftance of the two objeCts j and in
the latter, it gives the angle under which the diameter
of the objeCt appears. Hence, to find the angular
diftance of two objeCts, feparate the fegments till the
two images which approach (fi) each other coincide ;
and to find the diameter of an objeCt, feparate the
fegments till the contrary limbs of the images touch
each other, and read off the diftance of the centres
of the fegment from the vernier (c), and find the
angle as directed in the laft article. From hence
P Q__two diftant obje&s in FE, FH, produced, or the appears one great fuperiority in this above the wire
oppolfte limbs of the fame objeCt PBQD ; then the *r.:.  
images of P and formed by each fegment, or the
images of the^ oppofite limbs of the objeCt PBQD,
coincide at F : hence two images mxF, «.vF of that
^objeCt are formed, whofe limbs are in contaCl; there¬
fore the angular diftance of the points P and Q^is the
fame as the angle which the diftance EH fubtends at
E, which, as the angles fuppofed to be meafured are
very fmall, will vary as EH extremely nearly ; and
confequently if the angle correfponding to one inter¬
val of the centres of the 'fegments be known, the
angle correfponding to any other will be found by pro¬
portion. Now to find the interval for fome one angle,
N> 218.
micrometer } as, with this, any diameter of an ob*
jedt may be meafured with the fame cafe and accu¬
racy ; whereas with that we cannot with accuracy
meafure any diameter, except that which is at right
angles to its apparent motion.
But, befides thefe two ufes to which the inftrument
feems fo well adapted. Dr Mafkelyne has flrown, in
the Philofophical TranfaCtions for the year 1771,
how it may be applied to find the difference of right
afeenfions and declinations. For this purpofe, two
wires at right angles to each other, bifeCting the field
of view, muft be placed in the principal focus of the
eye-glafs, and moveable about in their own plane.—»
Let
(Ad If the obje& be not a diftant one, let / be the principal focus; then Ff 1 FG f : FG : FK (FG
being produced to meet a line joining the apparent places of the two objects P, QJ, .-. dividendo, /G : FG
.: GK : FK, and alternando, /G : GK :! FG : FK :: (by fimilar triangles) EH j PQ^ hence
therefore the angle fubtended by EH at/ = the angle fubtended by PQ^at G ; and confequently, as/G is
conftant, the angle meafured at G is, in this cafe alfo, in proportion to EH. The inftrument is not adapted
to meafure the angular diftance of bodies, one of which is near and the other at a diftance, becaufe their
Images would not be formed together.
(b) Befides thefe two images, there will be two others receding from each other, for each fegment gives
an image of each object.
(c) To determine whether there be any error of adjuftment of the micrometer fcale, meafure the dia¬
meter of any fmall well defined obje&, as Jupiter’s equatorial diameter, or the longeft axis of Saturn’s ring,
both ways, that is, with o on the vernier to the right and left of o on the fcale, and half the difference
is the error required ; which muft be added to or fubtradted from all obfervations, according as the dia¬
meter meafured with o on the vernier, when advanced on the fcale, is lefs or greater than the diameter
meafured the other way. And it . is alfo evident, that half the fum of the diameters thus meafured gives
the true diameter of the objed.
Microms*-
tec. 1
nearly equal to HR the diameter of the field of view,
by bringing the two images of one of the ftars to
coincide with one of thefe wires. If two liars be ob-
ferved whofe difference of declinations is well fettled,
the fcale of the micrometer will be known.
MIC [ 697 ] M I G
Mit rome- Let HCRrbethe field of view, HR and Ce the two half the difference of the two meafures, (taking im- Miciom*.
, tc‘r' wi'-es; turn the wires till the weiternmoll liar (which mediately one after another) is equal to the difference tc:-
p;<, ’ ' is the bed, having further to move) run along ROH; of the declinations of their centres, without any re- —v—~
' then feparate the two fegments and turn about the gard to the fun’s or planet’s diameters, or error of
micrometer till the two images of the fame liar lie in adjullment of th£ micrometer ; for as it affedls both
-the wire Cc i and then, partly by feparating the feg- equally, the difference is the fame as if there were no
ments, and partly by railing or depreffiug the tele- error : and the difference of the times of the tran-
fcope, bring the two innermoll images of the two ftars fits of the eaftern or weftern limbs of the fun and pla-
to appear and run along ROH, as a, b, and the ver- net over Ct gives the difference of their right afeen-
nier will give the difference of their declinations; be- fions.
caufe, as the two images of one of the liars coincided Inftead of the difference of riVht alcenfions, the df~
with Cr, the image of each liar was brought per- ftance of the planet from the fun’s limb, in lines pa-
pendicularly upon HR, or to HR in their proper rallel to the equator, may be more accurately o’d'erve.I
meridian. And, for the fame reafon, the difference thus: Separate the fegments, and turn about the
of their times of palling the wire COr will give their wires and micrometer, fo as to make both images Fig. 6,
difference of right afeenfions. Thefe operations will V, v, run along HR, or fo that the two interfedions
be facilitated, if the telefcope be mounted on a polar I, T, of the fun’s image may pafs C at the fame
axis. If two other wires KL, MN, parallel to Ce, time. Then bring the planet’s and fun’s limbs into
be placed near H and R, the obfervation may be contad, as at V, and do the fame for the other limb
made on two ftars whofe difference of meridians is of the fun, and half the difference gives the dillance
of the centre of the planet from the middle of the
chord on the fun’s dilk parallel to the equator, or the
difference of the right afeenfions of their centres, al¬
lowing for the motion of the planet in the interval of
t the obfervations, without any regard to the error of
It has hitherto been fuppofed, that the images of adjuftment, for the fame reafon as before. For if
the two liars can be both brought into the field of you take any point in the chord of a circle, half the
view at once upon the wire HOR,: but if they can- difference of the two fegments is manifeftly the di-
not, fet the micrometer to the difference of their de- ftance of the point from the middle of the chord; and
clinations as nearly as you can, and make the image as the planet runs along HR, the chord is parallel to
which comes firft run along the wire HOR, by’de- the equator.
vating or depreffing the telefcope ; and when the other In like manner, the diftanpes of their limbs may be Fig/;,
liar comes in, if it do not alfo run along HOR, alter meafured in lines perpendicular to the equator, by
the micrometer tillfit does, and half the fum of the bringing the micrometer into the pofition already
numbers (hown by the micrometer at the two feparate deferibed*, and inftead of bringing V to HR, fepa- * See the
obfervations of the two ftars on the wire HOR will rate the fegments till the northernmoft limbs coincide Preceding
be the difference of their declinations. That this as at V ; and in the fame manner make their fouthern**olumn'
ftiould be true, it is manifeftly neceffary that the two moll images to coincide, and half, the difterence ofpar'3'
fegments ftiould recede equally in oppofite diredions ; the two meafures, allowing for the planet’s motion,
and this is effe&ed by Mr DoUond in his new im- gives the difference of the declinations of their
provement of the objed-glafs micrometer. centres. *
The difference of right afeenfions and declinations Hence the true place of a planet in the fun’s diik
of Venus or Mercury in the fun’s dilk and the fun’s may at any time of its tranfit be found ; and confe-
linrib may be thus found. Turn the wires fo that the quently the' neareft approach to the centre and the
north limb n of the fun’s image AB, or the north time of ecliptic conjundion may be deduced, although
Fig. j. limb of the image V of the planet, may run along the the middle Ihould not be obferved.
wire RH, w hicu therefore will then be parallel to the But however valuable the objed-glafs microme-
equator, and confequently Oa fecondary to it; then ter undoubtedly is, difficulties fometimes have been
feparate the fegments, and turn about the micrometer found in its ufe, owing to the alteration of the focus
till the two images Vy of the planet pafs Cc at the of the eye, which will caufe it to give different mea-
fame time, and then by feparating the fegments, fures of the fame angle at different times. For in¬
kring the north hmb of the northernmoft image V of fiance, in meafuring the fun’s diameter, the axis of
the planet to touch HR, at the time the northenmoft the pencil coming through the two fegments from the
limb « of the fouthernmoll image AB of the fun contrary limbs of the fun, as PF, QF,fig. 3. croffing
touches it, and the micrometer Ihows the difference one another in the focus F under an angle equal to the
of decollations of the northernmoft limbs of the pla- fun’s femidiameter, the union of the limbs cannot ap-
f See the net and fun, for the reafon formerly given +, we ha- pear perfed, unlefs the eye be difpofed to fee obieds
preceding ving brought the northernmoft limbs of the two in- diftindly at the place where the images are formed •
Jaf, co1'2’ nevmoft images V and A B to HR, thefe. two being for if the eye be difpofed to fee objeds nearer to or fur-
' manifeftly interior tot; and the northernmoft limb N of ther off than that place, in the latter cafe the limbs
the image PQ^ In the fame manner we take the diffe- will appear feparated, and in the former they will ap-
rence of decimations of their fouthernmoft limbs ; and pear to lap over (d). This imperfedion led Dr Ma-
Vol. XI. Part II. 4X felyne
_ (»)_ For if the eye can fee diftindly an image at F, the pencils of rays, of which PF, QF are the two axes,
diverging from F, are each brought to a focus on the retina at the fame point; and therefore the two limbs
_ , ' appear
M I C
Microme- fkelyne to inquire, whether fome method might not
ter’ be found of producing two diftinft images of the fun,
v or any other objeft, by bringing the axis of each pen¬
cil to coincide, or very nearly fo, before the formation of
the images, by which means the limbs when brought
together would not be liable to appear feparated from
any alteration of the eye ; and this he found would be
effefted by the refraction of two prifms, placed either
without or within the telefcope ; and on this prin¬
ciple, placing the prifms within, he conftruCted a new
micrometer, and had one executed by Mr Dellond,
which upon trial anfwered as he expefted. The con-
ftruftion is as follows.
Let AB be the objeft-glafs; ab the image, fup-
pofe of the fun, which would have been formed in
the principal focus Q_j but let the prifms PR, SR be
placed to intercept the rays, and let EF, WG, be two
rays proceeding from the eaftern and weftern limbs of
the fun, converging, after refraction at the lens, to a
and b ; and fuppofe the refra&ion of the prifms to be
fuch, that in tig. 8. the ray EFR, after refraCtion at
R by the prifm PR, may proceed in the direction RQj
and as all the rays which were proceeding to a fuffer
the fame refraCtion at the prifm, they will all be re-
fraCted to Qj and therefore, inftead of an image ab,
which would have been formed by the lens alone, an
image is formed by thofe rays which fall on the
prifm PR ; and for the fame reafon, the rays falling
on the prifm SR will form an image Qr/: and in fig.
9. the image of the point b is brought to by the
prifm PR, and confequently an image Q^/ is formed
by thofe rays which fall on PR : and for the fame rea¬
fon, an image Q£_is formed by the rays falling on SR.
Now in both cafes, as the rays EFR, WGR, coming
from the two oppofite limbs of the fun, and forming
the point of contaCt of the two limbs, proceed in the
fame direction RQ^ they mult thus accompany each
other through the eye-glafs and alfo through the eye,
whatever refraCtive power it has, and therefore to
every eye the images muft appear to touch. Now the
angle aKb is twice the refraCtion of the prifm, and
the angle aCb is the diameter of the fun ; and as thefe
angles are very fmall, and have the fame fubtenfe ab,
we have the angle a'R.b : angle aQb : : CQ: RQ^—
Now as COis conftant^ and alfo the angle aR.b, being
twice the refraCtion of the prifm, the angle aCb varies
as RQ_ Hence the extent of the fcale for meafuring
angles becomes the focal length of the objeCt glafs,
and the angle meafured is in proportion to the diftance
of the prifms from the principal focus of the objeCt
* Next co' ’ anc* t^ie m,croi:Tieter can meafure all angles (very
$ar. fmall ones excepted, for the reafdn afterwards given*)
which do not exceed the fum of the refraCtions of the
prifms ; for the angle aCb, the diameter of the objeCt
to be meafured, is always lefs than the angle c;R£, the
fum of the refraCtions of the prifms, except when the
prifms touch the objeCt glafs,,, and then they become
equal. The fcale can never be out of adjuliment, as
the point o, where the mcafurement begins, anfwers
to the focus of the obje t glafs, which is a fixed point
for all diftant objects, and we have only to find the
M I C
value of the fcale apfwering to fome known angle : Microme.
for inftance, bring the two limbs of the fun’s images ter-
into contaCt, and meafure the diftance of the prifms
from the focus, and look in the nautical almanac for
the fun’s diameter, and you get the value of the fcale.
In fig. 8. the limb of the image Q^, is illumi¬
nated by the rays falling 6n the objeCt glafs between
A and F, and of the image by thofe falling be¬
tween B and G ; but in fig. 9. the fame limbs are il¬
luminated by the rays falling between B and F, A
and G refpeCtively, and therefore will be more illumi¬
nated than in the other cafe ; but the difference is not
confiderable in achromatic telefcopes, on account of
the great aperture of the objeCt-glafs compared with
the diftance FG.
It might be convenient to have two fets of prifms,
one for meafuring angles not exceeding 36', and there¬
fore fit for meafuring the diameters of the fun and
moon, and the lucid parts and difiances of the cufps
in their eclipfes 5 and another for meafuring angles not
much greater than 1', for the conveniency of meafu-
ririg the diameters of the planets. For as QC : QJl::
fum of the refraCtions of the prifms : angle aCb, the
apparent diameter of the objedft, it is evident that if
you dimintih the third term, you muft increafe the fe-
cond in the fame ratio, in order to meafure the fame
angle; and thus by diminifiiing the refraCtive angle of
the prifms, you throw them further from Q^and con¬
fequently avoid the inconvenience of bringing them
near to for the reafon in the next paragraph ; and
at the fame time you will increafe the illumination in
a fmall degree. The prifms muft be achromatic, each
compofed of two prifms of flint and crown glafs,
placed with their refraCting angles contrariways, other-
wife the images will be coloured.
In the conftruCtion here defcribed, the angle mea¬
fured becomes evanefcent when the prifms cojne to the
principal focus of the objeCt glafs, and therefore o
on the fcale then begins : but if the prifms be placed
in the principal focus they can have no effect, becaufe
the pencil of rays at the junCtion of the prifms would
then vanilh, and therefore it is not practicable to bring
the two images together to get o on the fcale. Dr
Mafkelyne, therefore, thought of placing another pair
of prifms within, to refraCt the rays before they came to
the other prifms, by which means the two images
would be formed into one before they came to the
principal focus, and therefore o on the fcale could
be determined. But to avoid the error arifing from
the multiplication of mediums, he, inftead of adding
another pair of prifms, divided the objeft glafs through
its centre, and Aiding the fegments a little it feparated
the images, and then by the prifms he could form one
image very diftinCtly, and confequently could determine
o on the fcale ; for by feparating the two fegments you
form two images, and you will feparate the two pencils
fo that you may move up. the two prifms, and the two
pencils will fall on each refpeftively, and the two
images may be formed into one. In the inftrument
which Dr Maikelyne had made, o on the fcale was
chofen.to be about \ of the focal length of the objeCb-
glafs,
1 698 I
appear to. coincide : but if we increafe the refraCtive power of the eye, then each pencil is brought to a focus,
and they crofs each other before the rays come to the retina, confequently the two limbs on the retina will lap -
over ; and if we diminiih the refra&ive power of the eye, then each pencil being brought to a focus beyond
the retina, and not crofting till after they have paffed it, the two limbs on the retina muft be feparated.
MIC [ 699 ] MIC
Micromc- glafs, and each prifm refrafted 27'. By this means all
angles are meafured down to o.
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for 1779, Mr
Ramfden has defcribed two new micrometers, which
he contrived with a view of remedying the defeats of
the objeft-glafs micrometer.
i. One of thefe is a catoptric micrometer, which,
befide the advantage it derives from the principle of
refleftion, of not being difturbed by the heterogeneity
of light, avoids every defeat of other micrometers,
and can have no aberration, nor any defeft arifing
from the imperfection of materials or of execution;
as the extreme fimplicity of its conftruCtion requires
no additional mirrors or glafles to thofe required for
the telefcope ; and the feparation of the image being
effeCled by the inclination of the two fpecula, and not
depending on the focus of any lens or mirror, any al¬
teration in the eye of an obferver cannot affeCt the
angle meafured. It has peculiar to itfelf the advan¬
tages of an adjuftment, to make the images coincide
in a direAion perpendicular to that of their motion ;
and alfo of meafuring the diameter of a planet on both
fides of the zero, which will appear no inconfiderable
advantage to obfervers who know how much eafier it
is to afcertain the contaCt of the external edges of two
images than their perfeCt coincidence.
Fig, to. A reprefents the fmall fpeculum divided into two
equal parts; one of which is fixed on the end of the
arm B ; the other end of the arm is fixed on a fled
axis X, which croffes the end of the telefcope C. The
other half of the mirror A is fixed on the arm D,
which arm at the other end terminates in a focket y,
that turns on the axis X; both arms are prevented
from bending by the braces aa. G reprefents a double
fcrew, having one part e cut into double the number
of threads in an inch to that of the part g ; the part
e having 100 threads in one inch, and the part g 50
only. The fcrew e works in a nut F in the fide of
the telefcope, while the part g turns in a nut H,
which is attached to the arm B; the ends of the arms
B and D, to which the mirrors are fixed, are fepa-
rated from each other by the point of the double
fcrew preffing againft the ftud h> fixed to the arm D,
and turning in the nut H on the arm B. The two
arms B and D are preffed againft the direction of the
double fcrew eg by a fpiral fpring within the part n,
by which means all (hake or play in the nut H, on
which the meafure depends, is entirely prevented.
From the difference of the threads on the fcrew at
e and g, it is evident, that the progreffive motion of the
fcrew through the nut will be half the diftance of the
feparation of the two halves of the mirror; and confe-
quently the half mirrors will be moved equally
in contrary diredlions from the axis of the tele¬
fcope C.
The wheel V fixed on the end of the double fcrew
has its circumference divided into 100 equal parts,
and numbered at every fifth divifion with 5, 10, &c.
to 100, and the index I fhows the motion of the fcrew
with the wheel round its axis, while the number of
revolutions of the fcrew is fhown by the divifions on
the fame index. The fteel fcrew at R may be turned
by the key S, and ferves to incline the fmall mirror at
right angles to the direction of its motion. By
turningthefinger-headT (fig. u;), the,eye-tube Pis
brought nearer or farther from the fmall mirror, to Microme-
adjuft the telefcope to diftinft viiion ; and the tele- , tcr-
fcope itfelf hath a motion round it axis for the con- ' '
veniency of meafuring the diameter of a planet in any
dire&ion. The inclination of the diameter meafured
with the horizon is Ihown in degrees and minutes by a
level and vernier on a graduated circle, at the breech
of the telefcope.
“ It is necefiary to obferve (fays Mr Ramfden),
that, befides the table for reducing the revolutions and
parts of the fcrew to minutes, feconds, &c. it may
require a table for correcting a very fmall errorwhich
arifes from the excentric motion of the half-mirrors.
By this motion their centres of curvature will (when
the angle to be meafured is large) approach a little
towards the large mirror : the equation for this pur-
pofe in fmall angles is infenfible; but when angles to
be meafured exceed ten minutes, it Ihould not be ne-
gleCted. Or, the angle meafured may be correfted
by diminilhing it in the proportion the verfed fine of
the angle meafured, fuppofing the eccentricity radius,
bears to the focal length of the fmall mirror.”
Mr Ramfden preferred Caffegrain’s conftruClion of
the refleAing telefcope to either the Gregorian or
Newtonian ; becaufe in the former, errors caufed by
one fpeculum are diminilhed by thofe in the other.
From a property of the reflecting telefcope (which,
he obferves, has not been attended to), that the aper¬
tures of the two fpecula are to each other very nearly
in the proportion of their focal lengths, it follows, that
their aberrations will be to each other in the fame pro¬
portion ; and thefe aberrations are in the fame direc¬
tion, if the two fpecula are both concave ; or in con¬
trary directions, if one fpeculum is concave and the
other convex. In the Gregorian conftruftion, both
fpecula being concave, the aberration at the fecond
image will be the fum of the aberrations of the two
mirrors ; but in the Caffegrain conftruCtion, one mir¬
ror being concave and the other convex, the aber¬
ration at the fecond image will be the difference be¬
tween their aberrations. By affuming fuch propor¬
tions for the foci of the fpecula as are generally ufed
in the reflecting telefcope, which is about as 1 to 4,
the aberration in the Caffegrain conftruCtion will be
to that in the Gregorian as 3 to 5.
2. The other is a dioptric micrometer, or one fuited
to the principle of refraCtion. This micrometer is ap¬
plied to the ereft eye-tube of a refrafting telefcope,
and is placed in the conjugate focus of the firft eye-
glafs: in which pofition, the image being confiderably
magnified before it comes to the micrometer, any im¬
perfection in its glafs will be magnified only by the re¬
maining eye-glaffes, which in any telefcope feldom ex¬
ceeds five or fix times. By this pofition alfo the fize
of the micrometer glafs will not be the part of
the area which would be required if it was placed in
the objeCt-glafs ; and, notwithftanding this great dif-
proportion of fize, which is of great moment to the
practical optician, the fame extent of fcale is preferred,
and the images are uniformly bright in every part of
the field of the telefcope.
Fig. t2. reprefents the glaffes of a refraCting tele- Plate
fcope; scy, the principal pencil of rays from the object-
glafs 0} 11 and u u, the axis of two oblique pencils;
a, the firft eye-glafs; m, its conjugate focus, or the
4T 2 place
MIC [ 700. ] MIC
Microme- place of the micrometer; b the fecond eye-glafs; ethe
, lv • third ; and dt!ie foarth, or that which is neareft the
" 4 eye. Let p be the diameter of the objedl-glafs, e the
diameter of a pencil at w, and/the diameter of the
pencil at the eye ; it ^is evident, that the axis of the
pencils from every part of the image will crofs each
other at the point m; and e, the width of the micro-
meter-glafs, is to i> the diameter of the object-glafs as
t» « is to ^ 0, which is the proportion of the magnify¬
ing power at the point m; and the error caufed by an
imperfection in the micrometer glafs placed at m will be
to the error, had the micrometer been at O, as m is top.
Fig. 13. reprefents the micrometer; A, a convex or
concave lens divided into two equal parts by a plane
acrofs its centre ; one of thefe femi-lenfes is fixed in
a frame B, and the other in the frame E ; which
two frames Aide on a plate H, and are prelfed againft
it by thin plates a a: the frames B and E are moved
in contrary diredfions by turning the button D ; L is
a fcale of equal parts on the frame B ; it is numbered
from each end towards the middle with 10, 20, &c.
’1 here are two verniers on the frame E, one at M
and the other at N, for the convenience of meafuring
the diameter of a planet, &c. on both Tides the zero.
The iirft divifion on both thefe verniers coincides at
the fame time with the two zeros on the fcale L; and,
if the frame is moved towards the right, the relative
motion of the two frames is fhown on the fcale L
by the vernier M ; but if the frame B be moved to¬
wards the left, the relative motion is fhown by the ver¬
nier N.—This micrometer has a motion round the
axis of vifion, for the convenience of meafuring the
diameter of a planet, &c. in any direction, by turn¬
ing an endlefs ferew F ; and the inclination of the
diameter meafured with the horizon is fhown on the
circle £ by a vernier on the plate V. The telefcope
may be adjufted to diftinft vifion by means of an ad-
jufting ferew, which moves the whole eye-tube with
the micrometer nearer or farther from the objeft-glafs,
as telefcopes are generally made ; or the fame effedl
may be produced in a better manner, without moving
the micrometer, by Aiding the part of the eye tube m
on the part n, by help of a ferew or pinion. The
micrometer is made to take off occafionally from the
eye-tube, that the telefcope may be ufed without it.
Still, however, micrometers remained in feveral re-
fpefts imperfeft. In particular, the imperfe&ions of the
parallel-wire micrometer in taking the ditlance of very
clofe double frars, are the following.
When two ffars are taken between the parallels, the
diameters muft he included Mr lierfcbel informs us, he
has in vain attempted to-find lines fuffieiently thin to ex¬
tend them acrofs the centres of the ftars fo that their
thicknefs might be negle&ed. The Angle threads of the
iilk-worm, with fuch lenfes as he ufes, are fo much mag-
nified that their diameter is more than that of many of
the flars. Befides, if they were much lefs than they are,
the power of defleftion of light would make the attempt
to meafure the diftance of the centres this way fruitlefs:
for he has always found the light of the ftars to play
upon thofe lines and feparate their apparent diameters
into two parts. Now fince the fpurious diameters of the
ftars thus included, as Mr. Herfchel aflures us, are
continually changing according to the ftate of the air.
and the length of time we look at them, we are, in Miemme.l
fome refped, left at an uncertainty, and our meafures ,er’
taken at different times and with different degrees of , '
attention, will vary on that account. Nor can we come
at the true diftance of the centres of any two ftars,
one from another, unlefs we could tell what to allow
for the femidiameters of the ftars themfelves ; for dif-
ferent ftars have different apparent diameters, which,
with a power of 227, may differ from each other as far
as two feconds.
The next imperfeftion is that which arifes from a
defle&ion of light upon the wires when they approach
very near to each other; for if this be owing to a
power of repulfion lodged at the furface, it is eafy to
underftand, that fuch powers muft interfere with each
other, and give the meafures larger in propottion than
they would have been if the repulftve power of one
wire had not been oppofed by a contrary power of the
other wire. -
Another very conAderable imperfection of thefe
micrometers is a continual uncertainty of the real zero.
Mr Herfchel has found, that the leaft alteration in the
iituation and quantity of light will affect the zero, and
that a change in the pofition of the wires, when the
light and other circumftances remain unaltered, will
alfo produce a difference. 1 o obviate this difficulty,
whenever he took a meafure that required the'utmoft
accuracy, his zero was always taken immediately af¬
ter, while the apparatus remained in the fame Atua-
tion it was in when the meafure was taken ; but this
enhances the difficulty, becaufe it introduces an addi¬
tional obfervation.
The next imperfection, which is none of the fmall-
eft, is that every micrometer that has hitherto been in
ufe requires either a ferew, or a divided bar and pinion,
to meafure the diftance of the wires or divided image.
Thofe who are acquainted with works of this kind are
but too fenftble how difficult it is to have ferews that
ftiall be perfectly equal in every thread or revolution
of each thread; or pinions and bars that (hall be fo
evenly divided as perfectly to be depended upon in every
leaf and tooth to perhaps the two, three, or four thou-
fandth part of an inch : and yet, on account of the
fmall fcale of thofe micrometers, thefe quantities are
of the greateft confequence ; an error of a Angle thou-
fandth part inducing in moft inftruments a miftake of
feveral feconds.
The laft and greateft imperfeftion of all is, that thefe
wire micrometers require a pretty ftrong light in the
field of view ; and when Mr Herfchel had double ftars
to meafure, one of which was very obfeure, he was
obliged to be content with lefs light than is neceflary
to-make the wires perfectly diftineft ; and feveral ftars
on this account could not be meafured at all, though
otherwife not too clofe for the micrometer.
Mr Herfchel, therefore, having long had much oc-
caAon for miciometers that would meafure exceeding
fmall diftances exaftly, was led to bend his attention
to the improvement of thefe inftrnments; and the re-
fult of his endeavours has been a very ingenious in-
ftrument called a lamp-micrometer, which is not only
free from the imperfections above fpeeiAed, but alfo
poffeffes the advantages of a very large fcale. This in-
ftrument is deferibed in the Philofophical Tran fact ions
for 1782 ; and the eonftruftion of it is as follows:
ABGCFE
MIG [ 701 ] MIC
ABGCFE (fig. 14.) is a ftand nine feet high, upon
which a femicircular board qhogp is moveable upwards
or downwards, in the manner of fome fire-fcreens, as
occafion may require, and is held in its fituation by a
peg p put into any one of the holes of the upright
piece \B This board is a fegment of a circle of
fourteen inches radius, and is about three inches
broader than a femicircle, to give room for the
handles r D, rP, to work. The ufe of this board is
to carry «n arm L, thirty inches long, which is made
to move upon a pivot at the centre of the circle, by
means of a firing, which pafies in a groove upon the
edge of the femicircle pgohq ; the fifing is faftened to
a hook at 0 (not exprefled in the figure, being at the
back of the arm IT, and palling along the groove from
oh to q is turned over a pulley at q, and goes down to
a fmall barrel e, within the plane of the circular board,
where a double-jointed handle eP commands its mo¬
tion. By this contrivance, we fee, the arm L may be
lifted up to any altitude from the horizontal pofition
to the perpendicular, or be fullered to defcend by
its own weight below the horizontal to the reverfe
perpendicular fituatioa. The weight of the handle P
is fufficient to keep the arm in any given poiition ;
but if the motion Ihould be too eafy, a fridtion fpring
applied to the barrel will moderate it at pleafure.
In front of the arm L a fmall Aider, about three
inches long, is moveable in a rabbet from the end L
towards the centre backwards and forwards. A firing
is faftened to the left fide of the little Aider, and goes
towards L, where it pafies round a pulley at m, and
returns under the arm from m, n, towards the centre,
where it is led in a groove on the edge of the arm,
which is of a circular form, upwards to a barrel
(raifed above the plane of the circular board) at r,
to which the handle rD is faftened. A fecond firing
is faftened to the Aider, at the right fide, and goes to¬
wards the centre, where it paffes over a pulley n; and
the weight w, which is fufpended by the end of this
ftring, returns the Aider towards the centre, when a
contrary turn of the handle permits it to aft.
By a and b are reprefented two fmall lamps, two
inches high, 1 ‘ in breadth by 1^ in depth. The fides,
back, and top, are made fo as to permit no light to be
feen, and the front conAfts of a thin brafs Aiding door.
The flame in the lamp a is placed three-tenths of an inch
from the left fide, three-tenths from the front, and half
an inch from the bottom. In the lamp b it is placed at
the fame height and diftance, meafuring from the right
fide. The wick of the flame confifts only of a Angle
very thin lamp cotton-thread ; for the fmalleft flame
being fufficient, it is eafier to keep it burning in fo
confined a place. In the top of each lamp muft be a
lit-tle flit lengthways, and alfo a fmall opening in one
fide near the upper part, to permit air enough to cir¬
culate to feed the flame. To prevent every refleftion
of light, the flde opening of the lamp a fliould be to
the right, and that of the lamp b to the left. In the
Aiding door of each lamp is made a fmall hole with
the point of a very fine needle juft oppofite the place
where the wicks are burning, fo that when the Aiders
are flint down, and every thing dark, nothing fliall be
feen but two fine lucid points of the fize of two ftars
of the third or fourth magnitude. The lamp a is
placed £0 that its lucid point may be in the centre of
the circular board where it remains fixed. The lamp
b is hung to the little Aider which moves in the rabbet
of the arm, fo that its lucid point, in an horizontal
pofition of the arm, may be on a level with the lucid
point in the centre. The moveable lamp is fufpended
upon a piece of brafs faftened to the Aider by a pin
exaftly behind the flame, upon which it moves as a pi¬
vot. The lamp is balanced at the bottom by a leaden
weight, fo as always to remain upright, when the arm
is either lifted above or depreffed below the horizon¬
tal pofition. The double-jointed handles / D, (P, con-
fift of light deal rods, ten feet long, and the loweft of
them may have divifions, marked upon it near the end
P, exprefling exa'.xly the diftance from the central lu¬
cid point in feet, inches, and tenths.
From this conftruftion we fee, that a perfon at a
diftance of ten feet may govern the two lucid points,
fo as to bring them into any required pofition fouth or
north preceding or following from o to 90° by ufing
the handle P, and alfo to any diftance from Ax-tenths
of an inch to five or fix and twenty inches by taeans-
of the handle D. if any refleftion or appearance of
light fliould be left from the top or fides of the lamps,
a temporary fcreen, confifting of a long piece of paite-
board, or a wire frame covered with black clith, of
the length of the whole arm, and of any required
breadth, with a flit of half an inch broad in the middle,-
may be affixed to the arm by four bent wires projeft-
ing an inch or two before the lamps, Atuated fo that
the moveable lucid point may pafs along the opening,
left for that p'urpofe.
Fig. ’5. reprefents part of the arm L, half the real
fize; S the flidery m the pulley, over which the cord
xiyz is returned towards the centre; v the other cord
going to the pulley n of fig. 14. R the brafs piece
moveable upon the pin c, to keep the lamp upright.
At R is a wire rivetted to the brafs piece, upon which-
is held the lamp by a nut and fcrew. Fig. 16. 17. re-
prefent the lamps a, b, with the Aiding doors open,
to Alow the fituation of the wicks. W is the leaden-
weight with a hole d in it, through which the wire R
of fig. 15. is to be paffed when the-lamp is to be faft¬
ened to the Aider S. Fig. 18. reprefents the lamp a
with the Aiding door Amt; / the lucid point; and ik
the openings at the top, and s at the fides, for the ad-
miffion of air.
“ Every ingenious artift (fays Mr Herfchel) will
foon perceive, that the motions of this micrometer are
capable of great improvement by the application of
wheels and pinions, and other well known mechanical
refources ; but as the principal objeft is only to be
able to adjuft the two lucid points to the required po¬
fition and diftance, and to keep them there for a few
minutes,- while the obferver goes to meafure their dif¬
tance, it will not be neceffary to fay more upon the
fubjeft.
“ I am now to fliow the application of this inftru-
ment. It is well known to opticians and others who
have been in the habit of ufing optical inftruments,
that we can with one eye look into a microfcope or te-
lefcope, and fee an objeft much magnified, while the
naked eye may fee a fcale upon which the magnified
pifture is thrown. In this manner I have generally
determined the power of my telefcopes ; and any one
who has acquired a facility of taking fuch obfervation»
Microme--
MIC r 702 1 MIC
will very feldom miftake fo much as one in fifty in de¬
termining the power of an inftrument, and that degree
of exa&nefs is fully fufficient for the purpofe.
“ The Newtonian form is admirably adapted to the
ufe of this micrometer; for the obferver ftands always
ere£t, and looks in a horizontal dire&ion, .notwith-
ftanding the telefcope (hould be elevated to the zenith.
Befides, his face being turned away from the objeA
to which his telefcope is directed, this micrometer may
be placed very conveniently without caufing the leaft
obftm&ion to the view : therefore, when I life this
inftrument, I put it at ten feet diftance from the left
eye, in a line perpendicular to the tube of the tele¬
fcope, and raife the moveable board to fuch a height
that the lucid point of the central lamp may be upon
a level with the eye. The handles, lifted up, are paf*
fed through two loops fattened to the tube, juft by the
obferver, fo as to be ready for his ufe. I ftiould 6b-
ferve, that the end of the tube is cut away, fo as to
leave the left eye entirely free to fee the whole micro¬
meter.
“ Having now direfted the telefcope to a double
liar, I view it with the right eye, and at the fame
time with the left fee it projected upon the microme¬
ter : then, by the handle P, which commands the po-
fition of the arm, I raife or deprefs it fo as to bring
the two lucid points to a fimilar fituation with the two
ilars; and, by the handle 0, I approach or remove
the moveable lucid point to the fame diftance of the
two ftars, fo that the two lucid points may be exact¬
ly covered by or coincide with the ftars. A little
pradtice in this bufinefs foon makes it eafy, efpecially
to one who has already been ufed to look with both
eyes open.
“ What remains to be done is very fimple. With
a proper rule, divided into inches and fortieth parts,
1 take the diftance of the lucid points, which may be
done to the greateft nicety, becaufe, as I obferved be¬
fore, the little holes are made with the point of a very
fine needle. The meafure thus obtained is the tangent
of the magnified angle under which the ftars are feen
to a radius of ten feet; therefore, the angle being
found and divided by the power of the telefcope gives
the real angular diftance of the centres of a double ftar.
“ For inftance, September 25, 1781, I meafured
,K Herculis with this in^rument. Having cauled the
two lucid points to coincide exa&ly with the ftars
centre upon centre, I found the radius or diftance of
the central lamp from the eye 10 feet 4.15 inches ; the
tangent or diftance of the two lucid points 50.6 for¬
tieth parts of an inch ; this gives the magnified angle
35', and dividing by the power 460, which I ufed, we
obtain 4" 34"' for the diftance of the centres of the two
ftars. The fcale of the micrometer at this very conve¬
nient diftance, with the power of 4.60 (which my te¬
lefcope bears fo well upon the fixed ftars that for near
a twelvemonth part; I have hardly ufed any other), is
above a quarter of an inch to a fecond ; and by put¬
ting on my power of 932, which in very fine evenings
is extremely diftinft, I obtain a fcale of more than half
an inch to a fecond, w ithout increafing the diftance of
the micrometer ; whereas the moft perfedt of my for¬
mer micrometers, with the fame inftrument,' had a fcale
of lefs than the two thoufandth part of an inch to a
fecond.
“ The meafures of this micrometer are not confined Microm*#;
to double ftars only, but may be applied to any other
obi efts that require the utmoft accuracy, fuch as the
diameters of the planets or their fatellites, the moun¬
tains of the moon, the diameters-of the fixed ftars. See.
“ For inftance, Oftober 22. 1781, I meafured the
apparent diameter of * Lyras; and judging it of the
greateft importance to increafe my fcale as much as
convenient, I placed the micrometer at the greateft:
convenient diftance, and (with fome trouble, for want
of longer handles, which might eafily be added) took
the diameter of this ftar by removing the two lucid
points to fuch a diftance as juft to enclofe the apparent
diameter. When I meafured my radius, it was found
to be twenty-two feet fix inches. The diftance of th*
two lucid points was about three inches, for I will not
pretend to extreme nicety in this obfervation, on ac¬
count of the very great power I ufed, which was
6450. From thefe meafures we have 'the magnified
angle 38' 10": this divided by the power gives o' .355
for the apparent diameter of « Lyrae. The fcale of
the micrometer, on this occafion, was no lefs than
8.443 inches to a fecond, as will be found by multi¬
plying the natural tangent of a fecond with the power
and radius in inches.
“ November 28. 1781, I meafured the diameter of
the new ftar; but the air was not very favourable, for
this lingular ftar was not fo diftinft with 227 that even¬
ing as it generally is with 460 : therefore, without
laying much ftrefs upon the exaftnefs of the obferva¬
tion, I lhall only report it to exemplify the ufe of the
micrometer. My radius was 35 feet 11 inches. The
diameter of the ftar, by the diftance of the lucid points,
was 2.4 inches, and the power I ufed 227 : hence the
magnified angle is found 19', and the real diameter of
the ftar 5".022. The fcale of this meafure .474 mil-
lefimals of an inch, or almoft half an inch to a fecond.
In the Philofophical Tranfadlions for 1791, a very
fimple micrometer for meafuring fmall angles with the
telefcope is defciibed by Mr Cavallo; who introdu*
ces his defeription with the following obfervations
upon the different forts of telefcopical micrometers in
ufe. “ Thefe inftruments may be divided into two
claffes ; namely, thofe which have not, and thofe which
have, fome movement amongft their parts. The mi¬
crometers of the former fort confift moftly of fine |
wires or hairs, varioully difpofed, and fituated within
the telefcope, juft where the image of the object is
formed. In order to determine an angle with thofe
micrometers, a good deal of calculation is generally
required. The micrometers of the other fort, of which
there is a great variety, fome being made with move-
able parallel wires, others with prifms, others again
with a combination of lenfes, and fo on, are more or
lefs fubjeft to feveral inconveniencies, the principal of
which are the following, r. Their motions generally
depend upon the action of a ferew; and of courfe the
imperfections of its threads, and the greater or lefs •'
quantity of loft motion, which is obfervable in mo¬
ving a ferew, efpecially when fmall, occafion a con-
fiderable error in the menfuration of angles. 2. Their
complication and bulk renders them difficultly appli¬
cable to a variety of telefcopes, efpecially to the
pocket ones. 3. They do not meafure the angle with¬
out fome lofa of time, which is neceffary to turn the
2 ferew,
MIC [ 703 1 MIC
t'crome- fcrew, or to move fome other mechanifm. 4. and
ter' laftly. They are confiderably expenfive, fo that fome
v of them colt even more than a tolerably good tele-
fcope.”
After having had long in view (our author informs
us) the conftru&ion of a micrometer which might
be in part at leaft, if not entirely, free from all thofe
obje6tiens 5 he, after various attempts, at laft fuc-
ceeded with a Ample contrivance, which, after re*
peated trials, has been found to anfwer the defired
end, not only from his own experience, but from that
alfo of feveral friends, to whom it has been communi¬
cated.
This micrometer, in ihort, confifts of a thin and
narrow flip of mother-of-pearl finely divided, and fitu-
ated in the focus of the eye-glafs of a telefcope, juft
■where the image of the objeft is formed. It is imma¬
terial whether the telefcope be a refraftor or a reflec¬
tor, provided the eye-glafs be a convex lens, and not
a concave one as in the Galilean conftruftion.
The fimpleft v/ay of fixing it is to flick it upon
the diaphragm which generally ftands within the
tube and in the focus of the eye-glafs. When thus
fixed, If you look through the eye-glafs, the divifions
of the micrometrical fcale will appear very diftindt,
unlefs the diaphragm is not exaftly in the focus ; in
■which cafe, the micrometrical fcale muft be placed -
exadtly in the focus of the eye-glafs, either by pufh-
ing the diaphragm backwards or forwards, when that
is practicable ; or elfe the fcale may be eafily removed
from one or the other furface of the diaphragm by
the interpofition of a circular piece of paper or card,
or by a bit of wax. This conftrudtion is fully fuffi-
cient, when the telefcope is always to be ufed by the
fame perfon; but when different perfons are to ufe it,
then the diaphragm which fupports the micrometer
tnuft be conftrufted fo as to be eafily moved backwards
or forwards, though that motion needs not be greater
than about a tenth or an eighth of an inch. This is
neceflary, becaufe the diftance of the focus of the
fame lens appears different to the eyes of different
perfons; and, therefore, whoever is going to ufe the
telefcope for the menfuration of any angle, muft firft
of all unfcrew the tube which contains the eye-glafs
and micrometer from the reft of the telefcope, and,
looking through the eye-glafs, muft place the micro¬
meter where the divifions of it may appear quite di-
ftinft to his eye.
In cafe that any perfon fhould not like to fee al¬
ways the micrometer in the field of the telefcope, then
the micrometrical fcale, inftead of being fixed to the
diaphragm, may be fitted to a circular perforated
plate of brafs, wood, or even paper, which may be
occafionally placed upon the faid diaphragm.
Mr Cavallo has made feveral experiments to deter¬
mine the moft ufeful fubftance for this micrometer.—
Glafs, which he had fuccefsfully applied for a fimilar
purpofe to the compound microfcr.pe, feemed at firft
to be the moft promifing; but it was at laft rejected
after feveral trials : .for the divifions upon it generally
are either too fine to be perceived, or too rough ; and
though with proper care and attention the divifions
may be proportioned to the fight, yet the thicknefs
o£ the glafs itfelf obftructs in fome meafure the difiincjt
view of the objeft. Ivory, horn, and wood, were M'cromtf-
found ufelefs for the conftruSion of this micrometer, ter‘ t
on account of their bending, fwelling, and contrac- ^W
ting very eafily; whereas mother-of-pearl is a very
fteady fubftance, the divifions upon it may be marked
very eafily, and when it is made as thin as common
writing paper it has a very ufeful degree of tranfpa-
rency.
Fig. 19. exhibits this micrometer fcale, but fliows
it four times larger than the real fize of one, which
he has adapted to a three-feet achromatic telefcope
that magnifies about 84 times. It is fomething lefs than
the 24th part of an inch broad ; its thicknefs is equal
to that of common writing paper; and the length of
it is determined by the aperture of the diaphragm,
which limits the field of the telefcope. The divifions
upon it are the zooths of an inch, which reach from
one edge of the fcale to about the middle of it, ex-,
cepting every fifth and tenth divifion, which are
longer. The divided edge of it paffes through the
centre of the field of view, though this is not a necef-
fary precaution in the conftru6tion of this micrometer.
Two divifions of the above deferibcd fcale in my tele¬
fcope are very nearly equal to one minute; and as a
quarter of one of thofe divifions may be very well di-
ftinguilhed by eftimation, therefore an angle of one
eighth part of a minute, or of y7-)-, may be meafured
with it.
When a telefcope magnifies more, the divifions of
the micrometer muft be more minute ; and Mr Ca¬
vallo finds, that when the focus of'the eye-glafs of the
telefcope is ftiorter than half an inch, the micrometer
may be divided with the yooths of an inch ; by
means of which, and the telefcope magnifying about
200 times, one may eafily and accurately meafure an
angle fmaller than half a fecond. On the other hand,
when the telefcope does not magnify above 30 times,
the divifions need not be fo minute : for inftance, in
one of Dollond’s pocket telefcopes, which when drawn
out for ufe is about 14 inches long, a micrometer with >
the hundredths of an inch is quite fufficient, and one
of its divifions is equal to little lefs than three mi¬
nutes, fo that an angle of a minute may be meafured
by it.
“In looking through a telefcope furnifhed with
fuch a micrometer (fays our author), the field of view
appears divided by the micrometer fcale, the breadth
of which occupies about one-feventh part of the aper-
ture ; and as the fcale is femitranfparent, that part of
the objedt which happens to be behind it' may be dif-
cerned fufliciently well to afcertain the divifion, and
even the quarter of a divifion, with which its borders
coincide.. Fig. 20. ffiows the appearanee of the field
of my telefcope with the micrometer^ when diredted
to the title page of the Philofophical Tranfactions,.
wherein one may obferve that the thicknefs of the
letter C is equal to three-fourths- of a divifion, the
diameter of the O is equal to three divifions, and
fo on.
“ At firft view, one is apt to imagine, that it is dif¬
ficult to count the divifions which may happen to co¬
ver or to meafure an objedf ; but upon trial it will be
found, that this is readily performed ; and even people -
who have never.been ufed to obferve with the tele**
fcope, -
Microme fcope, foon learn to meafure very quickly and accu- of three. Thus, fuppofe 'that the diameter of the lun M
, ter- rately with this micrometer; for fince every fifth and feen through the fame telefcope, be found equal to
tenth diviiion is longer than the reft, one foon acquires iz divifions, fay as n|-divifions are to 30 minutes,
the habit of faying, five, ten, fifteen; and then, by /12' X o'
adding the other divifions lefs than five, completes fo are 12 divifions to ( 31.3, which is the
the reckoning. Even with a telefcope which has no • , • r ^
Hand, if the objefit end of it be refted againft a fteady reqw>«d diameter of the fun. _
place, and the other end be held by the hand near ‘‘Notwithftanding the facility ofthis calculation, a
the eye of the obferver, an objeft may be meafured ^Cli e may macle anfwenng to the divifions of a
with accuracy fufficient for feveral purpofes, as for the micrometer, which will ftiow the angle correfponding
eftimation of fmall diftances, for determining the ^ any number of dmhons to mere infipeftion. Thus,
height of a houfe, &e. ■ t^ie above-mentioned fmall telefcope, the fcale is
“ After having iconftrufted and adapted this micro- reprefented in fig. 21. ft.B is a line drawn at plea-
meter to the telefcope, it is then neceffary to afcer- ;t is tl}en divided into 23 equal parts, and thdfe
tain the value of the divifions. It is hardly neceftary divifions which reprefent the divifions of the micro-
to mention in this place, that though thofe divifions meter that are eftual to. one degree,_ are marked on
meafure the chords of the angles, and not the angles one ^de i1. The line then is divided again into
or-arches themfelves, and the chords are not as the 6j eftual Parts> which are marl-.ed on the other fide
arehes, yet it has been fliown by all the trigonome- of lt; 5 and thefe divifioos reprefent the minutes which
trical writei-s, that in fmall angles the chords, arches, correfpond to the divifions of the micrometer : thus
fines, and tangents, follow the feme proportion fo the %ure ft0™3’ that. divifions of the micrometer
very nearly, that the very minnte difference may be are e4ual to I5v minutes, iij divifions are nearly
fafely negiefted : fo that if one divifion of this micro- e(lual t0 29 minutes, &c. What has been feid of mi-
meter is equal to one minute, we may fafely conclude, nute3 may be faid of feconds alio, when the fcale is
that two divifions are equal to two minutes, three di- t0 be applied to a large telefcope.
vifions to three minutes, and fo on. There are vari- “ 1 hus far thls micrometer and its general ufe have
ous methods of afcertaining the value of the divifions been fofficienUy defcnbed ; and mathematical perfons
of fuch a micrometer, tliey being the very feme that may eailiy a^Y to the vanoils purpoies to which
are ufed for afcertaining the value of the divifions in micrometers have been found fubfervient. But as the
other micrometers. Such are, the paffage of an equa- fimplieity, cheapuefs, and at the feme time the accu-
torial ftar over a certain number of divilions in a cer- racy of tbis contrivance, may render the ufe of it much
tain time; or the meafuiing of the diameter of the fun, mo™ general than rthat of a-n7 other micrometer ; and
by computation from the focal diftance of the object -l- may venture to feyr that it will be found very ufe-
and other lenfes of the telefcope ; the laft of which, ful in the army> at’d amongft fea-fanng people, for
however, is fubjea to feveral inaccuracies; but as the determination of d.fiances, heights, &c.; I (hall
they are well known to aftronomlcai perfons, and therefore join fome pra&ical rules to render this mi-
have been defcribed in many books, they need not crometer ufeful to perfons unacquainted with trigo-
be farther noticed here. However, for the fake of nometry and the ufe of logarithms,
workmen and other perfons not converfent in aftro- “ Problem 1. 1 he angle, not exceeding one degree,
nomy, I fhall defcribe an eafy and accurate method of which is fubtended by an extenfion of one foot, being
afcertaining the value of the drvifions of the micro- gwen, to find its diftance from the place of obferva-
tion. N. B. This extenfion of one foot, or any other
“ Mark upon a wall or other place the length of* which may be mentioned hereafter, muft be perpendi-
fix inches, which may be done by making two dots fuhir to the direftion of the telefcope through which
or lines fix inches afunder, or by fixing a fix-inch ru- ^ *8 obferved. d he diitances are reckoned from the
ler upon a ftand ; then place the telefcope before it objeft-glafs of the telefcope; and the anfwers obtained
f<> that the ruler or fix-inch length may be at right b7 the rules of this problem, though not exa&ly true,
. angles with the direftion of the telefcope, and juft 57 are however fo little different from the truth, that the
feet 34. inches diftant from the objeft glafs of the difference feldom amounts to more than two or three
telefcope : «iis done, look through the telefcope at inches, which may be fafely negkaed.
the ruler or other exteniion of fix inches, and obferve “ Rule i. If the angle be expreffed in minute0,
how many divifions of the micrometer are equal to fay» as tbe given angle is to 60, fo is 687.55 to a
it, and that fame number of divifions is equal to half fourth proportional, which gives the anfwer in inches,
a degree, er 30'; and this is all that needs be done —_ If tbe angle be expieffed in fecunds, fey, as
for the required determination ; the reafon of which the given angle is to 360c, fo is 687.55 to a fourth
is, becaufe an extenfion of fix inches fubtrends an proportional, which exprefies the anfwer in inches,
angle of 30' at the diftance of 57 feet 3^ inches, as —3- If the angle be expreffed in minutes and fe-
may be eafily calculated by the rules of plane trigo- conds, turn it all into feconds, and proceed as a-
nometry. bove.
“ In one of Dollond’s 14-inch pocket telefcopes, “ Example. At what diftance is a globe of one
if the divifions of the'micrometer be the hundredths of foot in diameter when it fubtends an angle of two
an inch, 114 of thofe divifions will be found equal to feconds ?-
30', or 23 to a degree. When this value has been 2 . ,<50O . . 687,55 : ^oo'X.SSy.';; __
once afcertained, any other angle meafured by any 2
other number of divifions is determined by the rule inches, or 1031324- feet, which is the anfwer required.
\ 1 This
MIC
JWif.rom$* *5 This calculatipn may be fliortened } for fince two
ter of the three proportionals are fixed, their produfk in
the tirft cafe is 41253, and in the other two cafes is
.2475180 ; fo that in the firft cafe, viz. when the angle
is exprelfed in minutes, you need only divide 41253
by the given angle; and in the other two cafes, viz.
•when the angle is expreffed in feconds, divide 2475180
by the given angle, and the quotient in either cafe is
the anfwer in inches.
“ Problem II. The angle, not exceeding one de¬
gree, which is fubtended by- any known extenlion,
'being given, to f*nd its diftance from the place of ob-
• fervation.
“ Rule. Proceed as if the cxtenfion were of one foot
by Problem I. and call the anfwer B ; then, if the
cxtenfion in queftion be expreffed in inches, fay, as 12
•inches are to that extenfion, fo is B to a fourth pro¬
portional, which is the anfwer in inches; but if the
•extenfion in queftion be expreffed in feet, then you
•need only multiply it by B, and the produfl: is the
.anfwer in inches.
“ Example. At what diftahce is a man fix feet high,
• when, he appears to fubtend an angle of 30".
“ By problem I. if the man were one foot high, the
.Alliance would be 82506 inches ; but as he is fix feet
high, therefore multiply 82506 by 6, and the product
gives the required diftance, which is 495036 inches,
or 41253 feet.
M I C
(i For greater conveniency, efpecially in travelling, Microwe,
or in fuch circumftances in which one has not the ttr- t
opportunity of making even the eafy calculations re- J" v
quired in thofe problems, I have calculated the fol¬
lowing two tables; the firft of which fhows the di¬
ftance anfwering to any angle from one minute to one
degree, which is fubtended by an extenfion of one
foot; and the fecond table Ihows the diftance anfwer¬
ing to any angle from one minute to one degree,
which is fubtended by a man, the height of which
has been called an exterifion of fix feet; becaufe, at a
mean, fuch is the height of a man when dreffed with
hat and Ihoes on. Thefe tables may be tranfcribcd
on a card, and may be had always ready with a pocket
telefcope furnilhed with a micrometer. Their life is
evidently to afcertain diftances without any calcula¬
tion ; and they are calculated only to minutes, becaufe
with a pocket telefcope and micrometer it is not pof-
fible to meafure an angle more accurately than to a
minute.
“ Thus, if one wants to meafure the extenfion of a
ftreet, let a foot ruler be placed at the end of the
ftreet; meafure the angular appearance of it, which
fuppofe to be 36', and in the table you will have the
required diftance againft 36', which is 95* feet. Thus
alfo a man who appears to be 49' high, is at the di¬
ftance of 421 feet.
[ 7°5 1
Jingles fubtended by an extenfion of one foot at different
diftances-
Vot,. XL Part II.
jingles fubtended by an extenfion of fix feet at different
diftances.
A"s>- “Er
20626,8
I(53I3*
6875.4
5l5^5
4125.2
3437>7
2946.6
2578.2
2291.8
2062.6
1875.2
1718.8
1586.7
>473.3
I375*
1298,1
1145.9
1085,6
1031.4
982.2
937.6
896.8
859.4
825.
793.3
763.9
736.6
7'>,3
687.5
Min. 31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
4>
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
665.4
644.5
625.
606,6.
589.3
572,9
557.5
542.8
528.9
5i5»6
503.1
491.1
479.7
468.8
458.4
448.4
438.9
429.7
421.
412.5
404,4
396.7
389.2
381.9
375-
368.3
361.9
355.6
349.6
343.7
4U
II. The
M I C
r 7°6 i
M r C
^ie ^crometer ^ias not only been applied to te>
■> v lefcopes, and employed for aftronomical purpofes; but
there have alfo been various contrivances for adapting
it to microscopical obfervations. Mr Leeuwen¬
hoek’s method of eftimating the fize of fmall obje&s
was by pomparing them with grains of fand, of which
ICO in a line took up an inch. Thefe grains he laid
upon the fame plate with his ohjedls, and viewed them
at the fame time. Dr Jurin’s method was fimilar to
this; for he found the diameter of a piece of fine fil¬
ter wire, by wrapping it as elofe as he could about a
pin, and obferving how many rings made an inch ;
and he ufed this wire in the fame manner as Leeuwen¬
hoek ufed his fand. Dr Hooke ufed to look upon the
magnified objuft with one eye, while at the fame time
he viewed c^er objedts placed at the fame diftance
with the other eye. In this manner he was able, by
the help of a ruler, divided into inches and fmall parts,
and laid on the pedeftal of the microfcope, to call as
it were the magnified appearance of the objedl upon
the. ruler, and thus exactly to meafure the diameter
which it appeared to have through the glafa; which
being compared with the diameter as it appeared to
the naked eye, eafily fhowed the degree in which it
was magnified. A little practice, fays Mr Baker,
will render this method exceedingly eafy and pleafant.*
Mr Martin in his Optics recommended fuch a mi¬
crometer for a microfcope as had been applied to tele-
fcopes: for he advifes to draw a number of parallel
lines on a piece of glafs, with the fine point of a dia¬
mond, at the difiance of one-fortieth of an inch from
one another, and to place it in the focus of the eye-
glafs. By this method, Dr Smith contrived to take
the exaft draught of obje&s viewed by a double mi¬
crofcope; .for he advifes. to get a lattice, made with
fmall filver wires or fquares, drawn upon a plain glafs
by the ftrokes of a diamond, amd to put it into the
place of the image, formed by the obje&-glafs: then
by transferring the parts of the objeft, feen in the
fquares of the glafs or lattice upon fimilar correfpond-
ing fquares drawn on paper, the pi&ure may be exa&-
ly taken. Mr Martin alfo introduced into compound
microfcopes another micrometer, confifting of a ferew.
See both thefe methods deferibed in his Optics, p. 277.
The mode of actual admeafurement (Mr Adams
* Mbrrfia- obferves*) is without doubt the moft; Ample that can
pbai EJpip, be ufed; as by it we comprehend, in a manner, at
one glance, the different effe&s of combined glaffes ;
and as it faves the trouble, and avoids the obfeurity,
of the ufual modes of calculation : but many perfons
find it exceedingly difficult to adopt this method, be-
caufe they have not been accuftomed to obferve with,
both eyes at once. To obviate this inconvenience,
the late Mr Adams contrived an infirumeftt called the
Needle-Micrometer, which was firft deferibed in his Mi-
crographia Hlujlrata; and of which, as now conftru&ed,
we have the following defeription by his fon Mr George
Adams in the ingenious Effays above quoted.
'1 his micrometer confifts of a ferew, which has 50
threads to an inch ; this ferew carries an index, which
points to the divifions. on a circular plate, which is
fixed at right angles to the axis of the ferew. The ^
sevolutions of the ferew are counted on a fcale, which vided into, their tranfverfe meafure will be fuch apart
is an inch divided intoyoparts; the index to thefe divi- of one-tenth as is expreffed by their divifions. Thus-
fionsL is a flower-de-luce marked upon the Aider,, which, if it be divided into ten equal parts, this will divide
the
carries the needle point acrofs the field of the micro- Mlcrom**
fcope. Every revolution of the micrometer ferew ter'
meafures T'5th part of an inch, which is again fubdi- 1 ■
vided by means of the divilions on the circular plate,
as this is divided into 20 equal parts, over which the
index paffes at every revolution of the ferew; by which
means we obtain with eafe the meafure of icocth part
of an inch : for 56, the number of threads on the
ferew in one inch, being multiplied by 20, the divi¬
fions on the circular plate are equal to 1006; fo that
each divifion on the circular plate (hows that the
needle has either advanced or receded j oooth part of
an inch.
To place this micrometer on the body of the micro- Plate
fcope, open the circular part FKH, fig. 25. by taking CCXCViL
out the ferew G, throw back the femicircle FK, which
moves upon a joint at K; then turn the Aiding tube of
the body of the microfcope, fo that the fmali holes which
are in both tubes may exa&ly coincide, and let the needle
g of the micrometer have a free paffage through therr^;
after this, ferew it faft upon the body by the ferew G.
The needle will now traverfe the field of the micro¬
fcope, and meafure the length and breadth of the
image of any objeft that is applied to it. But fur¬
ther affiftance muft be had, in order to meafure the
objeft itfelf, which is a fubjeft of real importance ^
for though we have afeertained the power of the mi- *
crofcope, and know that it is fo many thoufand times,
yet this will be of little affiftance towards afeertaining
an accurate idea of its real Sze ; for our ideas of bulk
being formed by the comparifon of one objeft with,
another, we can only judge of that of any particular
body, by comparing it with another whofe fize is
known : the fame thing is neceffary, in order to form
an eftimate by the microfcope; therefore, to afeertain
the real meafure of the obje&, we muft make the point
of the needle pafs over the image of a known part of
an inch placed on the ftage, and write down the revo¬
lutions made by the ferew, while the needle paffed
over the image of this known meafure ; by which
means we afeertain the number of revolutions on the
ferew, which are adequate to a real and known mea¬
fure on the ftage. As it requires an attentive eye to
watch the motion of the needle point as it paffes over
the image of a known part of an inch on the ftage, we
ought not to truft to one fingle meafurement of the
image, but ought to repeat it at lead fix times; thea
add the fix meafures thus obtained together, and di¬
vide their fum by fix, or the number of trials ; the
quotient will be the mean of all the trials. This refult
is to be plated in a column of a table next to that
which contains the number of the magnifiers.
By the affiftance of the fe&oral fcale, we obtain
with eafe a fmall part of an inch. This fcale is (howa
at fig. 22, 23, 24,' in which the two Ikies ca, cl, with
the fide ab, form an ifofceles triangle; each of the
fides is two inches long, and the bafe ftill only of
one-tenth of an inch. The lohger fides may be of any
given length, and the bafe ftill only of one-tenth of an
inch. The longer lines may be confidered as the line
of lines upon a fe&or opened to one-tenth of an inch.
Hence whatever number of equal parts ca, cb are di-
MIC [ 7°7 ] MIC
Micrame- the inch into 100 equal parts ; the fir ft divifion next
/■ ter' c will be equal to 1 ooth part of an inch, becaufe it is
the tenth part of one-tenth of an inch. If thefe lines
are divided into twenty equal parts, the inch will be
by that means divided into 200 equqj parts. Laftly,
if abt :a are made three inches long, and divided into
100 equal parts, we obtain with cafe the loocth part.
The £cale is reprefented as folid at fig. 2$. but as per¬
forated at fig. 22. and 24. fo that the light paffes thro’
the aperture, when thefeitoral partisplacedontheftage.
To ufe this fcale, firft fix the micrometer, fig. 2.5.
to the body of the microfcope; then fit the fettoral
fcale, fig. 24. in the ftage, and adjuft the microfcope
to its proper focus or diftance from the fcale, which is
to be moved till the bafe appears in the middle of the
field of view ; then bring tne needle point g, fig. 25.
(by turning the fcrew L; to touch one of the lines ca,
exa&ly at the point anfvvering to 20 on the fe&oral
fcale. The index a of the micrometer is to be fet to
the firft divifion, and that on the dial plate to 20, which
is both the beginning and end of its divifions ; we are
then prepared to find the magnifying power of every
magnifier in the compound miorofcope which we are
ufing.
Example. Every thing being prepared agreeable to
the foregoing diredlions, fuppofe you are defirous of
afcertaining the magnifying power of the lens naarked
N^. turn the micrometer fcrew until the point of
the needle has paffed over the magnified image of the
tenth part of one iuch ; then the divifion, where the
^two indices remain, will fhow how many revolutions,
and parts of a revolution, the fcrew has made, while
the needle point traverfed the magnified image of the
one-tenth of an inch ; fuppofe the refult to be 26 re¬
volutions of the fcrew, and 14 parts of another revolu¬
tion, this is equal to 26 multiplied by 20, added to 14;
that is, 534,000 parts of an inch.—The 26 divifions
found on the ftraight fcale of the micrometer, while
the point of the needle pafied over the magnified
image of one-tenth part of an inch, were multiplied
by 20, becaufe the^circular plate CD, fig. 25. is di¬
vided into 20 equal parts; tins produced 520; then
adding the 14 parts of the next revolution, we obtain
the 534,000 parts of an inch, or five-tenths and 3400
parts of another tenth, which is the meafure of the
magnified image of one-tenth of an inch, at the aper¬
ture of the eye-glafies or at their foci. Now if we
fuppofe the focus of the two eye-glafles to be one
inch, the double thereof is two inches; or if we reck¬
on in the loocth part of an inch, we have 2000 parts
for the diftance of the eye from the needle point of
the micrometer. Again, if we take the diilance of
the image from the objed at the ftage at 6 inches, or
6000, and add thereto 2000, double the diftance of
the focus of the eye-glafs, we lhall have 8090 parts of
an inch for the diftance of the eye from the objed; and
as the glafies double the image, we mull double the num¬
ber 534 found upon the micrometer, which then makes
1068 : then, by the following analogy, we Ihall ob¬
tain the number of times the microfcope magnifies the
diameter of the objed; fay, as 240, the diftance of
the eye from the image of the objed, isyo 800, the
diftance of the eye from the objed; fo is 1968, double
the meafure found on the micrometer, to 3563, or the
number of times the microfcope magnifies the diame¬
ter of the objed. By working in this manner, the
magnifying power of each lens ufed with the compound
microfcope may be eafily found, though the refult will
be different in different compound microfcopes, vary¬
ing according to the combination of the lenfes, their
diftance from the objed and one another, &c.
Having difeovered the magnifying power of the mi¬
crofcope, with the different objed-lenfes that are ufed
therewith, our next fubjed is to find out the real fixe
of the objeds themfelves, and their different parts:
this is eafily effeded, by finding how many revolutions
of the micrometer-fcrew anfwer to a known meafure
on the federal fcale or other objed placed on the
ftage; from the number thus found, a table Ihould be
conftruded, expreffing the value of the different revo¬
lutions of the micrometer with that object lens, by
which the primary number was obtained. Similar
tables mull be conftruded for each objed lens. By a
fet of tables of this kind, the obferver may readily
find the meafure of any objtd he is examining; for
he has only to make the needle point travel le over
this objed, and obferve the number of revolutions the
fcrew has made in its paffage, and then look into his
table for the real meafure which correfponds to this
number of revolutions, which is the meafure required.
Mr Coventry of Southwark has favoured n> with
the defeription of a micrometer of his own invention ;
the fcale of which, for minutenefs, furpaffes every
inftrument of the kind of which we have any know¬
ledge, and of which, indeed, we could fcarcely have
formed a conception, had he not indulged us with fe-
veral of thefe inftruments, graduated as underneath.
The micrometer is compofed of glafs, ivory, filver,
&c. on which are drawn parallel lines from the 10th
to the 10,000th part of an inch. But an inftrument
thus divided, he obferves, is more for curiofity than
ufe : but one of thofe which Mr Coventry has fent us
is divided into fquares, fo imall that fixteen million of
them are contained on the furface of one fquare inch,
each fquare appearing under the microfcope true and
diftindi ; and theugh fo final], it is a fadf, that ahi-
malcula are found which may be contained in one of
thefe fquares.
The ufe of micrometers, when' applied to micro-
fcopes, is to meafure the natural fize of the objedt,
and how much that objedf is magnified^ To afeertain
the real fi/.e of an objedt in the fingle tnicrofeope,..no¬
thing more is required than to lay it ©n the microme¬
ter, and adjuft it to the focus of the magnifier, no-
ticing how many divifions of the micrometer it covers.
Suppofe the parallel lines of the micrometer to he the
1 oooth of an inch, and the objedt covers two divifions;
its real fize is jooths of an inch; if five, 2O0ths, and'
foon.
But to find how much the objedt is magnified,
is not mathematically determined fo eafiy by the fingle
as by the compound microfcope : but the follow¬
ing fimple metho* (fays Mr Coventry) I have ge¬
nerally adopted, and think it tolerably accurate.
Adjuft a micrometer under the microfcope 0, fay the
109th of an inch .of diyifions, with a finall obje.dt on
it; if fq*are, the better : notice how many divifions one
fide of the objeft covers, fuppofe 10: then cut apiece
4 U 2 of
MYroms,
MIC [ 708 J MIC
Microbe ©f white paper fomething larger than the magnified
, tcr' appearance of the object: then fix one eye on the ob-
jeft through the mierofcope, and the other at the fame
time on the paper, lowering it down till the objedt
and the paper appear level and dillindt: then cut the
paper till it appear exadlly the fize of the'magnified
objedt; the paper being then meafurtd, fuppofe an
inch iquare : Now, as the objedt under the magnifier,
which appeared to be one inch fquare, was in reality-
only ten hundredths, or the tenth of an inch, the expe¬
riment proves that it is magnified ten times in length,
one hundred times in fuperfices, and one thoufand
times in cabe, which is the magnifying power of tho
glafs ; and, in the fame manner, a table may be made
of the power of all the other glafles.
fn ufing the compound microfcope, the real fize of
the objedl is found by the fame method as in the fingle :
but to demonftrate the magnifying power of each glafs
to greater certainty, adopt the following method.—
Lay a two-feet rule on the ftage, and a micrometer
level with its furface (an inch fuppofe, divided into
100 parts) : with one eye fee how many of thofe parts
are contained in the field of the microfcope, (fuppofe
50); and with the other, at the fame time, look for
the circle of light in the field of the microfcope, which
with a little practice will foon appear diftindt ; mark-
how much of the rule is interfered by the circle of
light, which will be half the diameter of the field.
Suppofe eight inches ; confequently the whole diame¬
ter will be fixteen. Now, as the real fize of the field,
by the micrometers, appeared to be only-50 hundredths,
'or half an inch, and as half an inch is only one 32d
part of 16 inches, it (hows the magnifying power of the
glafs to be 32 times in length, 1024 fuperfices, and
32,768 cube (e).
Another way of finding the magnifying power of
compound microfcopes, is by ufing two micrometers
of the fame divifions ; one adjufted under the magni¬
fier, the other fixed in the body of the microfcope in
the focus of the eye-glafs. Notice how many divi¬
fions of the micrometer in the body are feen in one
The glafs micrometer without any mark is alfo di¬
vided, the outiide lines into icoth, the next into
jocx th, and the infide lines into the 4000th of an
inch: thefe are again croffed with an equal number of
divtfion of the micrometer under the magnifier, which Mierome-
again mull be multiplied by the power of the eye-glafs. tcr-
Example : Ten divifions of the micrometer in the bo- ~' v
dy are contained in-one divifion under the magnifier}
fo far the power is increafed ten times: now, if the-
eye-glafs be one inch focus, fuch glafs will of it-
felf magnify^ about .eight times in length, which,
with the ten times magnified before, will be eight
times ten, or 80 times in length, 6400 fuptrficies,
and 512,000 cube.
If (fays Mr Coventry) thefe micrometers are em¬
ployed in the folar microfcope, they divide the objedt
into fquares on the fcreen in fuch a manner as to ren¬
der it extremely eafy to make a drawing of it. Anck
(fays he) I apprehend they may be employed to great
advantage with fuch a microfcope as Mr Adams’s Lu*.
cernal; becaufe this inftrument may be ufed either by
day or night, or in any place, and gives the actual
magnifying power without calculation.”
The cafe with which we have been favoured by Mr
Coventry contains fix micrometers, two on ivory and
four on glafs. One of thofe on ivory is an inch di¬
vided into one hundred parts, every fifth line longer
than the intermediate one, and every tenth longer ftilly
for the greater eafe in counting the divifions under the
microfcope, and is generally ufed in meafuring the
magnifying power of microfcopes. The other ivory
one is divided into fquares of the i;oth and 100th of
an inch, and is commonly employed in meafuring
opaque obje&s.
Thofe made of glafs are for tranfparent obje&s,
which, when laid on them, {how their natural fize.—»
That marked on the brafs 100, are fquares divided to
the 1 ooth of an inch: that marked 5000 are parallel
lines forming nine divifions, each divifion the 1 oooth
of an inch; the middle divifion is again divided into
5, making divifions to the 5000th of an inch. That
marked 10,000 is divided in the fame manner, with
the middle divifion divided into 10, making the
io,oocth of an inch. Example :
lines in the fame manner, making fquares of the
1 ooth, 1 oooth, and 4000th of an inch, thus demonftra-
ting each other’s fize. The middle fquare of the 1000th
of an inch (fee fig. 26.) is divided into fixteen fquares;
new
(e) It will be neceffary, for great accuracy, as well as for comparative obfervations, that the two-feet rule
fliould always be placed at a certain diftance from the eye: eight inches would, in general, be a proper dif-
lance.
I i
MIG [ 709 ] MIC
lrtreropw, now'a9 1000 fqu:\res in the length of an inch, mul-
Mic-gfco ftiplied by 1000, gives one million in an inch furface ;
by the fame rule, one of thofe fquares divided into 16
mull be the fixteen millionth part of' an inch furface.
See fig. 36. which is a dimvnifhed view of the apparent
furface exhibited undeir the magni ier n3i of Wilfon’s
microfcope. In-viewing the fmalleft lines, Mr Co¬
ventry nfes n° 2. or 3. ; and they are all better feen,
I he fays, by candle than by day-light.
MICROPUS, bastard cudweed : A genus of the
polygamia neceflaria order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs of plants ;■ and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Compofit<e. The receptacle is
paleaceous ; there is no pappus ; the calyx is calycula-
ted ; there is no radius of the corolla. The female
florets are wrapped in the fcales of the calyx. There
aietwo fpecies, the fupinus and ereftus ; but only
the foimer is ever cultivated in gardens. It is an
annual plant, growing naturally in Portugal, in places
near the fea. The root fends out feveral trailing ftalks,
about fix or eight inches long, which are garnifhed
with fmall, oval, filvery leaves, whofe bafes em¬
brace the ftalks. The flowers come out in clufters
from the wings of the ftalks* and are very fmall, and
of a white colour. It flowers in June and July ; and
is frequently preferved in gardens on account of the
beauty of its filvery leaves. It is eafily propagated
by feed fown in autumn, and requires no other cul¬
ture but to be ’-ept free from weeds.
MICROSCOPE, an optical inftrument, confifting
of lenfes, or mirrors, by means of which fmall objects
appear larger than they do to the naked eye. Single
raicrofcopes confift of a Angle lens or mirror ; or if
more lenfes or mirrors be made ufe of, they only ferve
to throw light upon the obje£t,but do not contribute to
enlarge the image of it. Double or compound mi-
crofcopes are thofe in which the image of an objeft is
compofed by means of more lenfes or mirrors than one.
For the principles on which the conftru&ion of mi-
crofcopes depends, fee Optics. In the prefent ar¬
ticle, it is intended to deferibe the finifhed inftrument,-
with* all its varied apparatus, according to the lateft im¬
provements; and to illuftrate by proper details its;ufes
and importance.
I. Of Sin Gin Microf copes.
T rfE famous microfcopes made ufe of by Mr Leewen-
hoeck, were all, as Mr Baker affures us, of the Angle
kind, and the conftrudlion of them was the moft Ample
poffible ; each confifting only of a Angle lens fet be¬
tween two plates of filver, perforated with a fmall
hole, with a moveable pin before it to place the ob-
je& on and adjuft it to the eye of the beholder. He
informs us alfo, that lenfes only, and not globu/est were
ufed in every one of thefe microfcopes.
1. The Angle microfcope now moft generally known
CCXCVII an^ *s t^at ca^et^ Wilfon’s Pocket Microfcope. The
tv. 1. body is made of brafs, ivory, or filver, andis repre-
fented by AA, BB. CC is a long fine-threaded male
ferew that turns into the body of the microfcope ; D
a convex glafs at the end of the ferew. Two con¬
cave round pieces of thin brafs, with holes of different
diameters in the middle of them, are placed to cover
the abovementioned glafs, and thereby diminilh the
5
aperture when the greateft magnifiers are employed. Mkrofrape
EE, three thin plates of brafs within the body of the v—-
microfcope ; one of which is bent femicircularly in the
middle, fo as to form an arched cavity for the recep¬
tion of a tube of glafis, the life of the other two be¬
ing to receive and hokTthe Aiders between them. F,
a piece of wood or ivory, arched in the manner of
the femicircular plate, and cemented to it. G, the
other end of the body of the microfcope, where a hol¬
low female ferew is adapted to receive the different
magnifiers. H, is a fpiral fpring of fteel, b. tween
the end G and the plates of brafs, intended to keep
the plates in a right pofition and counteract the long
ferew CC. I, is a fmall turned handle, for the better
holding of the inftrument, to ferew on or off at pleafure.
To this microfcope belong fix or feven magnifying-
glaffes: fix of them are fet in filver, brafs, or ivory,
as in the figure K; and marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
the loweft numbers being the greateft magnifiers. L.
is the feventh magnifier, fet in the manner of a little
barrel, to be held in the hand for the viewing of any
larger objedt. M, is a flat flip of ivory, called a
fider, with four round holes through it, wherein to
place objefts between two vrieces of glafs or Mufcovy
talc, as'they appear at dddd. Six fuch Aiders, and
one of brafs, are ufually fold with this microfcope,
fame with objeCts placed in them, and others empty
for viewing any thing that may offer: but whoever
pleafes to make a collection, may have as many as he
defires. The brafs Aider is to confine any fmall objeCt, .
that it may be viewed without crufhing or deftroying
it. N, is a tube of glafs contrived to confine living ob¬
jects, fuch as frogs, fifhes, &c. in order to difeover
the circulation of the blood. All thefe are contained
in a little neat box of fifti-flcin or mahogany, very-
convenient for carrying in the pocket.
When an objeCt is to be viewed, thruft the ivory -
Aider, in which the faid objeCt is placed, between the
two flat brafs plates EE: obferving always to put
that fide of the Aider where the brafs rings are far-
theft from the eye. Then ferew on the magnifying
glafs you intend to ufe, at the end of the inftrument
G ; and looking through.it againft the light, turn the
long ferew CC, till your objeCt be brought to fuit your
eye ; which will be known by its appearing perfeCUy
diftinft and clear. It is moft proper to look at it firll
through a magnifier that can fliow the whole at once,
and afterwards to infpeCt the feveral parts more parti¬
cularly with one of the greateft magnifiers ; for thus
you will gain a true idea of the whole, and of all its
parts. And though the greateft magnifiers can fliow
but a minute-portion of any objeCt at once, fuch as the
claw of a flea, the horn of a loufe; or the like; yet by
gently moving the Aider which contains the objeCt,
the eye will gradually examine it all over.
As objeCts muft be brought very near the glaffea
when the greateft magnifiers: are made ufe of, be care«
ful not to fcratch them by rubbing the Aider againlt
them-as you move it in or out. A few turns of the
ferew CC will eafily prevent this mifehief, by giving-
them room enough. You may change the obje s in
your Aiders for any others you think proper, by taking-
out the brafs rings with the point of a penknife j .
the tfilcs will then fall out, if you but turn the Aiders ;;
and..
MIC [ 71° ] MIC
oifiopcand after patting what you pleafe between them, by box ofbrafs, which hangs in the arch G by two fmall Mlcrofcap
v" replacing the brafs rings you will fallen them as they ferews f f, that fcrew into the oppofite lides thereof. —v~"'
were before. It is proper to have fome Aiders furnilh* At the bottom of this arch is a pin of the fame metal,
ed with talcs, but without any objedt between them, exactly fitted to a hole h in the wooden pedellal, made
for the reception of the pin. As the arch turns on
this pin, and the fpeculum turns on the end of the
arch, it may, by this twofold motion, be eafily adjult-
ed in fuch a manner as to refledt the light of the fun.
The circulation of the blood may be eafiefl feen in of the Iky, or of a candle, direttly upwards through
Uo ♦-.■I-. — ~c    the microfcope that is fixed perpendicularly over it;
and by fo doing may be made to anfwer many pur-
to be always in readinefs for the examination of fluids,
falls, fands, powders, the farina of flowers, or any
other cafual objedls of fuch fort as need only be applied
to the outfide of the talc.
The circulation of the 1
the tails or fins of filhes, in the fine membranes be¬
tween a frog’s toes, or bell of all in the tail of a
water-newt. If your objedl be a fmall filh, place it pofes of the large double refledling microfcope. The
within the tube N, and fpread its tail or fin along the body of the microfcope may alfo be fixed Ixtrizon-
iide thereof: if a frog, choofe fuch an one as can but tally, and objedls viewed in that pofition by any light
juft be got into your tube ; and, with a pen, or fmall you choofe; which is an advantage the common double
ilick, expand the tranfparent membrane between the refledling microfcope has not. It may alfo be render-
toes of the frog’s hind foot as much as you can. When
your objedl is fo adjufted that no part of it can in¬
tercept the light from the place you intend to view,
unfcrew the long fcrew CC, and thruft your tube in¬
to the arched cavity, quite through the body of the
microfcope ; then fcrew it to the true focal diftance,
and you will fee the blood pafling along its veffels with
a rapid motion, and in a roft furprifing manner.
ed further ufeftil by means of a flip of glafs ; one end
of which being thruft through between the plates where
the Aiders go, and the other extending to fome diftance,
fuch objedts may be placed thereon as cannot be ap¬
plied in the Aiders: and then, having a limb of brafa
that may fallen to the body of the microfcope, and ex¬
tend over the projedting glafs a hollow ring wherein
to fcrew the magnifiers, all forts of fubjedts may be
The third or fourth magnifit» s may be uTed for examined with great convenience, if a hole he made in
frogs or filhes : but for the tails of vyater-newts, the
fifth or fixth will do ; becaufe the globules of their
blood are twice as large as thofe of frogs or filh. The
firll or fecoud magnifier cannot well be employed for
this purpofe ; becaufe the thicknefs of the tube in
which the objedt lies, will fcarce admit its being
brought fo near as the focal dillance of the magnifier.
An apparatus for the purpofe of viewing opaque
objedls generally accompanies this microfcopa ; and
which confifts of the following parts. A brafs arm
QJl, which is ferewed at Q^upon the body of the mi.
crofcope at G. Into the round hole R, any of the
magnifiers fuitable to the objedl to be viewed are to
be ferewed ; and under it, in the fame ring, the con¬
cave poliAied filver fpeculum S. Through a fmall
aperture in the body of the microfcope under the
-brafs pjttes EE, is to Aide the long wire with the
forceps T : This wire is pointed at one of its ends ;
and fo, that either the points or forceps may be ufed
for the objedls as may be neceflary. It is eafy to
conceive, therefore, that the arm at R, which turns
by a twofold joint at a and b, may be brought with
its magnifier over the objedl, the light refledled upon
it by the application of the fpeculum, and the true
focus obtained by turning of the male fcrew CC as
before diredted.—As objedls are fometimes not well
fixed for view, either by the forceps or point, the
fmall piece fiiown at N is added, and in fuch cafes
anfvvers better: it fciews over the point of T; it con¬
tains a fmall round piece of ivory, blackened on one
fide, and left white upon the other as a contrail to
coloured objedls, and by a fmall piece of watch-fpring
. fallens down the objedls upon the ivory.
2. Sm^le Microfcope by refiettion. In fig. 2. A is a
fcroll of brafs fixed upright upon a round wooden
bafe B, or mahogany drawer or cafe, fo as to Hand
perfectly firm and Heady. C is a brafs fcrew, that paf-
fes through a hole in the upper limb of the fcrdll in¬
to the fide of the -microfcope D, and ferews it fall to
the faid fcroll. E is a concave fpeculum fet in a
the pedeftal, to place the fpeeulum exadlly underneath,
and thereby throw up the rays of light. The pocket-
microfcope, thus mounted, fays Mr Baker, “ is aseafy
and jSleafant in its ufe ; as fit for the moll curious ex¬
amination of the animalcules and falls in fluids, of the
farinse in vegetables, and of the circulation in fmall
animals; in Ihort, is as likely to make confiderahle
difeoveries in objedls that have fome degree of tranfpa-
rency, as any microfcope I have ever feen or heard of.’'
The brafs fcroll A is now' generally made to un¬
fcrew into three parts, and pack with the microfcope
and apparatus into the drawer of a mahogany pocket-
cafe, upon the lid of which the fcroll is made to fix
when in ufe.
The opaque apparatus alfo, as above deferibed, is
applicable this way by refledtion. It only confilts in
turning the arm R (fig. i.), with the magnifier over
the concave fpeculum below (fig. 2), or to receive the
light as refledled obliquely from it: the filver fpecu¬
lum ferewed into R will then refledl the light, which
it receives from the glafs fpeculum, ftrongly upon the
objedlthat is applied upon the wire,T underneath.
This microfcope, however, is not upon the molt
convenient conftrudlion, in comparifon with others now
made : it has been efteemed for many years pall from
its popular name, and recommendation by its makers.
Its portability is certainly a great advantage in its fa¬
vour ; but in moll refpedts it is fuperfeded by the mi-
crofcqpes hereafter deferibed.
3. Microfcope for Opaque Objeds, called the fingle
Opaque Microfcope. This microfcope remedies the in¬
convenience of having the dark fide of an objedt next
the eye, which formerly was an unfurmountable ob-
jedtion to the making ©bfervations on opaque objedts
with any confiderable degree of exadtnefs or fatisfac-
tion : for, in all other contrivances commonly known,
the nearnefs of the inftrument to the objedt (wljen
glafles that magnify much are ufed) unavoidably
overfhadows it fo much, that its appearance is render¬
ed obfeure and'indiftindl. And, notwithilanding ways
have
Fig. 3.
mic r
fcope have been tiled to point light upon an ol>je&, from the
fun or a candle, by a convex glafs placed gn the fide
thereof, the rays from eithef can be thrown upon it in
fuch an acute angle only, that they ferve to give a con¬
futed glare, but are infufficient to afford a clear and
perfect view of the objedb. . But this microfcope, by
means of a concave fpeculum of filver highly pohfhed,
in whofe centre a magnifying lens is placed, Inch a
ftroug and diredf light is reflected upon the objedf,
that it may be examined with all imaginable eafe and
pleafurei The feveral parts of this inffrument, made
either of brafs or filver, are as follow.
Through the firft fide A, paffes a fine ferew B, the
other end of which is faftened to the moveable fide C.
D is a nut applied to this ferew, by the turning of
which the two fides A and C are gradually brought
together. E is a fpring of fteel that feparates the
two fides when the nut is unferewed. F is a piece of
brafs, turning round in a focket, whence proceeds a
fmall fpring tube moving upon a rivet; through which
tube there runs a fteel wire, one end whereof termi¬
nates in a fharp point G, and the other with a pair of
pliers H faltened to it. The point and plyers are to
tliruft into, or take up and hold, any infedt or objedl ;
and either of them may be turned upwards, as bell
. fuits the purpofe. I is a ring of brafs, with a female
ferew within it, mounted on an upright piece of the
fame metal; which turns round on a rivet, that it may
be_ fet at a due dillance when the leaft magnifiers are
employed. This ring receives the ferews of all the
magnifiers. K is a concave fpeculum of filver, po-
Jifhed as bright as poffible ; in the centre of which is
placed a double convex lens, with a proper aperture
to look through it. On the back of this fpeculum a
male ferew L is made to fit the brafs ring I, to ferew
into it at pieafnre. There are four of thefe concave
fpecula of different depths, adapted to four glafles of
different magnifying powers, to be ufed as the ob¬
jects to be examined may require. The greateft mag¬
nifiers have the leafl apertures. M, is a round objeiS-
plate, one fide of which is white and the other black :
The intention of this is to render objedl s the more vi^
fible, by placing them, if black, on the white fide,
or, if white, on the black fide. A fleel fpring N turns
down on each fide to make any objedt fall; and if-
fuing from the objedf-plate is a hollow pipe to ferew
it on the needle’s point G. O, is a fmall box of brafs,
with a glafs on each fide, contrived to confine any li¬
ving objedf, in order to examine it : this alfo has a
pipe to ferew upon the end of the needle G. P, is a
turned handle of wood, to ferew into the inftrument
when it is made ufe of. Q, a pair of brafs pliers to
take up any objedf, or manage ’‘with conveniency.
R, is a foft hair-brufh for cleahing'the glafles, &c.
S, is a fmall ivory box for talcs, to be placed, when
wanted, in the fmall brafs-box O.
When you would view any objedl with this micro¬
fcope, ferew the fpeculum, with the magnifier_you
think proper to ufe, into the brafs ring I. Place your
objedl, either on the needle G in the pliers H, on the
objedl-plate M, or in the hollow brafs box O, as may
he moft convenient, then holding up your inftrument
by the handle P, look againft the light through the
magnifying lens; and by means of the nutD, together
with the motion of the needle, by managing its lower
6
711 ] MIC
end, the objedl may be turned about, raffed, or deAI
prefled, brought nearer the glafs, or removed farther
from it, till you find the true focal diilance, and the
light be feen llrongly refledled from the fpeculum up¬
on the objedl, by which means it will be ihown in a
manner furprifingly difb’ndl and clear ; and for this
purpofe the light of the fky or of a casdle will anfwer
very well. Tranfparent objedts may alfo he viewed by
this microfcope ; only obferving, that when fuch come
under examination, it will not always be proper to
throw on them the light refledled from the fpeculum ;
for the light tranfmitted through them, meeting the-
refledled light, may together produce too great a glare.
A little pradlice, however, will (how how to regulate
both lights in a proper manner.
4. Ellis's Jingle and Aquatic Microfcope. Fig. 4. re-
prefents a very convenient and afeful microfcope, con-
trived by Mr John Ellis, author of An Eflay upon Co¬
rallines, &c. To pradical botanifts, obfervers of ani-
malcu a, &c. it poffefles many advantages above thofe
juft deferibed. It is pottable, fimple in its conftruc-
tion, expeditious, and commodious in ufe. K, re-
prefents the box containing the whole apparatus: it
is generally made of filh lkin ; and on the top there
is a female ferew, for receiving the ferew that is at the
bottom of the pillar A : this is a pillar of brafs,
and is ferewed on the top of the box. D, is a
bfafs pin which fits into the pillar ; on the top of this
pin is a hollow focket to receive the arm which carries
the magnifiers ; the pin is to be moved up and down,
in order to adjuft the lenfes to their focal or proper
dtftance from the objedl. [N. B. In the reprefenta-
tions of this microfcope, the pin D is delineated as,
palfing through a focket at one fide of the pillar A :
whereas it is ufual at prefent to make it pafs down a
hole bored through the middle of the pillar.] E, the
bar which carries the magnifying lens ; it fits into the
focket X, which is at the top of the pin or pillar D. This
arm may be moved backwards and forwards in the
focket X, and fideways by the pin D ; fo that the
magnifier, which is ferewed into the ring at the end
E of this bar, may be eafily made to traverfe over any
pai-t of the objedt that lies on the ftage or plate B.
FF is a polilhed filver fpeculum, with a magnifying
lens placed at the centre thereof, which is perforated
for tin's purpofe. The filver fpeculum ferews into the
arm E, as at F. G, another fpeculum, with its lens,
which is of a different magnifying power from the
former. H, the femicircle which (upports the mirror
I ; the pin R, affixed to the femicircle H, pafl’es thro*
the hole which is towards the bottom of the pillar A.
II, the ftage, or the plane, on which the objedls are to
be placed ; it fits into the fmall dove-tailed arm which
is at the upper end of the pill tr DA. C, a plane
glafs, with a fmall piece of black filkftuck on it ; this,
glafs is to lay in a groove made in the ftage B. M,
a hollow glafs to be laid occafionally on the ftage in-
ftead of the plane glafs C. L, a pair of nippers.
Thefe are fixed to the ftage by the pin at bottom j
the fteel wire of thefe nippers Aides backwards and
forwards in the focket, and this focket is moveable
upwards and downwards by means of the joint, fo that
the pofition of the objecl may be varied at pleafure.
The objedl may be fixed in the nippers, ftuck on the
point* or affixed, by a little gum-water, &c. to the
iveucy
MIC [ 712
•r' ivory cylinder N, which occafionally fcrews to the
point of the nippers.
To ufe this microfcope x Take all the parts of the ap •
paratus outof the box; then begin by fcrewing the pillar
A to the cover thereof; pafs the pin R of the femicircla
which carries the mirror thro’ the hole that is near the
bottom of the.pillar A; pufhthe ftage into the dove-tail at
B,flide the pin into the pillar(fee the N. B. above); then
pafs the bar E through the focket which is at the
top of the pin D, and fcrew one of the magnifying
lenfes into the ring at F. The microfcope is now
ready for ufe : and though the enumeration of the ar¬
ticles may lead the reader to imagine the inftrument
to be of a complex nature, we can fafely affirm that
he will find it otherwife. The inftrument has this pe¬
culiar advantage, that it is difficult to put any of the
pieces in a place which is appropriated to another.
Eet the object be now placed either on the ftage or
in the nippers L, and in fuch manner that it may be
as nearly as poffible over the centre of the ftage: bring
the fpeculum F over the part you mean to obferve ;
then throw as much light on the fpeculum as you can,
by means of the mirror I, and the double motion of
•which it is capable.; the light .received on the fpecu¬
lum is reflefted by it on the objeft. The diftance of
? the lens F from the objedf is regulated by moving the
pin D up and down, until .a diftinft view of it is
obtained. The beft rule is, to place the lens beyond
its focal diftance from the objefl, ,and then gradually
to Aide it down till the ohjeft appearsfharp and well
defined. The adjuftment of the lenfes to their focus,
and the diftribution of the light on the objeft, are
what require the moft attention: on the firft the di-
ilindtnefs of the vifion depends; the pleafure arifing
from a clear view of the parts under obfervation is due
to the modification of the light. No precife rule can
be given for attaining accurately thefe points ; it is
from pradlice alone that ready habits of obtaining
thefe neceflary.properties can be acquired, and with the
affiftance ot this no difficulty will be found.
5. A very Ample and convenient microfcope for
botanical and other purpofes, though inferior in many
refpefts to that of Mr Ellis, was contiived by the late
ingenious Mr Benjamin Martin, and is reprefented at
fig. 5. where AB reprefents a fmall arm fupporting
two or more magnifiers, one fixed to the upper part
as at B, the other to the lower part of the arm at C;
thefe may be ufed feparately or combined together.
The arm AB is fupported by the fquare pillar IK,
the lower end of which fits into the focket E of the
foot EG ; the ftage DL is made to Aide up and down
the fquare pillar ; H, a concave mirror for reflefting
light on the objeft.—To ufe this microfcope, place
the objeft on the ftagg, refieft the light on it from
the concave mirror, and regulate it to the focus, by
moving the ftage nearer to or farther from the lens at
B. , The ivory Aiders pafs through the ftage; other
objefts may be fixed in the nippers MN, and then
brought under the eye-glaffes; or they may be laid
en one of the glaffes which fit the ftage. The appa¬
ratus to this inftrument confifts of three ivory Aiders ;
a pair of nippers ; a pair of forceps; a flat glafs and a
concave ditto, both fitted to the ftage.
The two laft microfcopes are frequently fitted up
Nu 118.
1
M I C
with a toothed ruck and pinion, for the more ready Micro
adjuftment of the glafles to their proper focus.
6. Withering's portable Botanic Microfcope. Fig.-6.
reprefents a fmall botanical microfcope contrived by
Dr Withering, and defcribed by him in his Bota¬
nical Arrangements. It confifts of three brafs plates,
A, B, C, which are parallel to each other; the wires
D and E are rivet ted into the upper and lower plates,
which are by this means united to each other ; the
middle plate or ftage is moveable on the afortfaid wires
by two little fockets which are fixed to it. The two
upper plates each contain a magnifying lens, but of
different powers.; one of thefe confines and keeps in
their places the fine point F, the forceps G, and the
fmall knife FL—To ufe this inftrument, unfcrew the
upper lens, and take out the point, the knife, and the
forceps ; then fcrew the lens on again, place the ob-
jeft on the ftage, and then move it up or down till
you have gained aMiftinft view of the objeft, as one
lens is made of a fhorter focus than the other; and
fpare lenfes of a ftill deeper focus may be had if re¬
quired. This little microfcope is the moft portable
of any. Its principal merit is its fimplicity.
7. Botanical Lenfes or Magnifiers. The hafte with
which botanifts, &c. have frequently occafion to view
objefts, renders an extempore pocket-glafs indifpen-
fably neceffary. The moft convenient of any yet con* -
ftrufted, appears to be that contrived, in regard to the
form of the mounting, by the late Mr Benjamin Mar¬
tin ; and is what he called a Hand Megalafcope, be-
caufe it is well adapted for viewing all the larger fort
of fmall objefts univerfally, and by bnly three lenfes
it has feven different magnifying powers.
Fig. 7. reprefents the cafe with the three frames and
lenfes, which are ufually of i, G, and 2 inches focus:
they all turn over each other, and fliut into the cafe,
and are turned out at pleafure.
The three lenfes fingly, afford three magnifying
powers; and by combining two and two, we.make three
more: for d with e makes one, d with f another, and
e with / a third ; which, with the three fingly, make
fix ; and laftly, all three combined together make an¬
other ; fo that upon the whole, there are.feven powers
of magnifying with thefe glaffes only.
When the three lenfes are combined, it is better to
turn them in, and look through them by the fmall
apertures in the iides of the cafe. The eye in this
cafe is excluded from extra light; the aberration of
the fuperfluous rays through the glaffes is cut off; and .
the eye coincides more exaftly with the common axes
of the lenfes.
A very ufeful and eafy kind of microfcope (defcri¬
bed by Joblot, and which has been long in ufe), adapt
cd chiefly for viewing, and confining at the fame time
any living infefts, fmall animals, &c. is fhown at fig. 8
where A reprefents a glafs tube, about inches ffia
meter, and 2 inches high. B, a cafe of brafs or wood
containing.a Aiding tube, with two or three magnify
ing glaffes that may be ufed either feparately or com¬
bined. In the infide, at the bottom, is a piece of
ivory, black and white on oppofite fides, that is occa-
fionaliy removed, and admits a point to be fcrewed in-
to the centre. The cap unfcrews at'D, to admit the
placing of the objeft: the proper diftance of the glaffes
from
M I C
MIC [ 7i3 I
M.crofcope from the objeft is regulated by pulling up or down fig. 10. It confifts of a large external brafs body A, Microfcopc
the brafs tube E at top containing the eye-glaifes. B, C, D, fupported upon three fcrolls, which are fixed
This microfcope is particularly ufeful for exhibiting to the ftage EF; the ftage is fupported by three lar-
the well-known curious curculio imperialism vulgarly call- ger fcrolls, that are fcrewed to the mahogany pedeltal
ed the diamond beetle, to the greateft advantage ; for GH. There is a drawer in the pedeftal, which holds
'which, as well as for other bbjedts, a glafs bottom, the apparatus. The concave mirror I is fitted to a
and a polilhed refleftor at the top, are often applied, to focket in the centre of the pedeftal. The lower part
condenfe the light upon the objea. In this cafe, the LMCD of the body forms an exterior tube, into which
ftand and brafs-bottom F, as fhown in the figure, are
taken away by unfcrewing.
9. Mr Lyonet’s Single Anatomical Dijfecling Microfcope.
Fig. 9. reprefents a curious and extremely ufeful mi¬
crofcope, invented by that gentleman for the pur-
pofe of minute difleaions, and microfcopic prepara-
, into which
the upper part of the body ABLM Hides, and may
be moved up or down, fo as to bring the magnifiers,
which are fcrewed on at N, nearer to or farther from
the objea.
rfoufe this microfcope : Screw one of the buttons,
which contains a magnifying lens, to the end N of the
tions. This inftrument muft be truly ufeful to ama- body; place the flider, with the objeas, between the
teurs of the minutias of infeas, &c. being the beft plates of the Aider-holder. Then, to attain diftina
adapted of any for the purpofes of difttaion. With vifion, and a pleafing view of the objea, adjuft the body
this inftrument Mr Lyonet made his very curious to the focus of the lens you are ufing, by moving the
microfcopical difleaion of the chenillede fade, as related upper part gently up and down, and regulate the light
in his Trait'e Anatomique de la chenille qui range le bois de by the concave mirror.
fade, 410. For °Pa<lue objefts, two additional pieces muft be
Ai3 is the anatomical table, which is fupported by ufed. The firft is a cylindrical tube of brafs (reprefent-
a pillar NO; this is fcrewed on the foot CD. The ed at L, fig. 11.), which fits on the cylindrical part at
table AB is prevented from turning round by means N of the body. The fecond piece is the concave fpecu-
of two fteady pins. In this table or board there is at lum h; this is to be fcrewed to the lower end of the
hole G, which is exaftly over the centre of the mirror afore faid tube : the upper edge of this tube ftiould be
EF, that is to reflea the light on the objea; the hole made to coincide with the line which has the fame num-
G is defigned to receive a flat or concave glafs, on ber affixed to it as to the magnifier you are ufing; ^ rr
which the objeas for examination are to be placed. if you are making ufe of the magnifier marked?, Aide
RXZ is an arm formed of feveral balls and fockets, the tube to the circular line on the tube N that is
by which means it may be moved in every poffible fi- marked alfo with N0?. The Aider-holder ftiould be re-
tuation; it is fixed to the board by means of the fcrew moved when you are going to view opaque obieas and
H. The laft arm IZ has a female fcrew, into which a plane glafs fliould be placed on the ftage in its ftead
a magnifier may be fcrewed as at Z. By means of the to receive the objeft ; or it may be placed in the nip-
forew H, a fmall motion may be occafionally given to pers, the pin of which fits into the hole in the ftage^
the arm IZ, for adjufting the lens with accuracy to The apparatus belonging to this microfcope confifts
its focal diftance from the objeft. of the following particulars; viz. Five magnifiers, each
Another chain of balls is iometimes ufed, carrying fitted in a brafs button ; one of thefe is feen at N
aiensto throw light upon the objea; the mirror is fig. 10. Six ivory Aiders, five of them with ebieas!
likewne fo mounted, as to be taken from its place at A brafs tube, to hold the concave fpeculum. The
K, and fitted on a clamp, by which it may be fixed concave fpeculum in a brafs box. A filh pan A fet
to any part of the table AB . of glafs tubes. A flat glafs fitted to the ftage. A
. 7offe the DijfeEling Table:—Let the operator fit with concave glafs fitted to the ftage. A pair of forceps
his left fide near a light window; the inftrument being A fteel wire, with a pair of nippers at one end and a
placed on a firm table, the fide DH towards the fto- point at the other. A fmall ivory cylinder, to fit on
mach, the obfervations ftiould be made with the left the pointed end of the aforefaid nippers A convex
eye. In difle&ing, the two elbows are to be fop- lens, moveable in a brafs femicircle; this is affixed to
ported by the table on which the inftrument refts, the a long brafs pin, which fits into a hole on the ftage
hands retting agamft the boardAB; and in order to give The conttruftion of the foregoing microfcope ’ is
it greater liability (as a fmall ftiake, though imper- very Ample, and it is eafy in ufe; but the advantages of
ceptible to the naked eye, is very vifible in the mi- the ftage and mirror are too much confined for an
crolcope), the diffedting inftruments are to be held extenfive application and management of all kinds of
one m each hand, between the thumb and two fore- objefts. Its greateft recommendation is its cheapnefs ;
fingers. and to thofe who are delirous of having a compound
II. Of Double Micrafcopes, commonly called Compound m;crofcoPt; at aIow P»ce, it may be acceptable.
Micro/cotes. 2* Kjltff5 Microfcope. The Improved microfcope
next in order is that of Mr Cuff. Befides remedying
Double microlcopes are fo called, from being a com- the difadvantages above mentioned, it contains the
bination of two or more lenfes. addition of an adjufting fcrew, which is a confider-
I he particular and chief advantages which the com- able improvement, and highly neceffary to the ex-
pound microfcopes have over the Angle, are, that the amination of objects under the beft defined appear-
objects are reprefented under a larger field of view, and ance from the glaffes. It is reprefented at fig. - -
ater amplification of refle&ed light. with the apparatus that ufoally accomoaiiies it b
with a greater a
7 - %ht. with the apparatus that ufoally accompanies it.° A.
. Lulpeper s Mtcrq/cope. I he compound microfcope, B, C, fliows the body of this microfcope ; which
originally contrived by Mr Culpeper, is reprefented at contains an eye-glafs at A, a broad lens at B, and
-A. J.« JL art JLX« ^
MIC [71
ff-t erofcnpf a magnifier which is fcrewed bn at C. The body
Wt-v .... jg fUpp0rt«d by the arm I) E, from which it may
be removed at pleafure. The arm D E is fixed
on the fliding-bar F, and may be raifed or depref-
fed to any height within its limits. The main pil¬
lar ab is fixed in the box b e; and by means of the
brafs foot d is fcrewed to the rpahogany pedeftal X Y,
in which is a drawer containing all the apparatus. O, is
a milled-headed fcrew, to tighten the bar F when the
adjufting fcrew eg is ufed. p q Is the ft age, or plate,
which carries the objects ; it has a hole at the centre
r. G a concave mirror, that may be turned in any
direftion, to reflect the light of a candle, or the fky,
upon the objedt.
To ufe this microfcope : Screw the magnifier you
intend to ufe to the end C of the body, place the
fh'der-holder P in the hole v, and the Aider with the
objedt between the plates of the Aider-holder ; fet the
upper edge of the bar D E to coincide with the di-
■vifions which correfpond to the magnifier yoii have in
ufe, and pinch it by the milled nut; now refledt a
proper quantity of light upon the objedi, by means
of the concave mirror G, and regulate the bpdy ex-
adtly to the eye and the focus of the glafles by the
adjufting fcrew eg.
To view opaque objedts, take away the Aider-holder
P, and place the objedl on a flat glafs under the cen¬
tre of the body, or on one end of the jointed nippers
0p. Then fcrew the filver concave fpeculum h to the
end of the cylinder L, and Aide this cylinder on the
lower part of the body, fo that the upper edge thereof
may coincide with the line which has the fame mark
with the magnifier that is then ufed ; re'fkdt the light
from the concave mirror G to the filver fpeculum,
from which it will again be refledted on the objedl.
The glaffes are to be adjufted to their focal diftance
as before diredled.
The apparatus con fids of a convex lens H, to col-
ledl the rays of light from the fun or a candle, and
eonderife them on the objedl. L a cylindrical tube,
©pen at each fide, with a concave fpeculum ferevved to
the lower end b. P the Aider-holder : this confifts of a
cylindrical tube, in which an inner tube is forced up¬
wards by a fpiral fpring ; it is ufed to receive an ivory
Aider K, which is to be Aid between the plates h
and 1. The cylinder P fits the hole n in the ftage ;
and the hollow part at b is defigned to receive a glafs
tube. R is a brafs cone, to be put under the bottom
of the cylinder P, to intercept occafionally fome of
the rays of light. S a box containing a concave and
a flat glafs, between wdiich a fmall living infedl may
be confined : it is to be placed over the hole n. T
a flat glafs, to lay any occafional objedl upon ; there
is alfo a concave one for fluids. O is a long fteel wire,
with a fmall pair of pliers at one end, and a point at
the other, defigned to flick or hold objedls ; it flips
backwards and forwards in the fhort tube 0 / the pin
p fits into the hole of the flage. W a little round
ivory box, to hold a fupply of talc and rings for the
Aiders. V a fmall ivory cylinder, that fits on the
pointed end of the fteel wire: it is defigned for opaque,
©bjedls. Light-coloured ones are to be ftuck upon
the dark fide, and vice verfa. M a fifh-pan, whereon
to fallen a fmall fifh, to view the circulation of the
blood : the tail is to be fpread acrofs the oblong hole
4 1 MIG
k at the fmall end, and tied fall, by means of a rib-
band fixed thereto; the knob / is to be fhoved through
the flit made in the ftage, that the tail may be brought
under the magnifier.
3. This microfcope has received feveral material im*
provements from Mr Martin, Mr Adams, &c. By
an alteration, or rather an enlargement, of the body of
the tube which contains the^eye-glafies, and alfo of the
eye-glaffes themfelves, the field of view is made much
larger, the mirror below for reflefling light is made to
move upon the fame bar with the ftage; by which means
the diftance of it from the ftage may be very eafily and
fuitably varied. A condeniing glafs is applied under
the ftage in the Aider-holder, in order to modify and
increafe the light that is refleited by the mirrors be¬
low from the light of a candle or lamp. It is furnifli-
ed alfo with two mirrors in one frame, one concave
and the other plane, of glafs filvefed ; and by Amply
unferewing the body, the inftrument,when defired, may
be converted into a Angle microfcope. Fig. 1 2. is a
reprefentation of the inftrument thus improved ; and
the following is the defeription of it, as given by
Mr Adams in his Eflfays.
A B reprefents the body of the microfcope, con¬
taining a double eye-glafs and a body-glafs: it is
here ftiown as fcrewed to the arm C D, from whence
it may be occafionally removed, either for the con¬
venience of packing, or when the inftrument is to be
ufed as a fingle microfcope.
The eye glafles and the body glaffes are contained-
in a tube which fits into the exterior tube A B ; by
pulling out a little this tube when the microfcope is
in ufe, the magnifying power of each lens is increafed.
The body A B of the microfcope is fupported by
the arm CD; this arm is fixed to the main pillar C F,
which is fcrewed firmly to the mahogany pedeftal
G H ; there is a drawer to this pedeftal, which holds
the apparatus.
N I S, The plate or ftage which carries the Aider-
holder K L: this ftage is moved up or down the pillar
CF, by turning the milled nut M ; this nut is fixed
to a pinion, that works in a toothed rack cut on one
fide ef the pillar. By means of this pinion, the ftage
may be gradually raifed or depreffed, and the object
adjufted to the focus of the different lenfes.
K E is a Aider-holder, which fits into a hole that
is in the middle of the ftage N I S ; it is ufed to con¬
fine and guide either the motion of the Aiders which
contain the objedls, or the glafs tubes that are defigned
to confine fmall fiflies for viewing the circulation of
the blood. The Aiders are to be paffed betvyeen the
two upper plates, the tubes through the bent plates.
E is a brafs tube, to the upper part of which is fix¬
ed the condenfing lens before fpoken of; it fits into
the under part of the Aider-holder K L, and may be
fet at different diftances from the objeCl, according to
its diftance from the mirror or the candle.
O is the ftame which holds the two refledting mir¬
rors, one of which is plane, the other concave. Thefe
mirrors may be moved in various directions, in order
to refled the light properly, by means of the pivots
on which they move, in the femicircle QJ> R, and the
motion of the femicircle itfelf on the pin S : the con¬
cave mirror generally anfwers beft in the day-time ;
the plane mirror combines better with the condenfing
X lens.
Micofcopf
MIC l y
Mierofcope Jens, end a lamp or candle. At D there is a fockt t
v„ ■■ for receiving the pin of the arm Q__(fig. 31-)> to which
the concave fpeculum, for reflecting light on opaque ob¬
jects, is fixed. At S is a hole and flit for receiving either
the nippers JL (fig. 31. Pl.ccei.) or the fi(h-pan 1; when
thefe are ufed, the Aider-holder mult be removed. T,
a hole to receive the pin of the convex lens M, fig. 31.
To t/fe this microfcope : Take it out of the box.
Screw the body into the round end of the upper part
of the arm C D. Place the brafs Aiders, which con¬
tain the magnifiers, into the dove-tailed flit which is
on the under fide of the aforefaid arm, as feen at E,
and Aide it forwards until the magnifier you mean
to ufe is under the centre of the body : oppafite to
each magnifier in this flit there is a notch, and in
the dove-tailed part of the arm C D there is a fpring,
which falls into the above-mentioned notch, and thus
makes each magnifier coincide with the centre of the
body. Pafs the ivory Aider you intend to ufe between
the upper plates of the flider-holder KL, and then
refleft as ftrong a light as you can on the objeCt by
means of one of the mirrors ; after this, adjuft the ob¬
jeCt to the focus of the magnifier and your eye, by
turning the milled fcrevv M, the motion of which raifes
and deprefles the ftage N I S. The degree of light
neceffary for each objedi, and the accuracy required in
the adjuilment of the lenfes to their proper focal di-
ftance from the objeCt will be eafily attained by a little
practice.
When opaque objeCts are to be examined, remove
the flider-holder, and place the objeCt on a flat glafs,
or fix it to the nippers L, the pin of thefe fit into the
hole on the ftage ; fcrew the concave fpeculum R
into the arm Qjfig. 31.), and then pafs the pin of this
arm through the focket D, fig. 12. the light is now
to be reflected from the concave mirror to the filver
fpeculum, and from this down on the objeCt. No
exa6t rule can be given for reflecting the light on the
objeCt; we mult therefore refer the reader to the mo¬
ther of all aptnefs, praCtice. The fpeculum muft be
moved lower or higher, to fuit the focus of the dif¬
ferent magnifiers and the nature of the objeCt.
The foregoing directions apply equally to the ufing
of this inftrument as a fmgk microfcope; with this
difference only, that the body AB is then removed,
and the eye is applied to the upper furface of the
arm CD, exactly over the magnifiers.
This microfcope is fometimes made with the follow¬
ing alterations, which are fuppofed to make it ftill
more convenient and ufeful. The arm CD that car¬
ries the body and magnifiers is made both to turn on
a pin, and to Aide backwards and forwards in a focket
at C ; fo that, inftead of moving the objefis below on
the ftage, and difturbing them, the magnifiers are more
conveniently brought over any part of the objeCis as
defired. The condenfing glafs is made larger, and
Aides upon the fquare bar CE quite diftinct horn the
ftage, like the mirrors below; and it is thereby made
lifeful for any other objeCtfc that may be applied on
glafiVs fitted to the ftage, as well as thofe put into
the flider-holder K. It is thereby not confined to
this ftnge alone; as in the preceding. When the
body AB is taken away, the arm CD may be dipt
away froth its bar, with the magnifiers* and. .the for-
peps, wire, and joint, applied to it; and it there-
15 1 MIG
Ey ferves the purpofe of a fmall hand Angle or opaque M.'cr-'fcnpe
microfcope, for any objeCt occafionally applied to this "
wire. The magnifiers in the Aider E are mounted in
a wheel cafe, which perhaps prevents its being in the
way fo much as the long Aider E before defcribed.—
This contrivance is reprefented at X, fig. 12.
4. Martin’s New Univerfal Compound Microfcope—-
This inftrument was originally conftruCted by the
late Mr B. Martin, and intended to comprife all the
ufes -and advantages of the Angle, compound, opaque,
and aquatic microfcopes. The following is a defcrip-
tion of it as now made, with a few alterations, chiefly
fuggefted (we are told) by Mr Jones of Holborn.
Fig. 13. is a reprefentation of the inftrument placed pjate
up for ufe. A, 13, C, D, is the body of the micro- CCXCIX.
fcope : which confifts of four parts, viz- AB the eye¬
piece, or that containing the eye-glaffes, and is fcrew-
ed into C, which is a moveable or Aiding tube on the
top; this inner tube contains the body-glafs fcrewed
into its lower part. D is the exterior tube or cafe,
in which the other Aides up and down in an eafy and
fteady manner. This motion of the tube C is ufefid
to increafe or decreafe the magnifying power of the
body-glafs when thought neceflaryja!- before mentioned.
E is a pipe or fnout fcrewed on to the body of the mi¬
crofcope D, and at its low’er part, over the feveral mag¬
nifying lenfes hereafter defcribed. FGH1 is the fquare
Item of the microfcope, upon which the ftage R moves
in an horizontal pofition, upwards or downward, by
means uf the fine rackwork of teeth and pinion. KL
is a ftrong folid joint and pillar, by which the pofition
of the instrument is readily altered from a vertical one
to an oblique or to a perfedly horizontal one, as may be
required: it is thus well adapted to the eafe of the ob-
ferver either fitting or Handing ; and as it is very
often convenient to view objeCts by direCt unrefleCt-
ed light, when the fquare ftem FI is placed in an
horizontal pofition for this purpofe, the mirror T
is then to be taken off in order to prevent the obftruc-
tion of the rays. M is a circular piece of brafs, fer-
ving as a bafe to the pillar. NOP, the tripod or foot
by which the whole body of the microfcope is ftea-
dily fupported; it folds up when packed into the cafe.
-W is a brafs frame, that contains the condenfing
lens, and ads in conjun&ion with the large con¬
cave and plane mirrors below at T ; the reflected rays
from which, either of the common light or of that
of a candle or lamp, it agreeably modifies, and makes
fteady in the field of view.
The particulars of the apparatus to this micro¬
fcope are as follow: Q^is a circular brafs box,
containing fix magnifiers or objed lenfes, number¬
ed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; the digits of which appear fe-
verally through a fmall round holt in the upper
plate of it. To the upper fide is fixed a fmall circle
of brafs, by which it is conneded with, and fcrew¬
ed into, the round end of the arm ahcd; which is
a long piece of brafs, and moves through either by
teeth or pinion, or not, as may be defired, in ef;
which is a focket on the upper part of the pillar, and
admits, with a motion both eafy and fteady, the brafs
arm. R is a fixed ftage, upon which the objeds
to be viewed are to be placed: it is firmly faften-
e.d to the fquare pillar, which is moved by the rack-
work. In the middle is a large circular hole, for
4X2 receiving
MIC [ 71
Microfcopereceiving concave glafies, with fluids, See. it has alfo
v'—" a Aiding fpring-frame to fatten down flips of glafs
or other things: at a be are three fmall fockets or
holes, intended to receive feveral parts of the appara¬
tus. S is the refra&or, or illuminating lens, for con¬
verging the fun’s rays upon opaque objefts laid upon
the ttage R. To this purpofe it moves on a femi-
circle upon a long fhank ?, in a fpring focket in the
arm i: this arm moving every way by a ftout pin i in
the facket a of the ftage. In this manner it is eafily
adjufted to any pofition of the fun, candle, &c.—
T, the refleciing-glafs frame, containing a concave
and plane fpeculum, which is moved upon the fquare
pillar by the hand. The ufe of it is to illuminate
all transparent objefts that are applied to the ftage
above.
Fig. f4. n° 1. is an auxiliary moveable ftage ; which
by means of a pin i is placed in the hole a of the ftage
R, and can be moved in an horizontal direftion over
the whole field of the ftage. In this ftage, there are
three circular holes with fhouldered bottoms ; a
large one in the middle, and on each fide a fmall
one, for the reception of the three following neceffary
articles: n° 2. a watch-glafs to be placed in the large
hole, to hold fluids containing animalcules, &c.; a
circular piece of ivory, n4' 3. one fide of which is black,
the other white, to fupport opaque objefts of different
contrafted colours; and circular plane and concave
glaffes, n° 4. for extemporaneous tranfparent objefts.—
The fame'ufe is made of the other fmall hole as of
the large one, only in a leffer degree, to receive fmall
con cave glaffes, plates, &c.
* Or that N° 5.* is the filvered fpeculum, called a Llberkhun,
joining which makes the fingle opaque microfcope, by being
(die n° ha- fcrewed to t^ie Aider alcd (fig. 13.) in room of the box
ving been of lenfes Q_, and the body AE above it. The chief
omitted by ufe of this is to view very fmall obje&s ftrongly illu-
!.h!iengra' nrinated near the compounded focus of the mirror
T (fig. 13.) N° 6. is the forceps or pliers, for
holding fuch kind of obje&s, and by which they
can be applied very readily to the focus of the kns
in the liberkhun. They have a motion all ways by
means of the fpring focket a, the joint b, and the
ftiank c; they are placed in the focket c of the fixed
ftage R (fig. 13.) N° 7. is a fmall piece of ivory,
to be placed upon the pointed end of the pliers:
it is black upon one fide, and white upon the other,
to receive opaque objefts.
N° 8. is a liberkhun of a larger fize than that
firft mentioned, with a hole in its centre: this is
ferewed into n° 9. the hole a of a brafs ring, fat¬
tened to a long wire b; which moves up and down
in the fpring focket b of the ftage R, in which it al¬
fo moves fideways; and thus, with the body AE above,
forms an aquatic compound microfcope for flowing all
forts of objefts in water and other fluids placed under
it in the watch-glafs np 2. on the ftage.
N° 11. is a cone, with a proper aperture a to ex¬
clude fuperfluous light, that would difturb a critical
obfervation of a curious objeft; it is placed on the
under fide of the fixed ftage R.
N° 12. is what is ufually called a bug-box, confift-
jpg of a concave glafs with a plane one ferewed over
it} by means of which a bug, loufe, flea, &c. may be
6 ]
M I C
ver).
fecured and viewed alive. It is to be placed on either Microfcope
of the ftages R (fig. 13.), or n 1 (fig. 14.)     
N° 13. is-the fifh-pan. In the long concave body
ab, a fifti may be fo confined by the ribband c, that
the tranfparent tail may be in part over the Ait or hole
at a. In this ftate, it is placed on the ftage R, with
the pin d in the hole c of the ftage, and moves free¬
ly and horizontally for viewing the circulation of the
blood, &c.
N0 14. is the Aider-holder that is placed on the ftage
R: it receives the Aiders and tubes when filled with
tranfparent objefts, to be viewed either by the com¬
pound or fingle microfcope.
N'-’ 15. reprefents the ivory Aider, to hold the objefts
between the talcs as ufual.
N4' 16. is a ufeful auxiliary Aider framed in brafs.
In this Aider fmall concave glaffes are cemented ; and
aAip of plane glafs Aides over them; by which any
fmall living objedt, as mites, See. may be confined
without injury, and deliberately viewed.
N° 17. reprefents a fet of glafs tubes, three in num¬
ber, one within another; they are ufeful for fmall tad¬
poles, water-newts, eels, &c. when the circulation of
the blood is to be viewed. There is a fmall hole at
one end of each tube, that ferves to admit the air; for
when they are filled with water, the other end is flop¬
ped with a cork.
Np 18. is a fmall ivory box, containing fpare talcs
and wires, to fupply the Aiders with occafionally.
N° 19. a brafs cell or button, containing a very
fmall lens, properly fet between two fmall plates of
brafs, that it may be brought very near to the objeft
when viewed therewith as a fingle microfcope. This
magnifier is ferewed into the fame hole as the wheel
of fix magnifiers Q_are (fig. 13).
N° 20. is a lens, adapted to view and examine ob-
jedts, by magnifying them fufficiently, fo as to be able
to apply them to the microfcope for infpedtion : on
this account it is called the explorator.
The preceding are the chief articles of the appara¬
tus ; which, on account of their being fomewhat dif¬
ferent from what is applied to other microfcopes, we
have been thus particular in deferibing. In ufing
the microfcope, and while viewing objedls by either
the fingle or compound inftrument,the focal diftances
of the magnifiers are made perfedtly exact by turn¬
ing of the pinion at the nut <w, in one way or the.
other, very gently in the teeth of the rack-work at
X (fig* ifl)-
It is neceffary that the centres of the objedt lenfes
or magnifiers, the ftage, and the mirrors at bot¬
tom, fhould all be in a right line in the axis of the
microfcope, when opaque objects are to be viewed,
that are placed upon the ivory piece n° 7, or the for¬
ceps n°6. and all other fuch fort of objedts which are
placed in the centre of the ftage R, or Aider-holder
n9 14: But when aquatic or living objedts, which re¬
quire a great fpace to move In, are to be viewed, then
the horizontal motion at ef (fig. 13.) is made ufe of,
and the view may be extended laterally over the whole
of the diameter of the objedb or field of view; and
by putting the arm abed forward or backward in
its focket ef the view is extended in the contrary
diredtion equally well; and in this manner the whole
af
Plate CCXC1X.
MICR O S n O TTT,
MIC [ 717 ] MIC
Microfcnpe0f the objefts may be ^iewed without the leaft dif-
-i.—-y—- turbance.
As the brafs arm abed may be brought to the
height of three or four inches above the ftage R ; fo,
by means of the rack-work motion of the ftage, a
lens of a greater focal diftance than the greateft in
the wheel Q^may be occafionally applied in place of
the wheel, and thereby the larger kind of objeds be
viewed ; the iuftrurrient becoming, in this cafe, what
is called a megaiafeepe.
In viewing moving living objeds, or even fixed ones,
when nice motions are requifite, a rack-work and pi¬
nion is often applied to the arm abed: the arm is
cut out with teeth ; and the pinion, as fhown at Y,
is applied to work it. This ads but in one diredion;
and, in order to produce an equally neceflary motion
perpendicular to this, rack-work and pinion is applied
tangent-wife to the ftage, which is then jointed.
What has been related above refpeds the conftruc-
tion of thofe denominated parluur microfcopes, in con-
tradiftindion to thofe which are portable : their di-
menfions, however, have been confiderably reduced
by opticians, in order to render them fit for the
pocket; and as they are for the moft part conftruded
on nearly the fame principles as thofe which have been
already deferibed, what has been faid will fufficiently
inftrud our readers in ufing any pocket microfcope
whatever. Only it may be obferved, that in thofe re¬
duced inftruments, both the field of view and the mag¬
nifying power are proportionably diminiihed.
We ftrall conclude the account of this fort of mx-
crofeope with deferiptions of a very portable pocket
apparatus of microfcopic inftruments, and of a new mi-
crofcopic pocket-telefcope, both invented by the late
Mr B. Martin, and fince made by moft inftrument-
makers in London.
The former is reprefented at fig. 15. It con-
fxfts of two parts, viz. the body a b, and the pe-
deftal ik, which is joined by a ferew at the part be¬
tween b and i. It confifts of three cylindric tubes,
viz. (1.) the exterior tube, or cafe ab; (2.) a
middle tube cb ; and (3.) the interior tube fg.—
The middle tube cd is the adjufter; and is connected
with the outer tube by the rack-work of teeth and pi¬
nion, as ftiown at e : by which means it is moved up
and down at pleafure through the fmalleft fpace, and
carries with it the internal tube fg. The interior
tube f g receives on its lower part at b the feveral cap-
fules or boxes 2, 3, 4, 5, (fig. 16.) which contain the
objexft lenfes or magnifiers.
The method of iifing this compound microfcope in
the perpendicular p0fition,,is as follows. The ftage
n° 1. is put within the exterior tube at b. Un¬
der the fprings are applied the four ivory fliders,
which contain a variety of tranfparent objefts; then
move the interior tube fg up and down with the hand,
till you difeern the objedt in the Aider, and there let
it reft. After this, turn the pinion at e very tenderly
one way or t he other, till you obtain a perfect view
of the tranfparent objefts properly illuminated, from
a mirror ,.contained in the pedeftal or ftand ik, fuf-
pended upon, and moveable about, the points of
two ferews (ll). N3 0. (fig. x6.).reprefeats a move¬
able ftage, which is placed in the fpring focket m. It Microlcopue-
contains a concave glafs, for the reception of animal- ' ^
cules in fluids ; and has the advantage of bringing any
part into view by moving the handle at h. If living
and moving objedis are required to be ftiown, they mult
be confined in the concave, by putting a glafs cover,
n° 7. upon the ftag;; and then a fmall fpider, a loufe,
flea, bug, &c. may be feen, and the motion or circu--
lation of the blood, &c. obferved with furprifing di-
ftin&nefs.
To view the circulation of the blood in the moft
eminent degree, it mull be done by placing fmall frogs,
tadpoles, water-newts, fifties, &c. in a tube as reprefent¬
ed n- 8. (fig. 17.); which tube is placed in the holes 0
in the oppofite fides of the cafe ab, fig. 15. in the lower
part.—N 9. (fig. 16.) is a pair of pincers or pliers d,
for holding any objeft ; the other end of the fteel wire
is pointed to receive a piece of ivory b, with one end
black, and the other white, on wdiich you ftick ob-
je&s of different hue : this alfo, when ufed, is placed
in the fpring focket m.
To ufe this inftrument as a compound opaque, yoa
ferew off the body part ab, and ferew to it the handle
r (fig. 16.) ; by this means you may hold the micro¬
fcope in a horizontal pofition, as ftiown in the figure.
The filver difti or fpeculum (which is contained in the
bottom or bafe k, fig. 15), is then ferewed on at b.
N° 9. is placed in the fpring-focket m, and adjufted
backward and forward in m, till the reflected light from
the fpeculum fells in a ptoper manner on the opaque
objeft. Either of the 4 magnifiers, 2, 3, 4, 5, may
be ufed, and brought to a proper focus, as before de¬
feribed, by the tooth and pinion e (fig. 15.) If you take
off the opaque apparatus, and apply the ftage n° 1. (fig. 16.)
with an ivory Aider, and at the end b ferew in either of
the two lenfes, n° 10. (which are diftinguiftied by the
name of illuminators), the microfcope being held up to
the light (and properly adjufted), the whole field of
view will be ftrongly illuminated, and prefent a moft
pleafing appearance of any tranfparent object. Thefe
two convex lenfes are of different focufes, and are to
be ufed fingly or together ; n° 2. being the greateft
magnifier, wift require the objeft to be ftrongly illumi¬
nated, and of courfe both the lenfes muft be ufed to¬
gether. By candle-light, this method of viewing tranf¬
parent objefts will prove very entertaining ; by ferew-
ing the handle r into the part s of n° 10. it becomes
a delightful hand megalafcope for viewing flowers, fof-
fils, flxells, &c.; and each lens, as before mentioned,
having a different focus, produces two magnifying
powers ufed fingly, and when combined a third.
The manner of ufing this inftrument as a fingle
microfcope (like Wilfon’s) is reprefented in fig. 17.
where the button or magnifier at each is to be ferewed
off, and the circular piece n" 11. is ferewed in its
.place. This piece. has a fpring focket made to re¬
ceive the Aider holder n° 12. N0 13. is a circular
piece of brafs, with a long Axank and ipring, and is
introduced through the outfide tube ab atr. N° 2, 3,
4,5, are ferewed occafionally in the centre of this
piece, and ufed as fingle lenfes with ivory Aiders, &c.
N0 14. contains a lens of a great magnifying power,
for viewing very minute objects : to render this inftru¬
ment the moft complete fingle opaque microfcope, you
have only to ferew into n° 13. the filver fpeculum
mic r 7*8 i
M I
C
M crofcope ^ 15, which has a fmall kns fct in its centre. The
flider-ho'der np 12 is taken out of n- 11, and the pincers
or nippers d b, being detached from the other part of
n0 9. are paffed through the long fpring focket n° 11.
and ready to receive any opaque body in the pincers
or on the black and white piece of ivoiy. To the
large ferew of n° 13. are applied the two lenfes n° 10.
which make it the completed megalafcope that can be
defired.
The handle r contains the four ivory Aiders with
objedts.
The Aiagreeen cafe which contains this univerfal mi-
crofcope and its apparatus, is fix inches long, three
inches wide, two inches deep, and weighs td*ether 16
ounces. “ Thus (fays Mr Martin) fo fmall,light,
fo portable, and yet fo univerfally complete, jp this
pocket microfcopic apparatus, that you find nothing
material in the large three-pillared microfcope, the
opaque microfcope, Wilfon’s Angle microfcope, and
the aquatic microfcope, all together, which you have
not in this; befide fome very confiderable advantages
in regard to the field of view, &e. which they have
not (a).”
This inventive artift having contrived a conftrnc-
tion of the compound microfcope fo fmall as to ad¬
mit of being packed in a common walking cane,
thought next of introducing the fame inllrument into
the infide of what he called his Pocfot 'Three-brafs drawer
Achromatic Telefcape. The fame eye-glaffes that ferve the
purpofe of a telefcope, anfwer as the compound magni¬
fier, for viewing tranfparent and opaque objedts in a
microfcope.
Fig. 18, 19, 20. reprefent the telefcope fepatated
-by unfcrewing it at rn, in order that the whole of
the neceflary parts in ufe may be exhibited. Fig. 19.
reprefents the exterior tube, which is of mahogany,
and its rims of brafs. It is detached from the reft of
the telefcope, as not making any part of the micro¬
fcope. The brafs cover k /, that Aiuts up the objedl-
glafs of the telefcope, is alfo the box which contains
the two-wheel objedt-frames, and a fmall plain rclkdt-
ing mirror.
In fig. ao. A is the cover taken off, by unfcrew¬
ing the top part: The mirror B is taken out; and alfo,
by unfcrewing the bottom part,the two circular wheels,
with the objedfs Aiown in C and D.
Fig. 18. is a reprefentation of the three internal
brafs Aiding tubes of the telefcope, which form the
microfcopic part. The tubes are to be drawn out as
Aiown in this figure ; then, at the-lower end of the
large tube in the infide, is to be pulled out a fiiont
tube be, that ferves as a kind of ftage to hold Ihe
wheels with objedts, and fupport the refledting mirror.
This tube is to be partly drawn out, -and turned fo
that the circular hole that is pierced in ic may coin¬
cide with a fimilar hole that is cut in the exterior tube.
This tube is reprefented as drawn out in the figure j Mkmfcop* j
and the mirror B placed therein, and the wheel —
with tranfparent objedls. C (fig. 20.) reprefents the
wheel with tranfparent objects, and D the wheel with
opaque objedts. They are both made of ivory ; and
turn round upon a centre brafs pin Ait upon the top,
which fits upon the edge of the tube; which tube
is then to be pu'fhed up into the telefcope tube, fo
that its lower end may red upon the upper edge of the
wheel according to its view at a fig. 18.
jin viewing the objedls, the fecond brafs tube of the
telefcope mult be pulhed down, till its milled edge at
top falls upon that of the exterior tube ; taking care
that the circular hole is duly placed to the exterior one.
Thefe circular holes are not fee-n in fig. 18. being
fuppofed in the oppolite fide, where the wheel is fixed.
The adjuftment for the focus is now only necelfary ;
which is obtained by puAii-ng downwards or upwards
the proper tube, tifi the objedt appear quite diftinct.
In viewing tranfparent objects, the inftrumeut may
be ufed in two pofitions ; one vertical, when the light
is to be refiedted upon the objedl by the mirror ; the
other, by looking up diredtly againlt the light of a
candle, common light, &c. ; in which cafe the mirror
mult be taken away. In viewing opaque pbjedts, the
mirror is not ufed: but as much common light as pof-
fible mull be admitted through the citcular holes in
the fides of the tubes.
There is a fpare hole in the tranfparent wheel, and
alfo one in the opaque, to reoeive any occafional objedt
that is to be- viewed. Any fort of objedt whatfdever
may be viewed, by only pufiting up the microfcope
tube into ks exterior, and bringing the firft eye-tube
to its focal diltance from the objedt.
The brafs tubes are fo contrived, that, they ftop
when drawn out to the full length: fo that by
applying one hand to the outiide tube, and the
other to the end of the fmalleit tube, the tekfeope ftt
one-pull may be drawn out; then any of the tubes
(that next to the eye is beft.) may be pulhed in gra¬
dually, till the moll diftindt view of the objedl be ob¬
tained.
The tubes all Aide through Aiort brafs fpring tubes,
any of which may be unferewed from the ends of the
Aiding tubes by means of the milled edges which pro¬
ject above the tubes, taken-from each other, and the
Iprings fet clear if required.
III. Of S01.AR Microfcopes.
This inftrument, in its principle, is compofed of a j
tube, a looking-glafs or mirror, a convex lens, and
Wilfon’s Angle microfcope before deferibed. Tire fun’s
rays being 'reikdted through the tube by means dC the
mirror upon the ^objeft, - the . image dr pidture--of
the object is thrown diitindtly and beautifully upon
a. fierce n of/white ipapjar or a white linen,Iheet, placed
at
(a) Motwithftanding the properties that have been afcribed to the above iuftrument, and the praifes'be¬
llowed upon it by fome-, which induced us to admit fo mmute -a defeription •; 'rietniiit apprife our readers,
that it has been omitted 5n Mr Adams's enumeration j and upb-ft inqifiry w'e learn!-that it has fallen Into
negledt among the mofb judicious opticians, being found too imperfect to ferve the ptirpofes of foiencei and
too complicated for the life of perfcns who feck-only entertainment. !;
MIC [7
IJicrofcope at a proper diftance to receive the fame ; and may be
\—- magnified to a fize not to be conceived by. thofe
who have not feen it: for the farther the fcreen is re¬
moved, the larger will the object appear ; infomuch,
that a loufe may thus be magnified to the length of five
or fix feet, or even a great deal more; though it is
more diftinft when not enlarged to above half that
fize
The different forms in which the Solar Microfcope
is conftrucled, are as follow.
I. The old conilruftiou is reprefented in fig. 21. A
is a fquare wodden frame, through which pafs two
long fcrews affifted by a couple of nuts 1, 1. By thefe
jt is faftened firmly to a window fhutter, wherein a hole
is made for its reception ; the two nuts being let into
the {butter, and made faff thereto. A circular hole
is made in the middle of this frame to receive the piece
of wood B, of a circular figure; whofe edge, that
projects a little beyond the frame, compofes a {hallow
groove 2, wherein runs a catgut 3 ; which, by twift-
ing round, and then eroding over a brafs .pulley 4,
(the handle whereof 5, paffes through the frame),
affords an eafy motion for turning round the circular
piece of wood B, with all the parts affixed to it. C
is a brafs tube, which, ferewing into the middle of the
circular piece of wood, becomes a cafe for the unco¬
vered hrafs tube D to be drawn backwards or forwards
in. E is a fmaller tube, of about one inch in length,
cemented to the end of the larger tube D. F is
another brafs tube, made to Aide aver the above de-
feribed tube E ; and to the end of this the microfcope
mult be ferewed, when we come to ufe it. 5. a con¬
vex lens, whofe focus is about 12 inches, deligned to
colieft the fun’s rays, and throw them more ftrongly
upon the objett. G is a looking-glafs of an oblong
figure, fet in a wooden frame, faftened by hinges in
the circular piece of wood B, and turning about
therewith by means of the abovementioned cat-gut.
H is a jointed wire, partly brafs and partly iron ;
the brafs part whereof 6, wffiich is fiat, being faften¬
ed to the mirror, and the iron' part 7, which is
round, paffing through the wooden frame, enable the
obferver, by putting it backwards or forwards, to ele¬
vate or deprefs the mirror according to the fun’s alti¬
tude. There is a brafs ring at the end of the jointed
wire 8, whereby to manage it with the greater eafe.
The extremities of the cat-gut are faftened to a hrafs
pin, by turning of which it may be braced up, if at
any time it becomes too flack.
When this microfcope is employed, the room muft
be rendered as dark as poffible ; for on the darknefs
of the room, and. the brightnefs of the funlhinei, de¬
pend the {harpnefs and perfe&ion of your image*
Then putting the looking-glafs G through the hole in
your window-rtiutter, faften the fquare frame A to the
fluitten by its two fcrews and nuts 1, 1. This-done,
adjuft your looking-glafs to the elevation and fituation
of the fun, by mean* of the jointed wire H, together
with the cat-gut and pulley, 3, 4. For the firft of.
thefe railing or lowering the glafs, and the Other in¬
clining it to either fide, there refults a twofold mo¬
tion, which may eafily be fo managed as to bring the
glafa to a right pofition, that is, to make it refledf the.
fun’s rays dire&ly through the lens 5, upon the paper
fejeen, and form thereon a fpot of light exactly round.
19 ] MIC
■But though the obtaining a perfeft circular fpot of Microfi ope
light upon the fcreen before you apply the micro- ' *
fcope, is a certain proof that your mirror is adjulted
right, that proof mull not always be expe&ed : for the
fun is fo low in winter, that if it fliine in a diredt line
againft the window, it cannot then afford a fpot of
light exa&ly round ; but if it be 011 either lide, a
round fpot may be obtained, even in December. As
foon as this appears, ferew the tube C into the brafs
collar provided fior it in the middle of your wood-work,
taking care not to alter your looking-glafs : then
ferewing the magnifier you choofe to employ to the
end of your microfcope in the ufual manner, take away
the lens at the other end thereof, and place a Aider,
containing the obje&s to be examined, between the
thin brafs plates, as in the other ways of ufing the
miciofcope.
Things being thus prepared, ferew the body of
the microfcope over the fmall end E of the brafs tube
F ; which flip over the fmall end E of the tube D,-
and pull out the faid tube D lefs or more as your ob¬
ject is capable of enduring the fun’s heat. Dead ob-
jedfs may be brought within about an inch of the
focus of the convex lens 5 ; but the diftance muft
be fliortened for living creatures, or they will foon be
killed.
If the light fall not exaftly right, you may eafily,.
by a gentle motion of the jointed wire and pulley, di-
red! it through the axis of the microfcopic lens. The
{hort tube F, to which the microfcope is ferewed,
renders it eafy, by Aiding it backwards or fprwards on
the other tube E, to bring the objedfs to their focal
diftance ; which will be known by the Iharpnefs and
clearnefs of their appearance : they may alfo be turn-
'cd round by the fame means without being in the lead
difordered.
The magnifiers moft ufeful in the folar microfcope
are in general, the-fourth, fifth, or fixth. The fcreen
on which the reprefentations of the objedts are thrown,
is ufually compofed of a fheet of the largeft elephant
paper, {trained on a frame which Aides up or down, or
turns about at pleafure on a round wooden pillar, af¬
ter the manner of fome fire-fereens. Larger feretns
may alfo be made of feveral (beets of the fame paper
patted together on cloth, and let down from the ceil¬
ing with a roller like a large map.
“ This microfcope (fays Mr Baker) is the moft
entertaining of any ; and perhaps the moft capable
of making difeoveries in objects that are not too
opaque : as it-(hows them much larger than can be
dime any other way. There are alfo feveral conve¬
niences attending it, which no other microfcope can
have : for the weakeft eyes may ufe it without the
leaft {training or fatigue : numbers* of people together
may view any object at the fame time ; and by point¬
ing to the particular parts thereof, and difeourfing.
on what lies before them, may be able better to un-
derftand one another, and more likely to find out the
truth, than in other mierbfeopes, where they muft peep
one after another, and perhaps fee the objedt neither
in the fame light' nor in the_ fame pofition.- Thofe
alfo, who have no flcill in drawing, may, by this con¬
trivance, eafily Iketch out the exadt figure of any ob¬
jedt they have a mind to preferve a pidture of; fince
they need only faften a paper ,on the fereen, and trace
MIC [ 720 ] MIC
M'erofcope It out thereon either with a pert or pencil, as it ap-
''' pears before them. It is worth the while of thofe who
are defirous of taking many draughts in this way, to
get a frame, wherein a flieet of paper may be put in
or taken out at pleafure ; for if the paper be tingle,
the image of an objeft will be feen almoft as plainly
on the back as on the fore-fide ; and, by {landing be-
•bind the fcreen, the {hade of the hand, will not ob-
ftruft the light in drawing, as it mull in fome degree
when one Hands before it.” This cosftrudlion, how¬
ever, has now become rather obfolete, and is fuper-
feded by the following.
II. °The improved Solar Microfcope, at ufed with the
improvedfingle Microfcopes with teeth and pinion. Fig. 2 2.
reprefents the whole form of the fingle microfcope ; the
parts of which are as follows : ABCD the external
tube; GHIK the internal moveable one; QM part
of another tube within the laft, at one end of which
is fixed a plate of brafs hollowed in the middle, for re¬
ceiving the glafs tubes: there is alfo a moveable flat
plate, between which, and the fixed end of the fecond
tube, the ivory Aiders are to be placed. L, a part
of the microfcope, containing a wire fpiral fpring,
keeping the tube QM with its plates firm againft the
fixed part IK of the fecond tube.
EF is the fmall rack-work of teeth and pinion, by
which the tube IG is moved gradually to or from the
end AB, for adjufting the obje&s exadlly to the focus
of different lengths. NO is a brafs Aider, with fix
magnifiers; any on6 of which may eafily be placed be¬
fore the objedl. It is known when either of the glafles
is in the centre of the eye-hole, by a fmall fpring fall¬
ing into a notch in the fide of the Aider, made againft
each of the glafles. Thofe parts of the apparatus, fig. 14.
(Pl.ccxcix.) marked n° 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 2f. and
22. are made ufe of here to this microfcope. GH is a
brafs cell, which holds an illuminating glafs for con¬
verging the fun’s beams or the light of a candle ftrong-
ly upon the objedls. The aperture of the glafs is made
greater or lefs, by two circular pieces ®f brafs, with
holes of different fizes, that are fcrewed feparately
over the faid lens. But at times, objedls appear beft
when the microfcope is held up to the common light
only, without this glafs. It is alfo taken away when
the microfcope is applied to the apparatus now to be
defcribed.
Fig. 23. reprefents the apparatus, with the fingle
microfcope fcrewed to it, which conftitutes the So/ar
Microfcope. AB is the inner moveable tube, to which
the fingle microfcope is fcrewed. CD, is the exter¬
nal tube, containing a condenfing convex glals at
the end I), and is fcrewed into the plate EF, which
is cut with teeth at its circumference, and moved by
the pinion I, that is fixed with the plate GH. This
plate is fcrewed fall againft the window-Auitter, or
board fitted to a convenient window of a darkened
room, when the inftrument is ufed. KL is a long
frame, fixed to the circular plate EF; containing
a looking-glafs or mirror for reflecting the folar rays
through the lens in the body of the tube D. O is a
brafs milled head, faftened to a worm or endlefs fcrew;
which on the outfide turns a fmall wheel, by which the
reflecting mirror Mis moved upwards or downwards.
In ufng this microfcope, the fquare frame GH
is firft to be fcrewed to the window-fliutter, and the
N“2i8.
room well darkened : which is beft done by cutting Microfcope |
a round hole of the fize of the moveable plate EF, ““"V"""i
that carries the refleCtor, in the window-lhutter or
board ; and, by means of two brafs nuts a a, let in¬
to the {flutter to receive the fcrews PP, when placed
through the holes in the fquare frame GH, at the two
holes QQj which will firmly fallen the microfcope to
the fhutter, and is eafily taken away by only.unfcrettr-
ing the fcrews PP.
The white paper fcreen, or white cloth, to receive
the images, is to be placed feveral feet diftant from
the window : which will make the reprefentations the
larger in proportion to the diftance. The ufual dif-
tances are from 6 to 16 feet.
The frame KL, with its mirror M, is to be moved
by turning the pinion I, one way or the other,
till the beams of the fun’s light come through the
hole into the room : then, by turning of the worm at
O, the mirror muft be raifcd or deprefled till the rays
become perfedlly horizontal, and go ftraight acrofs the
room to the fcreen. The tube CD, with its lens at
D, is now to be fcrewed into the hole of the circular
plate EF: by this glafs the rays will be converged to a
focus; and from thence proceed diverging to the fcreen,
and there make a large circle of light. The fingle mi¬
crofcope, fig. 22. is to be fcrewed on to the end AB
(fig. 23.) of the inner tube; and the Aider NO, with
either of the lenfes marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, in the
centre of the hole at the end AB. This will occafion
a circle of light upon the fcreen much larger than be¬
fore. The Aider or glafs-tube,_with the objefts to be
viewed, is to be placed between the plates at IK againft
the fmall magnifier, and moved at pleafure. By flrift-
ing the tube AB in or out, you may place the objedt
in fuch a part of the condenled rays as ffiall be fuffi-
cient to illuminate it, and not fcorch or burn it; which
will generally require the glafs to be about one inch
diftant from the focus. It now remains only to adjuft
the objedl, or to bring it fo near to the magnifier that
its image formed upon the fcreen {hall be the moft dif-
tin£t or perfect: and it is effe&ed iby gently turning
the pinion F, fig.- 22, a fmall matter one way or the
other. If the objedl be rather large in fize, the leaft
magnifiers are generally ufed, and Wee verfa.
N 1. is the greateft magnifier, and W 6. the leaft,
in the brafs Aider NO. But, if defired, fingle lenfes
of greater magnifying powers are made : and they are
applied, by being fcrewed to the end B, fig. 2. and
the brafs Aider N O is then taken away.
The fame objeift may be variouAy magnified, by the
lenfes feverally applied to it ; and the degree of mag¬
nifying power is eafily known by this rule : Sis the dif¬
tance of the oljeQ is to that of its image from the magni¬
fier ; fo is the length or breadth of the objeti to that of the
image.
Inftead of the brafs Aiders with the-lenfes NO,
there is fometimes fcrewed a lens of a large fize, and
longer focal diftance: the inftrument is then converted
into a megalafcopeand is adapted for viewing the
larger kind of obje&s contained in large Aiders, fuch
as is reprefented at R. And, in the fame manner,
fmall obje&s of entertainment, painted upon glafs like
the Aiders of a magic lanthorn, are much magnified,
and reprefented upon the fame fcreen.
The folar microfcopes juft defcribed arc capablej on-
MIC R O S C O r K .
Hair CCC .
MIC [ 721 ] MIC
Mkfofcopf Jy of magnifying tranfparent objects } for which pur-
' ' pofe the laft inilrument is extremely well adapted.
But as opaque objects form the moft confiderable part
of the curious colle&ions in the works of art as well
as nature, a folar microfcope for this purpofe was a
long time wanted.—For feveral years previous to 1774,
the late Mr Martin made feveral efiays towards the
conftru&ion of fuch an inftrument ; and at laft com¬
pleted one about the time juft mentioned, which he
named,'
III. The Opaque Solar Microfcope. With this in¬
ftrument (to ufe his own words) all opaque objefts,
whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral king¬
dom, may be exhibited in great perfediion, in all their
native beauty ; the lights and {hades, the prominences
and cavities, and all the varieties of different hues, tints,
and colours ; heightened by refleftion of the folar rays
condenfed upon them.”—Tranfparent objeth are alfo
fliown with greater perfe&ion than by the common
folar microfcope.
Fig. 24. reprefents the folar opaque microfcope,
mounted for exhibiting opaque objects.
Fig. 25. is the fingle tooth-and-pinion m'crofcope,
as before, which is ufed for ftiowing tranfparent ob¬
jects ; the cylindrical tube Y thereof being made to St
into the tube FE of the folar microfcope.
ABCDEF, (fig. 24.) reprefents the body of the
folar microfcope; one part thereof, ABCD, is coni¬
cal ; the other, CDEF, is cylindrical. The cylindri¬
cal part receives the tube G of the opaque box, or the
tube Y of the fingle microfcope. At the large end
AB of the conical part, there is a lens to receive the
rays from the mirror, and refradt them towards the
box HIKE. NOP is a brafs frame ; which is fixed
to the moveable circular plate abc: in this frame there
is a plane mirror, to refledf the folar rays on the afore¬
mentioned lens. This mirror may be moved into the
moft convenient pofition for reflefting the light, by
means of the nuts Qjind R. By the nut QJt may be
moved from caft to weft ; and it. may be elevated or
depreffed by the nut R. d e. Two fcrews to faften the
microfcope to a window-fhutter. The box for opaque
objedts is reprefented at HIKE : it contains a plane
mirror M, for refledling the light which it receives from
the large lens to the objedt, and thereby illuminating
it; S is a fcrew to adjuft this mirror, or place it at a
-proper angle for refledting the light. VX, two tubes
of brafs, one Aiding within the other, the exterior one
in the box HIKE; thefe carry the magnifying lenfes :
the interior tube is fometimes taken out, and the ex¬
terior one is -then ufed by itfelf. Part of this tube may
be feen in the plate within the box HIKE. At FI
there is a brafs plate, the back part of which is fixed
to the hollow tube h, in which there is a fpiral wire,
which keeps the plate always bearing againft the fide
H of the brafs box PUKE. The Aiders, with the
opaque objedls, pafs between this plate and the fide of
the box ; to put them there, the plate is to be drawn
back by means of the nut g : ik is a door to one fide of
* the opaque box. The foregoing pieces conftitute the
feveral parts neceffary for .viewing opaque objedfs. We
ftrall now proceed to defcribe the Angle microfcope,
which is ufed for tranfparent objedts : but in order to
examine thefe, the box HIKE muft be firft removed,
Vol. XI. Part II.
and in its place we mnft infert the tube Y of the fingle M cro(Wjp«
microfcope that we are now going to defcribe. —"—v ' '
Fig. 25. reprefents a large tooth-ind-pinion micro¬
fcope : at m, within the body of this microfcope, are
two thin plates, that are to be feparated, in order to
let the ivory Aiders pafs between them; they are pref-
fed together by a fpiral fpring, which bears up the
under plate, and forces it againft the upper one.
The Aider S (under fig. 24.), which contains the
magnifiers, fits into the hole n ; and any of the magni¬
fiers may be placed before the objedt, by moving the
aforefaid Aider: when the magnifier is at the centre of
the hole P, a fmall fpring falls into one of the notches
which is on the fide of the Aider.
Under the plate m are placed two lenfes, for en-
larging the; field of view on the fcreen : the fmaller of
the two is fixed in a piece of brafs, and is neareft the
plate m ; this is to be'taken out when the magnifiers,
N°4, 5, or 6, are ufed, or ■when the megalafcope lens
T (fig. 24.) is ufed; but is to be replaced for N' 1,2,3.
This microfcope is adjufted to the focus by turning
the milled nut O.
To ufe the folar microfcope :—Make a round hole
in the window-Aiutter, a little larger than the circle
abc ; pals the mirror ONP through this hole, and
apply the fquare plate to the Aiutter ; then mark
with a pencil the places which correfpond to the two
holes through which the fcrew is to pafs ; take away
the microfcope, and bore two holes at the marked
places, fufficicntly large to let the milled fcrews de pafs
through them.
The fcrews are to pafs from the outfide of the Aiut¬
ter, to go through it; and being then fcrewed into
their refpedtive holes in the fquare plate, they will,
when fcrewcd home, hold it fall againft the infide of
the Aiutter, and thus fupport the microfcope.
Screw the conical tube AECD t6 the circle <3 3 r,
and then Aide the tube G of the opaque box into the
cylindrical part CD EF of the body, if opaque objects
are to be examined; but if they be tranfparent objedts
you mean to Ihgw, then place the tube Y within the
tube CDEF.
The room is to be darkened as much as poAIble,
that no light may enter but what paffes through the
body of the microfcope ; for, on this circuretftance,
together with the brightnefs of the fun ftiine, the per¬
fection and diftindtnefs of the image in a great meafure
depend.
When the microfcope is to be ufed for opaque ob-
je&s, 1. Adjuft the mirror NOP, fo as to receive the
folar rays, by means of the two finger fcrews or nuts,
Q^R; the firft, Q^, turns the mirror to the right or
left; the fecond, R, raifes or depreffes it: this you
are to do till you have refiedted the fun’s light through
the lens at AB ftrongly upon a fcreen of white paper
placed at fome diftance from the wfindow, and formed
thereon a round fpot of light. An unexperienced ob»
ferver will find it more convenient to obtain the light
by forming this fpot before he puts on either the
opaque box or the tooth-and-pinion microfcope.
Now put in the opaque box, and place the objedl
between the plates at H ; open the door ik, and ad¬
juft the mirror M till you have illuminr.ted the objedl
ftrongly. If you cannot effedl this by the fcrew S,
4 Y you
M I C
[ 722 1
M I C
Mi^ofcope you muft move the fcrews R, !;i order to get the
‘““'“'V’—' light reflefted ftrougly from the mirror NOP, or the
mirror M, without which the latter cannot illuminate
the objeft.
The objeft being ftrongly illuminated, fhut the door
ik, and a diftinft view of the obje& will foon be
obtained on your ftreen, by adjufting the tubes VX,
which is effected by moving them backwards or for¬
wards.
A round fpot of light cannot always be procured in
northern latitudes, the altitude of the fun being often
too low; neither can it be obtained when the fun is
direftly perpendicular to the front of the room.
As the fun is continually changing its place, it
will be pecelfary, in order to keep his rays full upon
the olneft, to-keep them continually directed thro’ the
axis of the inilrument, by the two fcrews Q^and R.
To view tranfparent objects, remove the opaque box,
and infert the tube Y, fig. 25. in its place; put the
Aider S into its place at «, and the Aider the ob-
jefls between the plates at m; then adjuft the mirror
NOP, as before dire&ed by the fcrews R, fo that
the light may pafs through the object; regulate the
focus of the magnifier by the fcrew O. The moft
pleafing magnifiers in ufe are the fourth and fifth.
rI he fize of the objeft may be increafed or dimi-
nifired, by altering the diftanqe of the fcreen from the
jnicrofcope : five or fix feet is a convenient diilance.
To examine tranfparent objefts of a larger fize, or
to render the inftrument what is ufually called a mega-
lafcope, take out the Aider S from its place at /?, and
fcrew the button. T (fig. 24.) into the hole at P, fig. 25.
and remove , the glafs which is under the plate at m,
and regulate the light and focus agreeable to the fore¬
going diredtions.
N. B. At the end of the tube G there is a lens for
tion of an inftrument of more extended utility, which Mlcrofcop,
could be equally employed in the day-time and by —-v—'
night. He accordingly fucceeded fo far as to pro¬
duce, by candle-light, the images of objefts refraSed
from a fingle magnifier upon one or two large convex
lenfes (of about five inches or upwards in diameter),
at the end of a pyramidal ftiaped box, in a very plea¬
fing and magnified appearance, fo as to give opaque
objefts as well as tranfparent ones the utmoft diftinft-
nefs of reprefentation : but ftill the light of a candle
or lamp was found generally infufficient to throw the
requifite degree of illumination upon the objefts. The
invention of what is called Argand's lamp, within thele
few years offered a complete lemedy for this defeft, by
the intenfity and fteadinefs of its light. This did not
efcape the prefent Mr Adams (fon of the former ),
who immediately applied it; and who had likewife fo
altered and improved his father’s inftrument, both in
conftruftion and form, as to render it altogether- a
different one, and far more perfeft and ufeful.
The advantages and properties of this excellent¬
ly conceived inftrument are numerous and import¬
ant. “ As the far greater part of the objefts which
furround us are opaque (fays our author), and very
few are fufficiently tranfparent to be examined by the
common microfcopes, an inftrument that could be
readily applied to the examination of opaque objefts
has always been a defideratum. Even in the exami¬
nation of tranfparent objefts, many of the fine and
more curious portions are loft, and drowned, as it were,
in the light which muft; be tranfmitted through them ;
while different parts of the fame objeft appear only
as dark lines or fpots, becnufe they are fo opaque as
not to permit any light to pafs through them. Thefe
difficulties, as well as many more, are obviated in the
lucernal microfcope ; by which opaque objefts of va-
fncreafing the denfity of the rays, for the purpofe of rious fizes may be feen with eafe and diftinftnefs : the
T ’    __ r..cui- r..u beautiful colours with which moft of them are adorn¬
ed, are rendered more brilliant, without changing in
the leaft the real tint of the colour ; and the concave
and convex parts retain alfo their proper'form.—The
facility with which all opaque objefts are applied to
this inftrument, is another confiderable advantage, and
almoft peculiar to itfelf; as the texture and configu¬
ration of the more tender parts are often hurt by pre-
burning or melting any eombuftible or fufible fub-
llance: this lens muft be removed in moft cafes, left
the objefts ftiould be burnt. The intenfity of the
light is alfo varied by moving this tube backwards or
forwards.
Apparatus of the Opaque Solar Microfcope.—The large
fquare plate and mirror ; the body of the microfcope;
the opaque box and its tube; the tooth-and-pinion
microfcope; the Aider with the magnifiers; theme- vious preparation, every objeft may be examined by
galafcope magnifier ; the two fcrews d and e ; fome this, inftrument, firft as opaque, and afterwards (if the
ivory Aiders; fome Aiders with opaque objefts ; a brafs texture will admit of it j as tranfparent.—The lucer-
frame, witha bottom of foft deal to (lick any objeft on ; nal microfcope does not in the leaft fatigue that eye ;
a brafs cylinder K (fig-31-), for. confining opaque ob- the objeft appears like nature itfelf, giving eafe to the
jefts. fight and pleafure to the mind : there is alfo, in the
IV. The Camera OBscvRA,.er Lucernal, .Microfcope. of this inftrument, no occafion to Amt the eye
r which is not direfted to the objeft. A further ad-
—The great facility with which objefts can be repre- vantage peculiar to this microfcope is, that by it the
fented on paper Or a rough glafs in the camera..obfcura, outlines of every objeft may be taken, even by thofe
and copies drawn from them by any perfon though who are not accuftomed to draw ; while thofe who
unficilled in drawing, evidently fuggefted the applica- can draw well will receive great affiftance, and execute
tion of the microfcope to this inftrument. The great-
eft number of experiments that appear to have been
their work with more accuracy and in lefs time than
they would otherwife have been able to have perform-
made with this:view, were by the late Mr Martin and ed it. Tranfparent objefts as well as opaque may be
Mr Adams ;. the former of whom frequently applied
the microfcope to the portable camera, and with much
effeft and entertainment. But thefe inftruments.being
found to anfwer only with the affiftance of the fun,
Mr Adams direfted his experiments to the coaftruc-
copied in • the fame manner. The inftrument may be
ufed at any time of the day, but the beft effeft is by
night; .in which refpeft it has a fuperiority over the
folar microfcope, as that inftrument can only be ufed
when the fun Ihines.
Tran-
M I C
Micrfifrope Tranfparent objefts may be examined with the lu-
"v— ce'rnal microfcope in three or four different modes,
from a blaze of light almoft too great for the eye to
bear, to that which is perfedtly e'afy to it: And by
the addition of a tin lanthorn to the apparatus, may
be thrown on a fcreen, and exhibited at one view to
a large company, as by the folar mircofcope.
We fhall now proceed to the defcription of the in-
ftrument and apparatus as given by Mr Adams.
Fig. 26. reprefents the improved Lucernal Microfcope,
mounted to view opaque objefts. ABCD is a large
mahogany pyramidal box, which forms the body of
the microfcope ; it is fupported firmly on the brafs
pillar FG, by means of the focket H and the curved
piece IK.
LMN is a guide for the eye, in order to direft it
in the axis of the lenfes; it confifts of two brafs tubes,
one Aiding within the other, and a vertical flat piece,
at the top of which is the hole for the eye. The outer
tube is feen at MN, the vertical piece is reprefented
at LM. The inner tube may be pulled out, or pufh-
ed in, to adjuft it to the focus of the glaffes. The
vertical piece may be railed or depreffed, that the hole,
through which the objeft is to be viewed, may coin-
cide with the centre of the field of view ; it is fixed by
a milled fcrew at M, which could not be fhown in this
figure.
At N is a dove-tailed piece of brafs, made to re¬
ceive the dove-tail at the end of the tubes MN, by
which it is affixed to the wooden box ABCDE. The
tubes MN may be removed from this box occafionally,
for the convenience of packing it up in a lefs com-
pafs.
, OP, a fmall tube which carries the magnifiers.
O, one of the magnifiers; it is fcrewed into the end
of a tube, which Aides within the tube P; the tube
P may be unfcrewed occafionally from the wooden
body.
QRSTVX, a long fquarebar, which paffes through
the fockets YZ, and carrries the ftage or frame that
holds the objefts ; this bar may he moved backward
or forward, in order to adjuft it to the focus by means
of the pinion which is at a.
b, A handle furnilhed with an univerfal joint, for
more conveniently turning the pinion. When the
handle is removed, the nut (fig. 27.) may be ufed in
its IB ad.
de, A brafs bar, to fupport the curved piece KI,
and keep the body AB firm and fteady.
fs b *» The ftage for opaque objefts: it fits upon
the bar QRST by means of the focket hi, and is
brought nearer to or removed farther from the mag¬
nifying lens by turning the pinion a : the objefts are
placed in the front fide of the ftage (which cannot be
feen in this figure) between four fmall brafs plates;
the edges of two of thefe are feen at 11. The two
upper pieces of brafs are moveable ; they are fixed to
a plate, which is a&ed on by a fpiral fpring, that
prefles them down, and confines the Aider with the
objefts : this plate, and the two upper pieces of brafs,
are lifted up by the fmall nut m.
At the lower part of the ftage, there is a femicircu-
lar lump of glafs n, which is dcfigned to receive the
light from the lamp, fig. 29. and to colleft and throw
it on the concave inirror 0, whence it is to be reflefted
Cm the objcft.
M I G
The upper part fgrs (fig. 26.) of the opaque ftage MicroP-opo
takes out, that the ftage for tranfparent objeds may ¥ *
be inferted in its place.
. Fig. 28. reprefents the ftage for transparent objefts;
the two legs 5 and 6 fit into the top of the under
part rshi of the ftage for opaque objefts; 7 is the
part which confines" or holds the Aiders, and through
which they are to be moved; 9 and (O a brafs tube,
which contains the lenfes for condenfing the light, and
throwing it upon the objed; there is a fecond tube
within that, marked 9 and 10, which may be placed
at different diftances from the objed by the pin 11.
When this ftage is ufed as a Angle microfcope,
without any reference to the lucernal, the magnifiers,
or objed lenfes, are to be fcrewed into the hole 12,
and to be adjufted to a proper focus by the nut 13.
N. B. At the end AB (fig 26.) of the wooden body
there is a Aider, which is reprefented as partly drawn
out at A: when quite taken out, three*grooves will
be perceived; one of which contains a board that form*
the end of the box ; the next contains a frame with a
greyed glafs ; and the third, or that fartheft from the
end AB, two large convex lenfes.
Fig. 29. reprefents one of Argand’s lamps, which
are the moft fuitable for microfcopic purpofes, on ac¬
count of the clearnefs, the intenfity, and the fteadinef*
of the light. The following account of the method
of managing , them, with other obfervations, is copied
from an account given by Mr Parker with thofe he
fells.
The principle on which the lamp ads, confifts in
difpofing the wick in thin parts, fo that the air may
come into contad with all the burning fuel; by which '
means, together with an increafe of the current of air
occafioned by rarefadion in the glafs tube, the whole
of the fuel is converted into flame.
The wicks are circular; and, the more readily to
regulate the quantity of light, are fixed on a brafs col¬
lar, with a wire handle, by means of which they are
raifed or depreffed at pleafure.
To fix the wick on, a wooden mandril is contrived,
which is tapered at one end, and has a groove turned
at the other.
The wick has a felvage at one end, which is to be
put foremoft on the mandril, and moved up to the
groove; then putting the groove into the collar of
the wick-holder, the wick is eafily puftied forward
upon it.
The wick-holder and wick being put quite down is
their place, the fpare part of the wick Aiould, while
dry, be fet a-light, and fuffered to burn to the edge
of the tubes; this wuli leave it more even than by
cutting, and, being black by burning, will be mueft
eafier lighted: for this reafon, the black fhould never
be quite cut off.
The lamp ftiould be filled an hour or two before it
is wanted, that the cotton may imbibe the oil and
draw the better.
The lamps which have a refervoir and valve, need
no other dire&ion for filling than to do it with a pro¬
per trimming pot, carefully obferving when they die
full; then pulling up the valve by the point, the re-
fervoir, being turned with the other hand, may be re¬
placed without fpilling a drop.
Thofe lamps which fill in the front like a bird-foun¬
tain, muft be reclined on the back to -fill; and thi*
4 Y 2 ftiould
C 723 ]
MIC r 724 1 MIC
M crofcopt fliould he done gently, that the oil m the burner may
'“'"■“V'— return into the body when fo placed and filled > if, by
being too full, any oil appears above the guard, only
move the lamp S little, and the oil will difappear ; the
lamp may then be placed ereft, and the oil will flow
to its proper level.
The oil muft be of the fpermaceti kind, commonly
ca led chamber-oil, which may generally be diflinguifli-
ed by its palenefs, tranfparency, and inoffenfive fcent:
all tbofe oils which are of a red and brown colour,
and of an oflenfive fcent, fliould be carefully Avoided,
as their glutinous parts clog the lamp, and the impu¬
rities in fuch oil, not being inflammable, will accumu¬
late and remain in the form of a cruft on the wick.
Seal oil is nearly as pale and fvveet as chamber oil;
but being of a heavy fluggilh quality, is not proper
for lamps with fine wicks.
Whenever bad oil has been tifed, oft changing it,
the wick muft alfo be changed ; hecaufe, after having
imbibed the coarfe particles in its capillary tubes, it
will not draw up the fine oil.
To obtain the greateft degree of light, the wick
fhould be trimmed exa&ly even, the flame will then be
completely equal.
There will be a great advantage in keeping the lamp
clean, efpecially the burner and air-tubes; the neglect
of cleanlinefs in lamps is too common : a candleflick
is generally cleaned every time it is ufed, fo fliould a
lamp ; and if a candleftick is not to be objected to be-
caufe it does not give light after the candle is ex¬
ha ufted, fo a lamp ftiould not be thought ill of, if it
does not give light when it wants oil or cotton ;
but this laft has often happened, becaufe the deficiency
is lefs vifible.
The glafs tubes are heft cleaned with a piece of
waih leather.
If a fountain-lamp is left partly filled with oil, it
may he liable to overflow; this happens by the con¬
traction of the air when cold, and its expanfion by
the warmth of a room, the rays of the fun, or the
heat of the lamp when re-lighted : this accident may
be effeftually prevented by keeping the refervoir filled,
the oil not being fubjedt to expanfion like air. On
this account, thofe with a common refervoir are beft
adapted for microfcopic purpofes.
'To examine Opaque ObjeSs with the Lucernal Micro-
fcope. To render the ufe of this inftrument eafy, it is
ufually packed with as many of the parts together as
polDble: it occupies on this account rather more room,
but is much kfs embarrafling to the obferver, who has
only three parts to put on after it is taken out of its
box, namely, the guide for the eye, the ftage, and the
tube with its magnifier.
But to be more particular : Take out the wooden
Aider A (fig. 26.), then lift out the cover and the
grey glafs from their refpe&ive grooves under the
Aider A.
Put the end N of the guide for the eye LMM into
its place, fo that it may ftand in the pofition which is
reprefented in this figure.
Place the focket which is at the bottom of the
opaque ftage, on the bar Q_X T, fo that the concave
mirror 0 may he next the e»d DE of the wooden
,body.
Screw the tubes PO into the end DE. The mag-Mi«rofcop»
nifier you intend to ufe is to be ferewed on the end O y—'
of thefe tubes.
The handle G5, or the milled nut fig. 27. muft be
placed on the fquare end of the pinion a.
Place the lamp lighted before the glafs lump «,
and the objeft you intend to examine between the
fpring-plates of the ftage ; and the inftrument is ready
for ufe.
In all.xnicrofcopes there are two circumftances which
muft be particularly attended to: firft, the modifica¬
tion of the light, or the proper quantity to illuminate
the objeft ; fecondly, the adjuftment of the inftrument
to the focus of the glafles and eye of the obferver.
In the ufe of the lucernal microfcope there is a third
circumftance, which is, the regulation of the guide
for the eye.
1. To throw the light upon the objeft. The flame
of the lamp is to be placed rather below the centre of
the glafs lump n, and as near it as pofiible ; the con¬
cave mirror o muft be fo inclined and turned as to
receive the light from the glafs lump, and refledt it
thence upon the objeft; the beft fituation of the con¬
cave mirror and the flame of the lamp depends on a
combination of circumftances, which a little praftice
will difeover.
2. To regulate the guide for the eye, or to place the
centre of the eye-picce L fo that it may coincide with
the focal point of the lenfes and the axis of vifion :
Lengthen and fhorten the tubes MN, by drawing out
or pufhing in the inner tube, and railing or deprefling
the eye-piece ML, till you find the large lens (which
is placed at the end AB of the wooden body) filled by
an uniform field of light, without any prifmatic colours
round the edge; for till this piece is properly fixed,
the circle of light will be very fmall, and only occupy
a part of the lens : the eye muft be kept at the centre
of the eye-piece L, during the whole of the opera¬
tion ; which may be rendered fomewhat eafier to the
obferver, on the firft ufe of the inftrument, if he hold
a piece of white paper parallel to the large lens, re¬
moving it from or bringing it nearer to them till he
find the place where a lucid circle, which he will per¬
ceive on the paper, is brighteft and moft diftinct; then
he is to fix the centre of the eye-piece to coincide with
that fpot; after which a very fmall adjuftment will
fet it perfefUy right.
3. To adjuft the lenfes to their focal diftance. This
is effe&ed by turning the pinion a, the eye being at
the fame time at the eye-piece L The grey glafa
is often placed before the large lenfes, while regulating
the guide for the eye, and adjufting for the focal di¬
ftance.
If the obferver, in the procefs of his examination of
an objeft, advance rapidly from a fhallow to a deep
magnifier, he will fave himfelf fome labour by pulling
out the internal tube at O.
The upper part fgrs of the ftage is to be raifed or
lowered occafionally, in order to make the centre of
the objett coincide with the centre of the lens at O.
To delineate obje&s, the grey glafs muft be placed
before the large lenfes; the picture of the objed will
be formed on this glafs, and the outline may be accu¬
rately taken by going over the pifturc with a pencil.
The
MIC It O S C O r E .
Plate CCC1 .
.//rTX .
MIC [ 725 1 MIC
flicrnfcopc The opaque part may be ufed in the day-time with-
m~y—' out a lamp, provided the large lenfes at AB are fcreen-
ed from the light.
To ufe the Lucernttl Murofccpc in the examination of
Tranfpnrent 0bjc3s. The inilrument is to remain as
before : the upper part/^.r of the opaque ftage muft
be removed, and the ftage for tranfparent objefts, re-
prefented at fig. 28. put in its place ; the end 9 1 o
to be next the lamp.
Pl’ice the greyed glafs in its groove at the end AB,
and the objefts in the Aider-holder at the front of the
ftage ; then tranfmit as ftrong a light as you are able
on the objeft, which you will eafily do by raifmg or
lowering the lamp. t
The objeft will be beautifully depi&ed on the grey
glafs: it muft be regulated to the focus of the magni¬
fier, by turning the pinion a.
The objeft may be viewed either with or without
the guide for the eye. A Angle obferver will fee an
objedt to the greateft advantage by ufing this guide,
which is to be adjufted as we have deferibed above.
If two or three wiftr to examine the obje& at the fame
time, the guide for the eye muft be laid afide.
Take the large lens out of the groove, and receive
the image on the grey glafs; in this cafe, the guide
for the eye is of no ufe : if the grey glafs be taken
away, the image of the objeft may be received on a
paper fereen.
Take out the grey glafs, replace the large lenfes,
and ufe the guide for the eye ; attend to the forego¬
ing dire&ions, and adjuft the obje& to its proper fo¬
cus. You will then fee the objeft in a blaze of light
almoft too great for the eye, a circumftance that will
be found very ufeful in the examination of particular
objefts. The edges of the objeft in this mode will be
fomewhat coloured : but as'it is only ufed in this full
light for occafional purpofes, it has been thought bet¬
ter to leave this fmall imperfeftion, than, by remedying
it, to facrifice greater advantages; the more fo, as this
fault is eafily corre&ed, and a new and interefting
view of the objeft is obtained, by turning the inftru-
ment out of the direft rays of light, and permitting
them to pafs through only in an oblique dire&ion,
by which the upper furface is in fome degree illu¬
minated, and the objedf is feen partly as opaque, part¬
ly as tranfparent. It has been already obferved, that
the tranfparent obje&s might be placed between the
Aider-holders of the ftage for opaque obje&s, and then
be examined as if opaque.
Some tranfparent obje&s appear to-the greateft ad¬
vantage when the lens at 9 10 is taken away; as, by
giving too great a quantity of light, it renders the
edges lefs fliarp.
The variety of views which may be taken of every
obje& by means of the improved lucernal microfcope,
will be found to be of great ufe to an accurate obfer¬
ver : it will give him an opportunity of corre&ing or
confirming his difeoveries, and inveftigating thofe parts Microfcape
in one mode which are invifible in another. •
To throw the image of tranfparent ohjeds on a fereen,
as in the folar microfcope. It has been long a micro-
fcopical defideratum, to have an inftrument by which
the image of tranfparent obje&s might be thrown on
a fereen, as in the common folar microfcope : and this
not only becaufe the fun is fo uncertain in this cli¬
mate, and the ufe of the folar microfcope requires
confinement in the find! part of the day, when time
feldom hangs heavy on the mind; but as it alfo affords
ah increafe of pleafurc, by difplaying its wonders to
feveral perfons at the fame inftant, without the leaft
fatigue to the eye.
This purpofe is now effeflually anfwered, by affix¬
ing the tranfparent ftage of the lucernal to a lanthorn,
with one of Argand’s lamps.—The lamp is placed
wnthin the lanthorn, and the end 9 10 of the tranf¬
parent ftage is ferewed into a female ferew, which is
rivetted in the Aiding part of the front of the lan¬
thorn ; the magnifying lenfes are to be ferewed into
the hole reprefeuted at 12, and they are adjufttd by
turning the milled nut. The quantity of light is to
be regulated by raifing and lowering the Aiding-plate
or the lamp.
apparatus which ufually accompanies the improved Lu¬
cernal Microfcope. The ftage for opaque obje&s, with
its femicircular lump of glafs, and concave mirror.
The ftage for tranfparent obje&s, which fits on the
upper part of the foregoing ftage. The Aiding tube,
to which the magnifiers are to be affixed : one end of
thefe is to be ferewed on the end D of the wooden
body; the magnifier in ufe is to be ferewed to the
other end of the inner tube. Eight magnifying
lenfes: thefe are fo conftru&ed, that they maybe
combined together, and thus produce a very great
variety of magnifying powers. A fiftr-pan, fuch as
is reprefented at I. A fteel wire L, with a pair of
nippers at one end, and a fmall cylinder of ivory / at
the other. A Aider of brafs N, containing a flat
glafs Aider, and a brafs Aider into which are fitted
fome fmall concave glaffes. A pair of forceps. Six
large and fix fmall ivory Aiders, with tranfparent
obje&s. Fourteen wooden Aiders, with four opaque
obje&s in each Aider ; and two fpare Aiders. Some
capillary tubes for viewing fmall animalcula.
Ingenious men feldom content themfelves with an
inftrument under one form ; hence fuch a variety of
microfcopes, hence many alterations in the Lucernal
Microfcope. Mr Adams himfelf, we underftand, has
fitted up this laft in a great many different ways; and
it is reafonable to think that no perfon is more likely
to give it every improvement of which is is fufceptible.
Of the alterations by other hands we ftall only parti-
cularife one, made by Mr Jones of Holborn (b),
whofe defeription is as follows :
A, reprefents a portion of the top of the mahogany
box
(b) We truft the reader will never confider any paragraph wherein the name of an inllrument-maker or
other artift is inferted, as a recommendation of thofe artifts by the editors of this work. In the courfe of
a pretty extenfive correfpondence, they have been favoured with very liberal communications from various
artifts, for which they are greatly indebted to them : the inferting their names in this work is therefore to
be confidered as a grateful acknowledgment from the editors for favours conferred on them,—not as a teftimo-
nial
MIG
•MicroCcope box m which it packs, to preferve it Heady ; it Aides
in a dove-tail groove withiniide, a fimilar groove to
which is cut in the top of the box A ; fo that when
the inftrument is to be ufed, it is Oipt out of the box
withinfide, and then Aipt into the groove at top ready
for ufe, almoft inftantly, as flrown in the figure. The
adjuftment of the obje&s is at the ftage E ; for the
right focal 4iftance is readily and conveniently made
by turning the long fcrew-rod B B, which goes thro’
the two pillars fupporting the box, and works in the
bafe of the brafs ftage E ; which bafe is alfo dove¬
tailed, fo as to have a regular and fteady motion in ano¬
ther brafs balls that fupports it. In this inftrument,
therefore, the pyramidical box does not move ; but
the ftage part only, which; from its fmall weight,
moves in the moft agreeable and fteady manner. While
obferving the image of the object upon the glafs
through the fight-hole at G, the objeft may be moved
-or changed by only turning the rack-work and pinion
applied to the ftage, by means of the handle D, for
that purpofe. By this contrivance you have no occa-
fion to change your pofition during the view of the
-objefts upon one of the Aiders. This motion changes
•the obje&s horizontally only ; and as they are gene¬
rally placed exaftly in one line, it anfwers all the pur-
“pofes for which this motion is intended very well.
But it may fometimes happen that the obferver would
wilh to alter the vertical pofition of the ob^eft; to
perform which there is another plane rod at F, that
afts fimply as a lever for this purpofe, and moves the
Aiding part of the ftage E vertically either upwards
or downwards.
Thus, without altering his pofition, the obferver
may inveftigate all parts of the objefts in the moft fa-
tisfa&ory manner. Rack-work and piniow might be
appKed to the ftage for the vertical motion alfo ; but
as it would materially enhance the expence, it is fel-
dom applied. The brafs work at the handle of D
contains a Hooke’s univerlal joint.
The brilliancy of the images of the obje&s ftiown
upon the large lenfes at the*end of the box, being very
frequently fo great as to dazzle the eyes, Mr Jones
applies a Aight tinge of blue, green, and other co¬
loured glafs, to the fight-hole at G, which foftens this
glare, and cafts an agreeable hue upon the objefts.
Defcription af thofe Parts of a Microfcopical Apparatus,
common to mojl Injlruments, which arc delineated at
fig- 3r-
A and B reprefent the brafs cells which contain the
magnifiers belonging to the different kinds of com¬
pound microfcopes. The magnifiers are fometimes
contained in a Aider like that which is delineated at S
(fig. 54). The lenfes of A and B are confined by a
fmall cap ; on unfcrewing this, the fmall lens may be
taken out and cleaned. The magnifiers A of the lu-
cernal microfcape are fo contrived, that any two of
them may be fcrewed together, by which means a con-
fiderable variety of magnifying power is obtained.
To get at the lenfes in the Aider S (fig. 24.), take
«ut the two fcrews which hold on the cover.
M I G
C, reprefeats the general form of the Aider-holder.
It confifts of a cylindrical tube, in which an inner tube
is forced up by a fpring. It is ufed to receive the
ivory or any other Aider, in which the tranfparent
objefts are placed; thefe are to be Aid between the
two upper plates: the hollow part in one of the plates
is defigned for the glafs tubes.
t), the condenfing lens and its tube, which fitffinto
the Aider-holder C, and may be moved up and down
in it. When this piece is puftred up as far as it will
go, it condenfes the light of a candle, which is refledl-
ed on it by the plain mirror of the compound micro-
fcope, and fpreads it ilniformly over the objeft ; in
this cafe it is beft adapted to the,Aialloweft magnifiers.
If the deeper lenfes are ufed, it Aiould be drawn down,
or rather removed further from the objedt, that it may
concentrate the light in a fmall compafs, and thus
render it more denfe. The condenfing lens is fome¬
times fitted up differently; but the principle being the
fame, it will be eafy to apply it to ufe notwithftand-
ing fome variations in the mechanifm.
E, a brafs cone. It fixes under the Aider-holder,
and is ufed to leffen occafionally the quantity of light
which comes from the mirror to any objeft.
F, a box with two flat glaffes, which may be placed
at differem diftances from each other in order to con¬
fine a fmall living infeft.
G, a fmall brafs box to hold the filver fpeculum H.
H, a fmall filver concave fpeculum, defigned to re¬
fled the light from the mirror on opaque objeds; it
ftiould only be ufed with the (hallow magnifiers. It is
applied in different ways to the compound microfcope;
fometimes to a tube fimilar to that reprefented at X,
which Aides on the lower part of the body; fometimes
it is fcrewed into the ring of the piece Qj the pin
of this generally fits into one of the holes in the ftage.
When this fpeculum is ufed, the Aider-holder ftiould be
removed.
I, a fifli-pan, whereon a fmall fiih may be faftened,
in order to view the circulation of the blood: its tail
is to be fpread acrofs the oblong hole at the fmalleft
end, and tied fail by means of the ribbon fixed there¬
to, by ftioving the knob which is on the back of it
through the Ait made in the ftage ; the tail of the fifli
maybe brought under the lens which is in ufe.
K, a cylindrical piece, intended for the folar opaque
microfcope : by pulling back the fpiral fpring, fmaller
or larger objeds may be confined in it.
i, A pair of triangular nippers for taking hold of
and confining a large objed.
L, a long fteel wire, with a fmall pair of pliers at
one end and a fteel point at the other: the wire fiipa
backwards or forwards in a fpring tube, which is af¬
fixed to a joint, at the bottom of which is a pin to fit
one of the holes in the ftage ; this piece is ufed to
confine fmall objeds.
/, A fmall ivo y cylinder that fits on the pointed
end of the fteel wire L ; it is defigned to receive
opaque objeds. Light-coloured ones are to be ftuck
on the dark fide, and vice verfa.
M, a convex lens, which fits to the ftage by means
of
t 716 1
nial of their opinion of the abilities of an individual, or as defigned to infinuate any preference over othen
in the fame line, where fuch preference has not been already beftowed by the public.
MIC [ 727 ] MIC
>e of the long pin adhering to it. This piece is defigned addition of a micrometer ; for the ufe and advantages Mlcrofcope
■' to colleft the light from the fun or a candle,' and to of which, fee the article Micrometer.  ^
throw them on any obiedt placed on the ftage : but it tt r . j , . . . -
is very little ufed at prefent. Hav.ing Panted our readers with defcnptions of
N, a brafs Aider, into which is fitted a flat piece of e various mi cro copes generally ufed, we think it
glafs, and a brjifs Aider containing four fmall glafles, . ^ ^ ° iw'}1" 1 0lJ . ? t em thQfe which we con-
one or two of them concave, the others flat; it is de- f‘Ve to CU^tfd t0ranfw?rr^e PurPofes. of
figned to confine fmall living obje&s, and when ufed is Cf' r r/r u Pre^eJnt3 ltje to our ra'r‘d
to be placed between the two upper plates of the Aider- 1 a,,° . 13 e^ter adapted, than any other
holdctf 1 portable microfcope, to the purpofe of general obfer-
O, a glafs tube to receive a fmall fifli, &c. Vat,1°n 5 flmPk„m its conftruCtion, and general in its
P, reprefents one of the ivory Aideis, wherein ob- ICa 10n'/, 0 t 0 e w o prefer a double micro-
iefts are placed between two pieces of talc, and con- pr^Ypvirr °/U rec°mmend that figured in Plate
fined by a brafs ring. * I f( •2,)a-If °Pa£lue objefls, as infefts, &c.
Q, a piece to hold the fpeculum H: this piece is ,e. U 3 °f Inve 1‘!=alt'on.’r.t le Lvcemal Microfcope
generally fitted to the microfcope reprefented at fig. x 2. ^!aim,S tbe p^fer„en.ce *' buc ff amufement alone guides
R, a pair of forceps, to take up any occafional ob- the cholCe, the Solar Mlcrof™P* mud be fixed upon.
S, a camel’s hair pencil to bruflx the dull off the . ^ E noc^ Proc^ed t0 explain fome neceflary par-
glafl'es; the upper part of the quill is fcooped out, to ttculars^ rcfped>ng the^ method of ufing microfcopes,
take up a drop of any fluid, and place it on either of a. ^W. !Co,Wfr 3 ubJoin an enumeration of the prin-
the glafles for examination. cipal objefts J Rove red or elucidated by their means.
T, an inftrument for cutting thin tranfverfefeftions fn ^ ulje r a7ls, m EJfay on the Micro-
of wood. It confifts of a wooden bafe, which fup- ^ has been ve,T 5 with, a view, as he in¬
ports four brafs pillars; on the top of the pillars is *°rm* 'f ’ t0 re^ove the common complaint made by
placed a flat piece of brafs, near the middle of which - r 3 er,r }■ ^ many ^bofe who purchafe micro-
there is a triangular hole. fc°Pesr are J3 bttler acquainted with their general and
A fharp knife, which moves in a diagonal diredtion, cxten ive u e u ne s, and o much at a lofs for objedts
is fixed on the upper fide of the afore-mentioned plate, r° c*3™1116 , Y cni, that after diverting their friends
and in fuch a manner that the edge always coincides °^e, CW tlI?eS Wltb wbat they find in the Aiders
with the furface thereof. "Tf1 accompany the inftrument, or perhaps
The knife is moved backwards and forwards by ,W!? or three common objeds, the microfcope is
means of the handle The piece of wood is placed laid a“de as of llttlc {"r}her value 5 whereas no inftru-
in the triangular trough which is under the brafs 138 ^5* «ppcared in the world capable of afford-
plate, and is to be kept fteady therein by a milled ,nS fo con1ftant.’ vanous. and fatisfadory an entertain-
fcrew which is fitted to the trough ; the wood is e m^n * .
to be prefled forward for cutting by the micrometer n u tbe IuicrofcoPe5 there are three things ne-
fcrew b. ceflary to be confidered. (1.) The preparation and
The pieces of wood fiiould be applied to this in- adjuftnieilt of the inftrument itfelf. (2.) The proper
flrument immediately on being taken out of the quantl^y “ght, and the beft method of adapting
ground, or elfe they ftiould be foaked for fome time in Cr u " ^ be method of preparing the
water, to foften them fo that they may not hurt the j n j lo tbat tbeir texture may be properly un¬
edge of the knife. derftood. ^ j
When the edge of the knife is brought in contad , •1' ith regard to the microfcope itfelf, the firft
with the piece of wood, a fmall quantity of fpirits of f In,^ nece“ary t° be examined is, whether the glafles
wine ftiould be poured on the furface of the wood, to • <iean Pr notf: rtb,e^ are not tbey muk be wiped
prevent its curling up ; it will alfo make it adhere to 'I11*1 a Piece °; foft leather, taking care not to foil
the knife, from which it may be removed by prefling a tbem afterwards with the fingers; and, in replacing
piece of blotting paper on it. tb^.m* care be taken not to place them in an
y. An appendage to the cutting engine, which is ®blique fituation- We muft likewife be careful not
to be ufed in Head of the micrometer fcrew, being pre- f ^ tbe breatb *aH upon the glafles, nor to hold
ferred to it by fome. It is. placed over the triangular t,a!j.Part °f the body of the initrument where the
hole, and kept flat down upon the furface of the brafs S a-les are placed with a warm hand ; becaufe thus
plate, while the piece of wood is prefled againft a cir- the tnoitture expelled by the heat from the metal will
cular piece of brafs which is on the under fide of it. £onde"R uP°".tbe. s!afs> and prevent the objedt
This circular piece of brafs is fixed to a fcrew, by T™™ being diftmCtly feen. The . objecb Aiould be
which its diftance from the flat plate on which the knife ,r^i ar nea,r tbe ^en^rc °/ tbe field of view as
moves may be regulated. polnble ; for there only it will be exhibited in the
*, An ivory box, containing at one end fpare talc Sreated perfeftion. 1 he eye AiOuld be moved up and
for the ivory Aiders, and at the other fpare rings for .?,w? fr°m tbe eye glafs °f 3 compound microfcope,
prefling the talcs together and confining them to the tlb1tbf.,;1.tUatfl?n 13 /Gund wbere tbe largeft field and
Aider. moli; diftinctview of the object are to be had: but eve-
u , , c n jf* r , ry Perfon ought t0 adjuft the microfcope to his own
After what has been related of Microfcopes, they eye, and not to depend upon the fituation it was pla-
cannot be faid to be complete without the valuable ced in by another. A fqjall piagnifying power fhould
afways
MIC [ 728 ] MIC
Mlcrofcopealways be begun with 5 by which means the obferver then take a deep convex lens, mounted on a femicircle
* will bell obtain an exaft idea of the fituation and and Hand, fo that its pofition may ealily be varied:
connexion of the whole; and will of confequence be place this lens between the objedl and the window, fo
lefs liable to form any erroneous opinion when the that it may colledt a confiderable number of folar rays,
parts are viewed feparately by a lens of greater power, and refradt them on the objedt or the mirror of the
Objedls Ihould alfo be examined lirll in their moll na- microfcope. If the light thus colledled from the fun
tural pofition : for if this be not attended to, we (hall be too powerful, it may be leflened by placing a piece
be apt to form very inadequate ideas of the llrudlure of oiled paper, or a piece of glafs lightly greyed, be-
of the whole, as well as of the connexion and ufc tween the objedl and lens. Thus a proper degree of
of the parts. A living animal ought to be as little light may be obtained, and diffufed equally all over
hurt or difcompofed as poffible. the furfaee of an objedl: a circumllance which ought
From viewing an objedl properly, we may acquire to be particularly attended to ; for if the light be
a knowledge of its nature: but this cannot be done thrown irregularly upon it, no diilindl view can be
without an extenfive knowledge of the fubjedl, much obtained, if we mean to make ufe of the folar light,
patience, and many experiments ; as in a great num- it will be found convenient to darken the room, and
ber of cafes the images will referable each other, to refledl the rays of the fun on the abovementioned
though derived from very different fubftances. Mr lens by means of the mirror of a folar microfcope fix-
Baker therefore advifes us not to form an opinion too ed to the window-fhutter ; for thus the obferver will
fuddenly after viewing a microfcopical objedl; nor to be enabled to preferve the light on his objedl, notwith-
draw our inferences till after repeated experiments ftanding the motion of the fun. But by reafon of this
and examinations of the objedl in many different motion, and the variable ftate of the atmofphere, fo-
lights and pofitions; to pafs no judgment upon lar obfervations are rendered both tedious and incon-
things extended by force, or contradled by drynefs, venient: whence it will be proper for the obferver
or in any manner out of a natural flate, wirhout ma- to be furnifhed with a large tin lanthorn, formed fome-
kiug fuitable allowances. The true colour of objedls thing like the common magic lanthorn, capable of
cannot be properly determined by very great magni- containing one of Argand’s lamps. This, how’evw,
fiers ; for as the pores and interflices of an objedl are ought not to be of the fountain kind, left the rarefac-
enlarged according to the magnifying power of the tion of the air in the lanthorn fhould force the oil over,
glaffes made ufe of, the component particles of its There ought to be aa aperture in the front of the
fubftance will appear feparated many thoufand times lanthorn, which may be moved up and down, and be
farther afunder than they do to the naked eye : hence capable of holding a lens ; by which means a pleafant
the refledlion of the light from thefe particles will and uniform as w^ell as ftrong light may eafily be prp^
be very different, and exhibit different colours. It is cured. The lamp fhould like wife move on a rod, fo
likewife fomewhat difficult to obferve opaque objedls; that it may be eafily railed or depreffed. This lan-
and as the apertures of the larger magnifiers are but thorn may likewife be ufed for many other purpofes;
fmall, they are not proper for the purpofe. If an ob- as viewing of pidlures, exhibiting microfcopic objedla
jedl be fo very opaque, that no light will pafs through on a fcreen, &c. A weak light, however, is bell for
it, as much as pollihle muft be thrown upon the up- viewing many tranfparent objedls: among which we
per furface of it. Some confideration is likewife ne- may reckon the prepared eyes of flies, as well as the
ceffary in forming a judgment of the motion of li- animalcules in fluids. The quantity of light from a
ving creatures, or even of fluids, when feen through lamp or candle may be lefiened by removing the mi*
the microfcope ; for as the moving body, and the crofeope to a greater diftancefrom them, or by dimi-
fpace wherein it moves, are magnified, the motion nifhing the flrength of the light which falls upon the
will alfo be increafed. objedls. This may very conveniently be done by
2. On the management of the light depends in a pieces of black paper with circular apertures of diffe-
great meafure the diftindlnefs of the vifion : and as, in rent fixes, and placing a larger or fmaller one upon the
order to have this in the greatell perfedlion, we muft refleding mirror, as occafion may require. Thefe is
adapt the quantity of light to the nature of the.objedl an oblique fituation of the mirrors, which makes like-
and the focus of the magnifier, it is therefore necef- wife an oblique refiedlion of the light eafily difeovered
fary to view it in various degrees of light. In feme by pradlice, (but for which no general rule can be gi-
objedts, it is difficult to diftinguiffi between a promi- ven in theory) ; and which will exhibit an objedl more
nence and a depreffion, a fhadow or a black ftain ; or diilindlly than any other pofition, Ihowing the furface,
between a refledlion of light and whitenefs, which is as well as thofe parts through which the light is tranf-
particularly obfervable in the eye of the libella and mitted. The light of a lamp or candle is generally
other flies: all of thefe appearing very different in better for viewing microfcopie objedls than day-light ;
one pofition from what they do in another. The bright- it being mote eafy to modify the former than the iat-
nefs of an objedl likewife depends on the quantity of ter, and to throw it upon the- objedls with different
light, the diftindlnefs of vifion, and on regulating degrees of deniity.
the quantity to the objedl; for fome will be in a 3. With regard to the preparation of objedls, Svvam-
manner loft in a quantity of light fcarce fufficient to merdam has, in that particular, excelled almoft all
render another vifible. other inveftigators who either preceded or have
There are various ways in which a ftrong light may fucceeded him. He was fo affiduous and indefati-
be thrown upon objedls ; as by means of the fun and gable, that neither difficulty nor difappointment could
a convex lens. For this purpofe, the microfcope is make the lead impreffion upon hiA ; and he never
to be placed about three feet from a fouthern wi»dow,; abandoned the purfuit of any objedl until he had ob-
N' 219. 1 tained
MIC
SScrofcope tained a fatisfaclory id-ea of it. Unhappily, however,
the methods he made ufe of in pieparing his obje&s
for the micfofcope are now eneirely unknown. Dr
Boerhaave examined with the ftri&eft attention all the
ietters.and manufcripts of Swammerdam which he
[ 729 1
M I C
Sometimes the delicate vifcera of the infe&s, afterM.crofcope
having been fuffbcated as abovementioned, were put
into water; after which, having lhaken them gently,
he procured an opportunity of examining them, efpe-
cially the air veffels, which laft he could thus feparate
could find; but his refearches were far from being entire from all the other parts, to the admiration of
fuccefsful. The following particulars, however, have
thus come to the knowledge of the public.
Fordifle&ing of[mail infe&s, Swammerdam had a brafs
table made by S. Mufchenbroek, to which were affix-
all who beheld them ; as thefe vefiels cannot be d'if-
tin&ly feen in any other manner, or indeed in any
way whatever, without injuring them. Frequently al-
fo he iajefted water with a fyringe to cleanfe the parts
ed two brafs arms moveable at pleafure to any part of thoroughly, after-which he blew them up with air and
it. The upper part of thefe vertical arms was con- " " ‘ J
ftrufted in fuch a manner as to have a flow vertical
motion ; by which means the operator could readily
alter their height as he faw convenient. One of thefe
arms was to hold the minute obje&s, and the other to
apply the microfcope.
The letlfes of Swammerdam’s microfcopes were
of various fifces as well as foci J but all of them the
bell that could be procured, both for the tranfparency
©f the glafs and the finenefs of the workmanftiip. His
©bfervations were always begun with the fmalleft mag¬
nifiers, from which he proceeded to the greateft ; but
in the ufe of them, he was fo exceedingly dexterous,
that he made every obfervation fubfervient to that which
dried them ; thus rendering them durable, and fit far
examination at a proper opportunity. Sometimes he
made very important difcoveries, by examining infedts
which he had preferved for feveral years in balfam.
Other inlefts he punftured with a very fine needle ;
and after fqueezing out all their moifture through
the holes made in this manner, he filled them with air,
by means of very flender glafs tubes; then dried them
in thefhade; and laftly anointed them with oil of fpike
in which a little roun had been dilfolved; and by
which means they, for a long time, retained their pro*
per forms. He was likewife in poffeffion of a fingu-
Jar fecret, by which he could preferve the limbs of in-
fefts as limber and perfpicuous as ever they had been.
fucceeded it, and all of them to the confirmation of He ufed to make a fmall punfture or incifion
each other, and to the ’completing of the defcription.
His chief art feems to have been in conftrufting fcif-
fars of an exquifite finenefs, and making them very
fliarp. Thus he was enabled to cut very minute ob-
jefts to much more advantage than could be done by
knives and lancets; for thefe, though ever fo fliarp and
fine, are apt to diforder delicate fubltances by dif-
placing fome of the filaments, and drawing them af¬
ter them as they pafs through the bodies; but the
fciflars cut them all equally. The knives, lancets,
and ftyles he made ufe of in his difTeftions, were fo
fine that he could not fee to (harpen them without
the affiftance of a magnifying glafs; but with thefe he
could diffeft the inteftines of bees with the fame accu¬
racy that the beft anatomifts can do thofe of large
animals. He made ufe alfo of very fmall glafs tubes
no thicker than a briftle, and drawn to a very fine
point at one end, but thicker at the other. Thefe
were for the purpofe of blowing up, and thus render¬
ing vifible the fmalleft vefiels whiclj could be difco-
vered by the microfcope ; to trace their courfes and
communications, or fometimes to injeft them with
coloured liquors.
Swammerdam fometimes made ufe of fpirit of wine,
water, or oil of turpentine, for fuffocating the infefts
he wiftied to examine ; and would preferve them for
a time in thefe liquids. Thus he kept the parts from
putrefying, and gave them befides fuch additional
ftrength and firmnefs, as rendered the diffeftions much
more eafy than they would otherwife have been. Ha¬
ving then divided the body tranfverfely with the
fcifiars, and made what obfervations he could with¬
out farther diffeftion, he proceeded to extraft the
inteftines carefully with very fine inftruments, to
waflr away the fat in the like careful manner ; and
thus to put the. parts into fuch a ftate as would
beft expofe them to view; but thefe operations are
beft performed while the infefts are in their nympha
ftate.
Vol. XI. Part II.
the tails of worms ; and after having with great can*
tion fqueezed out all the humours, as well as great part
of the vifcera, he injefted them with wax in fuch a
manner as to give them the appearance of living crea¬
tures in perfeft health. He found that the fat of
all infefts was entirely diffolvable in oil of turpen¬
tine ; by which means he was enabled plainly to dif-
cern the vifpera; though, after this diffolution, it was
neceffary to cleanfe and walh them frequently in clean
water. In this manner he would frequently have fpent
whole days in the preparation of a Angle caterpillar,
and cleanfing it from its fat, in order to difcover the
true fituation of the infeft’s heart. He had a Angular
dexterity in ftripping off the Anns of caterpillars that
were on the point of fpinning their cones. This was
done by letting them drop by their threads into fcalding
water, and then fuddenly withdrawing them. Thus
the epidermis peeled off very eafily; and, when this
was done, he put them into diftilled vinegar and fpirit
of wine mixed together in equal proportions; which,
by giving a due degree of firmnefs to the parts, gave
him an opportunity of feparating them with very
little trouble from the exuviae, without any danger to
the internal parts. Thus the nymph could be fliown
to be wrapped up in the caterpillar and the butterfly
in the nymph ; and there is little doubt that thofe
who look into the works of Swammerdam, will be
amply recompenfed, whether they confider the unex¬
ampled labour or the piety of the author.
M. Lyonet, a late eminent naturalift, ufually drown¬
ed the infefts he defigned to examine; by which means
he was enabled to preferve both the foftnefsand tranf¬
parency of the parts. According to him, the infeft,
if very fmall, v'vz.. one tenth of an inch, or little more,
in length, fhould be diffefted on a glafs fomewhat con¬
cave. If it fhould be fufpefted that the infeft will pu¬
trefy by keeping for a few days, fpirit of wine diluted
with water muft be fubftituted inftead of pure water.
The infeft muft be fuffered to dry ; after which it may
4 Z be
M I C
C 73° 1
M I C
Microfcope tc fallencd by a piece of foft wax, and again covered knife or a pair of fcifiara. The wing fhould be pref- Mlcrofcop*
C.I * T  n U u„ _l_ -.J .• _ r. J c t. 1 ° , r i r-   - ^
' with water.-—-Larger objefts fhould be placed in
trough of thin wood ; and for this purpofe the bottom
of a common chip-box will anfwer very well; only
furrounding the edge of it with foft wax, to keep in
the water or other fluid employed in preferring the in-
fed!. The body is then to be opened; and if the parts
are foft like thofe of a caterpillar, they fhould be turn¬
ed back, and fixed to the trough by fmall pins, which
>ught to be fet by a fmall pair of nippers. At the
fed for fome time between the thumb and finger before
it be removed; it fhould then be placed between
two pieces of paper, and again preffed for at leaft an
hour; after which time, as there will be no danger of
its folding up any more, it may be put between the
talcs, and applied to the microfcope. Similar care is
requifite in difplaying the wings of the notoneefa and
other water-infedfs, as well as moft kinds of grylli.
The minute feales or feathers, which cover the
fame time, the fkin being ftretched by another pair of wings of moths or butterflies, afford very beautiful ob-
liner forceps, the infedl muft be put into water, and jecls for the microfcope. Thofe from one part of the
.diffedfed therein, occafionally covering it with fpirit
of wine. Thus the fubjedl will be preferved in per-
fedlion, fo that its parts may be gradually unfolded, no
other change being perceived than that the foft elailic
parts become ftiff and opaque, while fome others lofe
their colour.
The following inftruments were made ufe of by M.
Lyonet in his diffedtion of the Chenille de Saul: A
pair of feiffars as fmall as could be made, with long and
fine arms: A pair of forceps, with their ends fo
nicely adjufted, that they could eafily lay hold of a
fpider’s thread, or a grain of fand : Two fine fteel
wing frequently differ in (hape from fuch as are taken
from other parts;, and near the thorax, fhoulder, and
on the fringes of the wungs, we generally meet with
hair inftead of feales. The whole may be bruflied
off the wing, upon a piece of paper, by means of
a camel’s-hair pencil ; after which the hairs can be
feparated with the affillarrce of a common magnifying
glafs.
It is likewife a matter of confiderable difficulty to
diifed! properly the prabofeis of infedts, fuch as the
gnat, tabanus, &.c- and the experiment muft be repeat¬
ed a great number of times before the ftrudture and fi-
needles fixed in wooden handles, about two inches and tuation of the parts can be thoroughly inveftigated, as
three quarters in length; which were the moft general¬
ly ufeful inftraments he employed.
Dr Hooke, who likewife made many microfcopic
obfervations, takes notice, that the common ant or
pifmire is much more troublefome to draw than other
jnfedfs, as it is extremely difficult to get the body in a
quiet natural pofture. If its feet be fettered with wax
or glue, while the animal remains alive, it fo twifts its fmall hairs which form part of this microfcopic beauty,
body, that there is no poffibility of gaining a proper The heft method of managing the flings of infedls,
the obferver will frequently difeover in one what-
he could not in another. The .colkdor of the bee, ,
which forms a very curious objedt, ought to be firft
carefully wafhed in fpirit of turpentine ; by which-
means it will be freed from the un&uous matter adhe¬
ring to it: when dry, it is again to be waflied with a
camel’s-hair pencibto difengage and bring forward the
view of it; and if it be killed before any obfervation
is made, the ftiape is often fpoiled before it can be exa¬
mined. The bodies of many minute infedfs, when their
life is deftroyed, inftantly fhrivel up; and this is obfer-
vable even in' plants as well as infedts, the furface of
which are in danger of being broken by reafon of their
hardnefs, is to foak the cafe and the reft of the appa¬
ratus for fome time in fpirit of wine or turpentine; then
lay them on a piece of paper, and with a blunt knife
draw out the fting, holding the fheath with the nail:
thefe fmall bodies being affedled by the leaft change of of the finger or any blunt inftrument; but great care
air ; which is particularly the cafe with the ant. If is neceflary to preferve the feelers, which when cleai>-
this creature, however, be dropped into rectified fpirit ed add much to the beauty of the object. The beard
of wine, it will inftantly be killed; and when it is taken of the lepas antifera is to be foaked in clean foft water,
out, the fpirit of wine evaporates, leaving the animal frequently brufliing it while wet with a camePs-hair
dry, and in its natural poflhre, or at leaft in fuch a pencil : after it is dried, the brufhing muft be repeat-
ftate that it may eafily be placed in whatever pofture ed with a dry pencil to difengage and feparate the hairs,
we pleafe. which are apt to adhere together.
Parts of InfeBs. The wings, in many infefts,. are To view to advantage the fat, brains, and other fi-
fo tranfparent, that they require no previous prepara- milar fubftances, Dr Hooke advifes to render the fur-
tion : but fome of thofe that are folded up under elytra face fmooth, by preffing it between two plates of thin
or cafes, require a confiderable fhare of dexterity to un- glafs, by which means the matter will be rendered
fold them ; for thefe wings are naturally endowed with much thinner and more tranfparent: without this pre-
fuch a fpring, that they immediately fold themfelves caution, it appears confufed, by reafon of the parts
again, unlefs care be taken to prevent them. The lying too thick upon one another. For mufcularfires,
wing ol the earwig, when expanded, is of a tole- take a piece of the flefh, thin and dry ; moiften it with
rable fize, yet is folded up under a cafe not one
eighth part of its bulk; and the texture of this
wing renders it difficult to be unfolded. This is done
with the leaft trouble immediately after the infedt
is killed/ Holding then the creature by the thorax,
warm water, and after this is evaporated the vefTels
will appear more plain and diftindt; and by repeated ■
macerations they appear ftill.more fo. The exuvia of
ihfedts afford a pleafing objedt, and require but little
preparation. If bent or curled up, they will become
between the finger and, thumb, with a blunt-point- fo relaxed by being kept a few hours in a moift at-
ed pin endeavour gently to open it, by fpreading it
over the fore-finger, and at the fame time gradually
Hiding the thumb over. it. When the wing is fuffi-
ciently expanded, feparate it from the ipfedf by a jharp
mofphere, that you may eafily extend them to their
natural pofitions ; or the fteam of warm water will an¬
fwer the puipofe very well.
The eyes of infedts in general form very curious
,3 ' aBd
M I G
Oilierofcopt and beautiful objefts. Thofe of tbe libellula and other
y ■/ flics, as well as of the lobfter. Sec. muft firft be cleaned
from the blood, &c. after which they fhould be foaked
in water for fome days : one or two fldns are then to be
feparated from the eye, which would be otherwife too
opaque and confufed ; but fome care is requifite in this
operation ; for if the fkin be rendered too thin, it is
impofiible to form a proper idea of the organization of
the part. In fome fubftances, however, the organiza¬
tion is fuch, that by altering the texture of the part,
we deftroy the objedts which we w'ilh to obferve. Of
this fort are the nerves, tendons, mufcular fibres,
many of w-hich are viewed to moll advantage when
floating in fome tranfparent fluid. Thus very
few of the mufcular fibres can be difeovered when
w7e attempt to view them in the open air, though great
numbers may be feen if they be placed in water or oil.
By viewing the thread of a ligament in this manner,
we find it compofed of a vaft number of fmooth round
threads lying clofe together. Elaftic objects fliQjjld be
pulled or ftretched out while they are under the mi-
crofcope, that the texture and nature of thofe parts,
the figure of which is altered by being thus pulled out,
may be more fully difeovered.
Other objects. To examine hones by the microfcope,
they fliould firft be viewed as opaque objedts ; but af¬
terwards, by procuring thin flices of them, they may
be viewed as tranfparent. The fedtions fliould be cut
in all diredtions, and be well waflied and cleaned ; and
in fome cafes maceration will be ufeful, or the bones
may be heated red hot in a clear fire, and then taken
out ; by which means the bony cells will appear more
confpicuous. The pores of the Jkin may be examined by
cutting oft a thin flice oft the upper Ikin with a razor,
and then a fecond from the fame place ; applying the
latter to the microfcope. The lizard, guana, <3cc. have
two ikins, one very tranfparent, the other thicker and
more opaque ; and, feparating thefe two, you obtain
very beautiful objedts.
To view the fcaks of fijh to advantage, they ought
to be foaked in water for a few days, and then care¬
fully rubbed to clean them from the Ikin and dirt
which may adhere to them. The feales of the eel are
« great curiofity ; and the more fo, as this creature
was not known to have any feales till they were difeo¬
vered by the microfcope. The method of difeovering
them is this. Take a piece of the fltin of an eel from
[ 1
M \ C
edge of a knife over the upper fide of tbe leaf, which M
will take off moft of the fkin. Then turn the leaf,
and do the fame with the under fide ; and when the
fkin is taken off on both Tides, wafh out the pulpy
matter, and the fibres will be exhibited in a very
beautiful manner. The leaf may be flit into two
parts, by fplitting the ftalk; and the fkins peeled
from the fibres will alfo make a good objedt. This
operation is heft performed in the autumn : the fibres
of the leaves are much ftronger at that feafon, and
lefs liable to be broken.—The internal ftrudture of
fhells may be obferved by grinding them down on a
hone : and all ores and minerals fhould be carefully
waflied and brufhed with a fmall brufh to remove any
fordes that may adhere to them.
To view the circulation of the blood, we muft ob¬
ferve living animals of the moft tranfparent kind.—-
A fmall eel is fometimes ufed for this purpofe ;
in which cafe it muft be cleanfed from the flime
naturally adhering to it; after which it may be
put into a tube filled with water, where it can be
viewed in a fatisfa&ory manner. The tail of any
other fmail fifh may be viewed in the fame manner,
or put upon a flip of fiat glafs, and thus laid be¬
fore the microfcope. By filling the tube with water
when an eel is made ufe of, we prevent in a great
meafure the fliminefs of the animal from foiling the glafs.
The particles of the blood form a very curious ob¬
ject, and have been carefully viewed by different phi-
lofophers ; who, neverthelefs, differ from one another
very much in their accounts of them. The heft
method of viewing thefe is to take a fmall drop of
blood when warm, and fpread it as thin as poffible
upon a flat piece of glafs. By diluting it a little
with w'arm water, fome of the large globules will be
feparated from the fmaller, and many of them fubdivi-
ded ; or a fmail drop of blood may be put into a ca¬
pillary glafs-tube, and then placed before the micro¬
fcope. Mr Baker advifes warm milk as proper to be
mixed with the blood ; but Mr Hewfon, who is ac¬
counted the moft accurate obfetver, diluted the blood
with that fluid which undoubtedly is more natural to
it, vise,, its own ferum : by this method he could pre-
ferve the fmall particles entire, and view them diftindf-
ly ; and thus he found that they vyere not globular, as
had been imagined by other anatomifts, but flat. Ha¬
ving fliaken a piece of the craffamentum of the blood
off its fide, and fpread it while moift on a piece of in ferum till the latter became a little coloured, he
glafs, that it may dry very fmooth : when thus dried, fpread it with a foft hair pencil on a piece of thin glafs,
the furface will appear all over dimpled or pitted by which he placed under the microfcope, in fuch
the feales, which lie under a fort of cuticle or thin
fltin ; which may be raifed with the Iharp point of a
penknife, together with the feales, which will then
'ealily flip out; and thus we may procure as many as
we pleafe.
The leaves of many trees, as well as of fome plants,
when differed, form a very agreeable objeft. In or¬
der to diffedf them, take a few of the moft perfect
leaves you can find, and place them in a pan with clean
water. Let them remain there three weeks, or a
month, without changing the water ; then take them
up; and if they feel very foft, and almoft rotten, they
are fufficiently foaked. They muft then be laid on a
•flat board, and holding them by the ftalk, draw the
ner as not to be quite horizontal, but rather higher
at one end than the other. Thus the feium flows
from the higher to the lower part; and, as it flows,
fome of the particles will be found to fwim on their
flat Tides, and will appear to have a dark fpot in the
middle ; while others will turn over from one fide to
the other as they roll down the glafs. Many cruel
experiments have been tried in order to obferve the
circulation of the blood in living creatures, and an
apparatus has been invented for viewing the circula¬
tion in the mefentery of a frog; but as this can an-
fwer no ufeful purpofe, and will never be put in
practice by perfons of humanity, we forbear to men¬
tion it.
4X 2
II. Befides
MIC [ 73^ ] MIC
Microfcope II. Befides the objefts for the microfcope already
mentioned, there are innumerable others, fome hardly
vifible, and others totally invifible, to the naked eye ;
and which therefore, in a more peculiar fenfe, are de-
nominated,
Microfcopic animals. They are the animalcules or
moving bodies in water, in which certain fubftances
have been infufed ; and of which there are a great
many different kinds. Thefe animalcula are fometimes
found in water which we would call pure, did not the
microfcopes difeover its minute inhabitants ; but not
equally in all kinds of water, or even in all parts of the
fame kind of it. The furfaces of infufions are general-
ly*covered with a feum which is eaiily broken, but ac¬
quires thicknefs by Handing. In this feum the great-
eft number of animalcules are ufually found. Some¬
times it is neceffary to dilute the infufions ; but this
ought always to be done with water, not only diftil-
led, but viewed through a microfcope, left it ftiould
alio have animalcules in it, and thus prove a fource of
deception. It is, however, moft proper to obferve
thofe minute objedts after the water is a little evapo¬
rated ; the attention being lefs diverted by a few ob-
jedts than when they appear in great numbers. One
or two of the animalcules may be feparated from the
reft by placing a fmalldrop of water on the glafs near
that of the infufion ; join them together by making a
fmall connexion between them with a pin ; and as
foon as you perceive that an animalcule has entered the
clear drop, cut off the connexion again.
Eels in pafte are obtained by boiling a little flour
and water into the confiftence of book-binders pafte;
then expofing it to the air in an open veflel, and beat¬
ing it frequently together to keep the furface from
growing mouldy or hard. In a few days it will be
found peopled with myriads of little animals vifible to
the naked eye, which are the eels in queftion. They
may be preferved for a whole year by keeping the
pafte moiftened with water; and while this is done,
the motion of the animals will keep the furface from
growing mouldy. Mr Baker diredts a drop or two
of vinegar to be put into the pafte now and then.
When they are applied to the microfcope, the pafte
muft be diluted in a piece of water for them to fwim
in.
Numberlefs animalcules are obferved by the micro¬
fcope in infufions of pepper. To make an infufion for
this purpofe, bruife as much common black pepper as
will cover the bottom of an open jar, and lay it thereon
about half an inch thick : pour as much foft water into
the veflel as will rife about an inch above the pepper.
Shake the whole well together : after which they
moft not be ftirred, but be left expofed to the air for
a few days; in which time a thin pellicle will be formed
on the furface, in which innumerable animals are to
be obferved by the microfcope.
The microfeopic animals are fo different from thofe
of the larger kinds, that fcarce any fort of analogy
ffems to exift between them ; and one would almoft
be tempted to think that they lived in confequence of
laws diredtly oppofite to thofe which preferve ourfelves
and other vifible animals in exiftence. They have
been fyllematically arranged by O. F. Muller ; though
it is by no means probable that all the different claffes
have yet been difeovered. Such as have been obfer- Microfcope
yed, however, are by this author divided in the follow-  *  
ing manner.
I. Such as have no external organs.
1. Monas: Punftiforma. A mere point.
2. Proteus : Mutabilis. Mutable.
3. Volvox : Sphasricum. Spherical.
4. Enchelis: Cylindracea. Cylindrical.
5. Vibrio : Elongatum. Long.
* Membranaceous.
6. Cyclidium : Ovale. Oval.
7. Paramecium : Oblongum. Oblong.
8. Kolpoda : Sinuatum. Sinuous.
9. Gonium : Angulatum. With angles.
10. Burfaria.. Hollow like a purfe.
II. Thofe that have external organs.
* Naked, or not inclofed in a fhell.
1. Cercaria : Caudatum. With a tail.
2. Trichoda : Crinitum. Hairy.
3. Kerona: Corniculatum. With horns..
4. HimantopusCirratum. Cirrated.
5. Leucophra : Ciliatum undique. Every part ct.
Hated.
6. Vorticella: Ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.
* Covered with a {hell.
7. Brachionus : Ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.
I. Monas.
This is by our author defined to be “ an invifibie
ft' ; the naked eye), pellucid, Ample, pun&iform
worm;’' but of which, fmall as it is, there are feveral
fpecies.
1. The monas ter mo or gelatinofa, is a fmall jelly-
like point, which can be but imperfeftly feen by the
fingle microfcope, and not at all by the compound one.
In a full light they totally difappear, by reafon of
their tranfparency. Some infufions are fo full of them
that fcarce the leaft empty fpace can be perceived;
the water itfelf appearing compofed of innumerable
globular points, in which a motion may be perceived
fomewhat fimilar to that which is obferved when the
fun’s rays fhine on the water; the whole multitude of
animals appearing in commotion like a hive of bees.
This animal is very common in ditch-water, and ia
almoft all infufions either of animal or vegetable fub¬
ftances.
2. Monas atomus or albida; white monas with a vari¬
able point. This appears like a white point, which thro’
a high magnifier apppears fomewhat egg-fhaped. The
fmaller end is generally marked with a black point,
the fituation of which is variable; fometimes it ap¬
pears on the large end, and fometimes there are two
black fpots in the middle. This fpecies was found
in fea-water, which had been kept through the whole
winter, but was not very fetid. No other kind of ani¬
malcule was found in it.
3. Monas pundum or nigra, black monas. This was
found in a fetid infufion of pears, and appears in form
of a very minute, opaque, and black point, moving
with a flow and wavering motion.
4. Monas ocellus, tranfparent like talc, with a point in
the middle. This is found in ditches covered with con-
4. ferva>
MIC l 733 1 MIC
Eicr./copt-ferva, and fometimes with the cyclidium milium ;
—< the margin of it is black, with a black point in the
middle.
5. Monas lens or hyalina; of a talcy appearance. This
is found in all kinds of water ; fometimes even in that
which is pure, but always in the fummer-tirfie in ditch-
water. It is found alfo in all infulions of animal or vege¬
table fubftances, whether in frdh or fait water; myriads
being contained in a fmgle drop. It is found likewife
in the filth of the teeth. It is nearly of a round fi¬
gure ; and fo tranfparent, that it is impoflible to dif-
cover the leaft veftige of inteftines. They generally
appear in clufters, but fometimes fingly. Contrary to
what happens to other animalcules, they appear to
cover the edges of the drop when evaporating, and
where they inllantly die. A few dark lhades, pro¬
bably occafioned by the wrinkling of the body, are
perceived when the water is nearly evaporated. The
motions of this animalcule are generally very quick ;
and two united together, may fometimes be feen fwim-
ming among the reft; which is thought to be a fingle
one generating another by divifion, as is related under
the article Animalcule. Thefe and the animalcules
of the firft fpecies are fo numerous, that they exceed
all calculation even in a very ftnall fpace.
6. Monas micai marked with a circle. This is found
in the pureft waters, and may be difcovered with the
third lens of the fingle microfcope when the magnify¬
ing power is increafed. It appears like a fma'll lucid
point; but can affume an oval or fpherical fhape at
pleafure : fometimes the appearance of two kidneys
may be perceived in ms body, and there is commonly
the figure of an ellipfe in it; the fituation of which is
moveable, fometimes .appearing in the middle and fome¬
times approaching to either extremity. It feems en-
compaffed with a beautiful halo, which is thought to
be occafioned by the vibration of fine invifible hairs.
I It has a variety of motions, and often turns round for
a long time in the fame place.
7. The tranqui/la, or egg-fhaped tranfparent monas
with a black margin, is found in urine which has been
kept for fome time. Uiine in this ftate acquires a
fcum in which the animalcules refide ; but though
kept for feveral months, no other fpecies was found in
it. A drop of urine is ufually fatal to other animal¬
cules, though this fpecies is to be met with in no other
fubftance. It is generally fixed to one point, but has
a kind of vacillatory motion. Frequently thefe crea-
II tures are furrounded with a halo. Sometimes they
I are quadrangular, and at other times fpherical; the
black margin is-not always to be found ; and fometimes
there is even an appearance of a tail.
8. The lamellu/a, or flat tranfparent monas, is moft
ufually found in falt-water ; is of a whitifh colour and
tranfparent, more than twice as long as it is broad,
1| with a dark mat gin, having a vacillatory motion, and
frequently appearing as double.
9. Thepulvi/culus or monas.with. a green margin. Thefe
are generally found in marftiy grounds in the month
|| of March. They appear like fmall fpherical grains of
a green colour on the circumference, having fometimes
a green bent tine palling through the middle. They
I appear fometimes in clufters, from three to feven 01
more in number, having a wavering kind of motion.
10. The aua, or tranfparent gregarious'mona, is Mlcrnfcoyt
found in a variety of infufions, and is of that kind *—v—"^
which multiplies by dividing itfelf. They appear in
clufters of four, five, or fometimes many more; the
corpufcles being of various fizes, according to the
number collefted into one group. The fmaller parti¬
cles, when feparated from the larger, move about with
incredible fwiftnefs. A Angle corpufcle feparated
from the heap, and put by itfelf into a glafs, foon in ¬
creafed in fize till it nearly attained the bulk of the
parent group. The furface then affumed a,wrinkled
appearance, and gradually became like the former, fe-
parating again into fmall particles, which likewife in¬
creafed in bulk as before.
II. The Proteus. ,
An invifible, very Ample, pfellucid worm, of a varia-
able form.
1. The diffluens, branching itfelf out in a variety of
direftions. It is very rare, and only met with in
fens ; appearing like a grey mucous mafs, filled with a
number of black globules, and continually changing
its figure, pufhing out branches of different lengths
and breadths. The internal globules divide immedi¬
ately, and pafs into the new formed parts; always fol¬
lowing the various changes of the animalcule ; which
changes feem to proceed entirely from the internal
mechanifm of its body, without the aid of any ex¬
ternal power.
2. The tenax, running out into a fine point. This
is a pellucid gelatinous body, ftored with black mole¬
cules, and likewife changing its figure, but in a more
regular order than the former. It firft extends itfelf
in a ftraigbt line, the lower part terminating in a
bright acute point. It appears to have no inteftines ;
and when the globules are all colle&ed in the upper
part, it next draws the pointed end up toward the
middle of the body, which affumes a round form. It
goes through a number of different lhapes, part of
which are defcribed under the article Animalcule.
It is found in fome kinds of river-water, and appears
confined almoft entirely to one place, only bending
fidewife^
III. Vohox.
An invifible, very fimple, ptilucid, fpherical worm.
1. 'Thzpunfitum; of a black colour, with a lucid point.
This is a fmall globule, with one hemifphere opaque
and black, the other having a cryftalline appearance ;
and a vehement motion isobferved in. the black part. It
moves as on an axis, frequently palling thro’ the drop
in this manner. Many are often feen joined together
in their paffage through the watei ; fometimes moving
as in a little whirlpool, and then feparating. They
are found in great numbers on the furface of fetid fea-
water.
2. Tht granulum is of a fpherical figure and green,
colour, the circumference being bright and tranfpa¬
rent. It is found in marlhy places about- the month
of June, and moves but flowly. It feems to have a
green opaque nucleus.
3. The with the hinder part fame what ob-
fcure, fometimes verges a little towards the oval in its
lhape, having a flow fluttering kind of motion, but;.
morse
MIC [ 734 1 MIC
more quick when difturbed. The Intellines are but fubftance membranaceous and tranfprrent ; and in theMicri
juft viiible. It is found in mod vegetable infufions, midft of this fubftance feveral fmall globes may be per-
and is ten times larger than the mona lens. ceived. Each of thefe are fmaller animalcula, which
4. Thepilula, fmall and round, with green inteftines. have alfo the diaphanous membrane, and contain wnth-
This is found in water where the lemna minor grows, in in themfelves ftill fmaller generations, which may be
the month of December, and has a kind of rotatory diftinguiihed by meaas of very powerful glafies. The
motion, fometimes flow and at others quick. The larger globules may be feen to efcape from the parent,
inteftines are placed near the middle, apparently edged and then increafe in fize.”
with yellow. There is a fmall incifion on one of the This little animal appears like a tranfparent globule
edges of the fphere, which may poflibly be the mouth of a greenifti colour, the foetus being compofed of
of the creature. The whole animal appears encom- fmaller greenifli globules. In proportion to its age it
pafled with an halo. becomes whiter and brighter, and moves flowly round
5. The grandinclla, with immoveable inteftines, is its axis; but to the microfcope its furface appears as if
much fmaller than the laft, and marked with feveral granulated, the roundeft molecules fixed in the centre
circular lines. The inteftines are immoveable, and no being largeft in thofe that are young. The exterior
motion is perceived among the interior molecules, molecules may be wiped off, leaving the membrane
Sometimes it moves about in a ftraight line, ut others naked. When the young ones are of a proper fize,
irregularly, and fometimes keeps in the fame fpot, the membrane opens, and they pafs through the fif-
with a tremulous motion. fure ; after which the mother melts away. Sometimes
6. The fociaiis,, with cryftalline molecules placed at they change their fpherical figure, and become flat in
equal diftances from one another. This is found in feveral places. They contain from 8 to between 30
■water where the chara vulgaris has been kept; and and 40 globules within the membrane.
has its molecules difpofed in a fphere, filling up 10. The morum, with fpherical green globules in
the whole body of the animalcule ; but whether the centre. This is found amongft the lemna in the
they be covered by a common membrane or uni- months of Odlober and December, and.has a flow rota¬
ted by a {talk (as in the ’verthella fociaiis to be tory motion. The globules feldom move, though a
.afterwards deferibed) is not known. When very flow quivering motion may fometimes be perceived
•much magnified, fome black points may be feen in the among them in the centre.
cryftalline molecules. Its motion is fometimes rota- 11. The compofed of green globules notin-
tcry and fometimes not. clofed in any membrane, is found in the month of
7. The fphericula, with round molecules, appears to Auguft in water where the lemma polyrrhiza grows,
confift of pellucid homogeneous points of different —It confifts of a congeries of greenifh-coloured
•fizes. It moves flowly from right to left and back globules, apparently of an equal fize, with a bright
again, about a quarter of a circle each time. fpot in the middle ; the whole mafs is fometimes of a
8. The lunula, with lunular molecules, is a fmall fpherical form, fometimes o^d, without any common
roundifti tranfparent body, con'fifting of an innumerable membrane : a kind of halo may be perceived round it,
multitude of homogeneous molecules of the fliape of a and the mafs generally moves from right to left, but
ciefcent, without any common margin. It movds con- fcarce any motion can be perceived among the globules
tinually in a twofold manner, tcjb. of the molecules themfelves. Thefe mafles contain from four to fifty
among one another, and the whole mafs turning flow- globules, of which a folitary one may fometimes be
ly round. It is fouad in marfliy places in the begin- feen. Sometimes alfo two mafles of globules havebeen
ning of fpring. perceived joined together.
9. The or fpherical membranaceous volvox, 12. The wj’rtan.r, terminating in a little bunch of
is found in great numbers in the infufions of hemp and globules. This is found in river-water in the month
tremella, and in ftagnant waters in fpring and fummer; of November. It confifts of a number of floccofe
it was firft obferved and depided by Leewenhoeck, opaque branches invifible to the naked eye; and at
but the deferiptions of it given by authors differ the apex of thefe is a fmall congeries of very minute
confiderably from each other. The following is that oval pellucid corpufcles. Muller, who difeovered this,
of Mr Biker. “ There is ho appearance of either fuppofed it at firft t<) be a fpecies of microfcopic and j
head, tail, or fins. It moves in every direction, back- river fertularia: but he afterwards found the bunches
wards, forwards, up or down, rolling over and over quitting the branches, and fwimming about in the s
like a bowl, fpinning horizontally like a top, or glid- water with a proper fpontaneous motion ; many of the
ing along fmoothly without turning itfelf at all; fome- old branches being deferted, and the younger one*
times its motions are very flow, at other times very funiilhed with them.
fwift; and when it pleafes it can turn round as upon jy £nclej:s .
an axis very nimble, without moving out of its place. A fim le invi'flble, cylindric worm.
The body is tramparent, except where the circular r
fpots are placed, which are probably its young. The 1. The viridis, or green enchelis, has an obtufe tail, |
furface of the body in fome is as if all dotted over with the forepart terminating in an acute truncated angle ; J
little points, and in others as if granulated like flia- the inteftines are obfeure and indiftintT. It continu-
green. In general it appears as if fet round with ally varies its motion, turning from right to left,
fliort moveable hairs.” Another author informs us, 2. Tht funfiifera, having the forepart obtufe, the
that “ they are at firft very fmall, but grow fo large hinder part pointed. It is opaque, and ot a green ^1
that they can be difeerned with the naked eye: they colour, with a fmall pellucid fpot in the fore part, in
are of a yellowilh green colour, globular figure, and in which two black points may be feen; and a kind of
double
Toy
MIC [
icrofcope double band croffes the middle of the body. The
"’V-1*— hinder part is pellucid and pointed, with an incifion,
fuppofed to be the mouth, at the apex of the fore-part.
It is found in marfhes.
3. The defes, or gelatinous enchelis, is found, though
rarely, in an infufion of lemna;, and moves very flowly.
The body is round, of a very dark-green, the fore-part
bluntly rounded off, and the hinder part fomewhat
tapering, but finilhed with a round end : near the ex-
; tremities there is a degree of tranfparency.
4. The Jim'dis, with moveable inteftines, is found in
water that has been'kept for feveral months: it is of an
cgg-fhape, and generally moves very quick, either to
the right or left, It is firppofed to be furnilhed with
hairs, becaufe when moving quickly the margin ap¬
pears ftriated. The body is opaque with a pellucid
I margin, and filled with moveable fpherules.
5. The ferotina, with immoveable inteftines, is of an
oval figure, partly cylindrical, the fore-part fmaller
than the hind, with a black margin, full of gray ve-
licular molecules: it moves very ftowly.
6. The «e3a/(5/&, with vifible moveable inteftines, is
found in the fame water with the cyclidium glaucoma,
but is much more fcarce. The body is egg-ftiaped,
the fore-part narrow, and frequently filled with opaque
confufed inteftines : when moving, it elevates the fore¬
part of the body. It is about three times as large as
the cyclidium glaucoma.
7. The feminulum is found in water that has been
kept for fome days, and moves by afcending and de-
| • fcending altenately. It is of a cylindrical figure,
twice as long as broad, the inteftines in the fore-part
I tranfparent, but opaque in the hinder part. Some¬
times it is obferved fwimming about with the extre¬
mities joined together.
8. The intermedia, with a blackifti margin, is one of
the fmalleft animalcules: it has a tranfparent body,
without any vifible inteftines. The fore and hind
parts are of an equal fize, and the edge is of a deeper
I colour than the reft. Some have a point in the middle,
ethers a line palling through it.
9. The ovulum, \& tranfpafent, round, and egg-lhaped.
ji A very ftrong magnifier difcovers fome long foldings
On the furface, with a few bright molecules here and
there.
10. The pirum, with the hinder part tranfparent, has
the fore-part protuberant and filled with molecules.
The hinder part is fmaller and empty, with moveable
molecular inteftines. Its motion is rapid, palling back¬
wards and forwards through the diameter of the drop.
When at reft, it appears to have a little fwelling on
the middle of the body.
11. The tremula was found in an infufion with the
paramsecia aurelia, and many other animalcules. It
I' fs among the kaft of thefe minute creatures, and is of
1 ' a cylindrical figure and gelatinous texture. Its ex¬
tremity appears pointed, and has a tremulous motion,
fo as to induce a fufpicion that the creature has a tail.
Two of thefe creatures may at times be ften to ad-
I here together.
12. The conjlritla, with a ftriftnre in the middle, is
If found in falt-water, and is of a very fmall fize, having
the middle drawn in as if tied with a ftring. It is of
an oval lhape.
1.3. The elliptica, with a congeries of green inteftines,
35 ] MIC
is found among the green matter on the lides of veffels Microfcope
in which water has been kept for fome time. It is of 1
a roundifli lhape, and tranfparent; the fore-part obtufe,
the hinder part rather Iharp, and marked with green
fpots. They are generated in fuch numbers, that my¬
riads may fometimes be found in one drop.
14. The fufus, with both ends truncated, was found
in water called pure, and had a languid motion. The
body is round and tranfparent, witli the fore and hind
parts fomewhat fmaller then the reft. In the infide 13
a long and fomewhat winding inteftine, with a bright
Iky-coloured fluid, and fome black molecules tranfverfely
fituated.
• 5. The frit Ulus, with the fore-part truncated, is
found in an infufion of grafs and hay, and runs back*
ward and forward through the drop with a wavering
motion. It is one of the moft tranfparent animalcules,
and has the fore-part obtufely convex.
16. The caudata, with a kind of tail, is but feldom
met with. The body is grey and tranfparent, with
globular molecules divided from each other, and difper-
fed thro’ the whole ; the fore-part is thick and obtufe,
the hind part cryftalline-and fmall, the end truncated.
17. The epiflomium, with the fore-part lltnder and
roundilh, is among the fmaller animalcula; the body
cylindrical and bright, the hind part obtufc, the fore¬
part fmaller, and terminating in a globule, with now
and then a black line down the middle.
18. The gemmata is found in ditch-water where the
lemna thrives. It has a cylindrical body, the upper
part running out into a tranfparent neck, with a double
feries of globules running down the body. It moves
llowly, and generally in a ftraight line.
19. The retrograda moves commonly fideways, and
fometimes in a retrograde manner. It has a gelati¬
nous tranfparent body, thicker in the middle than at
the ends, without any thing that can be called intef¬
tines, except a pellucid globule difcoverable near the
hinder part.
20. The fejlinans, with obtufe ends, is found in
fea-water, and has a quick vacillatory motion from
one fide to the other. The body is round, with the
fore-part tranfparent. More than half the length ofic
is without any vifible inteflines; but the lower end ig
filled with minute vtficular and tranfparent globules ; a
large globular veficle is alfo obferved in- the fore-part.
21. The farcimen was found by Joblot in an infufion
of blue bottles, moving very flowly in an undulatory
manner. The body is cylindrical, about four times
as long as broad, truncated at both ends, the inteftines
opaque, and not to be diftinguiftied from one another.
It foims itfelf into the ftiape of the letter S, by turn¬
ing the two extremities contrariwife.
22. The index is found in water with the lemna mi¬
nor ; the body opaque, of a grey colour, and long co¬
nical fliape : the lower end is obtufe, one fide projedl-
ing like a finger from the edge, with two very fmall
prqjeftions from the lower end. It has the power of
retracing thefe projections, and making both ends ap¬
pear obtufe.
23. The truncus, with a kind of head, is the largeflr
of this kind of animalcules. The body is grey„ long,,,
and mucous ; the fore-part globular, the hinder pait
obtufe ; but it can alter its fliape confiderably. Some¬
times there is an appearance of three teeth proceeding'
froia.
M I C [ 736 ] MIC
>fcoj« from one of the fides. Globules of different fizes may
‘r“' be obferved within the body. The creature rolls flow-
ly about from right to left.
24. The larva is long, round, and filled with mole¬
cules. The fore-part is obtufe and tranfparent, with
a kind of neck or fmall contraftion formed near this
end: the lower part is pointed ; and about the middle
of the body are two fmall pointed projedlions like
nipples, one on each fide.
25. The fpatula, with the fore-part tranfparent, and
of the (hape of a fpatula. It is perfe&ly cylindrical,
'cryftalline, and marked with fine longitudinal furrows;
having generally two tranfparent globules, one below
the middle, the other near the extremity. It moves
in a wavering kind of manner, retaining its general
form, but moving the fpatula in various ways. Muller
informs us, that he faw it once draw the fpatula with¬
in the body, and keep it there for two hours.
26. Thepupula, with the fore-part papillary, is found
in dunghill water in November and December: it
has a rotatory motion on a longitudinal axis, and moves
in an oblique direftion through the water. Both ends
are obtufe ; and the hinder part is marked with a
tranfparent circle, or circular aperture.
27. The pupa, with a fmall nipple proceeding from
the apex, has a very flow motion, and refembles the
former, only that it wants the tranfparent circle, and is
much larger. It is all opaque but the fore-end, and
filled with obfcure points.
V. Vibrio:
A very fimple, invifible, round, and rather long
worm.
1. The lineola is found in moll vegetable infufions in
fuch numbers, that it feems to fill up almoft the whole
of their fubftance. It is fo fmall, that with the beft
magnifiers we can difcern little more than an obfcure
tremulous motion among them. It is more flenderthan
the monas terma.
2. The rugula is like a bent line ; and fometimes
draws itfelf up in an undulated fhape, at others moves
without bending the body at all.
3. The bacillus, equally truncated at both ends, is found
in an infufion of hay ; but Muller mentions the follow¬
ing remarkable faft, viz. that having made two infufions
ofhay in the famewater, heput the hay whole in theone,
but cut it in pieces in the other: he found in the former
none of the vibrio bacillus, but many of the monas lens
and kolpoda cucullus; in the latter were many of the
vibrio, but few of the other.—This is from fix to ten
times longer than the monas lens, but much more
flender.
4. The undula, is a round, gelatinous, little, undula¬
ting line. This is the animal which Leewenhoeck fays
is lefs than the tail of one of the feminal animalcules.
It never appears ftraight; but when at reft it refem¬
bles the letter V, and when in motion the letter M.
It commonly refts on the top of the water : fometimes
it fixes itfelf by one extremity, and whirls round.
5. The fcrpens, with obtufe windings or flexures, is
found in river-water, but feldom. It is flender, and
gelatinous, refembling a ferpentine line, with an intef-
tine down the middle.
6. The fpirillum is exceedingly minute, and twifted
in the form of a fpiral, which feems to be its natural
N0 219.
(hape, as it never untwifts itfelf, but moves forward in Micraf
a ftraight line, vibrating the hind anl fore parts. It V
was found in ^82 in an infufion of the fonchus ar-
venfis.
7. The vcrmiculus has a milky appearance, with an
obtufe apex, and a languid uhdulatory motion, like
that of the common worm. It is found in marftiy wa¬
ter in November, but feldom. It is thought to be
the animal mentioned by Leewenhoeck as found in the
dung of the frog and fpawn of the male libellula.
*8. The intejlinum is found in marfhy waters, and haa
a flow progrefiive motion. It is milk-coloured, with
two obtufe ends, and four or five fpherical eggs are
perceivable at the hinder extremity.
9. The bipunclatus is found in fetid falt-water, and
moves flowly; for the moft part in a ftraight line.
The body is pellucid, and of a talc-like appearance ;
both ends are truncated, and in the middle one or
two pellucid globules placed lengthwife.
10. The tvipunBatus is alfo tranfparent and talcy,
with both ends tapering. It has three pellucid glo¬
bules, the middle one of which is largeft, the fpace
between them, being generally filled with a green mat¬
ter. It moves in a ftraight line, backwards and for¬
wards.
11. The paxilifer, or ftraw-like vibrio, confifts of a
tranfparent membrahe, with yellow inteftines, and two
or three vifible points. They are found in parcels to¬
gether from feven to forty in number, and ranged in a
variety of forms. When at reft, they generally affume
a quadrangular figure ; and are thought to have fome
affinity to the hair~like animal defcribed by Mr Baker,
and of which an account is given under the articfe
Animalcule, n° 3.
12. The lunula, or bow-fhaped vibrio, refembles the
moon at its firft quarter ; it is of a green colour, and
has from feven to ten globules difpofed in a longitudinal
direftion.
13. The verminus is found in great plenty in falt-water -
kept for,,fome days till it becomes fetid. It moves
quickly, and with an undulatory motion, backwards
and forwards. It is a long tranfparent membrane,
with the hind part broader than the fore one. Thefe
animaicula feem to be joined together in a very Angu¬
lar manner.
14. The mallaus is found in great plenty in fpring-
water, and is alternately at reft and in motion every
moment; in the former eafe refembling the letter T,
and in the latter V. It is a white pellucid animalcule,
with a globule affixed to the bafe.
15. The acus is in the ftiape of a fewing needle ; the
neck round and partly tranfparent, and marked in the
middle with a red point; the tail refembling a fine ;;
brittle.
16. Thefagitta, with a fetaceous tail, has along and
flexible body; broadeft about the middle, and filled there
alfo with grey molecules; the fore-part being drawn
out into a thin and tranfparent neck, and the upper
end thick and black. It is found in falt-water, and
feems to move by contradling and extending its neck.
17. The gordius, with a tail terminated by a fmall
tubercle, was found in an infufion made with fait
water. Its fore part throughout about one fixth
of its length is fanfparent, and furniflred with an
alimentary tube of a Iky colour } the lower part be¬
ing
MIC [ 737 ] MIC
ici-oftope jag bright and pointed, and the middle full of fmall 27. Th« eygniu is a very pellucid line, crooked at Microfcope
‘ 'obulee. top, fwelling in the middle, and (harp at the end ; the ■v*—-
18. Thefomewhat pointed at both ends, middle full of dark coloured molecules and pellu-
This is found in the infufions of vegetables which
have been kept for fome weeks. Its body is of a
whitiih colour, frequently convoluted, .and drawn in¬
to different figures. The tail is furnifhed with a long
row of very minute points.
19. The coluber is found in river-water; the tail is
■extremely fmall, and bent fo as to form a confiderable
angle with the body; the mouth, eefophagus, the
molecules in the intefimes, and the twiftings of them,
are eafily difceriied.
.20. The anguillula is divided into four varieties ; 1.
The vinegar eel j _2, That in pafle ; 3. That of frefh
water; and, 4. That of fait. The two firfl are treated
of under the article Animalcule ; the third is ex¬
ceedingly, tranfparent, with a few tranfverfe lines upon
the body, but without any appearance of inteftines.
Sometimes it has a long row of little globules, and is
frequently furnifhed with two fmall oval ones : the tail
terminates ifi a point. It has been found in the fediment
formed by vegetables on the fides of veffels in which
water had been kept for a long time. The fourth va¬
riety appears, when preffed between two glafs plates, to
•be little more than two cryllalline fkins with a kind of
inteftines of a clay colour. The younger ones are fur-
-ni/hed with pellucid molecules.
21. The linter, or ventricofe oval vibrio, with a
‘ihort neck, is found among the lemmt, but not very
frequently. It is among the larger kinds of animal¬
cules, egg-fhaped, pellucid, inflated, and fomewhat
deprefled at top; having a moveable cryftalline neck,
and the belly filled with pellucid molecules.
22. The utriculus rcfembles a bottle ; the belly is
full of molecular inteftines, the neck bright and clear,
the top truncated, and fome have a pellucid point at
the bottom of the belly. It has a conftant and violent
vacillatory motion, the neck moving very quickly
from fide to fide. ,
23. The fafciola is found in water juft freed from
the froft, and not often in any other fluid. It is pel¬
lucid, with inteftines like points in the middle. There
is likewife an alimentary canal gradually diminifhing
in fize. Its motion is very quick.
24. The colymbus is larger than many of the other
fpecies of vibrio, and refembles a bird in fhape. The
neck, which is a little bent, is round, fhorter than the
trunk, of an equal fize throughout, and of a bright ap¬
pearance, with the apex obtufe. The trunk is thick,
fomewhat triangular, full of yellow molecules; the
fore-part broad, the hinder part acute, the motion flow.
25. The Jlriftus has a linear body, being a bright
membranaceous thread; the hinder part fomewhat
thicker, round, and filled with molecules, excepting
at the end, where there is a fmall empty pellucid
fpace. It can draw in the flender filiform part at
pleafure.
26. The anas, with both ends attenuated, and the
reck longer than the tail, is found in fait water; tho’
a kind is likewife found in frefh water with a neck
longer than the other. The trunk of this animalcule
is oblong, opaque, and filled with molecules 5 the
fore and hind parts are drawn out into a pellucid talcy
membrane, which the creature can retiaft at plea-
fure.
Vol. XL Part I.
cid inteftines. It is very fmall, and moves more
flowly than any of thofe that move and advance their
necks.
28. The an/er is found in water where duckweed
grows. The trunk is elliptic, round,* and without
any inequality on the fides. It is full of molecules:
the hind part fharp and bright; the fore part produced
into a bending neck, longer than the body ; the apex
whole and even, with blue canals palling between the
marginal edges, occupying the whole length of the
neck 5 and in one of them a violent defeent of water
to the beginning of the trunk is obfervable. It moves
the body flow, but the neck more brifkly.
29. The olor is found in water that has been kept
for a long time, and is full of vegetable green matter.
The body is elliptical and ventficofe, the hind part
fomewhat fharp, and fometimes filled with darkilh mo¬
lecules. The neck is three or four times longer than
the body; of an equal fize throughout, and is moved
very quickly ; but the motion of the body itfelf is flow.
30. The falx, with a crooked neck, and obtufe hinder
part, is pellucid and elliptical; the fore part leflening
into a little, round, bright neck, nearly as long as
the trunk. The latter is fomewhat gibbous, and fill¬
ed with very fmall molecules ; and there are two fmall
bright globules, one within the hind extremity, and
the other in the middle of the body. The neck of
this animalcule is immoveable; whence it moves fome-
thing like a feythe.
31. The intermedins appears to be an intermediate
fpecies betwixt the falx and the fafeiola. It feems to
be a thin membrane conftantly folded. * The whole
has a cryftalline talcy appearance ; the middle filled
with grey particles of different fizes. It has all round
a diftind bright margin.
VI. Cyclidium.
A Ample, invifible, flat, pellucid, orbicular or oval
worm.
1. The bulla, or orbicular bright cyclidium. This
is found occafionally in an infufion of hay. It is very
pellucid and white, but the edges fomewhat darker
than the reft. It moves flowly, and in a femicircular
diteftion.
2. The milliuvn is very pellucid, and fpleiidid like
cryftal; and of an elliptical figure, with a line through
the whole length of it. The motion is fwift, inter¬
rupted, and fluttering.
3. The jluitans is one of the fmalleft animalcula ; the
body fomewhat of an oval fhape, with two fmall blue
fpaces at the fides.
4. The glaucoma has an oval pellucid body, with
both ends plain, or an oval membtane with a diftind
well-defined edge. The inteftines are fo tranfparent,
that they can fcatce be difeerned when it is empty.
When full, they are of a green colour, and there are
dark globules difcoverable in the middle. When there
is plenty of water this animalcule moves fwiftly in a
circular and diagonal diredion ; when it moves flowly,
it feems to be taking in water, and the inteftines are
in a violent commotion. It generates by divifion.
- 5. The nigricans is very fmall, pellucid, and flat,
with a black margin
5 A
6, The
jMUrofeope
MIC [ 738 1 MIC
6. The rqflratium 1* oval, fmooth, and very pellu¬
cid, with the fore part rianning out into an obtufe
point, with which it feems to feel and examine the
bodies to which it comes. The inteftines are filled
with a blue liquor, the colour of which fometimes
vanilhes, and then they feem to be compofed of ve-
ficles.
7. The nueleus refembles a grape feed, the body
being pellucid and deprefled, the fore part obtufely
convex, and the hind part acute.
8. The hyalinum has a tremulous kind of motion ;
the body oval, flat, and bright, without any vifible
inteftines.
9. The pedkulus is fcarce ever feen but on the hy¬
dra pallida, upon which if runs as if it had feet. It
is gelatinous and white ; the bottom gibbous over the
back ; the extremities depreffed and. truncated,, with
one end fometimes apparently cloven into two, which
may'be fuppofed the mouth.
10. The dubium is of an oval fhape, with one fide
convex, the other concave; the margin pellucid, and
the inner part containing a, great number of mole¬
cules.
VII. Paratmecium.
An invifible, membranaceous, flat, and pellucid
worm.
1. The aurelia is membranaceous, pellucid, and four
times longer than it is broad ; the fore part obtufe
and tranfparentthe hind part filled with molecules.
It has fomewhat the appearance of a gimlet by reafon
of a fold which goes from the middle to the apex,
and is of a triangular figure. It moves in a rettilinear
and vacillatory manner. It is found in ditches where
there is plSnty of duckweed, and will live many
months in the fame water without any renewal of the
latter.
2. The chryfalu is found in fait water, and differs
very little from the former, only the ends are more
obtufe, and the margins are filled with black globules.
3. The verfutum is found in ditches, and has an ob-
long, green, and gelatinous body, filled with mole¬
cules ; the lower part thicker than the other $ and
both ends obtufe. It propagates by divifion.
4. The oviferum is membranaceous, oval, grey, and
pellucid, with many oval corpufcles difperfed through
the body.
5. The marginatum is flat, elliptical, and every where
filled with molecules, except in the lower end where
there is a pellucid veiicle. It is furrounded by abroad
double margin, and a bright fpiral.inteftine is obfer-
vable.
VIII. Kolpoda,
An invifible, pellucid, flat, and crooked worm.
1. The lamella is very feldom met with. It refem-
fcles a long, narrow, and pellucid membrane, with the
hind part obtufe, narrower, and curved towards the top.
It has a vaciilatory j(nd very Angular motion ; going
up .n the fbarp edge, not on the fiat fide as is ufual
■with microfcopic animals.
2. The gaRinula is found in fetid fait water; and'
has the ape*'fomewhat bent, the belly oval, convex,
and ftriated.
The roflrum w found though feldom,. in water
where the lemna grows; and has a flow and Wizorif Microfreps
tal motion. The fore part is bent into a kind of —v—**
hook; the hind part obtufe, and quite filled with
black molecules.
4. The ochrea is deprefled, membranaceous, and
flexible ; one edge nearly ftraight 5 the other fomewbat
bent, filled with obfeure molecules, and a few little
bladders difperfed here and there.
5. T\iz mucronata is a dilated bright membrane; the
apex an obtufe point, with a broad marked border-
running quite round it. It is filled with grey mole¬
cules within the margin, and has a truncated appear- !
ante.
6. The triquetra was found in fait water, and ap.
pears to confift of two membranes ; the upper fide flat¬
tened, the lower convex, with the apex bent into a
kind of (boulder.
7. TheJlriata is likewife found in fait water, and;
is very pellucid and white, with the upper part ra¬
ther bent, and terminating in a point f the lower part
obtufely round : there is a little black pellucid veficle
at the apex ; and with a very great magnifying power
the body appears covered with long ftreaks.
8. The nucleus is of an oval fhape, with the vertex
pointed, and of a brilliant tranfparency, by which the
vifeera are rendered vifible. Thefe confift of a num¬
ber of round diaphanous veficles.
9. The meleagris has a dilated membrane, with very
fine folds, which it varies in a moment. The fore
part of the body to the middle is clear and bright; the
hind part varioufly folded in tranfverfe and elevated
plaits and full of molecules.. Beneath the apex are^
three or four teethbut in ibme the edge is obtufely
notched, and fet with fmaller notches. In the hin¬
der part are 12, or more equal pellucid globules.
10. The ajfimilis is found on the fea-coaft, and
has an elliptic mafs in the middle, but is not folded
like the former.. The margin of the fore part is
notched from the top to the middle ; the lower part
fwells out, and contrafts again into a fmall point.
11. The cucullus'ia found in vegetable infufions, and
in fetid hay ; moving in all dire&ions, and commonly
with great vivacity. It is very pellucid, and has a well
defined margin, filled with little bright veficles differ¬
ing in fize, and of no certain number. Its figure is
commonly oval, with the top bent into a kind of beak,
fometimes oblong, but mod commonly obtufe. It
has in the infide from 8 to 24 bright little veficlei
not difcernible in fuch as are young. Some have fup—
pofed thefe to be animalcules which this creature has
(wallowed ; but Mr Muller is of opinion that they
are its offspring. When this creature is near death
by reafon of the evaporation of the water, it pro¬
trudes its offspring with violence. From fome cir--
cumftanees it would feem probable that this animal¬
cule cafts its (kin, as is the cafe with forae infers.
13. The ciuullulus is found in an infufion of the
fonchus arvenfis. It is very pellucid and cryftalline,
with feveral globules, and has an oblique incifion a
little below the apex.
1 j. The cuculio is elliptical, flat on the upper fide,
and convex on the under ; the fore part is clear, and
from the middle to the hinder part is full of filver-like
globules. It frequently ftrctches out the fore part,
and foickit in different pofitions.
14, The
M I C
14,.The fm, or crajfa, is found man mfufion of hay,
" commonly about 13 hours after the infufion is made,
and has a quick and vacillatory motion. Its body is yel¬
low, thick, and fomewhat opaque ; curved a little in
the middle, fo that it refembles a kidney; and full
of molecules. When the water in which it fwims is
about to fail, it takes an eval form, is compreffed, and
at laft burfts.
1 j. The pirum has an uniform and tranfparent body,
without any fenfibk inequality ; and is of a pale co¬
lour, with obfeure little globules. It propagates by
iiivifiom
tS. The cunitu is white, gelatinous, and without
any diftinA vifeera ; having a bright ftriated pellucid
putlule on one fide of the fore part. The apex has
three or four teeth ; and it can bend the hinder part
«nto a fpiral form.
IX. Gonium.
An invifible, fimple, fmooth, and angular worm,
1. The peBorak is found in pure water, and moves
alternately towards the right and left. It is quadran¬
gular and pellucid, with 16 fpherical moleoules of a
greenifli colour, “ fet in a quadrangular membrane,
like the jewels in the breaft-plate of the high-prieft,
refle&ing light on both fides.”
2. The pulvinatum is found in dunghills; and ap¬
pears like a little quadrangular membrane, plain on
both Tides : but with a large magnifier it appears like
a bolfter formed of three or four cylindric pillows funk
here and there.
3. The corrvgatum is found in various kinds of in-
fufions; and is fomewhat of a fquare (hape, very fmall,
and in fome pofitions appears as ftreaked.
4. The reBangulum differs but little from the for¬
mer : the angle at the bafe is a right one ; the larger
veficle is tranfparent, the reft green.
5. The truncatum is found chiefly in pure water,
and then but feldom. It has a languid motion, and
- ■* is much larger than the foregoing. The fore part is
a ftraight line, with which the Tides form obtufe
angles, the ends of the Tides being united by a curved
line. The internal molecules are of a dark green, and
there are two little bright veficles in the middle.
X. Burfaria.
A very fimple, hollow, membranaceous worm.
j. The truncatdla is vifible to the naked eye ; white,
oval, and truncated at the top, where there is a large
aperture defeending towards the bafe. Moft of them
have four or five yellow eggs at the bottom. They
move from left to right, and from right to left ;
afeending to the furface in a ftraight line, and fome-
times rolling about while they defeend.
2. The bullina is pellucid and cryftalline, having
fplendid globules of different fizes fwimming about
with it. The under fide is convex, the upper hol¬
low, with the fore part forming a kind of lip.
3. The hirundinella has two fmall projecting wings,
which give it fomewhat of the appearance of a bird ;
and it moves femethiug like a fwallow. It is invi¬
fible to the naked eye; but by the microfcope appears
a pellucid hollow membrane.
4. The duplella was found among duckweed, and
appears like a Cryftalline membrane folded up, with-
f 759 3
M I C
out any vifible inteftines except a fmall congeries of Mlcrofrsp*
points under one of the folds. w—y—u
5. r£heglobina has a roundifli ftiape, and is hollow;
the lower end being furniftied with black molecules
of different fizes, the fore part with obfeure points,
the reft entirely empty, and the middle quite tranfpa¬
rent. It moves very flowly from right to left.
XL Gercaria.
An invifible tranfparent worm with a tail.
1. The gyrinut greatly refembles the fpermatic ani¬
malcules. It has a white gelatinous body ; the fore
part fomewhat globular; the hind part round, long,
and pointed. Sometimes it appears a little compreffed
on each fide. When fwimming it keeps its tail in
continual vibration like a tadpole.
2. The gibba is found in the infufions of hay and
Other vegetables ; and is fmall, opaque, gelatinousr
white, and without any vifible inteftines.
3. The inquieta is found in fait water, and is remark¬
able for changing the ftiape of its body : fometimes it
appears fpherical, fometimes like a long cylinder, and
fometimes oval. It is white and gelatinous, the tail fili¬
form and flexible, the upper part vibrating violently. A
pellucid globule may be obferved at the bafe, and two
very fmall black points near the top.
4. The lemna varies its form fo much, that it might
be miftaken for the proteus of Baker, deferibed under
the article Animalcule ; though in faft it is totally
different. The body fometimes appears of an oblong,
fometimes of a triangular, and fometimes of a kidney
fliape. The tail is generally fhort, thick, and annu-
lated; but fometimes long, flexible, cylindric, and
without rings; vibrating, when ftretched out, with
fo much velocity, that it appears double. A fmall
pellucid globule, which Muller fuppofes to be its mouth,
is obfervable at the apex ; and two black points not
eafily difeovered, he thinks, are its eyes. Sometimes it
draws the tail entirely into the body. It walks flowly
after taking three or four fteps, and extends the tail,
ere&ing it perpendicularly, fliaking and bending it;
in which ftate it very much refembles a leaf of the
lemna.
5. The turbo, with a tail like a briftle, is found
among duckweed. It is of a talcy appearance, partly
oval and partly fpherical; and feenis to be compofed
of tWo globular bodies, the lowermoft of which is the
fmalleft, and it has two little black points like eye*
on the upper part. The tail is fometimes ftraight,
fometimes turned back on the body.
6. The poduria is found in November and Decem¬
ber, in marfhy places covered with lemna. It is pel¬
lucid; and feems to confift of a head, trunk, and tail •
the head refembles that of a herring; the trunk i»
ventricofe and full of inteftines, of a fpiral form and
black colour. The tail mod commonly appears to be
divided into two bridles. The inteftines are in a con¬
tinual motion when the body moves, and by reafon of
their various (hades make it appear very rough. There
are likewife fome hairs to be perceived. It turns round
as upon an axis when it moves.
7. The viridis is found in the fpring in ditches of
(landing water; and in fome of its dates has a confi-
derable refemblance to the laft, but has a much great¬
er power of changing its (hape. It is naturally cy-
5 A 2 lindrical,
MUrnfcopeluidrical, the lower end ftiarp, and divided into two
parts ; but fotnetimes contrafts the head and tail fo
as to aflume a fpherical figure.
8. The fdifera is found in fait water, but feldom.
It is fmall, the body rather opaque, and of a xound
figure. The upper part is bright, and fmaller than
the reft: the trunk is more opaque ; the tail ftiarp,
and near it a little row of ftiort hairs. It has a flow
rotatory motion.
9. The hirta was likewife found in fait water. It
is opaque and cylindrical; and when in motion, the
body appears to be furrounded with rows of fmall
hairs feparated from each other.
to. The crumena has a ventricofe, cylindrical, thick,
and wrinkled body; the lower part fmall ; the upper
part terminating in a fmall ftrait neck like that of a-
pitcher ; the tail linear, and terminating in two di-
verging points.
11. The catellus has a moveable head fixed to the
body by a point. The abdomen is twice as long as
the head, full of inteftines, and has a tail ftill nar¬
rower, and terminating in two briftles which it can
unite and feparate at pleafure. It moves brilkly, but
without going far from its firft place.
12. The catelina was found in a ditch where there
was plenty of duckweed. It is larger than the pre¬
ceding, and has a thicker and more cylindrical body;
the lower part truncated, with two fliort diverging
points projeGing from the middle.
13. The lupus is found m water among duckweed,
and is larger than moft of the genus. The head is
larger than the body; the apex turned down into a
little hook ; the tail is like the body, but narrower,
terminating in two very bright fpines, which it ex¬
tends in different direftious. Sometimes it contraGs
into one half its common fize, and again extends itfelf
as before.
14. The vermlcularis is long, cylindrical, flefliy, and
capable of changing its fhape. It is divided into eight
or nine rings or folding plaits; the apex either ob-
tufe, qr notched into two points; the hinder part ra¬
ther acute, and terminating in two pellucid thorns,
between which a fwelling is fometinv:s perceived. It
often projeGs a kind of cloven probofeis from the in-
cifion at the apex. It is found in water where there
is duckweed.
15. The forcipala is found in marfhy places, is cy¬
lindrical and wrinkled, with a forked probofeis which
it can thruft out or pull in.
16. The pkuroneBes is found in water which has
been kept for feveral months. It is membranaceous,
roundilh, and white, with two blackifh points in the
fore part, the hinder part being furnifhed with a flen-
der fliarp tail. It has orbicular inteftines of different
fizes in the middle ; the larger of them bright. The
motion is vacillatory ; and in fwimming it keeps one
edge of the lateral membrane upwards, the other fold¬
ed down.
17. The tripos is flat, pellucid, triangular, having
each angle of the bafe or fore part bent down into two
linear arms, the apex of the triangle prolonged into
tail. It is found in fait water.
18. The cydidium is frequently found in pure wa¬
ter, and has an oval, fmootb, membranaceous, pellu¬
cid body with a black margin. The tail is concealed Mierofcep*
under the edge, and comes out from it at every mo-
tion, but in fuch a manner as to projeG btlt little from'
the edge. There is alfo a kind of border to the hin¬
der part.
19. The tenax appears like an oval pellucid mem¬
brane, fomething larger than the monas lens. The
fore edge, is thick and truncated ; the hinder part-
acute, and terminating in a ftiort tail. It whirls about
in various direGions with great velocity.
20. The (lifeus is a fmall orbicular animalcule, with
a bent tail.
21. The orbis is round, and has a tail confiding of
two long briftles.
22. The luna is likewifs round, and has the fore*
part hollowed into the form of a crefcent.
XII. Leucophra.
An invifible, pellucid, and ciliated worm.
1. The conjliSor, with moveable inteftines, is perfeGly
fpherical and femitranfparent, of a yellow colour, the
edges dark. It rolls from right to left, but feldom
removes from the fpot where it is firft found. It is
filled with a number of the molt mipute molecules,
which move as if they were in a violent confliG ; and*
in proportion to the number of thefe little combatants
which are accumulated either on one fide or other,
the whole mafs rolls either to the right or left. It
then remains for a little time at reft, and the confliG
ceafes; but it Coon becomes more violent, and the
fphere moves the contrary way in a fpiral line.
When the water begins to fail, they affume an oblong,
oval, or cylindric figure ; the hinder part of fome be¬
ing compreffed into a triangular Ihape, and the trans¬
parent part efcaping as it were from the inteftines,
which continue to move with the fame violence till
the water fails, when the molecules Ihoot into a ftiape-
lefs mafs, which alfo foon vanifties, and the whole af-
fumes the appearance'of cryftals of fal ammoniac.
2. The mantilla is of a dark colour, and filled with
globular molecules; ftiort hairs are curved inwards;
and it occafionally projeGs and draws in a little white
protuberance. It is pretty common in marftiy water.
3. The virefeens is a large, pear-ftiaped, greenifti-
coloured animalcule, filled with opaque molecules, and
covered with ftiort hairs ; generally moving in a ftraight
line. It is found in fait water.
4. The viridis is much fmaller than the former, and
cannot lengthen or ftiorten itfelf as it does. Some¬
times it appears contraGed in the middle, as if it were
to be divided in two.
5. The burfata is found in fait water, and is fimilar
in many refpeGs to the former. It is of a long oval
ftiape, bulging in the middle, and filled with green
molecules, every where ciliated except at the apex,
which is truncated and ftiaped fomewhat like a purfe;
the hairs are fometimes colleGed into little fafcicles.
6. The pojlhuma is globular, and covered as it were
with a pellucid net; is found in fetid fait water.
7. The aurea is yellow, oval; has both ends equally
obtufe ; little hairs difeovered with difficulty 5 and has
in general a vehement rotatory motion.
8. The pertufa is found in fait water; and is gela¬
tinous
it'irofcope
m r c
■ofcope tlnons and fmall, without any moleeulea.
part is truncated, the hind-part brought nearly to a
point, with a kind of oval hole on one fide.
9,' The fraclaAt long, with finuated angles, white,
gelatinous, and granulated, changing its form confider-
ably.
1 o. The dilatata appears like a gelatinous membrane,
with a few grey molecules in the fore-part, and a great
number in the hinder part. It is fometimes dilated
into a triangular form with finuated fides ; at other
times the fhape is more irregular and oblong.
11. The fcintillans was found in December among
the lefler Jemnse. It is of a green colour, oval, round,
and opaque. It is fuppofed to be ciliated from its
bright twinkling appearance, which probably arifes
from the motion it gives the water.
12. The vejiculifera is oval, very pellucid, with a
defined dark edge and infide, containing fome very
bright bladders or veficles. The middle frequently ap¬
pears blue, and the veficles appear as if fet in a ground
of that colour.
13. The globullfera was found in a ditch where the
lemna minor grew. The body is round, very pellu¬
cid, without molecules, but with three little pellucid
globules, and every where fet with fhort hairs.
14. The pujlulata is found in marfhy waters; and is
white, gelatinous, and fomewhat granulated; the lower
part truncated as if an oblique feftion were made in
an egg near the bottom. It is covered with little
ereft fhining hairs, and at the lower extremity a few
bright puftules may be difcovered.
15. The turblmta is found in ftinking fait water )
and is round, pellucid, fomewhat of the fhape of an
acorn, with a pellucid globule at the lower end.
16. The acuta is found in fait water, and is ge¬
latinous, thick, capable of affuming different fhapes }
having the apex bright, and the reft of the body filled
with little fpherules. Sometimes it draws itfelf up
into an orbicular fhape, at others one edge is finuated.
17. The notata is oval, round, and has a black point
at the edge.
18. The Candida is found in fait water; and is
membranaceous, flat, very white, with no vifible in-
teftines except two oval bodies not eafily perceived.
The whole edge is ciliated.
19. The nodulata is oblong and oval, with a double
row of little nodules.
20. The fignata is common in fait water in the
months of November and December. It is oblong and
fubdeprefled, with a black margin filled with little
molecules, but more particularly diftinguifhed by a
l 74« J MIC
The fore- obferved for fome time before we can afcertain its cha* Micrcfcope
rafters. The body is compofed of molecular veficles ; ■rr"*
the fore part is wide and truncated, with a little pro¬
minent horn or hook on both fides; the hind part be¬
ing conical, every where ciliated, and the hairs ex¬
ceedingly minute 5 thofe in the fore part are three
times longer than the former, ahd move in a circular
direftiom The hinder part is pellucid, and fometimes.
terminates in two or three obtufe pellucid proieftions.
At one time this animalcule will appear reniform and
ciliated on the fore part ; but at another time the
hairs are concealed. It diffolves into molecular veficles
when the water evaporates.
26. The heteroclita appears to the naked eye like a
white point; in the microfcope as a cylindrical body,
the fore part obtufely round, the middle rather drawn
in ; the lower part round, but much fmaller than the
upper part. It appears wholly ciliated through a large
magnifier.
XIII. Trichoda.
An invifible, pellucid, hairy worm.
1. The grandinella is a very fmall pellucid globule^
with the inteftines fcarce vifible, the top of the fur-
face furhifhed with feveral fmall briftles not eafily dif-
coverable, as the creature has a power of extending
or drawing them back in an inftant. It is found in
pure water as well as in infufions of vegetables.
2. The cometa is a pellucid globule filled with bright
inteftines, the fore part furnifhed with hairs, the hind
part with a pellucid globule.
3. Thegranata refembles the two former; and has -
a darkifh nucleus in the .centre, with fhort hairs on the
edge.
4. The trochus is fomewhat of a pear-fhape, and
pellucid; each fide of the fore part being diftinguifhed
by a little bunch of hairs.
5. The gyrinus is one of the fmalleft of this genus,
and is found in fait water. It is fmooth and free from
hairs, except at the fore part, where there are a few.
6. The fob is fmall, globular, and cryftalline ; befet
every where with diverging rays longer than the dia¬
meter of the body ; the infide full of molecules. The
body contrafts and dilates, but the creature remains
confined to the fame fpot. It was found with other
animalcules in water which had been kept three weeks.
7. Thefolaris is orbicular, bright, and filled with
globular inteftines, frequently having in it a moveable
fubftance of the fhape of the letter S. It has hairs
feldom exceeding 17 in number, fet round the circum¬
ference, each of them nearly equal in length to the
curved line in the middle fomewhat in the fhape of diameter of the animalcule,
the letter S ; one end of which is fometimes bent into 8. The bomba is of a yellow colour, and full of clay-
the form of a fmall fpiral. like molecules. . It moves with fuch velocity as to
21. The trigona is found in marfhes, but not com- elude'the fight, and appears of various fhapes, fome-
monly. It is a yellow triangular mafs filled with un- times fpherical, fometimes kidney-fhaped, &c.
equal pellucid veficles. One of which is much larger 9. The orbis is compofed of veficular molecules;
than the reft, and the edge furrounded with fhort fluc¬
tuating hairs.
22. The fuida is fomewhat of a kidney fhape, but
ventricofe.
23. The jluxa'xz reniform and finuated.
* 24. The armilla is round and annular.
25. The cornuta is of the fhape of an inverted cone,
opaque, and of a green colour. This requires to be
is of a fpherical figure, imooth, pellucid, and a little
notched in the fore part. The notched part is filled
with long hairs, but there are none on the reft of the
body.
10. The urfnda is membranaceous, pellucid, fome-
what in the form of a water pitcher, with the fore
part hairy. It moves but flowly.
11. The diota is of a clay-colour, and filled with .
molecules j ■
MIC f 741 ] MIC
W'frofc'ipc molecules; the upper part cylindrical and truncated,
the lower part fpherical, the upper part of the mouth
hairy at the edges.
12. The hnrrida is fomewhat of a conical fhape, the
fore part rather broad and truncated, the lower part
obtufe, and the whole covered with radiating briftles.
i 3. The urinarium is egg lhaped, with a fliort hairy
beah.
14. The femiluna is fmooth, pellucid, and (haped
like a crcfcent.
15. The trigona is of a triangular fhape, a little
convex on both fides, the fore part acute and ciliated,
the hind part broader, and having the extremity as it
•were gnawed off-.
16. The tinea is round, not very pellucid, narrow
in the fore part, and refembling an inverted dub.
17. The nigra was found in fait water, and has an
opaque body; but when at reft one fide appears pellu¬
cid. When in violent motion, it feems entirely black.
18. The/>«£&r is found in water where duckweed
grows, chiefly in the month of December. It has a
bunch above the hind part marked with black fpots,
deprefled towards the top, a little folded, and fome¬
what convex on the under part. The apex is furnifh-
•ed with hairs, but they are feldom vifible till the crea¬
ture is in the agonies of death, when it extends and
moves them vehemently, and attempting as it were to
draw in the very laft drop of water.
19. TheJloceus is membranaceous, the fore part ra¬
ther conical, with three fmali hairy papillae projecting
from the bafe.
20. The finuata is found in river water. It is
oblong and depreffed, with one margin hollow and
hairy, and the lower end obtufe. It is of a yellow
colour, and the hollow edge ciliated.
21. The prseeps is pellucid, the fore part formed
into a kind of neck ; one edge rifing into a protube¬
rance like a hump-back, the other edge convex.
22. The proteus is that which Mr Baker diftin-
guifhes by the fame name, and of which an account
■ is given under the article Animalcule. It is
found in the flimy matter adhering to the fides of
veffels in which vegetables have been infufed, or ani¬
mal fubftanpes preferved. That deferibed by Mr Adams
was difeovered in the flime produced from the water
where fmall fifties, water-fnails, &c. had been kept.
The body refembled that of a fnail, the fliape being
fomewhat elliptical, but pointed at one end, while from
the other proceeded a long, flender, and finely pro¬
portioned neck, of a fize fuitable to the reft of the
animal.
23. The ver/atilis lives in the fea, and has fome re-
femblance to the proteus; but the neck is fhorter, the
apex lefs fpherical, and the binder part of the trunk
acute.
24. The^i^a is pellucid; the upper part fwtlled
out, with numerous molecules, and three large globules
on the infide. The ends rather incline downwards;
and when the water begins to fail, a few minute haiis
may be difeovered about the head and at the abdomen;
the body then becomes ftriated longitudinally.
25. The foeta fomewhat refembles a rolling-pin in
fhape ; has both ends obtufe, and one fhorter than the
other. It can draw in the ends, and fwcU out the
licks, fo as to appear almoil fpherical.
46. The patens ia found in fait water ; and Is of aMisraf^;
long cylindrical fhape, filled with molecules, the fore-
part bright and clear, with a long opening near the
top which tapers to a point, and is befet with hairs.
27. The patula is ventricofe, rather inclining to an
oval figure, with a fmall tube at the fore part, the up¬
per part of which is hairy.
28. The foveata is oblong and rather broad, with
three little horns on the fore part.
29. The Jlriata is found in the month of Decem¬
ber in river-water. It is a beautiful animalcule, of a
fox colour. It is of an oblong fhape, the lower end
fomewhat larger than the other. It has a fet of ftreaks
running from one end to the other, and at the abdo- i
men a double row of little eggs lying in a tranfverfe
direftion.
30. The uvula is found in the infufion of hay and
other vegetables. It is fix times longer than broad,
round, flexuous, of an equal fize, the greater part filled
with obfeure molecules ; the fore part rather empty,
with an alimentary canal and lucid globules near the
middle. The margin of the fore part is covered with
fhort hairs.
31. The aurantia is of a gold colour, pellucid, and
filled with vehicles.
32. The ignita is of a fine purple colour, with fome-
thing of a reddifh caft, pellucid, fplendid, with a num¬
ber of globules of different fizes ; the fore part fmall,
the hinder part obtufe, with a very large opening which
feems to run through the body.
33. The prifma is very fmall, and fo tranfparent that
it cannot eafily be delineated. It is of a Angular
fhape; the under part being convex, the upper com-
preffed into a kind of keel, and the fore part fmall.
34. The forceps is found about the winter folftice
in water covered with lemna. It is of a yellow colour,
large, fomewhat tranfparent, and filled with mole¬
cules, with a large opaque globule in the lower part.
The fore part is divided into long lobes, one of which
is falciform and acute, the other dilated and ob¬
liquely truncated. It can open, fhut, or crofs, thofe
lobes at pleafure; and by the motion of them it ap¬
pears to fuck in the water.
35. The forfex is found in river water. It has the
fore part formed into a kind of forceps, one of which,
is twice as long as the other, hooked and ciliated.
36. The index is found in fait water, and has the
under part of the front of the margin hairy; the apex
is formed by the fore part projecting like a finger on
a direction poll.
37. The trichoda is «f a yellow colour, formed of
two pellucid membranes ftriated longitudinally; the
lower end obliquely truncated, and the two extremities
bent in oppofite directions.
38. The naviculaheis three corners; the fore part
truncated and ciliated, the hind part acute and bent a
little upwards. It has a cryftalline appearance, and a
kind of longitudinal keel runs down the middle.
39. The fucci/a is of a flattened oval ftrape, the edge
hairy, and hollowed out in fuch a manner as to form
two unequal legs.
40. The fukata is ovated and ventricofe, the apex
acute, with a furrow at the abdomen, and both fides of
it ciliated.
41. Theatw is found in pure water ; and is fmooth,
five
MIC [ 743 1 MIC
Wicrofee.pc five times broader than it is long, filled with da'rkifii
molecules. It has a bright neck, under the top of
which are a few unequal hairs. It moves but lan¬
guidly.
42. The larbata is round, fomewhat linear, with
both ends obtufe ; the fore part narrower, forming as
it were a kind of neck, under which is a row of fluc¬
tuating hairs. The trunk is full of grey molecules.
43. The farcmen is long, round, pellucid, and co¬
vered with very minute hairs, and has a great number
©f mucous veficles about the body.
44. The crinita is long, round, every where ciliated
en the upper part, and the under part likewife h&iry
as far as the middle.
45. The angulus is long, more convex than moft of
the genus, divided by a kind of articulation in the
middle into two parts equal in breadth, but of differ¬
ent lengths; the apex has fhort waving hair.
46. The lin&r is found in an infufjon of old grafs.
It is egg-fhaped, oblong, with both extremities raffed
fo that the bottom becomes convex, and the upper part
deprefled like a boat t it is of different fhapes at diffe¬
rent ages, and fometimes has a rotatory motion.
47. The paxillus is found in fait water ; and is long,
full of grey molecules; the fore part truncated and
hairy, and rather fmaller than the other.
48. The vermicularis is found in river water; and is
pellucid in the fore part, with the hind part full of
molecules.
49. The meliUa is found in fait water, but very rare¬
ly. It is oblong, ciliated, with a globular apex, a di¬
latable neck, and a kind of periftaltic motion per-
eeivable within it.
50. The jimlnata is fubovated, the apex hairy, the
hinder part obliquely truncated and ferrated.
51. The camelus is found but rarely in vegetable in-
fufions, and moves in a languid manner. The fore
part is ventricofe; the back divided by an incifion in
the middle into two tubercles ; the lower part of the
belly finuatedi
52. The augur is oblong, depreffed, pellucid, and
filled with molecules: the vertex is truncated, the fore¬
part forming a fmall beak with three feet underneath;
beyond which, toward the hinder part, it is furnifbsd
with briftles.
53. The pupa is roundiffi, pellucid, and confifts of
three parts. The head is broad, and appears to be
hooded, the top being furnifhed with very fmall hairs;
on the lower part of the head is a tranfparent veficle,
and over the breaft from the bafe of the head hangs a
produ£h'on refembling the fheath of the feet in the pupa
of the gnat.
54. The lunaris- is round and cryftalline; the hinder
part fmaller than the other. The edge of the back
and the part near the tail are bright and clear. It
bends itfelf into the form of an arch.
55. The bilunis is arched and flattened with an hairy
apex, and two little britlles proceeding from the tail.
56. The rattus is oblong, with a kind of keel; the
fore part hairy, and a very long brittle proceeding from
the hinder part.
57. The tigrit refembles the former; but differs in
the form of the tail, which confitts of two briflles, and;
likewife in having a kind of incifion in the body a
little below the apex.
58. The pcritlum is frequently found in marfhes. ItMfc-oft’op*:
is cylindrical, pellucid, mufcular, and capable of being -v*”**
folded up. It appears double; the interior part full
of molecules, with an orbicular mufcular appendage,
which it can open and fhut, and which forms the
mouth. The external part is membranaceous, pellu¬
cid, dilated, and marked with tranfverfe ftreaks; and
it can protrude or draw in the orbicular membrane at
pleafure. Some hive four articulations in the tail,
others five; and it has two pairs of briftles, one placed
at the fecond joint, the other at the laft.
59. The clavus has a confiderable refemblance to a
common nail; the fore part is round and hairy, the
hinder part terminating in a fharp tail.
60. The cornuta is membranaceous, elliptical, full
of molecules; the fore part lunated, the other rounds
and terminating in a tail as long as the body.
61. The gallina is found in river water. It is of
a grey colour, flat, with feven large molecules and glo¬
bules withia it; the front bbtufe, fet with hairs; the
hinder part terminating in a tail formed of very line
hairs.
62. The mufculus is found in the infufions of hay-
which have been kept for fome months. It is fmooth,
egg-lhaped, with a double margin drawn underneath
its the fore part narrow, and furnilhed with (hort hairs
which continually play about ; having a fmall tail un¬
derneath. It moves flowly, and is furnilhed with
molecular inteftines.
63. The delphh is found in river water. It is fmooth,
pellucid, having the fore part dilated into a femicircle,
gradually decreattng in breadth towards the tail. The
front is hairy, the hairs Handing as rays from the
femicircular edge : one of the edges is fometimes con-
trailed.
64. The delphims is found in hay that has been
infufed for fome months. It is pellucid, fmooth, and
egg-lhaped; the hinder part terminating in a tail about:
half the length of the body, dilated at the upper end9
truncated, and always bent upwards. It moves fome¬
times on its belly and fometimes on its fide.
65. The clava, or club trichoda, has the fore part;
thick, but the hinder part narrow; both extremities
obtufe, pellucid, and replete with molecules the hind-
part bent down towards the middle.
66. The cuniculus is oblong, the fore part hairy, the
hinder part rather acute, and filled with molecules and
black veficles.
67. The felts is large and curved, the fore part fmall^.
the hinder part gradually diminilhing into a tail, the
under part befet with hairs longitudinally.
68. The ptfcis is oblong, the fore part hairy, the-
hind part terminating in a very llender tail. It is
fmooth, pellucid, much longer than broad, and filled
with yellow molecules; the fore.part ohtufe, the hin¬
der part extremely flender. and tranfparent, the upper
fide convex-
fig, The /urso-is long,Tound,, befet with hairs, and
has the tail divided into two points.
70...The longkauda.is cylindrical; the fore part trun¬
cated, and befet with hairs; the tail long, furnilhed.
with two briftles, and having two joints.
71, Theyfxu has the circumference fet with hairs,
and a little folitary pedicle projefiling from the body.
72. The inquilinus is fheathed within a cylindricak
6 tranfp,arsa>.
MIC C 744 ] MIC
Microfcope tranfparcnt bag, having a little pedicle bent back with-
in the bag.
73. The ingemta is fheathed in a deprefTed bag,
broadeft at the bafe. The animalcule itfelf is funnd-
fhaped, with one or more hairs proceeding from each
fide of the mouth of the funnel. It can extend or
contra& itfelf within the bag, fixing its tail to the
bafe, without touching the fides. It is found in fait
water.
74. The innata is fheathed in a cylindrical bag, with
a pedicle pafiing through and projedting beyond it.
75. The transfuga is broad, the fore part hairy, the
hinder part full of bridles.} one fide finuated, and the
other pointed.
76. The cillata is ventricofe, the hinder part covered
with hair.
7 7. The bulla is membranaceous, the fides bent in¬
wards; the fore and hind parts both covered with
hairs.
78. The pellionella is fomewhat thick in the middle,
and pellucid, with a few molecules here and there; the
fides obtufe, the fore part ciliated with very fine hairs,
the hinder part fet with bridles.
79. The cyllidium has the hinder extremity filled
with globules of various fixes. It vacillates upon the
edge, commonly advancing on its flat fide, and conti¬
nually drawing in water. It then gapes, and opens
into a very acute angle, almod to the middle of the
body; but this is done fo indantaneoufly, that it can
fcarce be perceived.
80. The curfor is oval, the fore part hairy, and the
hinder part alfo furnifhed with fome draight and curved
hairs in two fafcicles. Its body is dat, and filled with
molecules; and in the fore part is an oblong empty
fpace, into which we may fometimes fee the water
fucked in.
81. pulex is egg-fhaped, with an incifion in the
fore part; the front and bafe hairy.
82. The lynceus is nearly fquare, with a crooked
beak and hairy mouth. It is membranaceous, and
appears compreffed, dretched out into a beak above,
under which there is a little bundle of hairs; the lower
edge bends in and out, and is furrounded with a few
bridles. The intedines are beautiful, and a fmallbent
tube goes from the mouth to them in the middle of the
.body. There is likewife another tube between the
fore and hind edge, filled with blue liquor. The in¬
tedines and other tube are frequently in motion,
83. The erofa is orbicular, the fore part notched 5
,one fide furnifhed with hairs, the hinder part with
bridles.
84. The rojlrata is found in water where duckweed
has been kept. It is depreffed, capable of changing
its fhape, yellow, with long ciliated hairs; it has four feet
tapering to a point, one of them longer than the red.
Both feet and hairs are within the margin. The fhape
of the body is generally triangular ; the apex formed
into an obtufe beak, which the creature fometimes
drar&s in fo that it appears quite round.
85. The lagena is round, ventricofe, with a long
neck, and the lower end fet with bridles.
86. The charon was found in fait water. It is oval,
and refembles a boat as well in its motion as dupe:
the upper part is hollowed, .the under part furrowed
N° 219.
and convex J the dern round, with feveral hairs pro? M
ceeding from it.
87. The cimetc is about the fize of the lyncus, has
an oval body, with a convex back, flat belly, and inci¬
fion in the margin of the fore part, the edges of
which incifion appear to move. When this animalcule
meets with any obdacles in fwimming, it makes ufe
of four bridles, which appear on the under fide as
feet.
88. The cicada differs but little from the cimex.
It is oval, with an qbfcure margin, the fore part co¬
vered with hairs on the under fide, and the hinder
parts beardlefs.
XIV. Keronct.
An invifible worm with horns.
1. The rqftcllum is found in river water. It has
three rows of horns on the back, which occupy almoft
the whole of it.
2. The lyncajler is fquare, and its difc furnifhed with
fhining horns.
3. The hijlrio appears an oblong membrane, pellucid,
with four or five black points in the fore part, which
are continually changing their fituation, thick fet with
fmall globules in the middle, among which four larger
ones are fometimes perceived, which by Mr Adams
are fuppofed to be eggs. In the fniddle of the hind
part are fome longitudinal drokes refembling bridles,
which, however, do not feera to project beyond the
body.
4. Tht cypris is found in water covered with lemna.
It is fomewhat of a pear fhape, compreffed, with a
broad and blunt fore part; the front furnifhed with,
hairs or little vibrating points inferted under the edge,
fhorter in the hind part, partly extended draight, and
partly bent down, having a retrograde motion.
5. The haujlrum is orbicular, with the horns in the
middle, the fore part membranaceous and ciliated, with
feveral bridles at the hinder part.
6. The haujlallum differs from the preceding only in
having the hinder part without any bridles.
7. The patella has an univalved fhell, is orbicular, ,
crydalline; the fore part fomewhat notched; the flefhy
body in the middle of the fhell; with horns or hairs of
different lengths jutting out beyond the fhell, and a&-
ing indead of feet and oars, fome of which are bent}
and the fuperior ones conllitute a double tranfverfe
row.
8. The vannus is oval and rather flat, with one edge
bent, the oppofite one ciliated, the front furniihed with
horns, and the hind part with bridles.
9. The pullajler agrees in many refpefts with the
tricboda pule* 1 the upper part is pellucid, without any
black molecules} the front truncated, the whole fur-
face of the head covered with hair, and the fore part
finuous.
jo. The mytillus is a large animalcule} the fore ard
hind parts rounded, very pellucid and white, dark in
.the middle, with black intedines intermixed with a
few pellucid veficies; both extremities appearing as if
compofed of two thin plates. It has two fmali horns,
with which it agitates the water fo as to form a little
whirlpool.
u.The leptts is egg-fhaped, compreffed, pellucid,
.5 and
MIC L 745 J MIC
y*6' ’fcope and crowned with fliort waving hairs ; the bafe term!-
~~ hated with bridles.
12. The filurus is an oval, fmooth, animalcule, fome-
what crooked and opaque, with a fafcicle of vibrating
hair on the fore part: it has a fharp tail furnilhed
with unequal rows of moveable hairs, the back being
alfo ciliated: the hairs produce a rotatory motion.
The figure varies from oval to oblong, and the filaments
of the conferva are often entangled in the tail.
13. The calvitium is found in the infufion of vege¬
tables. The body is broad and flat, both fides ob-
tufe, filled with black molecules, and there is a black
fpot near the hinder part, where there are likewife a
few fliort briftles.
14. The pujlulata is found in fait water. It is
oval, convex; one edge of the hinder part finuated,
both ends fet with hairs, and fome horns on the fore
part.
XV. Himantopus:
A pellucid, invifible, and cirrated worm.
1. The acarus is lively, conical, ventricofe, full of
black molecules, with a bright and tranfparent fore
part. The lower part of the apex has rows of long
hairs on the under part fet like rays. Four locks of
long crooked hair or feet proceed from the belly, and
it is continually moving thefe and other hairs in va¬
rious directions.
2. The ludio is a lively diverting animalcule, fmooth,
pellucid, full of fmall points, the fore part clubbed and
a little bent, the hinder part narrow; the bafe oblique¬
ly truncated, and terminating in a tail ftretched out
tranfverfely. The top of the head and middle of the
back are furnifhed with long and vibrating hairs; three
moveable and flexible curls hang down from the fide
of the head at a diftance from each other. When the
creature is at reft, its tail is curled; but when in mo¬
tion, it is drawn tight and extended upwards.
5. The fannio is found, though feldom, in water
where the lemna grows. The cilia are longer than the
hairs, and are continually vibrating: it has two move-
able curls hanging on the fide of the head.
4. The volutator is lhaped like a crefcent, and has
fome cryftalline points; the convex part has a row of
hairs longeft towards the tail, and underneath are four
feet. It is very lively, and often turns round with a
fwift circular motion.
5. The larva is long and cirrated in the middle ;
the body is deprefled and long; the hinder parts acute,
and generally curved, pellucid, and filled with granular
molecules.
6. The charon is found in fea-water, but rarely. It
rs oval, pellucid, and membranous, with longitudinal
furrows, and feveral bent diverging rowa of hair be¬
low the middle, but none on the hinder part.
7. The roroHa is a membranous lamina, very thin,
pellucid, cryftalline, and femilunar : the edge of the
bafe thick fet with molecular inteftines ; the fore part
furniftied with a kind of mane ; towards the hind part
are three equal curved hairs or fpines.
XVI. Vortlcella:
A naked worm with rotatory cilia, capable of
contrafting and extending itfelf.
*, The virulis is vifible to the naked eye, appearing
Vot-.XI. Part IX.
like a fmall green point; but the microfcope difcovers Microfcoire
it to be nearly cylindrical, a little thicker at the fore"V-*"-
part than the other, and obtufe at both ends. It ap¬
pears to be totally deftitute of limbs, notwithftanding
which it keeps the water in continual motion ; fo
that it probably has fome invifible rotatory inftru-
ment. It moves fometimes circularly, fometimes in a
ftraight line. .
2. The fpheroida appears alfo like a point ; but thro*
the microfcope as a globular mafs of a dark green co¬
lour. It occafions a vehement motion in the water,
probably by means of fome fliort hairs with which it is
furnifhed.
3. The cinHa is of an irregular fhape, fometimes af-
fuming an oval figure, and appearing as if girt round
with a tranfverfe keel. It is invifible to the naked eye,
ciliated on every fide; the hairs all moveable, and
longer on one fide than the other.
4. The lunifera is found in fait water; has the
fore-part obtufe, the bafe broad, and hollowed
away like a crefcent, with a fhort protuberance in
the middle of the concave part: the fore part is cili¬
ated.
5. The burfata is found in fait water, and is ventri¬
cofe, crammed with molecules; the fore part trunca¬
ted, and both fides of it pellucid: there isa prominent
papilla in the middle, which when the animalcule is at
reft appears notched, the edge of the aperture being ci¬
liated ; the hairs are capable of moving in various di¬
rections.
6. The varia is cylindrical, truncated, opaque, and
blackifh-coloured ; the fore part ciliated.
7. The fputarium is found in October, with the
lefler lemna, and is one of the moft Angular of the mi-
crofcopic animalcules. When viewed fidewife, it is
fometimes nearly cylindrical, only tapering a little to¬
wards the hinder part, and having a broad pellucid
edge. Viewed from the top, it has fometimes a broad
face or difc, furnifhed with radiating hairs, the under
part contracted into a globular fhape, of a dark green
colour, and filled with fmall grains-
8. The polymorpha is vifible to the naked eye, and
appears like a green point moving with great agility;
but when viewed through a micvofcope, it aflumes fuch
a variety of forms, that it is impofiible to defcribe
them. The body is granulous; and a.feries of pellu¬
cid points is fometimes to be obferved.
9. The multiformis is found in fait water, and very
much refembles the former.
xo. The nigra is found in Auguft in meadows cover¬
ed with water. It may be feen with the naked eye,
appearing like a black point fwimming on the furface.
Through the microfcope it appears as a fmall conical
body, obtufe and ventricofe at one end and acute at
the other. When the extremities are extended, two
fmall white hooks become vifible, by the afliftance of
which it moves in the water, and it probably has a ro¬
tatory organ : it moves continually in a vacillating
manner on the top of the water.
11. The cucullus is likewife vifiblc to the naked eye:
it is of a dirty red colour, of a fhape fomewhat conical,
and refembling a grenadier’s cap.
12. The utriculata is green and ventricofe; the belly
capable of being lengthened or fhortened ; the fore
part truncated, much in the fhape of a common water
$ B bottles
M I C
r 746 ]
M I C
Microfccpe bottle ; the neck is fometimes very long, fometimes
‘—"■■v—" very fhort, and filled with green molecules..
13. The ocreata is met with in rivers, though very
feldom, and in fliape fomewhat refembles the lower part
af a boot. The apex of the upper part is truncated
and ciliated, the heel pointed, and the foot round.
14. The valga is as broad as long, and the apex
truncated and ciliated; both angles of the bafe pro-
jefting outwards, one fomewhat like a wart, the other
like a finger: It is found in marihy waters.
15. rF\\epapillaris is likewife found in marflies where
the conferva nitida grows. It is ventricofe; the fore
part truncated, with a papillary tail, and a beautiful
papillary excrefcence on the fide.
j 6. The facculus is thick, of an equal diameter every
where, and full of molecules. The edge of the mouth is
bent back; the hinder part is obtufe, fometimes notch¬
ed and eontra&ed, with cilia to be feen on both fides
of the mouth.
1 7. The cirrata is found in ditch-water. It is ven¬
tricofe, the aperture finuated, and two tufts of hair on
each fide of the belly.
18. The ndfuta is invifible to the naked eye, but the
microfcope difcovers it to be furnifhed with a rotatory
organ encompaffing the middle. It is pellucid, cylin¬
drical, of an unequal fize; the fore part truncated and
ciliated, with a triangular prominence in the middle of
the aperture ; the hinder part is obtufe, with a point
on each fide of the middle of the body. When the
water is nearly exhaled, two rotatory organs are ob-
fervable; one on the fore part, and the other encom¬
paffing the middle of the body; the hairs of the latter
being in violent motion. Other fafcicles of moving
hair are likewife to be otferved; and the quick and va¬
rious motions of this apparatus are very furprifing.
19. The Jlellma is of an orbicular ffiape, with a mole¬
cular difc a.nd ciliated margin.
20. The difcina is likewife orbicular, the edge cilia¬
ted, with a kind of handle on the under fide.
21. Theis bowl-ffiaped, cryftalline, with an
opaque fpherule in the middle.
22. Thefl/&H<* is cylindrical in the fore part, the
hinder part tapering, and almoft ending in a point.
23. The fritillina is empty and cylindrical, with a
truncated apex.
24. The truncatella is of the larger kind of animal¬
cules, with a cryftalline body, full of black molecules,
rounded with a marked margin. It has two final! Mxrofeop^
arms; and with a powerful magnifier a violent ro- —*
tatory motion may be obferved. Sometimes an indi¬
vidual will feparate from the community, and move in
a kind of fpiral line for a little time, and then go back
to the reft.
28. The hamata is not ciliated, nor has it any hairs-
upon it; the body is granulated, the fore part broad
and truncated, the hinder part obtufe, and capable of
being contrafted or extended.
29. The craierformis is a lively animalcule, pellucid,,
round, longer than it is broad, approaching fomewhat
to a fquare figure, with convex fidcs : the head is fi-.
tuated atjthe large end, the flcin fmooth, and fome tra¬
ces of inteftines may be difcovered with difficulty.
There is a confiderable opening furrounded by hair at
the larger end, and the filaments compofing it are in
continual motion. . Two of them are fometimes feen
joined together, and full of fmall fphericles. In this
ftate they draw each other alternately different ways ;
the furface is fmooth, and the hairs invifible.
30. The cancdkulata appears to the naked eye as a
number of white points adhering to the fides of the
glafs. When magnified, the fore part is narrower than
the hind one; in the fide is a kind of incifion, and the
hinder part is notched towards the middle. It excites
a continual whirling motion in the water by means of
a-rotatory organ with which it is furniffied.
31. The verfafilis is a pellucid, gelatinous animalcule,
of a greenilh colour, and furniffied with fmall radii,
about the circumfereece; fo that it appears like a very
fmall water hedge-hog.
32. The ampulla is contained in a tranfparent bottle-
ffiaped bag ; the head divided into two lobes. It fome¬
times lies at the bottom of the bag-, and fometimes
nearly fills the whole of it.
33. Thefolliculatah gelatinous and cylindrical; «nd
when moft extended, the bafe appears attenuated, and
the apex truncated.
34. The larva is of a clay colour, the aperture ci¬
liated, with a globular projection at timesappearing to
proceed from it.
35. The facculala -has the ffiape of an inverted cone,
with an aperture in the figure of a crefeent; the lower
part of the, trunk notched, forming as it were two
teeth ; the tail biphyllous. Each of thefe is furround¬
ed with a loofe bright ikin, the head being divided from
the Ikin perfectly fmooth and colourlefs, the hinder the trunk by a deep incifion.
extremity rounded, and the anterior part truncated: at 36. The aurita is cylindrical and ventricofe, the a-
this extremity there is a large opening that ferves per ture deftitute of hairs ; both fides of it are furniffied
for a mouth, which is thickly ciliated. with rotatory cilia, and the tail is biphyllous,
25. The limacina is cylindrical, truncated, and has . 37. The tremula has fomething of a conical ffiape;
two pair of cilia. the mouth being divided into parts which are fet with
26. The fraximna is moftly cylindrical, the hinder fmall fpines; and a point proje&s from the tail.
part rather tapering, and full of opaque molecules ; .38. The ferita is mufcular, pellucid, folding varlouf-
tranfparent towards the upper end. Within the edge ly ; the Tore part truncated: round the margin are
at the top are two fmall tubercles, from each fide of rows of hairs; but it has alfo ftiffer- hairs or fpines
which proceeds a pair of fmall hairs.. continually vibrating, with which it draws in all ani-
27. The cratagaria is found in the month of April, mate and inanimate fubftances which it is able to ma-
both in the mud and on the tail of the monoculus qua- - nage. * %
dricornis. They are generally heaped together in a 39. The lacirtulata is ffiaped like an inverted cone,
fpherical form, and united to one common ftalk. They the aperture lobated, the tail fmall and furniffied with
are likewife often to be found without a pedicle, the two briftles. When fwimmin'g, the rotatory organ may
body rather contra&ed, the aperture circular, and fur- be difcovered. It moves fwiftly in an oblique direction.
40. The
MIC C 747 ] MIC
JV'f!cw;fV''fe 40. Tlie cmfiriSa is of two kinds} viz, of a pale
‘■"““v'-—' yellow and of a white colour. They move by fixing
their tail to the place where they are, and then extend¬
ing their body as much as poffible; fixing the fore part
to the place to which they intend to move, then draw¬
ing the hinder part to it, and fo on. Sometimes they
turn round about upon one of the points of their tail;
at other times they fpriag forwards with a jerk. When
at reft they open their mouths very wide.
41. The togata has a convex body, filled with mole¬
cules, and of a dark colour; th£ hinder part fomewhat
broader than the forepart; the latter ciliated, and the
tail formed of two very thin pellucid fpines, which are
fomewhat curved, and much longer than the body.
42. The rotatoria is the wheel animal defcr.ibed by Mr
Baker; and-of which an account is given under the ar¬
ticle Animalcule.
43. The furcata is commonly found in water, and
has a cylindric body with a rotatory organ, confifting
of a row of hairs at the apex : the tail is divided into
two parts, turning a little inwards. When at reft it
joins the fegments of the tail, but opens them when
tn motion.
44. The catulus is commonly found in marlhy wa¬
ters. It is a little thick mufcular animalcule, folding
itfelf up: equally broad throughout, the body disfi¬
gured by longitudinal folds, winding in various direc¬
tions. The anterior part is connefted to the body by
a little neck; and it occafionally (hows a fmall rotatory
organ. Its motion is rotatory, but in various direc¬
tions.
45'. The canicula is cylindrical, the aperture plain,
with a (hort articulated tail divided into two parts.
46. The felis has a large body, the apex of an equal
thicknefs, obtufe, with rotatory filaments : the tail is
acute, with two pellucid fpines in length about one-
third part of the body, alternately feparating from and
approaching one another.
47. TheJlentorea. Seethe article Polype.
48. The facialis, when confiderably magnified, ap¬
pears like a circle furrounded with crowns or ciliated
heads, tied by fmall thin tails to a common centre,
from whence they advance towards the circumference,
where they turn very brilkly, occafioning a kind of
whirlpool, which brings its food. When one of them
has been in motion for a time, it flops and another be¬
gins; fometimes two or three may be perceived in mo¬
tion at once: they are frequently to be met with fepa-
rate, with the tail (licking in the mud. The body
contra&s and dilates very much, fo as fometimes to
have the appearance of a cudgel, at others to affume
almoft a globular form.
49. Theflofculofa appears to the naked eye like a
yellow globule adhering to the ceratophyllon like a
little flower or a heap of yellow eggs. When magni¬
fied, they are feen to confift of a congeries of animal-
cula conftituting a fphere from a mouldy centre. They
contradt and extend their bodies either alone or in fo-
ciety, and excite a vortex in the water by means of a
dife. When they quit the fociety and adf fingly, they
may be obferved to confift of a head, abdomen, and
tail; the head being frequently drawn back into the
abdomen fo far that it cannot be. feen, only exhibiting
a broad kidney-(haped dife Handing out. The abdo¬
men is oblong, oval, and tranfparfent; the tail ftiarp,Micr«fcap»
twice as long as the abdomen, fometimes rough and ”11
annulated, or altogether frnooth.
50. The citrina is found in ftagnant water; the head
full of molecules, round, every where of an equal fize,
and very tranfparent. Both Tides of the orifice are
ciliated, and each has a rotatory motion appearing
fometimes without and fometimes within the edge of
the mouth,
51. The piriformis is fomewhat oval, with a very
fmall retraiflile foot, which it can draw within itfdf..
52. The tuberofa has a broad upper part, the under
part fmall, with two proje&ions at the anterior end,
furniftied with a number of fibrillae, which produce a
current of water by their vibration, and thus colledt
food for the animal.
53. The ringens is pear-(haped, pellucid, the middle
of the aperture convex, both (ides ciliated, the pedicle
four times (horter than the body. It can contract the
orifice to an obtufe point-
54. The inclinans has a pendulous, pellucid, littli
head ; the anterior part truncated, and occafionally
contracting ittelf twice as (hort as the pedicle, it is
(haped like a tobacco-pipe.
55. The ■wrgi/wta is-ereCt, of the (h ape of a trun¬
cated egg 7 the pedicle is contained in a (heath.
56. The globularia is frequent among the cyclopa
quadricorni. gdt has a fmall fpherical head, the aper¬
ture of the mouth ciliated, the pedicle four times
larger than the body, which it contracts into a fpiral
form.
57. The lunaris has a fmall goblet-lhaped head, the
margin of the orifice protuberant) ciliated on both (ides,
with undulating hairs, and the pedicle eight or ten
times the length of the body. The pedicle extends
itfelf as often as the mouth is opened, but is twitted
up fpirally when it is (hut; and this is frequently re¬
peated in a (hort fpace.
58. The convallaria is the fame with the bell-ani¬
mal mentioned by Mr Baker. See the article Ani¬
malcule.
59. The nutans has a Ample pedicle ; twifts itfelf
fpirally; is extremely (lender, with a kind of qap on
its head ; the margin white and round, and feemingly
encompafled with a lucid ring; the head diminifliing
towards the bafe.
60. The nebulifera is narrow at the bafe ; open and
truncated at the top ; the margin feemingly furround-
ed with a ring: but, when the aperture is (hut, the
animalcule is of the (hape of an egg, with a Ample fe-
taceous pedicle, confiderably longer than the body,
and commonly much bent back.
61. The annularis is vilible to the naked eye ; the
head an inverted cone, convex when the mouth is (hut,
but truncated when it is open ; with a protuberant
edge; the pedicle fimple, very long, thick, and,
whiter at the top than any where elfe ; the apex twitt¬
ed fpirally.—When contracted, it appears to be an-
nulated.
62. The acinofa inhabits that whitilh fubftance
which often entirely covers plants, wood, (hells, Sac. *
When this fubltance is examined by a microfcope, it
appears to be wholly compofed of living animals of the
polype kind. See Polype.
5 B 2
7
63. The
%
MIC [ 74B ] MIC
Microfcope 63. The. fafciculata has a rotatory organ, which may
fometimes be feenprojefting beyond the aperture; there
is a little head at the apex, and the pedicle is twilled
and very flender. A congealed green mafs which is
often found fwimming about in ditches is compofed
of myriads of thefe animals, which are not vilible to
the naked eye, and when magnified appear like a
bundle of green flowers.
64. The hians refembles a citron; the apex is trunca¬
ted, the bafe narrow, and a gaping cleft is obfervable,
defeending from the apex to one third of the body.
65. The bellis is of a yellow colour, and much re¬
fembles the flower of a daify ; is ciliated round the mar¬
gin of the head, and moves in a rotatory manner.
66. The gemella has a long pedicle, conftantly fur-
nilhed with two fmall beads.
68. The pyraria.
69. The anafiatica.p Seethe article Polype.
70. The digitalis, j
71. The polypina, when viewed through a fmall
magnifier, they appear like fo many little trees : the
upper part, or heads, are egg lhaped, the top trunca¬
ted, the lower part filled with inteftines; the branches
thick fet with little knobs.
72. The racemofa is only diftinguilhed from the
vorticella focialis by always adhering to the Tides of
the veflel in which it is placed. By the microfcope,
we difeover a long pedicle flicking to the fides of the
veffels, from which proceed an innumerable quantityof
cry ftalline pellucid pearls; which, together with the ttalk,
are varioufly agitated in the water. Sometimes they
move feparately ; fometimes they are drawn down to
the root, and in a moment expanded again.
XVII. Brachionus :
A contradlile worm, covered with a (hell, and furniflied
with rotatory cilia.
1. The Jlriatus has an oblong, pellucid (hell, capable
of altering its figure. The apex is truncated, with fix
fmall teeth on the edge of it, twelve longitudinal
ftreaks down the back, the bafe obtufe and fmooth.
The teeth are occafionally protruded or retraced ;
and there are two fmall fpines or horns on the other
fide of the (hell. The animal itfelf is of a yellow
colour, cryftalline, and mufcular; now and then putting
out from the apex two or three little bundles of playing
hairs, the two lateral ones (horter than that in the
middle : on the under fide we may obferve a forked
deglutatory mufcle, and two rigid points when the apex
is drawn in. It is found in fea-water.
2. The fquamula has an univalve orbicular (hell, a
truncated apex, four teeth, fmooth bafe, and no tail.
3. The pala is of a yellow colour ; univalved, with
an oblong excavated (hell; four long teeth at the apex ;
a fmooth bafe.
4. The lipalium is univalved, the (hell oblong and
infledled, ten teeth at the apex, the bafe fmooth, and
a fpurious tail.
5. The patina is extremely bright and fplendid, has
a large body, a cryftalline and nearly circular (hell,
without either incifion or teeth, only towards the apex
it falls in fo as to form a fmooth notch. A double
glittering organ, with ciliated edges, proje&s from the
apex ; both of them of a conical figure, and Handing
as it were upon a pellucid fubflance, which is divided Microfc°pe
into two lobes, between which and the rotatory organ ——v—^
there is a filver coloured crenulated membrane. Two
fmall claws may likewife be difeovered near the mouth.
6. The clypeatus is univalved, the (hell oblong, apex
notched, the tail naked, and bafe fmooth.
7. The lamellaris is univalved; the (hell extending
confiderably beyond the body ; the bafe divided into
three fmall horns, with two hairs at the end of the tail.
8. The patella is found in marftiy water in the win¬
ter-time. It is univalve, the (hell oval, plain, cryftal¬
line, with the anterior part terminating in two acute
points on both fides, though the intervening fpace is
commonly filled up with the head of the animal. By
thefe points it fallens itfelf, and whirls about the body
ereft. The rotatory cilia are perceived with great
difficulty.
9. The bra8ea is univalved, the (hell fomewhat or¬
bicular, apex lunated, bafe fmooth, and the tail fur¬
niflied with two fpines.
10. The plicatiUs is univalved, with an oblong (hell,
the apex hairy, and bafe notched.
1 r. The ovalis is bivalved ; the (hell flattened, apex
notched, a hollow part at the bafe, the tail formed
of two tufts of hair.
12. The tripos is bivalved, the apex of the (hell beard-
lefs, three horns at the bafe, and double tail. It fix¬
es itfelf to objefts by the filaments of the tail.
13. The dentatus is bivalved, with an arched (hell;
the apex and bafe are both toothed, and the tail form¬
ed of two fpines.
14. The mucronatus is bivalved, fomewhat of a fquare
form ; the bafe and apex pointed j the tail confiding-
of two fpines.
15. The uncinatus is one of the fmalleft bivalved ani¬
malcules ; the apex and anterior part round, the hinder
part ftraight, terminating in a point, furniftied with a
hook on the fore part, a fmall rotatory organ, a long
tail compofed of joints, and divided at the end into
two bridles. It can open its (hell both at the fore
and hind part.
16. The cirratus is larger than the preceding ; ven-
tricofe, fomewhat tranfparent, the head conical, with,
a bundle of hairs on both Tides; and it has likewife a
rotatory organ.
17. The pajfus'hzs a cylindric (hell, with two long
pendulous locks of hair proceeding from the front, the
tail confiding of a Tingle bridle.
18. The quadratus has a quadrangular (hell, with
two fmall teeth at the apex, two horns proceeding
from the bafe, and no tail.
19. The impreflus has a quadrangular (hell, a fmooth
undivided apex; obtufe bafe; notched margin j and
flexuous tail.
20. The urceolaris. See Polype.
21. The brachionus Bakeri has a ventricofe (hell, four
teeth at the apex, two horns at the bafe, and a long tail
terminating in two (hort points. The horns are
frequently extended ; and the circular end of each is
furnifhed with a tuft of little hairs, which fometimes
move in a vibratory manner, at other times have a ro¬
tatory motion. Mr Muller has alfo difeovered in this
creature two fmall feelers and a tongue.
22. The patulus has a ventricofe (hell, with eight
teetki
M I C
jterofcope teeth at the apex ; the bafe lunated, or hollowed into
ii-v— the form of a crefcent, and furnifhed with four horns;
the tail Ihort, with two fmall points at the end.
These are the different kinds of animalcules which
have yet been difcovered. To what is faid of them in
general under the article Animalcule, we (hall here
add the following obfervations from Mr Adams.—
‘ How many kinds of thefe invifibles there may be
[. 749 1
M I C
markable, that though in general they avoid one ano-Mkrofccp#
ther, it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided, ^
to fee another pu(h itfelf upon the fmall neck which
joins the two bodies in order to accelerate the repara¬
tion.—Others, when about to multiply, fix themfelves
to the bottom of the water; then becoming firft ob¬
long, and afterwards round, turn rapidly as on a centre,
but perpetually varying the direftion of their rotatory
motion. In a little time, two lines forming a crofs
(fays he), is yet unknown; as they are difcerned of are perceived; after which the fpherule divides into
all fizes, from thofe which are barely ihvifible to the four, which grow, and are again divided as before.
naked eye, to fuch as refill the force of the micro-
fcope as the fixed liars do that of the telefcope, and
with the greateft powers hitherto invented appear
only as fo many moving points. The fmalleft living
creatures our inllruments can (how, are thofe which
inhabit the waters; for though animalcula equally mi¬
nute may fly in the air, or creep upon the earth, it
is fcarce poflible to get a view of them ; but as water
is tranfparent, by confining the creatures within it
we can eafily obferve them by applying a drop of it to
the glaffes.
“ Animalcules in general are obferved to move
in all dire&ions with equal eafe and rapidity, fome-
times obliquely, fometimes ftraight forward ; fome-
times moving in a circular dire&ion, or rolling
upon one another, running backwards and forwards
through the whole extent of the drop, as if diver¬
ting themfelves; at other times greedily attacking
the little parcels of matter they meet with. Notwith-
ftanding their extreme minutenefs, they know how to
avoid obftacles, or to prevent any interference with one
another in their motions: fometimes they will fudden-
ly change the direftion in which they move, and take
an oppofite one ; and, by inclining the glafs on which
the drop of water is, as it can be made to move in
any direction, fo the animalcules appear to move as
eafily again (l the dream as with it. When the water
begins to evaporate, they flock towards the place
where the fluid is, and (how a great anxiety and
uncommon agitation of the organs with which they
draw in the water. Thefe motions grow languid as
the water fails, and at lad ceafe altogether, without a
poffibility of renewal if they be left dry for a (hort
time. They fudain a great degree of cold as well as
A third kind multiply by a longitudinal divifion, which,
in fome begins in the fore-part, in others in the
hind-part; and from others a fmall fragment detaches
itfelf, which in a (hort time affumes the (hape of the
parent animalcule. Ladly, others propagate in the
fame manner as the more perfedl animals.
In our obfervations under the article Animalcule,
we fuggededfome doubts whether all thofe minute bo¬
dies which go under the name of animalcules really
do enjoy animal life ; or whether they are not in -
many cafes to be accounted only inanimate and ex¬
ceedingly minute points of matter a&nated by the in¬
ternal motion of the fluid. This has alfo been the
opinion of others : but to all hypothefes of this kind
Mr Adams makes the following reply. “ From what
has been faid, it clearly appears, that their motions
are not purely mechanical, but are produced by an
internal fpontaneous principle; and that they muft
therefore be placed among the clafs of living animals,
for they poffefs the dronged marks and the moll de¬
cided characters of animation ; and, confequently, that
there is no foundation for the fuppofition of a chaotic
and neutral kingdom, which can only have derived its
origin from a very tranfient and fuperficial view of
thefe animalcules.—It may alfo be further obferved,
that as we fee that the motions of the limbs, &c. of
the larger animals, are produced by the mechanical
condrudtion of the body, and the adtion of the foul
thereon, and are forced by the ocular demondratibn
which arifes from anatomical diffedlion to acknowledge
this mechanifm which is adapted to produce the vari¬
ous motions neceffary to the animal; and as, when we
have recourfe to the microfcope, we find thofe pieces
which had appeared to the naked eye as the primary
infers, and will perifli in much the fame degree of mechanical caufes of particular motions, to confilt
heat that dedroys infedls. Some animalcules are pro¬
duced in water at the freezing point, and fome infefis
live in fnow.—By mixing the lead drop of urine with
the water in which they fwim, they indantly fall into
convulfions and die.
“ The fame rule feems to hold good in thofe minute
creatures, which is obfervable in the larger animals,
<viz. that the larger kinds are lefs numerous than fueh
as are fmaller, while the fmalled of all are found in
fuch multitudes, that there feem to be myriads for one
of the others. They increafe in fize, like other animals,
from their birth until they have attained their full
growth; and when deprived of proper nourilhment,
they in like manner grow thin and perifti.”
themfelves of leffer parts, which are the caufes of mo¬
tion, extenfion, &c. in the larger; when the dru&ure
therefore can be traced no farther by the eye, or by
the glaffes ; we have no right to conclude that the parts
which are invifible are not equally the fubjedl of me¬
chanifm : for this would be only to affert, in other
words, that a thing may exifl becaufe we fee and feel
it, and have no exidence when it is not the objedl of
our fenfes.—The fame train of reafoning may be ap¬
plied to microfcopic infefts and animalcula: we fee
them move; but becaufe the mufcles and members
which occafion thefe motions are invifible, (hall we in¬
fer that they have not mufcles, with organs appropri¬
ated to the motion of the whole and its parts ? To fay
The modes of propagation among thefe animalcules that they exifl not becaufe we cannot perceive them,
are various, and the obfervation of them is extremely would not be a rational conclufion. Our fenfes are
curious. Some multiply by a tranfverfe divifion, as is indeed given us that we may comprehend fome effefts; .
obferved under the article Animalcule : and it is re- but then we have alfo a mind, , with reafon, bedowed-
up«ns
M I G
[ 7.P 1
M I G
5 upnn rs, th?t, frora the things which we do perceive
with our fenfee, we' may deduce the nature of tbofe
. caufes and effcdls which are imperceptible to the cor*
porcal eye.”
Leaving thefe fpcculations however, we ihall now
proceed to give a particular
Explanation of the figures of the •various animals, •with
their parts, ova, Ife. rcprefented in the plates.
Fig. 32. 33. reprefent the eggs of the phalasna
neultria, as they are taken from the tree to which
they adhere, and magnified by the microfcope. The
ftrong ground-work vifible in many places, fhows
the gum by which they are fattened together;
and this connexion is ttrengthened by a very te¬
nacious fubftance interpofed between the eggs, and
filling up the vacant fpaces. Fig. 34. fhows a vertical
fe&ion of the eggs, exhibiting their ^oval (hape.—
Fig. 3 J. is an horizontal feClion through the middle of
the egg. Thefe eggs make a beautiful appearance
through the microfcope. The fmall figures a, b, c, re¬
prefent the objebls in their natural ftate, without being
magnified.
Fig. 36. (hows the larva of the mufca channeleon, atr
aquatic infedt. When viewed by the naked eye, it appears
(as here reprefented) to be compofed of twelve annular
divilions, feparating it into an head, thorax, and abdo¬
men; but it is not eafy to dittinguifh thetwolaft parts
from each other, as the intettines lie equally both in the
thorax and abdomen. The tail is furnifhed with a fine
crown or circle of hair b, difpofed in the form of a
ring, and by this means it is fupported on the furface
of the water, the head and body hanging down to¬
wards the bottom, in which pofture it will fometimes
remain for a confiderable time without any motion.—
When it has a mind to fink to the bottom, it clofes
the hairs of the ring, as in fig. 37. Thus an hollow
fpace is formed, including a {mall bubble, of air ; by
enlarging or diminaLSg which, it can rife or fink in
the water at pleafure.* When the bubble efcapes, the
infedl can replace it from the pulmonary tubes, and
fometimes confiderable quantities of air may be feen
to efcape from the tail of the worm into the common
atmofpbere ; which operation may" eafily be obferved
when the worm is placed in a glafs of water, >nd af¬
fords an entertaining fpe&acle. The fnout of this in-
fe& is divided into three parts, of which that in the
middle, is immoveable ; the other two, which grow
from the fides of the middle one, are moveable, and
vibrate like the tongues of lizards or ferpents. In
thefe lateral parts lies moft of the creature’s ftrength;
for it walks upon them when out of the water, ap¬
pearing to walk on its mouth, and to ufe it as the par¬
rot does its beak to afiitt it in climbing.
The larva is fhown fig. 38. as it appears through a
microfcope. It grows narrower towards the head, is
largeft about that part which we may call the thorax,
converges all along the abdomen, and terminates at
length in a {harp tail furrounded with hairs, as has al¬
ready been mentioned. The twelve annular diviiions
are now extremely vifible, and are marked by numbers
in the plate. The flcin appears fomewhat hard, and
refembling fhagreen, being thick fet with grains pret¬
ty equally diftributed. It has nine holes, or fpiracula,
probably for the purpofe of breathing, on each fide ;
hut it has none of thefe on the tail divifion a, nor any M!c
eafily vifible on the third from the head. In the lat- '—
ter, indeed, it has fome very fmall holes concealed un¬
der the {kin, near the place where the embryo wings
of the future fly are hid. “ It is remarkable (fays Mr
Adams) that caterpillars, in general, have two rings
without thefe fpiracula, perhaps becaufe they change
into flies with four wings, whereas this worm produces
a fly with only two.” The flcin of the larva is adorn¬
ed with oblong black furrows, fpots of a light colour,
and orbicular rings, from which there generally fprings
a hair; but only thofe hairs which grow on the infedt’s
fides are reprefented in the figure. There are alfo
feme larger hairs here and there, as at c c. The dif¬
ference of colour, however, in this worm arifes only
from the quantity of grains in the fame fpace ; for
where they are in very great numbers, the farrows are
darker, and paler where they are lefs plentiful.
The head cl is divided into three parts, and covered
with a flcin which has hardly anydifcernible grains.—.
The eyes are rather protuberant, and lie near the
fnout; on which latt are two fmall horns at i i. It is
crooked, and ends in a (harp point as at f. The legs
are placed near the fnout between the finufes in
which the eyes are fixedl Each of thefe legs confifts
of three joints, the outermoft of which is covered
with ftiff hairs like briftles^. From the next joint there
fprings ahprny bone hh, ufed by the in fed! as a kind
of thumb : the joint is alfo compofed of a black fub¬
ftance of an intermediate hardnefs between bone and
horn ; and the third joint is of the fame nature. In
order to diftinguifli thefe parts, thofe that form the
upper fides of the mouth and eyes muft be feparated
by means of a fmall knife ; after which, by the affift-
ance of the microfcope, we may perceive that the leg*
is articulated by fome particular ligaments, with the
portion of the infe&’s mouth which anfwers to the
lower jaw in the human frame. We may then alfo dif-
cern the mufcles which ferve to move the legs, and
draw them up into a cavity that lies between the fnout
and thofe parts of the mouth which are near the
horns ii. The infect walks upon thefe legs, not
only in the water, but on the land alfo. It likewife
makes ufe of them in fwimming, keeping its tail on
the furface contiguous to the air, and hanging down¬
ward with the reft of the body in the water. In this
fituation, the only perceptible motion it has is in its
legs, which it moves in a moft elegant manner, from
whence it is reafonable to conclude, that the moft of
this creature’s ftrength lies in its legs, as we have al¬
ready obferved.
The fnout of this larva is black and hard ; the back
part quite folid, and fomewhat of a globular form ; the
front f lharp and hollow. Three membranaceous di-
vifions may be perceived on the back part; by means
of which, and the mufcles contained in the fnout, the
creature can contraft or expand it at pleafure.
The extremity of the tail is furrounded with thirty-
hairs, and the fides adorned with others that are fmall-
er; and here and there the large hairs branch out into
fmaller ones, which may be reckoned fingle hairs. All
thefe have their roots in the outer {kin, which in this
place is covered with rough grains, as may be obfer¬
ved by cutting it off and holding it againft the light
upoa
MIC l 75
ofcopeupon a flip of glafs. Thus alfo we find, that at the
*~~~ extremities of the hairs there are grains like thofe on
the flcin; and in the middle of the tail there is a fmall
opening, within which are minute holes, by which the
infeft takes in and lets out the air it breathes. Thefe
hairs, however, are feldom difpofed in fuch a regular
order as is reprefented in fig. 38. unlefs when the infeft
floats with the body in the water, and the tail with its
hairs a little lower than the furface, in which cafe they
are dilpofed exaftly in the order delineated in the plate.
The leaft motion of the tail downward produces a
concavity in the water ; and it then aflumes the figure
of a wine-glafs, wide at the top and narrow at tire bot¬
tom. The tail anfwers the double purpefe of fwim-
mingand breathing, and through it the infe& receives
what is the principle of life and motion to all animals.
By means of thefe hairs alfo it can flop its mdtion
when fwimming, and remain fufpended quietly with¬
out motion for any length of time. Its motions in
fwimming are very beautiful, efpecially when it ad¬
vances with its whole body floating on the furface of
the water after filling itfelf with air by the tail.—
To fet out, it firft bends the body to the right or
left, and then contrails it in the form of the letter S,
and again ftretches it out in a ftraight line : by thus
contiaiting and then extending the body alternately,
it moves on the furface of the water. It is very quiet,
and is not difturbed by handling.
Thefe creatures are Commonly found in (hallow
Handing waters in the beginning of June; but fome
years much more plentifully than others. They crawl
on the, grafs and other plants which grow in fuch wa¬
ters, and are often met with in ditches floating on the
furface of the water by means of their tail, the head
and thorax at the fame time hanging down ; and in
this pofture they turn over the clay and dirt with their
fnout and feet in fearch of food, which is. commonly
a vifcous matter met with in fmall ponds and ditches.
It is very harmlefs, though its appearance would feem
to mdicate the contrary. It is moil, eafily killed for
diffedtion by fpitit of turpentine.
Fig. 39. (hows in its natural fize a beautiful infirdt,
defcribed by Linnams under the name of Leucopjis dor-
Jjgera, and which appears to be a kind of intermedi¬
ate genus between'a fphex and a wafp. The antennas
are black and cylindrical, increafing in thicknefs to¬
wards the extremity ; the joint neareft the head is
yellow ; the head and thorax are black, encompafled
with a yellow line, and furnilhed with a crofsline of the
fame colour near the head. The fcutellum is yellow,
the abdomen black, with two yellow bands, and a
deep fpot of the fame colour on each fide between the
bands. A deep poliflied groove extends down the
back from the thorax to the anus, into which the
fling turns and is depofited, leaving the anus very cir¬
cular ; a yellow line runs on e^ch fide of the fling.—
The anus and whole body, when viewed with a fmall
magnifier, appear punftuated ; but when thefe points
are feen through a large magnifier, they appear hexa¬
gonal. Fig. 40. fhows the infedl very much magni¬
fied. Fig. 41. gives a fide view of it magnified in a
{mailer degree.
Fig. 42. (hows an infedl lately difeovered by Mr
John Adams of Edmonton, as he happened to be at
i 1 MIG
an inn. It was firft feen by fome labouring people Microlcope
who were there at the time, by whom it was conjee- —~v~—'
tured to be a loufe with unufually long horns, a mite,
&c. Mr Adams hearing the debate, procured the
infeft ; and having viewed it through a microfeope, it
prefented the appearance exhibited in fig. 42. The
infed feems to be quite diftind from the phalangium
cancroides of Linmeus. The latter has been defenbed ^
by feveral authors, but none of their deferiptions agree
with this. The abdomen of this infed is more ex¬
tended, the claws larger, and much more obtufe ; the
body of the other being nearly orbicular, the claws
flender, and almoft terminating in a point, more tranf-
parent, and of a paler colour. Mr Marftiam has one
in his pofleffion not to be diftinguifhed from that re¬
prefented in fig. 42, excepting only that it wants the
break or dent in the claws, which is fo confpicuous
in this. He found that infed firmly fixed by its claws
to the thigh of a large fly, which he caught on a
flower in Effex in the firft week of Auguft, and from
which he could not difengage it without great difficul¬
ty, and tearing off the leg of the fly, This was done
upon a piece of writing paper; and he was furprifed
to fee the little creature fpring forward a quarter of
an inch, and again feize the thigh with its claws, fo
that he had great difficulty in- difengaging it. The na¬
tural fize of this creature, which Mr Adams calls the
lobjler-infcSt, is exhibited at a.
Fig. 43. fhows the infed named by M. de Geer
Phyjapus, on account of the bladders at its feet,
( Tbrips phyfapus, Lin.J. This infed is to be found in
great plenty upon the flowers of dandelion, &c. in
the fpring and fummer. It has four wings, two up¬
per and two under ones (reprefented fig. 44.) but
the two undermoft are not to be perceived without
great difficulty. They are very long; and fixed to the
upper part of the breaft, lying horizontally. . Both of
them are rather pointed towards 1 1 edges, and have
a ftrong nerve running round them, which is fet with
a hair fringe tufted at the extremity. The colour of
thefe wings is whitifh : the body of the infed is black;
the head fmall, with two large reticular eyes. The an¬
tennas are of an equal fize throughout, and divided in¬
to fix oval pieces, which are articulated together.—
The extremities, of the feet are furniihed with a mem¬
branaceous and flexible bladder, which it can throw
out or draw in at pleafnre. It preffes this bladder
againft the fubftances on which it walks, and thus
feems to fix itfelf to them ; the bladder fometimes
appears concave towards the bottom, the concavity
diminifhing as it is lefs pieffed. The infed -is repre¬
fented of its natural fize at b.
Fig. 45. reprefents the Cimex Jlriatus of Linti2eusr
remarkable for very bright and elegantly difpofed
colours, though few in number. The head, pro-
bo feis, and thorax, are black: the thorax orna¬
mented with yellow fpots; the middle one large,
and occupying almoft one-third of the pofterior part;
the other two are on each fide, and triangular.
The fcutellum has two yellow oblong fpots, pointed
at each end. The ground of the elytra is a bright
yellow, fpotted and Itriped with black. The nerves
are yellow; and there is a brilliant triangular fpot of
orange, which unites the cruftaceous and membrana¬
ceous,
MIC t 752 ] MIC
IWicrofcope ceous parts ; the latter are brown, and clouded. It is
v“""v  found on the elm-tree in June. It is reprefented of its
natural fize at c.
Fig. 46. fhows the Chryfomela afparagi of Linnaeus,
fo called from the larva of the infeft feeding upon that
plant. It is a common infedt, and very beautiful. It
is of an oblong figure, with black antennae, compofed
of many joints, nearly oval. The head is a deep and
"bright blue; the thorax red and cylindrical: the elytra
are blue, with a yellow margin, and having three fpots of
thefame colour on each ; one at the bafe, of an oblong
form, and two united with the margin : the legs are
black; but the under fide of the belly is of the fame
blue colour with the elytra and head. This little ani¬
mal, when viewed by the naked eye, fcarcely appears
"to deferve any notice; but when examined by the mi-
crofcope, is one of the moft pleafing opaque ob-
jedts we have. It is found in June on the afpa-
ragus after it has run to feed 5 and it is fhown of its
natural fize at d. De Geer fays that it is very fcarce
in Sweden.
Fig. 47. fhows an infedt of a fhape fo remarkable,
that naturalifts have been at a lofs to determine the
genus to which it belongs. In the Fauna Suecica,
.Linnaeus makes it an attelabui: but in the laft edi¬
tion of the Syftema Naturae, it is ranged as a me-
loe, under the title of the Meloe monoceros ; though of
this alfo there feems to be fome doubt. The true figure
of it can only be difcovered by a very good microfcope.
The head is black, and appears to be hid or buried
under the thorax, which projects forward like a horn:
the antenna are compofed of many joints, and are of
a dirty yellow colour, as well as the feet: the hinder
part of the thorax is reddiih, the fore-part black.—
The elytra are yellow, with a black longitudinal line
down the future ; there is a band of the fame colour
near the apex, and alfo a black point near the bafe, the
whole animal being curioufly covered with hair. The
natural fize of it is fhown at e. It was found in May.
Geoffroy fays that it lives upon umbelliferous plants.
Fig. 48 "53. exhibit the anatomy of the coffus ca-
„ terpillar, which lives on the willow. The egg from
which it proceeds is attached to the trunk of the
tree by a kind of vifcous juice, which foon becomes
fo hard that the rain cannot diffolve it. The egg itfelf
is very fmall and fpheroidal, and, when examined by
the microfcope, appears to have broad waving furrows
running through the whole length of it, which are
again crofied by clofe flreaks, giving it the appearance
•of a wicker bafket. It is not exactly known what
time they are hatched ; but as the fmall caterpillars
appear in September, it is probable that the eggs are
hatched fome time in Auguft. When fmall, they are
generally met with under the bark of the tree to which
the eggs were affixed ; and an aqueous moifture, oozing
from the hole through which they got under the bark,
is frequently, though not always, a direttion for find¬
ing them. Thefe caterpillars change their colour but
very little, being nearly the fame when young as when
old. Like many others, they are capable of fpinning
as foon as they come from the egg. They alfo change
their fkin feveral times; but as it is almoft impoffible
to rear them under a glafs, fo it is very difficult to
know exadly how often this moulting takes place.—
Mr Adams conjeftures that it is more frequently than
,N° 219.
the generality of caterpillars do, fome having been Microfc
obferved to change more than nine times  *—
The coffus generally fafts for fome days previous to
the moulting ; during which time the flefhy and other
interioi parts of the head are detached from the old
fkull, and retire as it were within the neck. The new ^
coverings foon grow on, but are at firft very foft   I
When the new fkin and the other parts are formed, I
the old fkin is to be opened, and all the members with¬
drawn from it; an operation naturally difficult, but
which muft be rendered more fo from the foft and weak
ftate of the creature at that time. It is always much
larger after each change.
From Mr Ly onet’s experiments, it appears, that the
coffus generally paffes at lead two winters, if not three,
before it affumes the pupa ftate. At the approach of
winter, it forms a little cafe, the infide of which is
lined with filk, and the outfide covered with wood
ground like very fine faw-duft. During the whole
feafon it neither moves nor eats.
This caterpillar, at its firft appearance, is not above j
one-twelfth of an inch long; but at laft attains the
length of two, and fometimes of three inches. In the ;
month of May it prepares for the pupa ftate ; the firft
care being to find a hole in the tree fufficient to allow
the moth to iffue forth ; and if this cannot be found,
it makes one equal in fize to the future pupa. It then
begins to form of wood a cafe or cone; uniting the I
bits, which are very thin, together by filk, into the
form of an ellipfoid, the outfide being formed of fmall ]
bits of wood joined together in all directions; taking
tare, however, that the pointed end of the cafe may i
always be oppofite to the mouth of the hole : having
finifhed the outfide of the cafe, it lines the infide with
a filken tapeftry of a clofe texture in all its parts, ex¬
cept the pointed end, where the texture is loofer, in 1
order to facilitate its efcape at the proper time. The
caterpillar then places itfelf in fu.ch a pofture, that the
head may always lie towards the opening of the hole
in the tree or pointed end of its cafe. Thus it re¬
mains at reft for fome time: the colour of the Ikin firft |
becomes pale, and afterwards brown ; the interior
parts of the head are detached from the Ikull; the J
legs withdraw themfelves from the exterior cafe ; the
body ftiortens ; the pofterior part grows fmall, while
the anterior part fwells fo much, that the ikin at laft
burfts ; and, by a variety of motions, is pulhed down
to the tail; and thus the pupa is exhibited, in which
the parts of the future moth may be eafily traced.—
The covering of the pupa, though at firft foft,
humid, and white, foon dries and hardens, and be¬
comes of a dark purple colour: the pofterior part
is moveable ; but not the fore-part, which contains
the rudiments of the head, legs, and wings. The
fore-part of the pupa is furnilhed with two horns,
one above and the other under the eyes. It has alfo
feveral rows of points on its back. It remains for
fome weeks in the cafe ; after which the moth begins
to agitate itfelf, and the points are then of effential
fervice, by aCting as a fulcrum, upon which it may reft
in its endeavours to proceed forward, and not flip
back by its efforts for that purpofe.
The moth generally cpntinues its endeavours to open
the cafe for a quarter of an hour; after which, by re¬
doubled efforts, it enlarges the hole, and preffes for¬
ward
MIC [ 7,53 ] M I C
[icrofcope ward until it arrives at the edge, where it makes a full The mufcle marked « is long and (lender, fixed by
"~~s' flop, left by advancing further it fhould' fall to the its anterior extremity under the gaftric mufcles a and
ground. After having in this manner repofed itfelf b of the firft ring, to the circumflex fcale of the bafe
for fome time, it begins to difengage itfelf entirely ; of the lower lip. It communicates with the mulcic
and having refted for fome hours with its head upwards, c of the fecond ring, after having pafled under fome
it becomes fit for adtion. Mr Marfham fays, that it of the arteries, and introduced itfelf below the
generally pufhes one third of the cafe out of the hole mufcle 5.
before it halts. The mufcle P> is fo tender, that It is fcarce poffible
The body of the caterpillar is divided into twelve to open the belly of the caterpillar without breaking
rings, marked t, 2, 3, &c. as reprefented in fig. 48. it. It is fometimes double, and fometimes triple.--
49. 5c. jr. each of which is diitinguifhed from that Anteriorly it is fixed to the pofterior edge of the
which precedes, and that which follows, by a kind of fide of the parietal fcale, the lower fixture being at the
neck or hollow ; and, by forming boundaries to the middle of the ring near the inferior line,
rings, we make twelve other divifions, likewife ex- There are three mufcles marked ; the firft affixed
preffed in the figures; but to the flirt of thefe the at one extremity near the lower edge of the upper
word Any is affixed, and to the fecond, dintfion. To P^t of the parietal fcale ; the other end divides itfelf
facilitate the defeription of this animal, M. Lyonet into three or tour tails, fixed to the (kin of the ca.
fuppofed a line to pafs down through the middle of terpillar under the mufcle 5. The anterior part of
the back, which he called the fuperior line, becaufe it the fecond is fixed near the firft ; the anterior part
marked the moft elevated part of the back of the ca- of the third a little under the firft and fecond, at the
terpillar; and another, palling from the head down of the neck under the mufcle A. Thefe two latl
the belly to the tail, lie called the inferior line. palling over the cavity of the firft pair of limbs, are
All caterpillars have a fmall organ, refembling an~ fixed by leveral tails to the edge oppofite to this ca-
elliptic fpot, on the right and left of each ring, ex- vity. In this fubjeft there are two mufcles marked
cepting the fecond, third, and laft ; and by thefe we A but fometimes there is only one-anteriorly ; they
are furniflied with a further fubdivifion of this caterpil- ate fixed to the lower edge oi the parietal fcale, the
lar, viz. by lines palling through the fpiracula, the one other ends being inlerted in the firft fold of the !kin
on the right fide, the other on the left of the caterpil- of the neck on the belly-fide. Fig. 50. heft repre-
lar. Thefe four lines, which divide the caterpillar fents the mufcles s and ; as in that figure they
longitudinally into four equal parts, mark each the do not appear injured by any unnatural conrie&ion.
place under the Ikin which is occupied by a confifler- In the fecond and four following rings we dif¬
able vifeus. Under the fuperior line lies the heart, or cetn two large dorfal mufcles A and J3. In the 7th,
rather thread of hearts ; over the inferior line, the fpi- 9th, and teth rings are three, A, B, and C ; hr
nal marrow; and the two tracheal arteries follow the the nth are four. A, B, C, and D ; and in the an-
courfe of the lateral lines. At equal diftances from tenor part of the 12th ring are five, A, B, C, D,
the fuperior and two lateral lines, we may fuppofe aild E. All thefe ranges of mufcles, however, as
four intermediate lines. The two between the fupe- well as the gaftric mufcles a, b, c, d, appear at firft
rior and lateral lines are called the intermediate fupe- fight only as a Angle mufcle, running neaily the whole
rior ; the two others oppofite to’them, and between length of the caterpillar ; but when this is detached
the lateral and inferior lines, are called the intermediate from the animal, jt is found to confift of fo many di-
* inferior. ftimft mufcles, each confining only of the length of
Fig. 48. 49. Ihow the mufcles of the caterpillar, ar- one of the rings, their extremities being fixed to the
ranged with the molt wonderful fymmetry and order, divifion of each ring, excepting the middle mufcle a,
efpecially when taken off by equal ftrata on both fides, which, at the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th rings, has its
which exhibits an aftonilhing and exaft form and cor- infeitions rather beyond the divifion. Each row of
refpondence in them. The figures Ihow the mufdes mufcles appears as one, becaufe they are clofely con-
of two different caterpillars opened at the belly, and nedted at top by fome of the fibres which pafs from
fuppofed to be joined together at the fuperior lines, one ring to the other.
The mufcles of the back are marked by capitals ; the The mufcles A, which are 12 dn number, gradu-
gaftric mufcles by Roman letters; the lateral ones by ahy diminilh in breadth to the lower part of the laft
Greek chara&ers. Thofe marked S are called, by M. ring: at the 8th and three following divifions they
•Lyonqt, dividing mufeks, on account of their fitua- communicate with the mufeks B, and at the nth
tion. with D. In the lower part of the laft ring, A is
The caterpillar was prepared for diffe&ion by being much broader than it was in the preceding ring; one
emptied, and the mufcles, nerves, &c. freed from the extremity of it is contracted, and communicates with
fet in the manner formerly diredted: after which the B; the lower infertion being at the membrane I,
following obfervations were made. which is the exterior (kin of the fecal bag. The
The mufcle A in the firft ring is double ; the ante- mufcles A and B, on the lower part of the laft ringj
rior one being thick at top, and being apparently di- cannot be feen until a large mufcle is removed, which
vided into different mufeks on the upper fide, but on one fide is fixed to the fubdivifion of the ring anft
without any "appearance of this kind on the under on the other to the fecal bag.
fide. One infertion is at the Ikin of the neck towards The right mufeks B, which are alfo 12' in num-
the head ; the other is a little above ; and that of the ber, begin at the fecond rin^r, and grow larger front
fecond mufek A is a little bdow the firft fpiracuhim, thence to the feventh. They are uftially narrower
near which they are fixed to the Ikin. from thence to the 12th ; the deficiency in width be-
Vol. XI. Part II. 5 C J ing
MIC [ 754 J MIC
Microfcope Jng fupplied by the fix mufcles C, which accompany
'“"■"V’—'' it from the 7th to the fubdivifion of the 12th ring.
The mufcles B and C communicate laterally with
the 8th, 11th, and 12th divifions. C is wanting at
the fnbdivifion of the 12th; its place being here
fupplied by B, which becomes broader at this part.
The firft of the three floating mufcles V originates
at the firft ring, from whence it introduces itfelf un¬
der N, where it is fixed, and then fubdivides, and
hides itfelf under other parts. The fecond begins at
the fccond divifion, being fixed to the anterior extre¬
mity B of the fecond ring ; from thence direfling it¬
felf towards the ftomach ; and, after communicating
with the cafe of the corpus crajfum, it divides, and
fpreads into eight mufcles which run along the belly.
The third begins at the third divifion, originating
partly at the flcin, and partly at the jundtion of the
mufcles B of the fecond and third ring. It dire&s
itfelf obliquely towards the belly, meeting it near the
third fpiraculum; and branching from thence, it
forms the oblique mufcles of fome of the vifcera.
The thin, long, mufcle e, w'hich is at She fubdivi¬
fion of tlie laft ring, and covers the anterior infertion
of the mufcle (a) where the ring terminates, is Angle.
It begins at one extremity of the mufcle (c) ; at the
fore-part of the ring runs along the fubdivifion
round the belly of the caterpillar, and finifhes, on the
other fide, at the extremity of a fimilar mufcle C.
Fig. 49. Ihows the dorfal mufclcs of the cofius.
To view which in an advantageous manner, we muft
life the following mode of preparation.
1. All the dorfal mufcles, 35 in number, muft be
taken out, as well as the feven lateral ones already
defcribed.
2. All the ftraight mufclfs of the belly muft be taken
away, as well as the mufcular roots (c), and the ends
of the gaftric mufcles (r), which are at the third and
fourth divifions.
3. At the fecond divifion the mufcle 6 muft be re¬
moved ; only the extremities being left to ftiow where
it was inferted.
The pares being thus prepared, we begin at the
third ring ; where there are found four dorfal mufcles
C, D, E, and F. The firft one C, is inferted at
the third divifion, under the mufcles 0 and «, where
it communicates by means of fome fibres with the
mufcle f of the fecond ring ; proceeding from thence
obliquely towards the intermediate fuperior line, and
ia fixed at the fourth divifion. As foon as C is re¬
trenched, the mufcle D is feen which grows wider
from the anterior extremity : it lies in a contrary di-
Te6lion to the mufclcjC, and is inferted into the third
and fourth-divifions. The mufcle E lies in the fame
diredlion as the mufcle C, but not fo obliquely: the
louver infertion is at the fourth divifion ; the other at
the third, immediately under C. The mufcle F is
nearly parallel to D which joins it; the fitft infertion
is.vifible, but the other is hid under the mufcles E and
G at the fourth divifibn.
In the eight following rings, there, are only two
dorfal mufcles ; and of thefe D is the only one that
is completely feen. It is very large, and dimioilhes
gradually in breadth from one ring to the other, till
k comes to the laft, fending off branches in fome
places.-E is one of the ftrait mufcles of the back ; MicrofcspJ
and is inferted under the dividing mufcles 0, at the di-  
vifions of its own ring.
On the anterior part of the 12th ring there are
three dorfal mufcles, D, E, and F. D is fimilar to
that of the preceding ring, marked alfo D, only that
it is no more than half the length; terminating at
the fubdivifion of its own ring. E is of the fame
length, and differs from the mufcle E of the preced¬
ing ring only in its dire&ion. F is parallel to E,
and fhorter than it; its anterior end does not reach
the twelfth divifion.
On the pofterior part there is only one dorfal
mufcle, faftened by fome fhort ones to the fubdivi¬
fion of the laft ring, traverfing the mufcles « ; and be¬
ing fixed there as if defigned to ftrengthen them, and
to vary their diredion.—* is a Angle mufcle, of which
the anterior infertion is vifible, the other end being
fixed to the bottom of the foot of the laft leg ; its
ufe is to move the foot. The anterior part of the
mufcle 0 branches into three or four heads, which
crofs the fuperior line obliquely, and are fixed to the
Ikin a little above it. The other end is faftened to
the membrane T.
Fig. 50. and 51. (how the mufcles of the caterpil-
lar when it is opened at the back. The preparation
for this view is to difengage the fat and other extra¬
neous matter, as before diredled.
The firft ring has only two gaftric mufcles (c) and
(</) : the former is broad, and has three or four little
tails : the firft fixture is at the bafe of the lower lip,
from whence it defeends obliquely, and is fixed be¬
tween the inferior and lateral line. The fmall mufcle
(^) is faftened on one fide to the firft fpiraculum ; on
the other, a little lower, to the intermediate inferior
and lateral line ; and feems to be an antagonift to
the mufcle P, which opens the fpiracula. The po¬
fterior fixture of j is under the mufcle C, near the
Ikin of the neck : a is fixed a little on the other fide
of C, at the middle of the ring.
In the fecond ring there are three gaftric mufcles,
g, ht and i; g and h are fixed at the folds which ter¬
minate the ring; but only the anterior part of 2 is
fixed there. The mufcle h is triple, and in one of the
divifions feparated into two parts; that marked i
comes nearer the inferior line, and is fixed a little be¬
yond the middle.of the ring, where the correfppnd-.
ing mufcle of the oppofite fide is forked to receive it.
In the third ring, the mufcle A, which was triple
in the foregoing ring, is only double here, that part
which is neareft the inferior line being broadeft : it.
has three tails, of which only two are vifible in the
figure. It is exaftly fimilar to that of the preceding,
ring ; and is crofled in the fame manner by the mufcle
from the oppofite fide of the ring.
Throughout the eight following rings, the mufcle
f which runs through them all is very broad and
ftrong. The anterior part of it is fixed at the inter-. 1
mediate inferior line, on the fold of the firft divifion
of the ring : the other part is fixed beyond the lower * |
divifion ; with this difference, that at the tath and
nth rings it is fixed at the laft fold of its ring;
whereas, in the others it paffes over that ring, and is
inferted into the ikin.of the following one. In all .
thefe.
M I C C 755 J MIG
Microfcope thefe, the firft extremity of the mufcle g is faftened
^  to the fold which feparates the ring from the pre¬
ceding one, and is parallel to /, and placed at the
fide of it. The fix firft mufcles marked g, are fork¬
ed ; that of the fourth ring being more fo than the
reft, nor does it unite till near its anterior infertion.
The longeft tail lays hold of the following, and is
inferted near the inferior line ; the other inferts itfelf
near the fame line, at about the middle of its own
ring. The two laft do not branch out; but termi¬
nate at the divifions, without reaching the follow¬
ing ring. The mufcle b, placed at the fide of/, has
I nearly the fame diredfion, and finilhes at the folds of
the ring.
The anterior part of the 12th ring has only one
gaftric mufcle, marked e: it is placed on the inter¬
mediate inferior line ; and is inferted at the folds of
the upfer divifion, and at thfe fubdivifion of this
ring. The lower part has a larger mufcle marked
c, with feveral divifions; one placed under b, with
one extremity fixed near the lateral line, at the
fubdivifion of its ring ; the other to the fecal bag,
a little lower than the mufcle b.
In fig. 51. all the gaftric mufcles defcribed in fig.
50. difappear, as well as thofe lateral and dorfal
ones of which the letters are not to be found in
this figure.
In the firft ring are the gaftric mufcles, e, f, g,
which are beft feen here : the firft is narrow and long,
pafiing under and croffing/.- one of its infertions is
at the lower line, the other at the lateral, between
the fpiraculum and neck : / is ftiort, broad, and near¬
ly ftraight, placed along the intermediate line ; but be¬
tween it and the lateral it paffes under e, and is fixed
to the fold of the Ikin which goes from the one bag
to the other; the lower infertion is near the fecond
divifion. There are fometimes three mufcles of thofe
marked g, and fometimes four: the lower parts of
them are fixed about the middle of the ring, and the
anterior parts at the fold of the Ikin near the neck.
The mufcles i and h are fixed to the fame fold; the
other end of h being fixed under the mufcle n, near
the fpiraculum. Above the upper end of /, a muf-
cular body, g, may be feen. It is formed by the fe-
paration of two floating mufcles.
The fecond ring has fix gaftric mufcles, l, /, m, n,
0, p. The firft is a large oblique mufcle, with three
or four divifions placed at the anterior part of the
ring: the head is fixed between the inferior line and
its intermediate one, at the fold of the fecond divi¬
fion; from whence it crofles the inferior line and its
correfponding mufcle, terminating to the right and
left of the line. I is a narrow mufcle, whofe head is
fixed to the fold of the fecond divifion ; the tail of it
lying under «, and faftened to the edge of the Ikin
that forms the cavity for the leg. The two mufcles
marked m have the fame obliquity, and are placed the
one on the other : the head is inferted in the flcin un¬
der the mufcle ft, and communicates by a number of
fibres with the tail of the mufcle y ; the other end is
fixed to the intermediate inferior line at the fold of
the third divifion. The large and broad mufcle n,
covers the lower edge of the cavity of the limb, and
the extremity of the tail of /. It is fixed firft at the
flcin, near the intermediate line, from whence it goes
in a perpendicular direftion towards m, and introduces Murofcope
itfelf under o and m, where it is fixed. The mufcle 0 " v—
is narrow and bent, and covers the edge of the cavity
of the leg for a little way; one end terminating there,
and the other finiihing at the third divifion near w.
That marked p is alfo bent: it runs near the anterior
edge of the cavity of the leg ; one end meets the head
of 0, the other end terminates at a raifed fold near the
inferior line. There is a triangular mufcle on the fide
of the lateral mufcle 0, fimilar to that marked g in the
following ring : in this figure it is entirely concealed
by the mufcle m.)
The third ring has no mufcle fimilar to m ; that
marked k differs only from that of the fecond ring
in being croffed by the oppofite mufcle. Thofe mark¬
ed l,n,o,p, are fimilar to thofe of the preceding one-1
The mufcle q is triangular ; the bafe is faftened to the
laft fold of the ring ; on the lower fide it is fixed to
the mufcle o, the top to the flcin at the edge of the
cavity for the leg.
The eight following rings have the gaftric mufcles,
i, i, /, and m. The mufcle 1 is quite ftraight, and
placed at fome diftance from the inferior line : it is
broad at the fourth ring, but diminilhes gradually in
breadth to the nth. In the fourth it is united; but
divides into two heads, which divaricate in' the fol¬
lowing rings. In the fix next rings thefe heads are fixed
nearly at the fame place with a and f; and in
the other two it terminates at the fold of the ring.
The anterior infertion of the firft and laft is at the
fold where the ring begins: that of the fix others is
fomewhat lower under the place where the mufcle i
terminates. The lower part of the oblique mufcle k
is inferted in the flcin near i; the upper part at the in¬
termediate inferior mufcle upon the fold which feparates
the following ring, but is wanting in the 1 ith. The
mufcle / is large, and co-operates with M: in tfie
opening and fliutting the fpiraculum, one of its fix¬
tures is near the intermediate inferior line, at about
the fame height as i. The tail terminates a little be¬
low the fpiraculum.
The twelfth ring has only the fingle gaftric mufcle
d, which is a bundle of fix, feven, or eight mufcles :
the firft fixture of thefe is at the fubdivifion of the
ring near the'inferior line : one or two crofs this, and
at the fame time the fimilar mufcles of the oppofite
fide. Their fixture is at the bottom of the foot; and
their office is to alfift the mufcle a in bringing back
the foot, and to loofen the claw from what it lays
hold of. One of the infertions of this mufcle a is
obferved in this figure near d, the other near the fub¬
divifion of the ring.
Fig. 52. and 53. fliow the organization of the
head of the coffus, though in a very imperfeft man¬
ner, as M. Lyonet found it neceffary to employ
twenty figures to explain it fully. The head is re-
jlrefented as it appears when feparated from the fat,
and difengaged from the neck. HH are the two pal¬
pi. The truncated mufcles D belong to the lower
lip, and affift in moving it. K ftiows the two gan¬
glions of the neck united. II are the two veffels which,
affift in fpinning the filk. L, the cefophagus. M,
the two diffolving veffels. The Hebrew characters
Nasi fliow the continuation of the four cephalic ar¬
teries. In fig. 52. the ten abduftor mufcles of the jaw
MIC L 756 ] MIC
pc are reprefented by SS, TT, VV, and Z. Four occi¬
pital rmifclts are teen in tig. 53, under ;e and ff. At
a ^ ia reprefented a nerve of the firft pair belonging
to the ganglion of the neck; £ is a branch of this
nerve.
Fig. 54. exlrbits the nerves as feen from the under
part; but'excepting in two or three nerves, which
may b.e eaiily diilinguilhed, only one of each pair is
drawn, in order to avoid confution. The nerves of
the iird ganglion of the neck are marked by capital
letters, thofe of the ganglion (a) of the head by Ro¬
man letters; the nerves of the fmall ganglion by Greek
charadlers. Thofe of the frpntal ganglion, except
one, by numbers.
The mufclcs of the coffus have neither the colour
nor form of thofe of larger animals. In their natu¬
ral ftate they are foft, and of the confiftence of a jelly.
Their colour is a greyilh blue, which, with the iilver-
ccloured appearance of the pulmonary veffels, form a
glorious fpeftacle. After the caterpillar has been
leaked for fome time in fpirit of wine, they lofe their
elafticity and tranfparency, becoming trm, opaque,and
white., and the air-veffels totally difappear. The num¬
ber of mufcles in a caterpillar is very great. The
greateft part of the head is compofed of them, and
there is a vaft number about the cefophagus, inte-
Itines, &c. the fkin is, as it were, lined by different
beds of them, placed the one under the other, and
ranged with great fymmetry. M. Lyonet has been
able to diftinguifh 228 in the head, 1647 in the
body, and 2066 in the inteflinal tube, making in all
4041.
At firft fight the mufcles might be taken for ten¬
dons, as being of the fame colour, and having nearly
the fame luftre. They are generally flat, and of an
equal fize throughout; the middle feldom differing
either in colour or iize from either of the extremities.
If they are feparated, however, by means of very tine
needles, in a drop of fome fluid, we find them com¬
pofed not only of fibres, membranes, and air-veffels,
but likewife of nerves ; and, from the drops of oil
that may be feen floating on the fluid, they appear
alfo to be furnifhed with manyundtuous particles. Their
ends are fixed to the fkin, but the reft of the mufcle
is generally free and floating.. Several of them branch
out confiderably ; and the branches fometimes extend
fo far, that it is not eafy to difeover whether they
are diftindl and feparate mufcles or parts of another.
They are moderately fbong ; and thofe which have
been foaked in fpirit of wine, when examined by the
mlcrofcopc, are found to be covered with a membrane
which may be feparated from them ; and they appear
then to coniifl of feveral parallel bands lying longi¬
tudinally along the mufelej, which, when divided by
means of fine needles, appear to be compofed of flill
fmaller bundles of fibres, lying in the fame dire&ion ;
which, when examined by a powerful magnifier, and
in a favourable light, appear twilled like a fmall cord.
The mufcular fibres of the fpider, which are much
larger than thofe of the caterpillar, confifl of two dif¬
ferent fubftances, one foft and the other hard ; the
latter being twilled round the former fpirally, and
thus giving it the twilled appearance juft mentioned.
There is nothing in the caterpillar fimilar to the
brain in man. We find indeed in the head of this.
infeft a part from which all the nerves feem to pro- Microfcop*
ceed; but this part is entirely unprote&ed, and fo —v—
friiall, that it does not occupy one fifth part of the
head: the furface is fmooth, and has neither lobes
nor any anfraftuofity like the human brain. But if
v/e call this a brain in the caterpillar, we muft fay
that it has thirteen : for there are twelve other fuch
parts following each other in a ftraight line, all of
them of the fame fubftance with that in the head, and
nearly of the fame fize ; and from them, as well as
from that in the head, the nerves are diftributed thro’
the body.
The fpinal marrow in the coffus goes along the
belly; is very fmall, forking out at intervals, nearly
of the fame thicknefs throughout, except at the gan¬
glions, and is not inclofed in any cafe. It is by no
means fo tender as in man ; but has a great degree
of tenacity, and does not break without a confide-
rable degree of teniion. The fubilance of the gan¬
glions differs from that of the fpinal marrow, as no
veflels can be difeovered in the latter ; but the for¬
mer are full of very delicate ones. There are 94
principal nerves, which divide into innumerable rami¬
fications.
The coflus has two large tracheal arteries, creeping
under the fkin clofe to the fpiracula; one at the right
and the other at the left fide of the infed,’each of
them communicating with the air by means of nine
fpiracula. They are nearly as long as the whole ca¬
terpillar ; beginning at the firft fpiraculum, and ex¬
tending fomewhat farther than the laft ; fome branch¬
es alfo extending quite to the extremity of the body.
Round each fpiraculum the trachea pufhes forth a
great number of branches, which are again divided
into fmaller ones, and thefe further fubdivide and
fpread through the whole body of the caterpillar. The
tracheal artery, with all its numerous ramifications,
are open elaflic veflels, which may be prefled dofe to¬
gether, or drawn out confiderably, but return imme¬
diately to their ufual fize when the tenfion ceafes.
They are naturally of a filver colour, and make a
beautiful appearance. This veffel, with its principal
branches, is compofed of three coats, which may be
feparated from one another. The outmoft is a thick
membrane furnifhed with a great variety of fibres,
which deferibe a vaft number of circles found it, com¬
municating with each other by numerous fhoots. The
fecond is very thin and tranfparent, without any par¬
ticular veffel being diftinguifhable in it. The third is
compofed of fcaly threads, generally of a fpiral form ;
and fo near each other as fcarcely to leave any inter¬
val. They are curioufly united with the membrane
which occupies the intervals ; and form a tube which
is always open, notwithflanding the flexure of the
veffel. There are alfo many other peculiarities in its
ftrufture. The principal tracheal veffels divide into
1326 different branches.
The heart of the coflus is very different from that of
larger animals, being almoft as long as the animal it-
felfi It lies immediately under the fkin at the top of
the back, entering the head, and terminating near the
mouth. Towards the laft rings of the body it is large
and capacious, diminifhing very much as it approaches
the head, from the fourth to the twelfth divifion. On
both fides, at each divifion, it has an appendage, which
partly
Tlate CCCIV\
Plate CCCV.
M I G t 757 J MIC
licrofcope partly cover* the mufcles of the .bach, but which,
‘"'■'v " growing narrower as it approaches the lateral line, it
forms a number of irregular lozenge-fhaped bodies.—
This tube, however, kems to perform none of the
fun&ioas of the heart in larger animals, as we find no
veifel opening into it which anfwers either to the aorta
or vena cava. It is called the heart, becaufe it is ge¬
nerally filled with a kind of lymph, which naturalilts
have fuppofed to be the blood of the caterpillar ; and
becaufe in all caterpillars which have a tranfparent
fkin, we may perceive alternate regular contractions
and dilatations- along the fuperior line, beginning at the
eleventh ring, and proceeding from ring to ring, from
the fourth ; whence this vefiel is thought to be a firing
or row of hearts. There are two white oblong bodies
which join the heart near the eighth divifion ; and
thefe have been called reniform bodies, from their ha¬
ving fomewhat of the lhape of a kidney.
The mofi'confiderable part of the whole caterpillar
with regard to bulk is the corpus craffum. It is the
firfi and only fubftance that isfeen on opening it. It
forms a kind of (heath which envelopes and covers all
•the entrails, and, introducing itfelf into the head, en¬
ters all the mufcles of the body, filling the greatefi
part of the empty fpaces in the caterpillar. It very
much refembles the configuration of the human brain,
and is of a milk-white colour.
The oefophagus defcends from the bottom of the
mouth to about -the fourth divifion. The fore-part,
which is in the head, is flefhy, narrow, and fixed by
different mufcles to the crutt'aceous parts of it; the
lower part, which paffes into the body, is wider, and
forms a kind of membranaceous bag, covered with
very fmall mufcles; near the ftomach it is narrower,
and, as it were, confined by a ftrong nerve fixed to it
at diftant intervals. The ventricle begins a little above
the fourth divifion, where the oefophagus ends, and
finiihes at the tenth. It is about feven times as long
as broad ; and the anterior part, which is broadeft, is
generally folded. Thefe folds diminifh with the bulk
as it approaches the inteftines; the furface is covered
wdth a great number of aerial veffels, and opens into a
tube, which M. l.yonet calls the large inteftine.—
There are three of thefe large tubes, each of which
differs fo much from the reft, as to require a particular
name to diftinguifti it from them.
The two veffels from which the coffus fpino its filk
are often above three inches long, and are difiinguiih-
ed into three parts; the anterior, intermediate, and
pofterior. It has likewife two other veffels, which are
fuppofed to prepare and contain the liquor for dif-
folving the wood on which it feeds.
Plate Fig. 55. (hews the wing of an earwig magnified;
CCCIV. a reprefents it-of the natural fize. 1 he wings of this
infeft are fo artificially folded up under ihort cafes,
that few people imagine they have any. Indeed, they
very rarely make ufe of their wings.' The cafes under
which they are concealed are not more than a fixth part
■of the fize of one wing, though a fmall part of the
wing may be difcovered, on a careful infpe&ion, pro-
jedting from under them. The upper part of the wing
is cruftaceous and opaque, but the under part is beau¬
tifully tranfparent. In putting up their wings, they
firft fold back the parts AB, and then ftmt up the
ribs like a fan; the ftrong mufcles ufed for this purpofe
being feen at the upper part of the figure. Some of
the ribs are extended from the centre to the outer edge; Microfcope
others only from the edge about half way : but they —
are all united by a kind of band, at a fmall but equal
diftance from the edge ; the whole evidently contrived
to ftrengthen the wing, and facilitate its various mo¬
tions. fhe infeifi.itfelf differs very little in appear¬
ance. in its three different ftates. De Geer alferts, that
the female hatches eggs like a hen, and broods over
her young ones as a hen does.
Fig. 56. reprefents a wing of the Hemcrobius perla
magnified. It is an infedt which feldom lives more
than two or three days.—The wings are nearly of
a length, and exadlly ilmilar to one another. They
are compofed of fine delicate i^rves, rpgularly and
elegantly difpofed as in' the figure, beautifully a-
dorned with hairs, and lightly tinged with green.
The body is of a fine green colour ; and its eyes ap¬
pear like two burniihed beads of gold, whence it has
obtained the name of golden eye- This infedf lays
its eggs on the leaves of the plum or the rofe tree ; the
eggs are of a white colour, and each of them fixed to
a little pedicle or foot-italk, by which means they
Hand off a little from the leaf, appearing like the fruc¬
tification of fome of the mofl'es. The larva proceed¬
ing from thefe eggs refembles that of the coceinella or
lady-cow, but is much more handfome. Like that, it
feeds upon aphides or pucerons, fucking their blood,
and forming itfelf a cafe with their dried bodies ; in
which it changes into the pupa ftate, from whence
they afterwards emerge in the form of a fly.
Fig. E, F, I, reprefent the dull of a moth’s wing
magnified. This is of different figures in different
moths. The natural fize of thefe fmall plumes is re-
prefented at H.
Fig. 57. fhows a part of the cornea of the libellula
magnified. In fome pofitions of the light, the fides
of the hexagons appear of a fine gold colour, and di¬
vided by three parallel lines. The natural fize of the
part magnified is ftiown at b.
Fig. 58. (hows the part r of a lobfter’s cornea mag¬
nified.
Fig. 59. (hows one of the arms or horns of the lepas
antifera, or barnacle, magnified ; its natural fize being-
reprefented at d. Each horn confifis of feveral joints,
and each joint is furniihed on the concave fide of the
arm with long hairs. When viewed in the rnicrofcope,
the arms appear rather opaque ; but they may be ren¬
dered tranfparent, and become a moft beautiful objeft,
by extrading out of the interior cavity a bundle of
longitudinal fibres, which runs the whole length of the
arm. Mr Needham thinks that the motion and ufe of
thefe arms may illuftrate the nature of the rotatory mo¬
tion in the wheel-animal, in the midft of the arms is
an hollow trunk, confiding of a jointed hairy tube,
which inclofes a long round tongue that can be piifh-
ed occafionaily out of the tube or (heath, and retrad¬
ed occafionally. The mouth of the animal confifts of
fix laminae, which go off with a bend, indented like a
faw on the convex edge, and by their circular difpofi-
tion are fo ranged, that the teeth, in the alternate ele¬
vation and deprefiion of each plate, ad againft what¬
ever comes between them. The plates are placed to¬
gether in fuch a manner, that to the naked eye they
form an aperture not much unlike the mouth of a
contraded purfe.
Fig. 60. (hows the apparatus of the Talcmus or Gad-
MID [ 758 .1 MID
Micrnfcope fly, by which it pierces the (kin of horfes and oxen, in
, M'd3*- order to fuck their blood. The whole is contained in a
flefliy cafe, not exprefled in the figure. The feelers aa
-are of a fpongy texture and grey colour, covered
with fhort hairs. They are united to the head by a
fmall joint of the fame fubitance. They defend the
other parts of the apparatus, being laid upon it fide
by fide whenever the animal flings, and thus preferve
it from external injury. The wound is made by the
two lancets bb and B, which are of a delicate ftrufture,
but very lharp, formed like the differing knife of an
anatomift, growing gradually thicker to the back.—
The two inftruments cc and C, appear as if . intended
to enlarge the wonvl, by irritating the parts round it;
for which they are jagged or toothed. They may alfo
.ferve, from theip hard and horny texture, to defend the
tube e E, which is of a fofter nature, and tubular, to
• admit the blood, and convey it to the flomach. This
part is totally inclofed in a line d D, which entirely
covers it. Thefe parts are drawn feparately at B, C,
.1), E. De Geer obferves, that only the females fuck
the blood of animals.; and Reaumur informs us, that
having made one, that had fucked its fill, difgorge it-
lelf, the blood it threw up appeared to him to be more
than the whcle body of the infeft could have contain-
,ed. The natural fize of this apparatus is Ihown at f.
Fig. 61.. (hows a bit of the Ikin of a lump-fiflt (Cy-
c!opterus) magnified. When a good fpecimen of this can
be procured, it forms a.moft beautiful object. The
tubercles exhibited in the figure probably fecrete an
•unftuous juice.
Fig. 62. fliows the fcale of a fea-perch found on the
• Englifh coaft; the natural fize is exhibited at h.
Fig. 63. is the fcale of an haddock magnified; its
natural fize as within the circle.
Fig. 64. the fcale of a parrot filh from the Weft
Indies magnified ; / the natural fize of it.
Fig. 65. the fcale of a kind of perch in the Weft
Indies magnified ; k the natural fize of the fcale.
Fig. 66. part of the Ikin of a foie fifli, as viewed
through an opaque microfcope ; the magnified part,
in its real fize, ftiown at /.
The feales of fifties afford a great variety of beauti¬
ful objects for the microfcope. Some are long ; others
round, fquare, &c. varying confiderably not only in
different fifties, but, even in different parts of the fame
fifti. Leeuwenhoeck fuppofed them to confitt of an
infinite number of fmall Icaies or ftrata, of which thofe
next to the body of the fifti are the largeft. When
viewed'by the microfcope* we find fome of them or¬
namented with a prodigious number of concentric
flutings, too near each other, and too fine to be eafily
enumerated. Thefe flutings are frequently traverfed
by others diverging from the centre of the fcale, and
generally proceeding from thence in a ftraight line to
the circumference.
For a more full information concerning thefe and
other microfcopical objedts, the reader may confult
Mr Adams's EJfays on the Microjcope, who has made the
■ -inoft valuable collection that has yet appeared on the
.'ujetft. See alfo the articles Animalcule, Crystal¬
lization, Polype, Plants, and Wood, in thepre-
•fent Work.
MIDAS (fab. hift.), ,a famous king ef Phrygia,
who having received Bacchus with great magnificence.
that god, out of gratitude, offered to grant him what- Midas
ever he ftiould aik. Midas defired that every thing he ||
touched ftiould be changed into gold. Bacchus con- Middle*
fented; and Midas, with extreme pleafure, everywhere ur^‘
found the. effefts of his touch. But he had fbon rea-
fon to repent of his folly : for wanting to eat and
drink, the aliments no fooner entered his mouth than
they were changed into gold. This obliged him to
have recourfe to Bacchus again, to befeech him to re-
ftore him to his former ftate; on which the god ordered
him to bathe in the river Pa&olus, which from thence
forward had golden fands. Some time after, being
chofen judge between Pan and Apollo, he gave an¬
other inftance of his folly and bad tafte, in preferring
Pan’s mufic to Apollo’s; on which the latter being
enraged, gave him a pair of affes ears. This Midas
attempted to conceal from the knowledge of his fub-
jeefts : but one of his fervants faw the length of his
ears, and being unable to keep the fecret, yet afraid to
revea] it from apprehenfion of the king’s refentment, he
opened a hole in the earth, and after he had whifpered
there that MidVs had the ears of an afs, he covered the
place as before, as if he had buried his words in the
ground. On that place, as the poets mention, grew a
number of reeds, which when agitated by the wind
uttered the fame found that had been buried beneeth,
and publiftied to the world that Midas had the ears of
an afs. Some explain the fable of the ears of Midas,
by the fuppofition that he kept a number of informers
and fpies, who were continually employed in gather¬
ing every feditious word that might drop from the
mouths of his fubjefls. Midas, according to Strabo,
died of drinking bull’s hot blood. This he did, as
Plutarch mentions, ta fret himfelf from the numerous
ill dreams which continually tormented him. Midas,
according to feme, was fon of Cybele. He built a
town which he called Ancyra.
Midas, Ear-Jhell, the fmooth ovato-oblong bucci-
num, with an oblong and very narrow mouth. It con-
fifts of fix volutions, but the lower one alone makes up
almoft the whole ftiell.
MID-heaven, the point of the ecliptic that culmi¬
nates, or in which it cuts the meridian.
MIDDLEBURG, one of the Friendly Iftands in
the South Sea. This ifland was firft difeovered by
Tafman, a Dutch navigator, in January 1742-3; and
is called by the natives Ea-Oo-'ivht: it is about 16
miles from north to fouth, and in the wideft part about
8 miles from eaft to weft. The fkirts are chiefly laid
out in plantations, the fouth-weft and noith-wtfft fides
efpecially. Ths interior parts are but little cultiva¬
ted, though very capable of it: but this negle£t adds
greatly to the beauty of the ifland; for here are agree¬
ably difperfed groves of cocoa-nuts and other trees,
lawns covered with thick grafs, here and there planta¬
tions and paths leading to every part of the ifland, iu
fuch beautiful diforder, as greatly to enliven the pro-
fpeft. The hills are low ; the air is delightful; but
unfortunately water is denied to this charming fpot.
Yams, with other roots, bananas, and bread-fruit, are
the principle articles of food ; but the latter appeared
to be fcarce. Here is the pepper-tree, or ava-avat
\vith which they make an intoxicating liquor, in the
fame difgufting manner as is praflifed in the iocieuy
Iftaijds. Here are feveral odoriferous trees and ftuubs,
s
MID [ 759 3 MID
particularly a fpecies of the lemon tribe ; and the bo¬
tanical gentlemen met with various new fpecies of
plants. Here alfo are a few hogs and fowls.
There are no towns or villages ; moil of the houfes
are built in plantations, which are laid out in different
parts, with no other order than what convenience re¬
quires. They are neatly conftru&ed, but are lefs
roomy and convenient than thofe in the Society Ifks.
The floors are a little raifed, and covered with thick
ftrong mats. The fame fort of matting ferves to inclofe
them on the windward fide, the others being open.
They have little areas before'moft of them, which are
planted round with trees or ornamental ihrubs, whofe
fragrance perfumes the air. Their houfehold furniture
confifts of a few wooden platters, cocoa-nut flrells, and
pillows made of wood, and fliaped like four-footed
flools or forms: their common clothing, with the ad¬
dition of a mat, ferves them for bedding.
The natives are of a clear mahogany or chefnut
brown, with black hair, in ftrort frizzled curls, which
feems to be burnt at the tips; their beards are cut or
fhaven. The general ilature of the men is equal to
our middle fize, from five feet three to five feet ten
inches ; the proportions of the body are very fine, and
the contours of the limbs extremely elegant, though
fomething more mufcular than at Otaheite, which
may be owing to a greater and more conftant exertion
of ftrength in their agriculture and domeilic economy.
Their features are extremely mild and pleafing; and
differ from the old Otaheitian faces in being more ob¬
long than round, the nofe lharper, and the lips rather
thinner. The women are, in general, a few inches
fhorter than the men, but not fo fmall as the lower
clafs of women at the Society Iflands. The pradlice
of punfturing the Ikin, and blacking it, which is
called tattoiving, is in full force among the men here,
for their belly and loins are very ftrongly marked in
configurations more compounded than thofe at Ota¬
heite. The tendereft parts of the body were not free
from thefe pun&ures; the application of which, befides
being very painful, muff be extremely dangerous on
glandulous extremities.
The men in general go almoft naked, having only
a fmall piece of cloth round the loins,, but feme wrapt
it in great abundance round them from their waift :
this cloth is manufa&ured much like that at Ota¬
heite, but overfpread with a llrong glue, which makes
it ftiff, and fit to refift the wet. The women are
likewife covered from the waift downwards: they.often
have loofe necklaces, confifting of feveral firings of
fmall fliells, feeds, teeth of fifhes; and in the middle
of all, the round operculum, or cover of a fhell as large
as a crown-piece. The men frequently wear a firing
round their necks, from which a mother-of-pcarl fhell
bangs down on the breaft; both the ears of the wo¬
men were perforated with two holes, and a cylinder
cut out of tortoife-fhell -or bone was (truck through
both the holes'. The molt remarkable circumftance
obferved of this people was, that moft of them wanted
the little finger on one, and fometimes on both hands:
the difference of fex or age did not exempt them from
this amputation; for even among the few children
that were feen running about naked, the greater part
bad already fuffered fuch lofs. This circumftance was
obferved by Tafman. Another fingularity which was
obferved to be very general among thefe people, was
a round fpot on each cheek-bone, which appeared to Middle-
have been burnt or bliftered. On fome it feemed to burg-
have been recently made, on others it was covered ^ 1
with feurf, and many had only a flight mark of its
former exiftence : how, or for what purpofe it was
made, could not be learnt. The women here, in ge-
neral, were referved ; and turned, with difguft, from
the immodeft behaviour of ungovernable feamen: there
were not, however, wanting fome who appeared to be
of eafy virtue, and invited their lovers with lafeivious
geftures. The language fpoken here is foft, and not
unpleafing; and whatever they faid was fpoken in a
kind of finging tone. Omai and Mahine, who were
both paffengers on board the fhip, at firft declared that
the language was totally new and unintelligible to
them ; however, the affinity of feveral words being
pointed out, they foon caught the particular modifica¬
tion of this dialed, and convgrfed much better with
the natives than any on board the (hips could have
done, after a long intercourfe. They have the neat-
eft ornaments imaginable, confifting of a number of
little flat flicks, about five inches long, of a yellow
wood like box, firmly and elegantly connefted toge¬
ther at the bottom by a tiffue of the fibres of cocoa-
nut, fome of which were of their natural colour, and
others dyed black; the fame fibres were likewife ufed
in the making of bafkets, the tafte of which was high¬
ly elegant, and varied into different forms and pat¬
terns. Their clubs are of a great variety of fhapes,
and many of them fo ponderous as fcarce to be ma¬
naged with one hand. The moft; common form was
quadrangular, fo as to make a rhomboid at the broad
end, and gradually tapering into a round handle at the
other. Far the greater part were carved all over in
many chequered patterns, which feemed to have re¬
quired a long, fpace of time, and incredible patience,
to work up ; as a (harp ftone, or a piece of coral, are
the only tools made ufe of: the whole furface of the
plain clubs was as highly polifhed as if an European
workman had made them with the beft inftruments.
Befides clubs, they have fpears of the fame wood,
which were fometimes plain fharp-pointed flicks, and
fometimes barbed with a fling-ray’s tail. They have
likewife bows and arrows of a peculiar conftru&ion :
the bow, which is fix feet long, is about the thick-
nefs of a little finger, and when flack forms a flight
curve ; its convex part is channelled with a Angle
deep groove, in which the bow-ftring is lodged. The
arrow is made of reed, near fix feet long, and pointed
with hard wood: when the bow is to be bent,inftead
of drawing it fo as to increafe the natural curvature,
they draw it the contrary way, make it perfedlly
ftraight, and then form the cuive on# the other fide.
Moft of their canoes have outriggers, male of poles,
and their workmanfhip is very admirable: two of
thefe canoes are joined together with a furprifing ex-
adlnefs, and the wh®le furface receives a very curious
polifh. Their paddles have fhort-broad blades, fome¬
thing like thofe at Otaheitee, but more neatly wrought
and of better wood
They keep their dead above ground, after the man¬
ner of the Society Iflands; as a corpfe-'was feen de-
pofited on a low hut.
Flere, were feen feveral men and women affli&ed
with leprous difeafes, in fome of whom the diforder •
had rifen to a high, degree of virulence; one man in
par.
MID [ 760 ] MID
Middtdaro particular had his back and flioulders covered with a
II large cancerous ulcer, which was perfeftly livid with-
ic diet on. an(j 0f a bnglrt yellow all round the edges. A
woman w s likewife unfortunate enough to ha-ve her
face deftroyed by it in the moft fhocking manner ;
there was only a hole left in the place of her nofe ;
her cheek was fwelled up, and continually oozing out
a purulent matter; and her eyes feemed ready to fail
out of her head, being bloody and fore • though thefe
were fome of the moft miferable objeQs that could
poffibly be feen, yet they feemed to be quite uncon-
ce rned about their misfortunes, and traded as brifldy
as any of the reft.
MIDDLELAM, a town in the north riding of
Yorkfhire, fituated on the river Ure, 255 miles from
London. It had once a caftle, where was born Ed¬
ward prince of Wales, only fon of Richard III.; and
is noted for a woollen manufactory and frequent horfe-
racts. Its market is on Monday; and fairs Nov. 6.
and 7. The town ftands on a riling ground; and the
caftle, which was on the fouth fide, was formerly
moated round by the help of a fpring conveyed in
pipes from the hight-- grounds. The church of Mid-
lam is extra-parochial.
MIDDLESEX, a county of England, which de¬
rives its name from its fituation amidit the three king¬
doms of the Eaft, Weft, and South Saxons. It is
- bounded on the north by Hertfordfhire ; on the fouth
by the river Thames, which divides it from Surry; on
the weft by the river Colne, which feparates it from
Buckinghamfhire; and on the eaft by the river Lea,
which divides it from Effex. It extends about 23
miles in length, but hardly 14 in breadth, and is not
morf than 1x5 in circumference ; but as it compre¬
hends the two vaft cities of London and Weftminfter,
which are fituated in the fouth-eaft part of the coun¬
ty, it is by far the wealthieft and moft populous
county in England. It is divided into 602 liberties,
containing 200 parifhes, befides a vaft number of cha¬
pels of eafe, and 7 maket-towns, exclufive of the cities '
of London and Weftminfter. The air is very pleafant
and healthy, to which a fine gravelly foil does not a
little contribute. The foil produces plenty of corn,
and the county abounds with fertile meadows and
gardeners grounds. In a word, the greater part of the
county is fo prodigioufly affifted by the rich compoft
from London, that the whole of the cultivated part
may be confidered as a garden. The natural produc¬
tions are cattle, corn, and fruit; but its manufaftures
are too many to be enumerated here, there being
hardly a fingle manufa&ure praClifed in Great Britain
but what is alfo eftablifhed in this county.—Though
London is the ^chief city, Brentford is the county-
town where the members of parliament are elefted.
MIDDLETON (Dr Conyers), a very celebrated
Englifti divine, the fon of a clergyman in Yorklhire,
was born at Richmond in 1683. He diftinguiftied
himfelf, while fellow of Trinity-college, Cambridge,
by his controverfy with Dr Btntley his ipafter, re¬
lating to fome mercenary conduit of the latter in that
ftation. He afterwards had a contraverfy with the
whole body- of phyficians, on the dignity of the medi¬
cal profelfion ; concerning which he published De we-
dicorum a pud ‘vetcres Romanos degenttum con<l,done dif¬
fer tat'w ; qua, contra virus etieberrhnos Jacolum Spotimm
et Ricbardum Meadium, fer.vilem atque ignobilm earn fuijje,
. ^ 219. X
qjlenditur: and In the courfe of this difpute much re- Midilleh*
fentment and many pamphlets appeared. Hitherto he .
had flood well with his clerical brethren; but he drew
the refen.trftent of the church on him in 1729, by wri- 'r~*:
ting “ A ktter from Rome, ftiowing an exait confor¬
mity between popery and paganifm,” &c. ; as this i
letted though politely written, yet attacked Popifh
miracles with a gaiety that appeared dangerous to the
caufe of miracles in general. Nor were his Objedtions
to Dr Waterland’s manner of vindicating Scripture
againft Tindal’s “ Chriftianity as old as the Creation,” 1
looked on in a more favourable point of view. In
1741-, came out his great work, “The Jiiftory of the life-
of M. Tullius Cicero,” 2 vols 410 ; which is indeed a
fine performance, and will probably be read as long as,
tafte and polite literature fublift among us: the author
has neverthelefs fallen into the common error of bio¬
graphers, who often give panegyrics inftead of hi-
ftory. In 1748, he publifhed, “ A free inquiry into
the miraculous powers which are fuppofed to have
fubfifted in the Chiiltian church from the earlieft ages,
through feveral fucceffive centuries.” He was now
attacked from all quarters; but before he took any
notice of his antagonifts,- he fupplied them with an*
other fubjeit in “ An examination of the lord biftiop
of London’s difeourfes concerning the ufe and extent
of prophecy,” &c. Thus Dr Middleton continued to
difplay talents and learning, which were highly efteem-
ed by men of a free turn of mind, but by no means in
a method calculated to invite promotion in the cleri¬
cal line. He was in 1723 chofen principal librarian
of the public library at Cambridge; and if he rofe
not to dignities in the church, he was in eafy circum-
ftances, which permitted him to aflert a dignity of
mind often forgotten in the career of preferment. He
died in 1750, at Hilderlham in CambriJgefiiire, an
eftate of his own purchafing ; and in 1752, all his
works, except the life of Cicero, were collated in
4 vols, 410.
MIDDLEW1CH, a town of Chelhire, 167 miles
from London. It ftands near the conflux of the Croke
and Dan, where are two fait-water fprings, from which
are made great quantities of fait, the brine being faid
to be fo ftrong as to produce a full fourth part fait.
It is an ancient borough, governed by burgdlea ; and
its pariflx extends into many adjacent townftiips. It
has a fpacious church. Its market is on Tuefdays;
and fairs on St James’s-day, July 25. and Holy-Thurf-
day. By the late inland navigation, it has communi¬
cation with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Stafford, War- i
wick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. 1 he river
Whedock, after a courfe of about 12 miles from Mow*
cop-hill, runs into the Dan a little above this town.
MID HURST, a town of Suffex, 52 miles from
London, has been reprefented in parliament ever fince
the 4th of Edward II. It is a neat fmall town, on a
hill furrounded with others, having the river Arun at !
the-bottom ; and is a borough by prefeription, go¬
verned by a bailiff, chofen annually by a jury at a
court-leet of the lord of the manor. The market is
on Thurfday; fairs on March 21. and the Thurfday
after.
MIDIAN,
MID [ 761 1 MID
ji Midtan MIDIAN, or Madian (anc. geogO, a town on
I II the foiith fide of Arabia Petrasa 5 fo called from one
I of the fons of Abraham by Keturah.—Another Mi-
, -dian, near the Arnon and ^Eoplis, in ruins in Jerome’s
time. With the daughters of thefe Midianites the If-
raelites committed fornication, and were guilty of ido¬
latry. A branch of the Midianites dwelt on the Ara¬
bian gulph, and were called Kenites; fome of whom
turned profelytes, and dwelt with the Ifraelites in the
^ land of Canaan.
MID LOTHIAN. See Lothian.
MIDSHIP-frame, a name given to that timber,
-or combination of pieces formed into one timber,
which determines the extreme breadth of the fhip,
Ias well as the figure and dimenfion of all the inferior
timbers.
In the article Ship-Building, the reader will find a
full explanation of what is meant by a frame of tim¬
bers. He will alfo perceive the outlines of all the
principal frames, with their gradual dimenfions, from
the midlhip-frame delineated in the plane of projedfion
annexed to that article. As the parts of which the
feveral frames are compofed have the fame relation to
each other throughout the veffd, and as all the cor-
refponding pieces, without and within thofe frames,
are alfo nearly alike, and fixed in the fame manner, it
will be here fufficient for our purpofe to reprefent the
( CCCXIII Pr>ncipal or midlhip-frame, together with its corre¬
sponding parts, which are as follow:—A, the keel,
with « the falfe keel beneath it. B, the chocks fixed
upon the kelfon, to retain the oppofite pieces of the
riders firmly together. C, one of the beams of the
orlop. D, one of the lower deck beams; with d the
beams of the upper deck. E, the hanging-knees, by
which the beams are attached to the timbers. F, the
ftandards, which are fixed above the decks to which
they belong. G, the clamps, which fuftain the extre¬
mities of the beams. H, the gun-ports of the lower-
deck ; with h the ports of the upper-deck. I, K, L,
different pieces of thick-Jlujf, placed oppofite to the fe-
veral fcarfs or joinings, in the frame of timbers. M,
the planks of the deck. N, the water-ways. O, the
planks of the ceiling, between the feveral ranges of
thick-ftuff. P, the fpirketing. the main-wale, to
foitify the fhip’s fide oppofite to the lower deck. R,
the channel-wale, oppofite to the upper deck. S, the
waift-rail. T, the firing, with the moulding under
I the gun-wale. U, the floor-timbers, which are laid
acrofs the keel and bolted to it. V, the feveral fut-
tocks ; and W the top-timbers, which are all united
into one frame. X, the kelfon.
MIDSHIPMAN, a fort of naval cadet, appointed
by the captain of a (hip of war, to fecond the orders
of the fuperior officers, and afiift in the neceffary bu-
finefs of the veffel, either aboard or afliore.
The number of midfliipmen, like that of feveral
other officers, is always in proportion to the fize of the
fliip to which they belong. Thus a firfi-rate man of
war has 24, and the inferior rates a fuitable number in
proportion No perfon can be appointed lieutenant
without having previoufly ferved tw'o years in the royal
navy in this capacity, or in that of mate, befides ha¬
ving been at leaft four years in a&ual fervice at fea,
either in me*chant-fhips or in the royal navy.
Vol. XL Part II.
Midfhipttian is accordingly the ftation in which a Midfhip-
young volunteer is trained in the feveral exercifes ne-^ mai1, ,
ceffary to attain a fufficient knowledge of the machi- v
nery, movements, and military operations of a fliip, to
qualify him for a fea officer.
On his firft entrance in a fhip of war, every midfhip-
man has feveral difadvantageous circumftances to en¬
counter. Ihefe are partly occafioned by the.nature
of the fea-fervice ; and partly by the mifiaken preju¬
dices of people in general refpetting naval difeipline,
and the genius of failors and their officers. No cha-
ra&er, in their opinion, is more excellent than that of
the common failor, whom they generally fuppofe to~
be treated with great feverity by his officers, drawing
a comparifon between them not very advantageous to
the latter. The midfhipman ufually comes aboard tinc¬
tured with .thefe prejudices, efpecially if his education
has been amongft the higher rank of people; and if
the officers happen to anfwer his opinion, he conceives
an early difgufi to the fervice, from a very partial and
incompetent view of its operations. Blinded by thefc
prepoffeffions, he is thrown off his guard, and very
foon furprifed to find, amongft thofe honeft failors, a
crew of abandoned mifereants, ripe for any mifehief
or villany. Perhaps, after a little obfervation, many
of them will appear to him equally deftitute of gra¬
titude, fhame, or juftice, and only deterred from the
commiffion of any crimes by the terror of fevere pu-
nifhment. He will difeover, that the pernicious ex¬
ample of a few of the vileft in a fhip of war are too
often apt to poifon the principles of the greateft num¬
ber, efpecially if the reins of difeipline are too much
relaxed, fo as to fofter that idlenefs and diffipation,
which engender floth, difeafes, and an utter profligacy
of manners. If the midfhipman on many occafions is
obliged to mix wnth thefe, particularly in the exercife's
of extending or reducing the fails in the tops, he ought
refolutely to guard againft this contagion, with which
the morals of his inferiors may be infefted. He fhould,
however, avail himfelf of their knowledge, and acquire
their expertnefs in managing and fixing the fails and
rigging, and never fuffer himfelf to be excelled by an
inferior. He wull probably find a virtue in almolt
every private failor, which is entirely unknown to
many of his officers : that virtue is emulation, which
is not indeed mentioned amongft their qualities by the
gentlemen of terra Jirma, by whom their chara&ers are
often copioufiy deferibed with very little judgment.
There is hardly a common tar who is not envious of
fuperior fie ill in his fellows, and jealous on all occa¬
fions to be outdone in what he coniiders as a branch
of his duty: nor is he more afraid of the dreadful con-
fequences of whiffling in a ftorm, than of being ftig-
matifed with the opprobrious epithet of lubber. For¬
tified againft this fcandal, by a thorough knowledge
of his bufinefs, the failor will fomedmes fneer in pri¬
vate at the execution of orders which to him appear
aukward, improper, or unlike a feaman. Nay, he
will perhaps be malicious enough to fupprefs his own
judgment, and, by a pun&ual obedience to command,
execute whatever is to be performed in a manner
which he knows to be improper, in order to expofe
the perfon commanding to difgrace and ridicule. Little
fkilled in the method of the fchools, he confiders ^he
5 D officer
MID I 762 ] MID
3/Iidlhip. officer who cons his lefibn by rote as very’ ill qualified
^ m^11, for his ftation, becaufe particular iituatiflns might ren-
* ' '" der it neceflary for the faid officer to affilt at putting
his own orders in praftice. An ignorance in this prac¬
tical knowledge will therefore neceffarily be thought
an unpardonable deficiency by thofe who are to follow
his directions. Hence the midihipman who affociates
with thefe Tailors in the tops, till he has acquired a
competent fiall in the fervice of extending or reducing
the fails, &c. will be often entertained with a number
of fcurrilous jells, at the expence of his fuperiors.
Hence alfo he will learn, that a timely application to
thofe exercifes can only prevent him from appearing
in the fame defpicable point of view, which mull cer¬
tainly be a cruel mortification to a man of the fmalleib
fen Ability’.
If the midlhipman is not employed in thefe fervices,
which are undoubtedly neceffary to give him a clearer
idea of the different parts of his occupation, a variety
of other obje&s prefent themfelves to his attention.
Without prefuming to dictate the lludies which are
molt effential to his improvement, we could wilh to
recommend fueh as are moll fuitable to the bent of his
inclination. Aftronomy, geometry, and mechanics,
which are in the firft rank fcience, are the mate¬
rials which form the Ikilful pilot and the fuperior ma¬
riner. The theory of- navigation is entirely derived
from the two former, and all the machinery and move-
n*?nts of a Ihip are founded upon the latter. The ac¬
tion of the wind upon the fails, and the refiftance of
the water at the Hem, naturally di&ate an inquiry into
the property of folids and fluids; and the ftate of the
fhip, floating on the water, feems to direct his appli¬
cation to the ftudy of hydroftatics, and the effefts of
gravity. A profieiency in thefe branches of fcience
M I D W
THE art of affifting women in the birth of chil¬
dren. It is fuppofed to comprehend alfo the
management of women both before and after deli¬
very, as well as the treatment of the child in its moft
tarly ftate.
Histoky of Midwifery. The art of midwifery is cer¬
tainly almoft coeval with mankind. The firft midwife
of whom mention is made under that name, aflifted at
the feeond labour of Rachel, the wife of Jacob An¬
other midwife is fpoken of in Genefis, at the lying-in
of Thamar, who was delivered of twins. But the moft
honourable mention of midwives is that in Exodus,
when Pharaoh king of Egypt, who had a mind to de-
ftroy the Hebrews, commanded the midwives to kill all
the male children of the Hebrew women; which com¬
mand they difobeyed, and thereby obtained a recom-
pence from God.
From all the paffages in Scripture where midwives
arc mentioned, it is plain, that women were the only
pvaftitioners of this art among the Hebrews. Among
the Greeks alfo women affilted at labours. Phanarete,
the mother of Socrates, was a midwife. Plato fpeakg
■at iurge of midwives, explains their fundtions, regu-
will equally enlarge his views, with regard to the ope- Midflnp.
rations of naval war, as directed by the efforts of man.
powder and the knowledge of projectiles. The moft —v—
effectual method to excite his application to thofe ftu-
dies, is, perhaps, by looking round the navy, to ob-
ferve the characters of individuals. By this inquiry
he will probably difcover, that the officer who is
eminently ikilled in the fciences, will command uni-
verfal reipedt and approbation ; and that whoever is
fatisfied with the defpicable ambition of Ihining the
hero of an affembly, will be the objeCt of univerfal
contempt. The attention of the former will be enga¬
ged in thofe ftudies which are highly ufeful to him-
felf in particular, and to the fervice in general. The
employment of the latter is to acquire thofe fiiperfi-
cial accompliftrments that unbend the mfhd from every
ufeful icience, emafculate the judgment, and render
the hero infinitely more dexterous at falling into his
ftation in the dance than in the line of battle.
Unlefs the midlhipman has an unconquerable aver-
fion to the acquifition of thofe qualifications which
are fo effeutial to his improvement, he will very rare-
ly want opportunities of making a progrefs therein.
Every ftep he advances in thofe meritorious employ¬
ments will facilitate his accelfton to the next in order.
If the dunces, -who aie his officers or mefs-mates, are
rattling the dice, roaring bad verfes, hiffing on the
flute, or fcraping difcord from the fiddle, his atten¬
tion to more noble ftudies will fweeten the hours of re¬
laxation. He ftiould recollect, that no example from
fools ought to influence his conduCt, or feduce him
from that laudable ambition which his honour and ad¬
vantage are equally concerned to purfue.
MIDWIFE, one whofe profeilion is to deliver wo¬
men in labour. See Midwifery.
I F E R Y,
lates their duties, and remarks that they had at Athens
the right of propoting or making marriages. Hippo-,
crates makes mention of midwives, as well as Ari-
ftotle, Galen, and Aetius. This laft even frequently
quotes a woman called Ajpafioy who was probably a
midwife. They were called among the Greeks
Maiai or lujf^aiar, that is to fay, mamma, or grand*
mamma.
We are ftill better acquainted with the cuftoms of
the Romans, and know that they employed women
only. This may be deduced from the comedies of
Plautus and Terence alone We there fee that they
are women only who are called to affift perfons in la¬
bour. Befides, Pliny, in his Natural Hiftoiy, fre¬
quently fpeaks of midwives and their duties; and
names two, Soiira and Snipe, who had apparently the
greateft reputation. Women were alfo employed af¬
ter the fall of the empire ; and it is certain, that, till
lately, all civilized nations have employed women only
as midwives. This appears even from their names
in many dift’erent languages, which are all feminine.
There were, hawever, efpecially in great cities, fur-
geons who applied themfelves to the art of midwifery,,
and made it their peculiar ftudy. They were fent for
HHiftory.
MIDWIFERY.
n difficult cafes, where the midwives found their Inca- and child : he would have the children in fuch cafes
pacity; and then the furgeon endeavoured to deliver
the woman by having recourfe to irtilruments ufeful in
thofe cafes, as by crotchets, crows-bills, &c.; but as
urned, fo that the head may prefent. If, fays he*
the arni, or leg, or both, of a living child prefent,
they muft, as loon as difcovered, be returned into the
thefe cafes happened but feldom, women remained womb, and the child b ought into the paflage with it*
in pofl'effion of this bufinefs. It is certain, according
to Aftruc, that Maria Therelia wife of Louis XIV.
head downwards. For this purpofe he advifes to roll
the woman on the bed, to fhakedier, and make her
employed women only in her labours; and the example jump: he propofes the fame expedients to procure the
of the queen determined the condudt of the princeifes
end court-ladies, and likewife of the other ladies of to extract it with crotchets, and,
the city. The fame author tells us, that he has been to difmember it.
affured, that the epoch of the employment of men-
midwives goes no farther back than the firft lying-in
of Madam de la Valiere in 1663. As fhe defired it
might be kept a profound fecret, fhe fent for Julian
Clement a furgeon of reputation. He was conducted
with the greatefl fecrecy into an houfe where the lady
was, with her face covered with a hood ; and where it
child’s delivery; and if they do not fucceed, he advife*
hatever happens.
From the time of Hippocrates to that of Celfui,
who lived in the reign of the emperor Tiberius, we
have no accounts of any improvements in midwilery ;
but this author gives two very ufeful diredlions. 1. In
dilating the womb: “ We muft (fays he) introduce
the fore*iinger, well moiftened with hog’s lard, into the
mouth of the womb when it begins to open, and it*
s faid the king was concealed in the curtains of the like manner afterwards a fecond, and fo on until all
bed. The fame furgeon was employed in the fubfe-
quent labours of the fame lady ; and as he was very
fuccefsful with her, men-midwives afterwards came in¬
to repute, and the princeffes made ufe of lurgeons on
fimilar occafions ; and as foon as this became fafhion-
able, the name of acoucheur. Was invented to fignify
this clafs of furgeons. Foreign countries foon adopt¬
ed the enftom, and likewife the name of acoucheurs,
though they had no fuch term in their own language;
but in Britain they have more generally been called
mtn-midrwi'ves.
In oppolition to this account, which is taken from
Aftruc, that author tells us, that he is aware of an
obje&ion from Hyginus, who afferts, that the ancients
had no midwives ; which made the women, through
modefty, rather choofe to run the rilk of death than
to make ufe of men on this occafion. For the Athe¬
nians, he adds, had forbid women and Haves to ftudy
phyfic, that is to fay, the art of midwifery. A young
woman, named Slgnoilice, defirous of learning this art,
cut off her hair, dreffed herfelf in the habit of a man,
and became a fcholar to one Hierophilus. She after¬
wards followed this bulinefs. The women at lirft re-
fufed affiftance from her, thinking <he was a man; but
accepted thereof when (he had convinced them that
Ihe was a woman.
To this account our author replies, that the autho¬
rity of Hyginus is by no means to be depended upon.
His book is full of folecifms and barbarifms; and
therefore cannot be attributed to any writer who lived
before the fall of the empire ; but muft have been the
work of an author who lived when the Latin tongue
was corrupted ; that is, about the ftventh or eighth
century. The contradictions met with in this book al-
fo give room to fufpedf that it is not the work of one
band, but of feverak The authority of fuch a work,
therefore, is by no meansffufficient to deftroy the tefth
monies of thofe writers who affirm, that among the
Greeks the care of lying-in' women was committed en¬
tirely to others of their own fex.
The art of midwifery feems not to have been fo foon
-improved as that of phyfic. Hippocrates, though an
excellent phyfician. Items to have been a very bad
the fingers are introduced, rvbich are then to be ufed
by feparating them, as a kind of dilater, to diitend the
orifice, and facilitate the introduction of the hand
which is to a£t in the womb. 2. Children may be de¬
livered by the feet ealily and fafely, without crotchets,
by taking hold of their legs. For this purpofe wc
muft take care to turn children, which are otherwife
placed in the womb, with their head or feet down¬
wards.” It is true, Cellus fpeaks of a dead child
only 5 but it was eafy to conclude from thence, that
the fame pra rlice might be ufed with fuecefs to deliver
a living child. Neverthelefs, this was not done; and,
notwithffanding the authority of Celfus, the former
prejudice continued for a long time. Though Pliny,
who lived under the emperors Vefpafian and Titus,
was not a phyfician himfeif, yet by condemning foot¬
ling labour he attefts the opinion of the phyficians of
his time. He afferts, as a known faift, that footling
labour was a preternatural kind of labour: he adds,
that children which came into the world in this man¬
ner were called Agrippa, that is to fay, born with a
great deal of difficulty.
But however common this opinion was, it was never
univerfally received ; and feveral phyficians of charac¬
ter rofe up, who, without fuft'ering themfelves to be
dazzled with the common prejudice, or feducedbythe
authority of Hippocrates or Galen, recommended and
approved of footling delivery. The queftion then
was a long time undecided ; and even in 1657, Rive-
rius, a phyfician of reputation, condemned footling la¬
bour. Mauriceau alio remarks, in the firft edition of
his hook on the diforders of pregnant women, print¬
ed in 1064, that many authors were ftill of opinion,
that when the child prefented with its feet, it ihould
be turned to make it come with its head foremoft; but
after having obferved that it is difficult, if not impof-
iibk, to execute this, he concludes, “ it is much bet¬
ter to extradt the child by its feet when they prefent,
than to run the hazard of doing worfe by turning it.”
All pradHtioners, however, are now of the fame opi¬
nion ; and the knowledge of midwifery has been fo
much increafed within this century, that it feems to
have nearly attained its ultimate perfedfion, and its
midwife. He was acquainted with no other kind of operations reduced almoft to a geometrical certainty 2
natural labour than that in which the head prefents; And this, fays Aftruc, is not furprifing; for, after all,'
and condemns footling labour as fatal both to mother the art of midwifery is reduced to the following me-
5 D 2 chanicai
754
M I D W I F E R Y. Hiftory.|
chanical problem, “ An extenfible cavity of a certain proved Midwifery, in which he violently declaims
capacity being given, to pafs a flexible body of a given againil the ufe of inftruments; and next year he pub-
length and thicknefs. through an opening dilatable to liflied an appendix, under the title of Midwifery brought
11 rPlllQ mirrl’t Kp r/^ri - in 'her f/sFi in Vi i n
a certain degree;” This might be refolved geometri¬
cally, if the different degrees of elaflicity of the womb,
and flrength and weaknefs of the child, the greater
or lefler difpofition of the blood to inflammation, and
the geater or leffer degree of irritability of the nerves,
did not occafipn that uncertainty which phyfical fadls
conftantly produce in all phylico-mathematical que-
flions.
The ftudy of midwifery in Britain as a fcience is
to perfection, in which he fets forth in a pompous n
ner the improvements he had made. This, however,
was no more than a fyllabus of his ledfures, he having^
been the flrft public teacher of midwifery in Britain.
Dionis’s midwifery made its appearance in 1719,
and Deventer’s in 1729. The latter, in Dr Denman’s
opinion, was more efteemed than it deferred, as he ge¬
nerally condemns the ufe of inftruments; notwith-
ftanding which, he thinks it a confiderable acquiiition
not of very ancient date. The firft book publifhed on to the fcience in this country,
the fubject appeared in the year 1540, and was intitled In 1727 appeared Dr Simfon’s work, intitled, Tlx
The Byrthe of Mankind, otherwife- named, The IVo- Syflem of the IVomb; “ a work (fays Dr Denman) of
man’s Booke, by Thomas Raynold, phyfition. It un- fufficient ingenuity, but not of much ufe in practice,
derwent a fecond edition by Thomas Ray, a printer even if his theory had been true.” Chapman’s Trea~
whole name is not much known. It was adorned with tife on the Improvement of Midwifery appeared in 17 *3.
prints, and went through feveral editions, and appears He was the fecond public tedcher of midwifery in
to have been held in high eftimation. In 1653, the ee- London, and was the firft who defcribed the forceps ;
lebrated William Harvey publifhed his treatife on ge- the defcription appearing in the third volume of the
iteration ; and afterwards engaging in the practice of
midwifery, publiflted his Extrcitatio departu. Some no¬
tice is alio taken by Sydenham of the difeafes incident
to child-bed women, and of thofe of young children.
Edinburgh Medical Efiays. His work contains many
ufeful oblervations Next year Dr Hody publiftied a
collection of cafes in midwifery, written by Mr Wil¬
liam Gitfard. They are 275 in number, occurred in
About this time feveral other traCts onfubjects relating his own practice, and appear to be written with great
to midwifery appeared, by Vvrharton, Charleton, Ma- fidelity. He alfo gave a plate of the forceps; and,
yow, &c,; but till about the year 1634, Dr Denman in Dr Denman’s opinion, was among the firft who
confiders the treatife of Raynold already mentioned affected that the placenta might be attached over the.
as being the ftandard. The appearance of the works os uteri. In 1736, Thomas Dawke publifhed a book,
of Ambrofe Pare, which were now firft publifhed, intitled, The Midwife rightly Infracted; and, the fol-
depreffed the reputation of Raynold’3 book ; and Dr lowing year, The Midwife's Companion, by Henry
Chamberlen, a celebrated phyilcian, likewife applied Bracken : but- thefe, as well as fame others which
himfelf about the fame time to midwifery. He intro¬
duced an inftrument into the art called a forceps, but
which Dr Denman fuppofes to have been a veCtis.—
He had three fons who likewife praCIifed midwifery,
ahd, as well as himfelf, obtained confiderable charac-
made their appearance about the fame time, are of no
importance.
About the fame time alfo, Sir Richard Manning-
ham quitted the profellion of pharmacy, and applied
to the ftudy and praftice of midwifery. He had re-
; and one of the young men went over to Paris ceived the honour of knighthood in 1730; and i
with a view to fell the fecret, or advance his fortune I739 cftabiifhed a fmall hofpitalor ward for lying-
by a praftice which he had found fo fuccefiful in Eng- in women, which was the firft thing of the kind in
land. In this, however, he was difappointed; the firft B16 Britifh dominions. Here alfo he gave leCtures ;
cafe in which he was engaged proved unfuccefsful, and aa<I nt the fame time qualmed his ftudents for practice,
he fuffered much reproach in confequence. Returning He became very eminent in his profeAlony which he
to England, therefore, in 1672, he publiihed a tranf- exercifcd with great humanity, and was accounted a
lation of Mauriceau’s midwifery, which continued in man of great learning. He publiftied a work, intitled
great eftimation for many years. Compendium Artis O'fetrica ; and another, called Apho-
Dr Willoughby, who wrote a treatife on midwifery, rifnata Medica, relating alfo chiefly to the art of mid-
quoted in manufeript by Dr Denman, complains of the wifery. In 1741, Sir Fielding Guide of Dublin pub-
praCtice of midwives about this time. He fays, that
the books upon the fubjedl all copied one another, re-
commending.metkods which could not but be prejudi¬
cial to the woman ; and that particularly they did not
liflied A Treatife of Midwifery ; the moll important
parts of whicH are fome obfervations on the continu¬
ance of the thicknefs of the uterus, dur ing pregnancy,
with his defcription of the manner in which the head
attend to the efforts of nature, but endeavoured to °I the child paffes through the pelvis at the time of
force the birth before the proper time. He was the
grandfon of Sir Francis Willoughby, fo much cele¬
brated in the time of queen Elizabeth ; and Dr Den¬
man is of opinion, that the fame and fortune acquired
by Dr Chambevlen, induced fo many gentlemen as now
pratlifed midwifery to undertake the ftudy of it, and
to make ufe of iaftruments as he did. Among thefe
was Dr Bamber; but others attempted to raife their
reputation by a quite contrary pradtice. In 1723, Dr
Maubray publiftied a book on midwifery, intitled,
The Female Phyfeian, or the Whole Art of New Im- 'Uve merits.
the birth ; the truth of which obfervations have flnee
been univerfally acknowledged.
From this time the Englifti, according to Dr Den¬
man %, might be faid c‘ to have been in full poffefiion of \fntr/>Jac-
the fubjedl ; all the books written in the neighbouring
countries being tranflated, public ledlures given, and yfid-wiferyi
an hofpital eftabliflied for the further improvement of preface,
the art : and: as all. the books printed fince that time
may readily be procured, every gentleman has an op¬
portunity of forming his own opinion of their refpeo
But the college of phyficians (adds he),
haying ■
I.Rory. M I D W :
having been pleafed, in the year 1783,10 form a rank
in which thofe who dedicate themfelves to the ftudy of
midwifery (hould be placed, I truft that future ac¬
counts will be more correct; and that this meafure
adopted by the college will promote the public benefit,
I by confining'the induitry and abilities of one clafs of
men to this branch of the profeffion.”
In Scotland, though there has for a long time been
profeflbrs of midwifery, yet the lurgeons likewife prac-
tife that art as well as their own. Several approved
F E R Y. 765
treatifes on the fubjeft have appeared in this country ;
particularly a fyftem by the late Dr Smellie, which has
been long held in the higheft eftimation in both king¬
doms ; and, within thefe few years, feveral excellent per¬
formances by Dr Alexander Hamilton of the univer-
iity of Edinburgh : And, indeed, we may venture to
adirm, that both theory and pra&ice of midwifery
are as well underftood in this kingdom as in any part
of the world.
Part I. THEORY of MIDWIFERY.
THE fubjeft of this Part comprehends> in a parti¬
cular manner, the anatomical itrudture of the pel¬
vis, and other parts concerned in the formation of the
child, the theories of conception, generation^ &c. of
the nutrition, growth of the foetus, and of the powers
by which it is expelled. Of all thefe fame account
has been given under other articles; but as the parti¬
cular defeription of the pelvis belongs peculiarly to this
fubjedt, wre lhall here give an account of its various
conformations, as they in a great meafure affect wo¬
men at the time of child-bearing, and very particularly
contribute to the eafe or difficulty of the labour.
Chap. I. Defeription cf the Pelvis in general.
Dr Denman obferves, that the termpJv's has beep
applied indiferiminately to the inferior cavity of'the
abdomen, and to the bones which form that cavity ;
but he thinks it molt proper to confine it to fhe
bones, and to diftinguifli the hollow by the name of
the cavity of the pelvis. In the fiate of infancy, the
pelvis is compofed of five or fix bones, mod of which
in the foetus are foft and flexible ; fome of them being,
in a manner, quite cartilaginous ; while the edges of
others are found covered wnth a fubftance of the fame
kind. This conftrudtion is thought by fome to facili¬
tate delivery, as the pelvis of the foetus can thus change
its figure like the cranium ; but M. Baudelocque
thinks this an erroneous opinion, “ confonant neither
to reafon nor experience.”
In the adult the pelvis confifls only of four bones, viz.
the facrum, the os coccygis, and the two ojfa innominata.
'i hefe being already defevibed under the article Ana¬
tomy, we Thai] herei content ourfelves with obferving,
that an anchylofis is not unfrequently formed between
the os facrum and the ofla innominata ; and fometimes
an imperfect joint in confe-quence of their reparation ;
whence the part is very much weakened, and the per-
fon ever afterwards walks with difficulty.
The os coccygis in infancy is cartilaginous ; but in
the adult it is compofed of three, or more frequently
of four bones, connected by intermediate cartilages,
the uppermoft of wffiich is fomewhat broader than the
lower part of the os facrum. In fome fubjedts thefe
bones coalefce, and form a fingle one in others an
anchylofis is formed between the facrum andqs coccy¬
gis ; in eonfequtnce of which the latter, is fhortened
and turned inwards, fo as to obfirudt the head of the
child in its paflage through the.pelvis. But the impe¬
diment thereby cccafioned at the time of labour may
be overcome by the force with which the head of the
child is propelled, and the os coccygis again feparated
from the facrum \Vith a noife loud enough to be di- eo^^10a
llindtly heard. In general, however, fome regreffive Pelvis irt
motion is preferved between the bones of which the genera!..
os coccygis is compofed ; and that which is produced '■—» r '*
between the facrum and os coccygis, when the latter is
preffed by the head of a child palling through the
pelvis, occafions a conliderable temporary enlargement
of the inferior aperture of the pelvis. Any lateral
motion is prevented by the infertion of the coccygai
mufdes, part of the Uvatores ani, and fome portions
of the facro-fciatic ligaments into the fides of the os
coccygis.
The os innominatum, in a woman of the ordinary
fize, is about fix inches broad from the anterior to the
polterior fuperior fpine. The height is nearly fix
inches and an half from the anterior fpine to the bot¬
tom of the tuberofity of the ifehium, and feven and
an half if taken from the middle of the crifta of the
ilium ; and hence we may in fome meafure be enabled
to determine the depth of the cavity of the pelvis late¬
rally from the fuperior to the inferior itrait.
“ The ofla pubis (fays M. Baudelocquef ) are joined f ^yjtcm if
together by means of a fubftance which has always
been deferibed by the name of cartilage, though itfrai^e
differs as much from that as from a ligament. Accord- Heaih.
ing to fome anatomifts, each cs pubis is covered by its
own cartilage. Their juntUon not a true fynchondro-
lis ; but a clofe articulation, which admits only of in-
feniible motions. By carefully examining this fym-
phyfis, we obferve that each, os pubis, is really covered
by a cartilage at its anterior extremity; that this car¬
tilage is thicker before than behind, and in its fuperior
and inferior parts than in the middle of its length ; that
thefe bones, thus covered, are bound together by means
of a fubftance which feems ligamentous, and whofe
fibres, which are mollly tranfverfe, go from one to the
other ; that thefe fibres are fo difpoied, that the deepeil
are the fhorteft, and the moil fuperficial the longeit;
that they leave between one another a kind of mefties
filled with reddifh corpufcles, very like thofe which
are feen about the moveable articulations, and which
are commonly thought to be fynovial glands. We ob¬
ferve farther, that this fibrous and ligamentous fub-
ffance does not occupy the whole thicknefs of the
fymphyfis, and does not bind the bones together
through the whole extent of the furfaces prefented by
their anterior extremities ; but that there exiits a true
articulation of the fpecies; known by the name of ar¬
throdia. If we open this fymphylis towards the infide
of the pelvis, after a cellular tiffue very thin and loofe,
which we meet with full, we difeover a capfular mem¬
brane, wltefe moil apparent fibres are. tranfverfal; af¬
terwards.
766 M I D W I
©efcription ter'-yarfls two cartilaginous facettes, fmooth, poliflied,
Pelvi^in atl^ tno’^’ from fix to eight lines long and two broad,
general. °f a figure a 1‘ttle femilunar, lightly convex on one
-y——' bone and concave on the other. Thefe facettes com¬
prehend nearly the middle third of the length of the
fymphyfis and the pofterior third of its ihicknefs.—
This fymphyfis then prefents in one third of its extent,
or thereabouts, a true ar ioulation ; and in the reft a
fyneurnjts and fyncbomlnjis at the fame time.
This compound and articular fubftaace, being de¬
tached from the bones, forms a kind of wedge, whofe
bafe conftitutes the anterior part of the fymphyfis, and
its edge the polterior ; fo that thefe bones iecm to
touch towards the infide of the pelvis, and appear fe-
parated to the diftance of feveral lines without : The
bafe of this kind of wedge is generally from four to fix
lines broad towards the middle of the length of the
fymphyfis, and from eight to ten in the inferior and
fuperior parts, while the edge at moll does not exceed
one line. Its thicknefs, taken according to that of
the bones, is greater above than below ; where this
fubllance, become thinner, forms what is called the
triangular ligament,
“ This firft means of union was not fulficient to
give thefe bones the firmnefs neceffary for the free ex-
ercife of the functions to which the pelvis is deitined.
It is covered and fortified in all parts, but efpecially
before, by bundles of ligamentous and aponeurotic
fibres. Independently of the thick and very ftrong li.
.gamentous itrudure which forms the fore-part of the
fymphyfis, we obferve bundles of tendinous fibres
which decuffate each other a thoufand ways, fome of
which arife from the interior graciles and the external
obturators, and others from the external portions of the
inguinal rings. The triangular expanfion which ter¬
minates the fymphyfis inferiorly, and which forms the
top of the arch of the pube.-, leans to have other ufes
than that of binding the bones together.
“ The manner in which the os facnim is conne&ed
with the qjja innominata, differs confiderably from that
in which the njfa pubis are joined. Here each articular
facette is covered by a true cartilaginous layer, and there
are inequalities on each fide, which mutually receive one
another, while nothing of that kind is obferved in
the jundion of the pubes; neither are there in any
part of thefe articular facettes any of the tranfverfe
fibres which go from one bone to the other in the
ojfa pubis: thefe articulations, therefore, derive all
their ftrength from the great numbers of ligaments
which fuiround them. Mofl of thefe are very fhort,
and do not extend beyond the edges of the articular
facettes : but there are others longer to be feen above,
below, and behind thefe fymphyfes.
“ The os facrum is not only articulated with the
ilia, but with the fpine and coccyx. It is joined in
three places to the fpine :/1. By an oblong and car¬
tilaginous impreffion in the middle of the balls, which
unites it to a fimilar imprellion in the body of the la!l
lumbar vertebra, by means of an elaflic fubilance.
2. By two little articular maffes fixed in the pofterior
edge of that firft impreffion, and which anfwer to
iimilar fubftances in the vertebra above-mentioned.
“ The elaftic fubftance which unites the middle of
the bafe of the facrum to the fpine, is entirely fimi¬
lar in its nature to that feen between the bodies of
F E R Y. partf,
all the vertebrae. Being very thick before and thin DefcriptiJ
behind, the angle refulting from the difpolition of of
the articular iacettes of thefe two parts is rendered *Mvi5(lk
more obtufe. This facro-vertebral junction is furround- kenm \_k
facro-vertebral junction is furround-
ed by an infinity of ligaments, fome without and
others conceale ; within the fpinal canal. All mo¬
tion is not prohibited by this kind of jun£tion ; but,
as it only depends on the compreffion of the inter¬
mediate fubftance, it can be but very fmall. The
motion between the body of the lait lumbar verte¬
bra and the bafe of the facrum, is never extenfive
enough to make any alteration in the degree of acute-
nefs of the angle which refults from their jundkion ;
but the convexity of the lumbar column may be aug¬
mented or diminiihed by means of a compound mo-
tion, formed of thofe which take place between each
of the lower lumbar vertebras and between the lower
ones of the back, i his augmentation or diminution
of the convexity, in proportion as the trunk is bent
backward or forward, or by failing or lowering the
breech when the woman lies on her back, deferves
particular attention in the practice of midwifery j for
thus we may make a favourable change in the di¬
rection of the axis of the pelvis, relatively to that of
the trunk, to that of the uterus, and in the direc¬
tion of the expulnve forces of the latter, which may
be rendered more or Id's efficacious accoiding to
circumftances, by making the woman prefer.ve a pro¬
per attitude
“ The junction of the coccyx with the facrum per¬
mits the former to move, and yield to the different
degrees of preffure it undergoes in different circum¬
ftances. rl he mobility is very great in youth } but
diminilhes infenlibly as the patient grows older, and
at lait u totally loll. If entirely loft, or confiderably
diminiihed, before a woman is pall child-bearing, it
produces fometimes, though very rarely, an obstacle
to delivery. 1 he connections of the pelvis with the
inferior extremities are not of much importance in
midwifery. The natural courier of labour cannot be
dilturbed by any fault in their connguration when
the pelvis itlelf is well formed ; but in general they
are confequences of a deformity of it. They are
enarthrofes, which allow of motion in every direc¬
tion.”
The pelvis is divided into two parts, called the
upper and lower, by a ridge fometimes elliptical, and
fometimes of other lhapes. The breadth of the up¬
per part from the anterior fuperior fpine of one ili¬
um to another, is ufually eight or nine inches, and
its depth fiom three to four. At the back part
of it is the projection of the lunibar vertebrae, and
at the iides the iliac fojfx. The lower part forms a
kind of canal, whofe entrance and outlet are fome-
what narrower than the middle ; whence it has been
dittinguilhed into the fuperior ftrait, the inferior ftrait,
and an excavation.—•The fuperior ftrait is a kind of
circk forming the entrance of the canal; its form,
however, is various, as is alfo its obliquity from be¬
hind foi wards. M. Levret has fixed this laft at hit
angle of from 35 to 40 degrees.
The fmalldt diameter of this ftrait is generally
about four inches, extending from the middle of the
projection of the facrum to the fuperior and inter¬
nal part of the fymphyfia of the pubes. The othet-
diametejf
ihrt I.
jE'cription
®f the
:neral.
jpt 
M I D W
diameter is ufuallr about an inch longer, extending
from one fide of the ftrait to the other. The ols-
lique diameters are a medium betwixt the two for¬
mer, extending diagonally from each acetabulum to
the facro-iliac junction of the oppofite fide. The
pelvis is cut at right angles by the two former, and
into acute ones by the latter ; but the diameters,
con fidered in relation to delivery, are fomewhat dif¬
ferent from thofe juft mentioned, fome changes in
them being occafioned by the foft parts.-wkhin the
pelvis.
The inferior ftrait is in general fmaller, and of a
more irregular figure than the other, being not form¬
ed like it entirely of bones. The edge, rendered un¬
equal by three deep and large notches, is completed
behind and at the- fides by the facro-ifchiatic liga¬
ments, forming a kind of circular notch before, call¬
ed the archf of the pules. The diameters of it are
commonly about four inches in length ; and though
the tranfverfe, which extends from one tfchium to the
other, be often a little longer than that which ex¬
tends from the fore to the back part, it muft be
reckoned the fmalleft with regard to delivery; be-
eaufe the latter augments in proportion as the point
of the coccyx recedes from the pubes. We muft alfo
remember, that the great diameter of the inferior
ftrait is parallel to the fmalleft of the fuperior, and
that it crofles the longeft of that ftraic at an angle
more or lefs acute ; and by carefully attending to this,
we may, in many cafes, with the finger alone, when
properly direfted, remove obftacles which could not
have been overcome even by means of inftruments,
without expofing the* child to great inconveniences.
It is likewife favourable to delivery that the middle
part of the pelvis is a little larger from before
backwards than the ftraits ; which difpofition pro¬
ceeds from the curved figure of the os facrum.—
On one fide this curve diminifties the numerous and
long-continued fri&ions which the child’s head would
neceffarily undergo if the pelvis were equally broad
in all its parts; and on the other fide it is equally
ufeful in preventing the effe&s of a long and forcible
preflure on the facral nerves, which a flat form of the
facrum would have rendered unavoidable during the
whole time of the paflage of the head. The cavity
of the pelvis is commonly from four to five inches
deep behind, three and an half at the fides, and one
and an half at moft before.
The arch of the pubes, which at the top is only
from one inch and a quarter to one and two-thi ds
in breadth, augments gradually as it defcends; fo
that at the bottom its fides are three inches and an
half, or even four inches, feparated from one another;
that is, if we take the line which is looked upon as
the tranfverfe diameter of the inferior ftrait for its
bafe ; the height being about two inches.
The axis of the fuperior ftrait of the pelvis can¬
not well be determined ; but that of the inferior one,
with regard, to delivery, muft be con fidered as paf-
fing through the centre ®of the opening of the va¬
gina dilated by the child s head. Its dire&ion is then
fo much inclined from behind forward, that its fu-
ptrior extremity traverfes the lower part of the firft
lalfe vertebra of the facrum, and crofies that of the
ether ftrait at a very obtufe angle.
3
I F E R Y. 767
Hitherto we have treated only of that form of the Defcription
pelvis which is moft favourable for delivery: but the in
proportions and forms of it are various ; and as it g^ral."
differs from thofe above defcribed, the delivery is at1-  *
tended with more or lefs difficulty.
The defeils of the pelvis, with regard to facility
of delivery, confifts in its being either too large or
too fmall. At firft fight it might be imagined, that
a large pelvis would make the delivery more eafy,
as the head of the child will thus be expofed to
fewer frictions, be more eafily expelled, and the la¬
bour be lefs painful. But women who have a very
large pelvis, are fubjed to thofe inconveniences,
which arii'e from an obliquity of the uterus, or even
to a defeent of it altogether ; efpecially in the time
of labour, when that vifeus, being already charged
with the weight of the child, is entirely fubjected° to
the expulfive power of the abdominal mufcles. In
women who have had feveral children, the uterus is
but weakly retained by its ligaments ; and in fubfe-
quent pregnancies it defcends ftill lowbr, until at lad
it refts on the margin of the pelvis. This, however,
does not take place before the conclufion of the fiift
four or five months : before that time its weight lies,
principally on the extremity of the re&um; and by
this, as well as by its bulk, the difeharge of the urine-
and faeces is impeded, and accidents Sometimes en¬
due from the compreffion of the- veins which pafs
through the pelvis. 1 hefe fymptoms fometimes va-
nifh about the middle of pregnancy, but re-appear
towards the latter end becaufe the head of the
child is early engaged in the pelvis, and a&s on the
fame parts that the whole uterus did before. Be-
lides all thefe accidents, there are others which may
take place at the time of delivery ; fo that, upon the
whole, it cannot be reckoned any real advantage for a-
woman to have a large pelvis.
The accidents, however, which arife from toa
great a fize of the pelvis, are much, more eafily re¬
medied, and in themfelves lefs dangerous, than fuch-
as aide from its narrownefs. This defeft may be
coniidered as either relative or abfolute. The for¬
mer arifes from an excels of fize in the head of the
child ; the latter from a bad conformation of the pel¬
vis itlelf. The abfolute narrownefs of the pelvis
rarely affefts all parts of it at once : it is- generally
found only in one of the ftraits j in which cafe, the
other is ulually of the natural fize, nay, fometimes
even larger than natural The fault is more frequent¬
ly in the fuperior than the inferior ftrait; and it is,
remarkable, that it moft commonly affects the ftrait
in its fmall diameter ; very rarely, in its tranfverfal;
fometimes affecting only one fide. In the inferior
ftrait it is generally caufed by the approximation of
the tuberofities of the ifehia.
“ 11 i5 caiy (^ys M. Baudelocque) to determine
why the fuperior ftrait is more frequently, deformed
than the inferior; and why it is almoft always be-
tween the pubes and facrum. that it is defective re-
fpedting delivery. If we confider the dire&ion of
the forces which ad on the pelvis of rickety chil¬
dren, in whom the bones are at the fame time fofter
and more loofely connefted than in the natural ftate,.
we fhail fee, that the greater part of thofe forces tend
Jo carry the bafe of the faeruna forward and the ojfa
jpubh
768 M I D W
backwards. Whether the child be (landing or
fclvisln l!ttingj if we attend to the direttion of the fpinal
general, column, we (hall fee that the weight of the body
J>—‘V-— mud infenhbly pufh the bafe of the facrum towards
the pubes ; and that it aids in the fame manner on
the inner parts of the acetabula, which ferve as a ful-
Cium to the inferior extremities when the child is
(landing or walking. The ojfa pubis, particularly in
thefe latter cafes, mud be pufhed towards the facrum}
in fuch a manner, however, that their pofterior ex¬
tremities often approach a little nearer to the pro¬
jection of the bafe of that bone than their anterior
extremities, or the fymphyfis. If the fuperior (bait
does not conftantly prefent the fame figure in deform-
td pehnjZs ; if it is fometimes larger on one fide than
the other; if one of the acetabula is nearer to the
facrum, while the other approaches lefs ; it the fym¬
phyfis of the pubes is removed, in many cafes from a
line which would divide the body into two equal
parts—it is beCaufe the rickets have not equally af-
fefted all the bones of the pelvis, nor equally hurt
all their junctions; and becaufe the attitude which
the child takes in walking or fitting may change a
ofittle the direction of the compreffing powers juft
mentioned. The weight of the body may alfo equal¬
ly hurt the form of the inferior ftrait, but varioufly,
according to the mod ufual attitude of the child
and.the direction taken by the fpinal column. For
example : If it fits much, the facrum will be more
Curved, and the ftrait more contracted from before
backwards : in this attitude, if it inclines habitually
to one fide, one of the ifchiatic tuberofities will be
thrown inwards, the os ilium will be more elevated,
&c. The aCtion of the mufcles which are attached
to the pelvis, the preffure of cloaths, and that which
the arms of the nurfe exert on this part, contribute
alfo fomething to the deformities in queftion, but
much lefs than the weight of the trunk : whence we
fee, of what importance it is to keep rickety chil¬
dren in bed, and leave them at liberty; inftead
of obliging them to walk, to fit up, or have them
conftantly in the arms, as is done almoft every
where.”
The dimenfions of the pelvis itfelf vary no lefs
than the contour of the (traits. If the diameter of
fome, taken from the pubes to the middle of the
projection of the os facrum, be only a few lines; in
others the defeCt is feveral inches, fo that fearcely a
(ingle inch is left between thefe bones. Thefe ex¬
tremes, however, are not frequently met with; and the
latter of them is never fo great in the inferior as in
the fuperior ftrait. On comparing the dimenfions of
a well-formed pelvis with thofe of a child’s head, we
(hall find that the former might admit of being fome
inches lefs in circumference, and yet be large enough
for an eafy delivery. The circumference of a com¬
mon head is ufually no more than ten inches and a
quarter, or ten and an half. The firft degree of nar-
rownefs in any pelvis therefore muft be, when each
diameter is fomething lefs than three inches and an
half. M. Baudelocque fays, that lie has feen pelvifes
in which the diftance of the pubes from the facrum
fuperiorly was no more than fix or eight lines; and
he had in his pofieffion two others, in one of which
the diftance from the back of the right acetabulum
N° 220.
I F E R Y. Part If
to the projection of the facrum was only three or four Defcriptionl
lines, and the other had but 14 lines between that of the. ®
projection and the fymphyfis of the pubes. Pelvis |n 3
The narrownefs of the pelvis is to be accounted ge“‘ra
one of the principal caufes of difficult delivery.—- V ^
When an opening of only three inches and a quar¬
ter is left, the labour muft be more difficult than when
it is three inches and an half, as the number of fric¬
tions which the child’s head muft undergo are then
more numerous and frequent. When there is an open¬
ing only of three inches, the labour muft be dill more
difficult; but dill there are inftances of natural deli¬
veries without any affiftance, notwithftanding the dif-
proportion betwixt the fize of the child’s head and
pelvis. This may even happen when the diameter
of the pelvis is (till fmaller, fuch as two inches and
three quarters, or two and an half. M. Solayves ob-
ferved in a cafe of this kind, that the head was
lengthened in fuch a manner, that its longed diame¬
ter was eight inches all but two lines, that which
goes from one parietal protuberance to the other be¬
ing reduced to two inches five or fix lines; and M.
Baudelocque has obferved fimilar changes in the form
of the head, and the refpeclive lengths of its diame¬
ters at the inftant of birth, where the child was
equally deformed, the long diameter being feven
inches, and the tranfverfe one two inches fix or feven
lines. The children were in good health ; and the
day after their birth their heads wanted very little of
the ufual proportions.
But when the fmall diameter of the pelvis is lefs
than two inches and an half, the head of the child
cannot pafs ; and then fome of.the dangerous chirur-
gical methods muft be undertaken, which frequently
prove fatal both to the mother and child. Even when
the pelvis is two inches and an half in diameter, the
natural delivery is not always without danger to both;
as, on one hand, the foft parts which cover the pelvis
are fubjedfted to fuch violent preffure that they be¬
come inflamed, exquifitely painful, and at laft are even
threatened with gangrene ; on the other, the bones
of the child’s cranium riding over one another, or
fometimes fradlured and depreffed, wound the brain,
and produce internal extravafations which generally
prove fatal. The bad confequences refulting frorn
a deformed pelvis, fhow themfelves fooner or latter,
according as the fuperior or inferior ftrait is vitiated.
When both are fo, the obftacles to the birth begin
to manifeft themfelves as fooh as the labour begins ; -jr'
and fometimes thofe at the fuperior ftrait are fo great,
that the expulfive powers are exhaufted, and the
head flops there ; or if it be pufhed farther into the
pelvis, and flopping there, it will remain incapable of
being delivered without the affiftance of art. The
head cannot pafs this ftrait without being in a confi-
cierable degree elongated; and when it enters the pel¬
vis, the cavity being there fufficient for it, it natu¬
rally returns to its former dimenfions, at leaft in part, 1
and more or lefs fo as it bays a longer or (hotter time.
The fame conformation of «the head, however, which
enabled if to pafs the firft ftrait, is dill more neceffary
to enable it to pafs the fecond: and hence the fymp-
toms which had come on with the firft pains, fome¬
times difappear in a great meafure during the time
that the head (lays in the excavation ; but increafe to
4 a
'art I. M I D W
s« Defcription a greater degree than ever when the ftrong labour
L; t.h® comes on.
5 general! When the fuperior ftrait alone is contracted, the
1 . ' head advances at firft with great difficulty; but as
foon as the parietal protuberances have cleared the
ftrait, the other parts of the pelvis being relatively
or abfolutely larger, the head paffes them with fo
much eafe, that the delivery is frequently terminated
by a few pains. The contrary is obfervable when
the fault is in the inferior ftrait, if the iirft be of the
ufual fize. The head then defcends eafily into the
lower part of the pelvis; but cannot proceed any far¬
ther, until it overcome the obftacles which obftruft its
courfe, and render it difficult and laborious. In this
cafe, the fymptoms attending obftru&ion appear later
than in the former. In thefe cafes, however, it
is neceffary that the praftitioner fhould accuftom him-
felf by praftice to form a juft eftimatfi of the powers
of nature, otherwife he may eafily deceive himfelf; in
the former, fuppofmg that a delivery is impoffible;
and in the latter, that a delivery will be eafy which
. cannot be effected without the affiftance of art. An
inftance of this is given by our author, in a cafe to
which (he fays) more than forty perfons were wit-
nefies.
The operator pronounced that the woman would
be fpeedily delivered, on account of the facility with
which the child’s head had engaged with the firft
pains ; and attributing the obftacles which foon after
obftrufted its courfe to another caufe, raffily deftroy-
ed the child by ufing the crotchet, when its life might
have been preferred by other means, having waited
two days in blind fecurity, expecting a natural deli¬
very. M. Baudelocque obtained poffeffion of the
pelvis of this woman after (he died; and tells us, that
the circumference of the fuperior ftrait of the pelvis,
when divefted of all its coverings, meafured 14 inches,
but the inferior only nine. The diftance from the
point of the os facrum to the fymphyfis of the pubes,
as well as the interval between the ifchiatic tubero-
fities, was but three inches. The cavity of this pel-
vis diminifhed infenfibly in breadth from one ftrait
to the other, and was as regular as poffible in its con¬
tour.
The excavation, or middle part of the pelvis, is
much more feldom defective in its form than the
ftraits ; and when this is the cafe, it muft arife from
fome exoftofis, or from the facrum defcribing a right
line in its anterior part, inftead of being curved as
ufual. The ftraight and flat form of the facrum ge¬
nerally produces fewer obftacles to delivery than the
too great curvature of it. The former fault general¬
ly afte&s only1 the cavity of the pelvis, and cannot
hinder the paflage of the child, if the canal be other-
wife well difpofed: but the latter, or too great a
curve of the facrum, commonly proves injurious to
both ftraits, contra6ting them from before backwards,
and at the fame time diminiftiing the depth of the
pelvis at the back part, as well as the refpeftive
height of the arch of the pubes. In thefe cafes the
head, though it pafies the firft ftrait with difficulty,
cannot pafs the fecond; being flopped in its courfe
by the inferior part of the facrum before the oc¬
ciput is long enough to engage under the arch.
Vol. XL Part IL
I F E R Y. 769
Labour* may alfo be rendered difficult by too great Defcriptiou
a length of the fymphyfis of the pubes ; a want of ele- p0^ th®
ration, or breadth of the arch of thefe bones; the J^nerah
length and wrong diredion of the ifchiatic fpines, as u—y—
well as a confolidation of the coccyx with the point
of the facrum. Thefe faults, however, arc very rare,
if we except the confolidation of the coccyx : they
are fcarce ever met with alone, and are generally the
confequences of a bad conformation of the reft of the
pelvis. Even this confolidation, however, though
more common than the other faults, yet cannot ob-
ftruft delivery fo frequently as has been imagined ;
and when it does fo, it is only in women who have x
narrow pelvis. Our author denies the pofition laid
down by fome, that the head of the child, in all
cafe*, puflies back the point of the coccyx half an inch,
or even a whole inch. Thofe who affert this (he fays)
know not the relation betwixt the dimenfions of the
head and the inferior ftrait in moft women. Whence
he cannot recommend a precept founded upon this
principle, by which it is direded to pufti back the
coccyx, when the head, though low down, cannot dif-
engage itfelf eafily.
We muft now confider a fubjed on which the wri¬
ters upon midwifery have been greatly divided, viz.
the feparation of the bones of the pelvis in the time
of labour. Some have imagined that this feparation
took place in all labours; others that it happened
only in difficult cafes ; fome, that it indicates a mor¬
bific ftate ; and fome that it was quite impoffible.—
M. Baudelocque allows the poffibility of fuch a fepa¬
ration, but denies that it happens fo frequently as is
imagined. “ Experience (fays he) demonftrates, that
this feparation, far from being common, is very rarely
met with, and is not more ufual after a laborious than
after an eafy labour, nor in a diftorted pelvis than in
one well formed. 1 have fought for it twenty times
in all thefe cafes, by opening the bodies, and have
fcarcely met with one which could remove all doubt
of its exiftence.” In thofe cafes where it takes place,
he is of opinion, that the filtration of ferum into the
ligamentous tiflue of the fymphyfis, muft be regarded
as the ufual predifpofing caufe. The remote caufe,
of confequence, muft be whatever produces this fil¬
tration. This, he thinks, cannot be done merely by
the prcflure of the gravid uterus on the trunks of the
veflels which are diftributed to thefe fymphyfes. As
alteration in the fluids themfelves he fuppofes likewifc
to be neceffary.
But though the predifpofing caufe of this repara¬
tion muft be the relaxation of the fymphyfes by the
infiltration of ferum, we are not to look upon the
fwelling of the cartilages by means of this infiltratioa
to be the immediate caufe : For however the liga¬
ments may be relaxed, the cartilages which incruft
the extremities of the ofla pubis, as well as the arti¬
cular facettes of the ofla ilia and the facrum, are no
thicker; fo that they cannot, as fome have fuppofed,
act like wetted wedges by which large blocks of ftone
may be cleaved. “ The wedge by which the bone*
of the pelvis are feparated (fays our author), does not
aft between the extremities of thefe bones, but in the
circle formed by their aflemblage in the pelvis itfelf:
it is the uterus charged with the produce of concep-
5 E tio»
770 M I D W I
Defcriptiofl t!on in the latter periods of pregnancy, and the child’s
Pelv/1 In ^ea<^ forced down by the action of the uterus, and
general! °f the abdominal mufcles in time of labour.”
U—-y—This reparation, however, is not always the effeft of
a relaxation and ftretching of the ligamentous tiffue of
the fymphyfis. In fome cafes, where the obftacles which
obftruA the paffage of the child are very great, and the
efforts for its expuliion very ttrong and lading, the iym-
phyfes tear,andpermitthe bones to feparate much farther
than they could have done by a Ample relaxation. “ I.
mull add fays our author) that it is not the fymphyfis of
the pubes, properly fpeaking, which tears ; for no
effort can break the ligamentous fubfiance which
unites thefe bones to each other ; the fymphyfis de¬
taches itfelf from one of them, and leaves the bone
naked.” The feparation in queftion has likewife fre¬
quently taken place in inllrumental deliveries, to which
the natural efforts feemed to contribute nothing ; and
it has alfo been found in confequence of a llroke or
fall.
“ Being deceived in the principle of this feparation
(fays M. Baudelocque), they neceffarily erred in the
confequence deduced from it. It has been fo firmly be¬
lieved to take place in all labours, that it was thought
to be abfolutely neceffary; and that without it many
women could not be delivered without extreme difSr
culty. Having thus millaken the necefiity and pre¬
tended advantages of this feparation, the natural re¬
finance of the fymphyfes, and above all the drynefs
and rigidity neceffarily induced in them by age, were
confequently reckoned among the caufes of difficult
and laborious births. Obftacles have been attributed
to the ftate of thefe fymphyfes, which merely depend¬
ed on the refiftance of the neck of the uterus, and of
the external parts; and it has been recommended to
moiften and relax them by the ufe of baths, cata-
plafms, lineaments, fomentations, &c. But what can
be expe&ed from fuch methods, when delivery is ob-
ftrufted by a narrow pelvis ? Will any one venture to
affert, that he has once by fuch means obtained the
effedl he expedled, and that he has thus affifted la¬
bours which could not otherwife have been terminated
but by the Caefarean operation, as has fo often been
publilhed ? I Ihould have difpenfed with demonftra-
ting the fallacy which has prevailed on this point, if it
had not led fome pradlitioners into a very ferious con¬
fequence. In order to appretiate all thefe means, and
fix the degree of confidence to be placed in them,
fuppofing that they could operate to the relaxation
of the fymphyfis of the pelvis, it is neceffary to de¬
termine what degree of amplitude can be given to
that cavity by the feparation of the bones which con-
ilitute it. The offa pubis cannot feparate without
augmenting the circumference of the pelvis; but how
much will its diameter be increafed ? If the circum¬
ference were perfeftly circular, every poffible diame¬
ter would partake a third of that augmentation : but
as the entrance of the pelvis is in general the more
elliptic as it deviates more from its natural ftate, it
follows, that its different diameters cannot increafe in
the fame proportion ; and we may fay that there is
none but the tranfverfe one which can become larger.
In a moderate feparation the antero-poflerior dia¬
meter is fcarce at all augmented ; and it has been re¬
peatedly demonflrated, that the offa pubis muft fepa-
F E R Y. Parti. |
rate at kaft an inch.to procure two lines in that direc- Oefcriptioii^H
tion ; while the tranfverfe diameter (hall be increafed
fix lines, and often-more.
“ The pelvis being larger in mod women than,is
neceffary for their delivery, the feparation of the bones
could be of no advantage to them, nor render their
delivery more eafy. Far from regarding it, with fome
ancieat authors, as a benefaction of nature, we ought
to confider it as an additional fource of inconveniences
in thofe women who are fubjedl to it: for, on one
fide, we fee that a pelvis too large expofes the woman
to a number of accidents ; and on the other, that
there are iome which inevitably accompany the fepa¬
ration, and the mobility of the bones which form that
cavity. Far from favouring delivery in all thefe cafes, it
could not but render it more tedious and painful to the
woman, as experience has convinced me. If we ought
to expedl any real advantage from it, confidcring it
only with refpect to the paffage of the child, it could
only be in thofe women who have the pelvis deformed,
and where the dcfedl which rendered delivery impof-
fible did not exceed two lines at the moll; fince a fe¬
paration of an inch cannot procure an augmentation of
more than two lines in the fmall diameter of the fuperior
llrait, which is almoft always that which occafions the
greateft obftacles to the exit of the child. If from a fepa¬
ration of an inch, which has never taken place between
the offa pubis without a rupture of their fymphyfis, we
are not to expeft an augmentation of more than tw»
lines in the dire&ion of the little diameter of the fupe-
rioi llrait, what can we obtain from a feparation always
much lefs, and fo little apparent in moll women that
we may doubt its exiflence ? The examination of a
great number of women who have died in child-bed,
has proved to me that it is exceffively rare for the fe¬
paration in quellion to amount to two lines; and I
never found it exceed that but once But fuppofing
(what is impoffible) that art could procure a fepara¬
tion of an inch between the offa pubis without divi¬
ding their fymphyfis, what prattitioner would dare to
affirm, without fear of being deceived, that the volume
of the child’s head did not exceed the little diameter
of the fuperior llrait by more than two lines ? If it is
difficult to eftimate juftly the degree of opening in the
pelvis, it is much more difficult Hill to judge of the
child’s head ; and it is only by taking the mean be¬
tween the largell and the fmallelt that we ufually ella-
blifh the relation of its dimenfions to thofe of the pel¬
vis ; but a thereabouts, in the cafe fuppofed, cannot
fupply the place of that precifion which would be
neceffary.”
From his reafoning upon this fubjedl, M. Baude¬
locque concludes diredlly again ft the operation of cut¬
ting the fymphyfis of the pubes, as being not only
ufelefs, but attended with very dangerous confequen-
ces. “ When this feparation (fays he) has been fud-
denly made, fevere pains in the parts divided, an im-
poffibity of walking, and fometimes even of moving
the inferior extremities, inflammation, fever, abfeeffes,
caries, and laftly death itfelf, have generally been the
effefts of it: but when a relaxation only takes place,
the confequences are lefs fevere ; a painful and totter¬
ing walk being the only fymptom attending it. If
the relaxed fymphyfis at lall grow firm again, if the
bones of the pelvis recover their former liability, if
ifrart I.
M I D W
le^Uefciptionthe lathencfs goes off entirely in fome women, how
»B of the often, on the contrary, have we not obferved an in-
J ability to or even to move the legs, without vio-
f, a'‘ lent pain, continue for years after.vards
Thefe violent fymptoms frequently attend even
! flight feparations of the bones in queftion. M. Baude-
locque gives an inftance of a woman who had kept her
bed ten months, b^ing all that time affli&ed with the
moft excruciating pains in the junftion of the offa
pubis, and of one of the ilia, with the facrum, when¬
ever fhe attempted to move the inferior extremities,
though no feparation of the fymphyfis could be difco-
▼ered, nor any thing befides a flight mobility in that
of the pubes. The accident had been perceived du¬
ring the time of labour, and the midwife had been
accufed of luxating the bones.
Dr Denman has alfo treated this fubjeft at confidc-
rable length. He informs us, that for many centu¬
ries it was believed that thefe bones were always fepa-
rated during the time of labour ; or that there was
a difpofition to feparate, and an a£iual feparation, if
the neceffity of any particular cafe required that en¬
largement of the cavity of the pelvis which was con-
fequent to it. The degree of feparation was alfo fup-
pofed to be proportioned to fuch neceflity ; and when
this did not happen naturally, inllruments were made
ufe of for diftending the parts: and, on the fame
principle, the feftion of the fymphyfis of the pubes
has been recommended. “ This opinion (fays he)
ought probably to be affigned as one reafon for the
fuperficial notice taken by the early writers on mid-
wifery of thofe difficulties which are fometimes found
to occur in parturition from the narrownefs or de¬
formity of the pelvis. To this may alfo be referred
much of the popular treatment of women in child-bed,
and many popular expreffions in ufe at prefent. But
this opinion has been controverted by many writers,
who affert, that there was neither a feparation nor a
difpofition to feparate ; but that, when either of them
did happen, they were not to be efteemed as common
efle&s attendant on the parturient ftate, but as difea-
fes of the conne&ing parts. The difputants on each
iide have appealed to prefumptive arguments, and to
fads proved by the examination of the bodies of thofe
who died in child-bed, in j uftification of their feveral
opinions. But, notwithftanding all that has been faid, I
know not thatwe are authorifed by theexperience of the
prefent time to fay, that a feparation, or a difpofition to
leparate, prevails univerfally at the latter part of preg¬
nancy, or at the time of labour: yet that thefe ef¬
fects are often, if not generally, produced, may be
gathered from the pain and weaknefs at the parti
where the bones of the pelvis are joined to each other
before and after delivery. In fome cafes alfo preg¬
nant women are fenlible of a motion at the jun&ion of
the bones, efpecially at the fymphyfis of the offa pubis;
and the noife which accompanies it may fometimes be
heard by the byftanders.
“ A ftrong prefumptive argument in favour of-the
feparation of the bones has been drawn from quadru¬
peds. In thefe the ligaments which pafs from the ob-
tufe procefles of the ifchia to the facrum, on which
the fiimnefs of the jundion of the bones very much
depends, and which at all other times refill any im-
I F E R Y. 771
preffion attempted to be made upon them, are for fe- De^7hcl0a
veral days previous to parturition gradually deprived pejvii( ;a
of their ftrength, and the animal walks in fuch a man- gen!rfa[.
ner as would incline us to believe could only be pro- —<
duced by a feparation of the bones of the pelvis. Now
it is not reafonable to conclude, that a circumftance
which generally takes place in one clafs of viviparous
animals ftiould never occur in another, efpecially in
a mattey in which there is not effential difference.”
Notwithftanding thefe arguments, however, Dr
Denman does not look upon the? matter to be yet ab-
folutely decided. No perfon, he fays, who has been
converfant in the diffedion of women who have died
in child-bed, can have wanted opportunities of feeing
every intermediate ftate of thefe parts, from a fepara¬
tion in which the furfaces of the bones were loofened
and at a confiderable diftance from each other, to that
in which there was not the leaft difpofition to dif-
unite.
When this feparation takes place beyond a certain
degree, it is to be looked upon as morbid : and, he
fays, that it may be produced by the two following
caufes. “ 1/?, A fpontaneous difpofition of the con-
neding parts. zJ/y, The violence with which the
head of the child is protruded through the pelvis.”
Of each of thefe cafes he gives an example.—The firft
was of a young lady of a healthy conftitution, who
had been married in the 21 ft year of her age, and in
1774 was delivered of her third child, which was un-
ufually large, and the labour was fevere and tedious.
For feveral days before delivery ftie had been fo much'
afflided with pain and weaknefs in her loins, that ffie
could not walk without affiftance. She recovered
without any unfavourable circumftance, excepting that
for feveral weeks ftie was incapable of Handing up¬
right, or putting one foot before the other ; the at¬
tempt to do either being attended with pain and
a fenfation of loofenefs and jarring, both at the parts
where the .offa innominata are joined to the facrum,
and at the fymphyfis of the offa pubis. By the ufe
of ftrengthening medicines ftie recovered, and in a few
months was perfedly well.”
It being fufpeded that the complaints above men¬
tioned had proceeded from too frequent parturition,
fhe was advifed to fuckle her child for a longer time
than ufual; and accordingly continued a nurfe for 15
months. Soon after this ftie became with child a
fourth time. The complaints which had accompanied
her former pregnancy now came on fooner, and with
greater violence than before, infomuch that for three
weeks before delivery fhe could neither walk nor ftand;
and there was reafon to fuppofe that the hones of the
pelvis were feparating. She was delivered on the 7th
of July 1777, the labour being accompanied with
faintings, great irritability, and a total inability to
move her inferior extremities. A few days after her
delivery ftie had a fever, which terminated in an ab-
feefs in one of her breafts, by which fhe was confined
to her bed for near feven weeks. In nine weeks fhe
could walk with crutches, and received coniiderable
benefit by being fent into the country ; and likewife,
as fhe imagined, by drinking half a pint of infufion of
malt twice a day. In about five months fhe was able
to walk without affiftance ; though fometimes fenfible
5 ‘ 5 E 2
772 M I D \V I
Defcripfion of the motion of the hones, which feem never to have
PdvUin keen ptrreftly uniced.
-general. About Chriilmas the fame year, this lady became a-
^r—- gain pregnant; and in the month of July 1778 (he began
to feel an inability to move; which, however, was attri¬
buted to the heat of the weather; but ou a fudden the
pain andweaknefsofher back returned to fuch a degree,
that (he could walk no more till the 1 ith of Oclober,
when (he was delivered of a fine child, but after a mod
fevere and tedious labour, occahoned m a great mea-
fure by her being totally unable to move. The fymp-
toms after her delivery became very extraordinary and
alarming. On the fourth day a fever came on ; and
though this was foon removed, the pain at the junc¬
tion of the bones ftill continued. She had no com¬
mand of her inferior extremities ; and the pain, when
fhe was moved, became fo excruciating, that (he felt
as if tearing afunder. Her ftemach was at all times
much difturbed ; but when the pain became violent,
a naufea, vomiting, or hiccough came on. Strange
fympathies were produced in various parts ; as a tea-
bng cough, fneezing, fenfe of weight in her eye-lids,
which could not be kept open though there was no
inclination to deep. There was a noife in the bowels,
and other nervous affections, all of which ccafed when
the pain was allayed by opiates.
Having remained for feveral months in this deplo¬
rable fituation, it was at laft thought proper to raife
her from her bed, and caufe her to make an effort to
ftand or walk, led her complaints fhould be made
Worfe by fuch a long courfe of inactivity. She had
now, however, totally loft the power of fupporting
herfelf ; the motion of the bones was plainly percei¬
ved ; and the confequences of every trial were fo pain¬
ful, that there was a neceffity for defifting. In 17 79
Ihe was removed, upon a couch, in a boat to Mar¬
gate, for the benefit of the air and fea-bathing, from
which (he was always fenfible of receiving advantage.
In this place (he continued tc refide ; and in eight years
after her delivery became able to walk without crutches.
The fecond cafe was of a young woman of a healthy
but delicate conftitution, who was in labour of her
firft child. The pains were fo ftrong, that the head
of the child was forced through the external parts,
and the perinseum fuppofed to be lacerated, in fpite
of all the oppofition which could be made. At the
inftant when the head of the child was expelled, the
operator perceived fomething to jar under his hand,
and was even fenfible of a noife, which he attributed
to the laceration of the perinseum. In a little time
the placenta was extracted without hurry or violence
and a few drops of tindura opii were given to allay
the uneafinefs which took place, and was fuppofed to
be occafioned by after pains. On the following days,
however, (he complained of an uneafinefs in the re¬
gion of the abdomen ; but no particular notice was
taken of it, as the milk was regularly fecreted, and
there was no fymptom of fever; but on the fourth
day, when taken out of bed, (he was found to be
unable either to Hand or fit on her chair by reafon
©f the pain and weaknefs in the part of which (he ori¬
ginally complained. This was afterwards conjeCtured
to arife from a reparation of the bones of the pubes
to which conjecture the long continuance of the com-
F E R Y.
Partr.
plaint feemed to give countenance. The conjefture IWcriptian
was .founded on the pofitions and attitudes in which pof, •
the patient fought to find relief. The. fymptoms were genera?
as follow : —When (he endeavoured to (land upright, ■y- y
which (he could do better upon one foot than both,
and \tf(th her feet clofe than at a diftance, together
with the pain at the fymphyiis, (he had a fenfe of
extreme weaknefs, accompanied with a faintnefs.
When (he firft fat down on her chair, refting her el¬
bows upon the arms, the complaints became tolerable.
When (he had remained a little time in this pofition,
they again became importunate, and (he fupported.
herfelf with her hands upon her knees, and prefently
bent forwards, fo as to lean her elbows upon her
knees : this pofition becoming irkfome, (he was ob¬
liged to return to her bed, where (he became imme¬
diately eafy. When (he firft attempted to walk, (he
was compelled to bend forwards in fuch a manner as
to reft her hands upon her knees, making a ftraight
line from her (boulders to her feet. At the end of
14 weeks, whilft (he was in a coach, into which (he
had often been lifted for the benefit of air and exercife,
(he had a difeharge which (he fuppofed to be men-
ftruous; but which, though it ceafed before her re¬
turn, gave immediate relief. From this time (he be¬
came better every day, and in fix weeks was able to
walk. She had afterwards three children, with which
her labours were eafy, and (he never had any return
of the above mentioned complaints.
From all this it is evident, that Dr Denman differs
confiderably in his opinion from M. Baudelocque con¬
cerning the feparation of thefe bones. According to
him, it appears that this feparation, though extremely
painful, does not feem to be attended with fatal con¬
fequences ; and with regard to the quantity of the fe¬
paration, it muft undoubtedly be fometimes much
greater than what M. Baudelocque fuppofes ; for Dr
Denman brings an inftance from the 484th number of
the Philofophical Tran factions, in which the bones were
feparated to the diftance of four inches. This happen¬
ed ift confequence of the darting of a horfe when a
gentleman was riding. He obferves, however, that*,
in women, the violence which the conne&ing parta
of the bones undergo when the head of the child is
protruded through the pelvis with extreme difficulty,
fometimes occafions an affeftion of more confequence
than even the feparation of the bones themfelves. This
is the formation of matter upon the loofened furfacCs
of the bones, preceded by great pain, and other fymp-
toms of infiammation.
In the beginning of this complaint, it is difficult
ts afeertain whether the conne&ing parts of the bones,
or fome of thofe contiguous, be the feat of the difeafe;
but when fuppuration' has taken place in confequence
of the injury fuftained at {he jun&ion of the offa in-
nominata with the facrum, the abfeefs has fometimes
been cured by the common treatment, having formed
in the neighbourhood of the injured part. At other
times, when matter has been formed about the fym-
phyfis of the os pubis, heftic fymptoms have enfued,
and the caufe of them only, difeovered after the pa¬
tient died. In fome cafes the matter has burft through
the capfular ligament of the fymphyfis at the inferior
edge, or perhaps made its way into the bladder; and
aPart T» M I D W
ijlfrcription in others it has infinuated itfelf under the per'iojltum,
*( °^ ^ continuing its courfe along the pubes, until it arrives
iseeiieraJ11 at t^e acetabulum. Thus all the fymptoms were ag*
^ gravated; and the matter making its way towards
the furface, a large abfcefs has been formed on .the
inner or fore-part of the thigh, or near the hip fo
that the patients have at laft funk under the fever
and profufe difcharge from the ulcer. On dilfefting
thofe who have died in this manner, the track of the
matter has been followed from the aperture of the ab-
fcefs to the fymphyfis, the cartilages of which were
found to be eroded, the bones carious, and the ad¬
jacent parts very much injured or deftroyed. Our
author imagines it poffible, by means of fome parti¬
cular fymptom, to difeover whether or not there be
any difpofition in the parts above mentioned to fup-
purate, or to know when fuppuration has taken place.
In all cafes of unufual pain attended with equivocal
fymptoms, the parts ought to be examined with great
care and attention: for where there is any difpo¬
fition to fuppurate, it might perhaps be removed by
proper means; and when the matter is formed, if there
be a fwelling in the fymphyfis, and, more efpecially,
if a flu&uation could be perceived, the propriety of
making an incifion to evacuate the matter, and pre¬
vent farther bad confequences, might be determined.
Wiih regard to the poffibility of re-uniting the
bones of the pelvis after they have once been fepara-
ted, our author has the following obfervations.
“ When the connexion of the bones of the pelvis
has either been impaired or deftroyed, it is probable
that a confirmation or re-union may take place by a
reftoration of the original mode, by a callus, of by
anchylofis. But it is likewife poflible that the bones
may remain in a ftate of reparation, and an articula¬
tion be formed by the ends of each bone, at the fym¬
phyfis of the ofia pubis, and at the junftion of the
offa innominata with the os facrum.” Of this laft
the Doftor has fecn one inftance in a dead body, and
has had reafon to fufpeft the exiftence of it in fome
living perfons. In the lower degrees of imperfe&ion
the former method of union probably takes place ;
as the complaints made by women of pain and weak-
nefs, after delivery, generally go off before their
month of confinement is elapfed \ but when they con¬
tinue for a longer time, the beft method is to enjoin
the patient reft and an horizontal pofture. In an in-
creafed degree of the complaint, where the health of
the patient is affe&ed, a longer time will be required
for the recovery; but fhould the injury be too great
to admit of the reftoration of the original mode of
union, a much longer time will be requifite for the
formation of a callus, if this ever takes place except
as a previous flep to an anchylofis. This laft has
been obferved frequently to take place at the junftion
of the offa innominata with the facrum, but never at
the fymphyfis of the pubes. In this cafe little can
be expe&ed excepting from fuch remedies as tend to
reftore the conftitution to its priftine vigour ; and in
the firft cafe above related, the only thing from which
the patient feemed to obtain relief was the cold-bath.
She was likewife much affifted by the ufe of a fwath,
or broad belt, made of foft leather, quilted, and
buckled with fuch firmnefs over the lower part of the
body as to leffen, if not prevent, the motion of the
I F E R Y.
bones; and this was kept in its fit nation by a bandage
paffed between the legs, from the hind to the fore
part of the belt. But when a joint is formed be¬
tween the feparated furfaces of the bones, all hope of
recovering the patient to her former health may be
given up. The only thing which can then be done
for her relief muft be by the ufe of a belt, or fome limi-
lar contrivance, to fubftitute, as much as poffible, ar¬
tificial firmnefs, inftead of natural. Dr Denman faw
one cafe in which he fufpe&ed this to have happened,
and in which the life of the patient was truly mife-
rable : He is of opinion, however, that it very rarely
occurs; having beenf informed of another perfon, who„
after eight years confinement to her bed, in confe-
quence of the feparation of the bones in the time of
labour, was at laft reflored to the perfect ufe of her
inferior extremities. Inftances alfo, though rare, have
occurred, in which women, after labours, have fuf-
fered much pain in the region of the facrum, and to¬
tally loft the power of moving their inferior extrerm-
ties.>r-This has been fuppofed a paralytic affe&ion,,
and they are faid to be bed-ridden ; hut as thefe pa¬
tients have generally been reftored, though after a
very long confinement, our author thinks it reafonable
to fuppofe that their infirmity had been occafioned’
by a feparation of the bones, which at different pe¬
riods after the accident, according to the degree of
their feparation, had recovered their former connec¬
tion and ftrength.
Chap. II. Of Pregnancy.
At the time of conception, and for fome time af¬
ter, the parts which form the fmall feet us are fo blend¬
ed together, that one cannot fee diftingnifhed from-
another. The whole mafs is then called an ovum.
This ovum confifts of four membranes; the placenta,
or after-birth; the funis umbilicalis or navel-ftring,
leading to the child ; and the furrounding watery fluid’
in which it floats. Before the child acquires a diftin£t
and regular form, it is called embryo, and afterwards
retains the name of foetus till its birth. For the in-
ereafe and nutrition of the foetus, fee Anatomy, rO
109.i10.
During the progrefs of impregnation the uterus fuf-
fers confiderable changes ; but, though it enlarges a*
the ovum increafes, yet, in regard to its contents, it is
never full; for, in early geftation, thefe are confined
to the fundus only : and though the capacity of the
uterus increafes, yet it is not mechanically ftrctched,
for the thicknefs of its fides do not diminilh ; there is
a proportional increafe of the quantity of fluids, and
therefore pretty much the fame thicknefs remains aS
before impregnation.
The gravid uterus is of different fizes in different;
women ; and muft vary according to the bulk of the
foetus and involucra. The fituation will alfo vary ac¬
cording to the increafe of its contents and the pofi*
tion of the body. For the firft two or three months,,
the cavity of the fundus is triangular, as before im¬
pregnation ; but as the uterus ftretches, it gradually
acquires a more rounded form. In general, the ute¬
rus never rifes dire&ly upwards, but inclines a little
obliquely^ moft commonly to the right fide ; its pofi-
tion is never, hcwever,.fo oblique as to prove the foie
eaufe
M I D W
caufe either of preventing or retarding delivery : its
increafe of bulk does not feem to arife merely from dif-
tention, but to depend on the fame caufe as the ex-
teniion of the Ikin in a growing child. This is proved
from fome late inftances of extra-uterine fcetufes, where
the uterus, though there were no contents, was nearly
of the fame fize, from the additional quantity of nou-
rifhment tranfmitted, as if the ovum had been contain¬
ed within its cavity.
The internal furface, which is generally pretty
fmootli, except where the placenta adheres, is lined
with a tender efflorefcence of the uterus, which, after
delivery, appears as if torn, and is thrown off with the
cleanfings. This is the membrana decidua of Dr Hun¬
ter.
Though the uterus, from the moment of concep¬
tion, is gradually diftended, by which confiderable
changes are occafioned, it is very difficult to judge of
pregnancy from appearances in the early months.
For the hrft three months the os tines feels fmooth
and even, and its orifice as fmall as in the virgin date.
When any difference can be perceived, about the
fourth or fifth month from the defeent of the fundus
through the pelvis, the tubercle or proje&ing part of
the os tincae will feem larger, longer, and more ex¬
panded ; but, after this period, .it fhortens, particu¬
larly at its fore-parts and fides, and its orifice or la¬
bia begin to feparate, fo as to have its conical appear¬
ance deitroyed. The cervix, which in the early
months is nearly {hut, now begins to ftretch and to
be diftended to the os tincse ; but during the whole
term of utero-geftation, the mouth of the uterus is
ftrongly cemented with a ropy mucus, which lines it
and the cervix, and begins to be difeharged on the
approach of labour. In the laft week, when the cer¬
vix uteri is completely diftended, the uterine orifice
begins to form an elliptical tube, inftead of a fiffure,
or to aflume the appearance of a ring on a large globe;
and often at this time, efpecially in pendulous bellies,
difappears entirely, fo as to be out of the reach of the
finger in touching. Hence the os uteri is not in the
direction of the axis of the womb, as has generally
keen fuppofed.
About the fourth, or between the fourth and fifth
month, the fundus uteri begins to rife above the pubes
or brim of the pelvis, and its cervix to be diftended
nearly one third. In the fifth month the belly fwells
like a ball, with the lkin tenfe, the fundus about half
way between the pubes and navel, and the neck one
haft diftended. After the fixth month the greateft part
of the cervix uteri dilates, lo as to make almoft one ca¬
vity with the lundus. In the feventh month the fun¬
dus advances as far as the umbilicus. In the eighth it
reaches mid-way between the navel and fcrobiculus
cordis; and in the ninth to the fcrobiculus itfelf, the
neck then being entirely diftended, which, with the os
tincse, become the weakeft part of the uterus. Thus
at full time the uterus occupies all the umbilical and
hypogaftric regions ; its ftiape is almoft pyriform, that
is, more rounded above than below, and having a ftric-
ture on that part which is furrounded by the brim of
the pelvis.
The appendages of the uterus fuffer very little
change during pregnancy, except the ligamenta lata,
I F E R Y.
which diminifti in breadth as the uterus enlarges, and
at full time are almoft entirely obliterated.
'1 he moft remarkable change happens in the ova¬
rium. A cicatrice of a roundfth figure and yellowifh
colour appears in this body, called by anatomifts the
corpus luteum. It is always to be found in one of the
ovaria; and in cafes of twins a corpus luteum often ap¬
pears in both ovaria. It was formerly confidered as
the calyx ovi; but modern phyfiologifts think it a
gland, from whence the feminal fluid is eje&ed. In
early geftation it is moft confpicuous, when a cavity
is obfervable, which afterwards collapfes ; no veffels
appear at the centre of this cavity which has the ap¬
pearance of cicatrix, but all around that centre the
fubftance is vafcular.
During the progrefs of diftenfion, the fubftance of
the uterus becomes much loofer, of a fofter texture,
and more vafcular than before conception ; its veins
particularly, in their diameters, being enlarged in fuch
a manner as to get the name of finufes ; they obferve
a more direft courfe than the arteries, which run in a
ferpentine manner, anaftomofing with one another and
through its whole fubftance, efpecially where the pla¬
centa adheres, where this vafcular appearance is moft
confpicuous.
The arteries pafs from the uterus through the deci¬
dua, and open into the fubftance of the placenta in a
flanting dire&ion. The veins alfo open into the pla¬
centa, and by inje&ing thefe veins from the uterus with
wax, the whole fpungy or cellular part of the placenta
will be filled.
The mufcular ftru&ure of the gravid uterus is ex¬
tremely difficult to be ftiown : in the wombs of women
who die in labour, or foon after delivery, fibres run¬
ning in various diredtions are obfervable more or lefs
circular, that feem to arife from three diftindt origins;
viz. from the place where the placenta adheres, and
from the aperture or orifice of each of the tubes;
but it is almoft impoffible to demonftrate regular
plans of fibres, continued any length without inter¬
ruption.
Chap. Ilf. Spurious Gravidity.
The various difeafes incident to the uterine fyftem,
and other morbid affedlions of the abdominal vifeera,
will frequently excite the fymptoms and aflume the
appearance of utero-geftation. Complaints arifing
from a Ample obftrudtion are fometimes miftaken for
thofe of breeding ; when a tumor about the region
of the uterus is alfo formed, and gradually becomes
more and more bulky, the fymptoms it occafious are
fo ftrongly marked, and the refemblance to pregnancy
fo very ftriking, that the ignorant patient is often de¬
ceived, and even the experienced phyfician impofed
on.
Scirrhous, polypous, or farcomatous tumors in or
about the uterus or pelvis ; dropfy or ventsfity of the
uterus or tubes ; fteatoma or dropfy of the ovaria, and
ventral conception, are the common caufes of fuch
fallacious appearances.. In many of thefe cafes the
menfes difappear; naufea, retchings, and other fymp¬
toms of breeding, enfue ; flatus in the bowels will be
miftaken for the motion of the child; and in the ad¬
vanced
Part I, it
Spurious *
ijraviditfiSf'
1
F E R Y.
lard. M I D W I
>|perfcera- v«nced ftages of the dlfeafe, from the preflure of the
ilTtion. fwelling on the adjacent parts. Tumefaftion and
hardnefs of the mammas: fupervene, and fometimes a
vifcid or ferous fluid diftils from the nipple ; circum-
ftances that ftrongly confirm the woman in her opi¬
nion, till time or the dreadful confequences that often
enfue at laft convince her of her fatal miftake.
Falfe Conception.—Mold. Other kinds of fpurious
gravidity, lefs hazardous in their nature than any of
I the preceding, may under this head alfo be clafied ^
difeafes commonly known by the names of falje con’-
ception and mo la : The former of thefe is nothing
more than the diflblution of the foetus in the early
months ; the placenta is afterwards retained in the
uterus, and from the addition of coagula, or in con-
fequence of difeafe, is excluded in an indurated or
enlarged flate ; when it remained for months or longer,
and came off in the form of a flefhy of feirrhous-like
mafs, without having any cavity in the centre, it was
formerly diftinguifhed by the name of mola.
Mere coagula of blood, retained in the uterus after
delivery, or after immoderate floodings at any period
ef life, and fqueezed, by the preflure of the uterus,
into a fibrous or compaft form, conftitute another
fpecies of mola, that more frequently occurs than any
of the former. Thefe, though they may affume the
appearances.of gravidity, are generally, however, ex¬
pelled fpontaneoufly, and are feldom followed with
dangerous confequences.
Chap. IV. Superfaetation.
Soon after impregnation takes place, the cervix
uteri becomes entirely fhut up by means of a thick
vifeid gluten : the internal cavity is alfo lined by the
external membrane of the ovum, which attaches itfelf
to the whole internal furface of the fundus uteri : the
Fallopian tubes alfo become flaccid ; and are, as gra¬
vidity advances, fuppofed to be removed at fuch a
diftance, that they cannot reach the ovaria to receive
or convey another ovum into the uterus. For thefe,
ana other reafons, the doftrine of fuperfatation is now
pretty generally exploded.—A do&rine that feems to.
have arifen from the cafe of a double or triple concep¬
tion, where, feme time after their formation in utero,-
one foetus has been expelled, and another has remain¬
ed ; or after the extinftion of life at an early period,,
one or more may be ftill retained, and thrown ofF in
a fmall and putrid ftate, after the birth of a full-grown
child.
The uterus of brutes is divided into different cells;.
and their ova do not attach themfelves to the uterus-
& early as in the human fubjedt, but are. fuppofed to
xeceive their nourifhment for fome time by abforption.
Hence the os uteri does not clofe immediately after
conception ; for a bitch will admit a variety of dogs
while flie is in feafon, and will bring forth puppies of
thefe different fpecies : thus it is common for a gre-
honnd to have, in the fame litter, one of the gre-
hound kind, a pointer, and a third, .or more, different
from both : Another circumftance that has given rife
to faperfatation in the human fubjeft, which can only
happen when there is a double fet of parts, inftances
of which are very rare..
Monfters*
Chap. V. Extra uterine Foetufes, or ventral •
Conception.
,The impregnated ovum, or rudiments of the feetus,
is not always received from the ovarium by the tuba
Fallopiana, to be thence conveyed into the cavity of
the uterus; for there are inftances where the foetus
fometimes remains in the ovarium, and fometimes even
in the tube ; or where it drops out of the ovarium,
mifles the tubes, and falls into the cavity of the ab¬
domen, takes root in the neighbouring parts, and is
thereby nourilhed : But as thefe feetufes cannot there
receive fo m«ch nourifhment as in the fucculent uterus,
they are lefs, and generally come to their full growth
before the common term.
Of thefe fome burft in the abdomen ; and others-
form abfeeffes, and are thereby difeharged ; others-
dry, and appear bony,, and remain during life, or
are difeharged as above, or by ftool, &e.
Chap. VI. Monfters.
When two or more ova contained in the uterus-
attach themfelves fo near one another as to adhere is*
whole or in part, fo as to form only one body with
membranes and water in common, this body will form
a confufed irregular mafs called monjlrous ; and thus a
monfter may be either defe&ive in its organic parts,
or be fupplied with a fupernumerary fet of parts de¬
rived from another ovum. This feems a rational con-
je&ure; but while every thing relative to generation
is a myftery, how can we account for the extraordi¬
nary phsenomena ? Some authors enumerate a third
fpecies of monfter, the produft of a mixed breed, ex¬
emplified, for inftance, in the mule, produced by the
mixed generation of an afs and a mare. In this ani¬
mal there are organical parts different from what pre-
exifted in the parents ; there is a defeA of fome parts,
a luxuriant growth of others ; and the defied in the
parts of generation, which renders the animal unfit-
for propagation, conftitutes a very curious and parti¬
cular fpecies.
Chap. VII. Difeafes of Pregnancy.
After, conception, a remarkable change is {Qon0uifnes cf
produced in the genital fyftem. This is the fource1
from whence a riff different fymptoms, that are how-
ever liable to confiderable variation, not only in the
conftitution of different women, but in the fame wo¬
man in different pregnancies, and at different periods
of the fame pregnancy. >
Pregnancy^—though a natural alteration of the
animal-ceconomy, which every female feems originally
formed to undergo, and hence not to be confidered as
a ftate of difeafe, occafions, however, fooner or later,.
in many women, various complaints,, which evidently
depend on it as a caufe.
Difeafes incident to the pregnant ftate may be con¬
fidered, either, i. As arifing from fympathy in the
early months; or, 2. As depending on the ftretching
and preffure of the uterus towards the more advanced.
ftagesv
77® M I D W I
Difeafes of I. Though the Former of thefe complaints are ge-
Piegnancy. neraUy to be accounted for from other caufes than
” ' ' l~ tliat ©f plethora ; yet, in many conftitutions, a certain
plethoric difpofition in the early months of pregnancy
feems to prevail in the vafcular fyftem : And therefore,
though many inconveniences may enfue from a tpo
frequent, a too copious, or an indifcriminate ufe of
'venefe&ion ; yet, if prudently and judicioufly em¬
ployed, abortion by this means will not be endan¬
gered, as fome late authors have alleged; but, on the
contrary, on many occafions, a feafonable bleeding
will be attended with the molt beneficial and falutary
efftfts.
In young women, fuddenly affe&ed with fevere
ficknefs and loathing, febrile commotion, headach,
vertigo, and other fymptoms of breeding, more efpe-
cially in- full fanguineoua habits, befides a fpare light
diet and fuitable exercife, recourse mult be had to
proper evacuations, the chief of which is venefe&ion :
this may be fafely performed at any time of gravida-
tion, and occafionally repeated according to the ur¬
gency of the fymptoms ; fmall bleedings, at proper
intervals, are preferable to copious evacuations, which
in early pregnancy ought always to be carefully guard¬
ed againft.
When the ftomach is loaded with putrid bile or
acrid faburra, the offenfive matter Ihould be difcharged
by gentle vomits of ipecacuan, or of infufions of cha¬
momile flowers. The violent efforts to retch and vo¬
mit, and the commotions thence excited, which often
occafion the expulfion of the foetus, will by this means
frequently be removed, in moft cafes greatly diminilh-
ed. During the term of breeding, the Hate of
the belly mull be alfo attended to. When laxative
medicines become neceffary, thofe of the mildeft and
gentlell kind Ihould be adminiftered.
In women liable to nervous complaints, where the
flomach is weak, and the ficknefs violent and conti¬
nued, the patient Ihould be put on a courfe of light,
aromatic, and llrengthening bitters ; fuch as infufions
of bark, columbo, &c. and her diet, air, exercife,
company, and amufement, Ihould be regulated : In or¬
der to fettle the ftomach, and leffen the fenfibility of
the fyftem, opiates will often happily fucceed, when
every other remedy fails.
Heart-burn and diarrhaa,—common fymptoms of
breeding, or of pregnancy, muft be treated pretty
much as at other times. B@th complaints chiefly de¬
pend on the ftate of [the ftomach.
‘Tumefadion, tcnjion, and pains in the mamma.—
If tight lacing here be only avoided, and the breafts
have room to enlarge and fwell, no inconvenience ever
follows : Thefe effe&s arife from a natural caufe, and
feldom require medical treatment. If very trouble-
fome and uneafy, bathing with oil, or anointing with
pomatum, and covering with foft flannel or fur, will in
moft cafes prove the cure.
The menjlrual evacuation—is in fome women regular
for the firft, fecond, or third period after conception.
This feldom happens but in women of fanguinary
plethoric habits, fuch as have been accuftomed to large
copious evacuations at other times, when the difcharge
is to be confidered as beneficial.
Deliquia, nervous, or hyfieric Jits—When thefe ar«
N= 220.
F E R Y. fart I, ]
occafioned by falls, frights, and paffions of the mind, tkifeafe^ of
they frequently end in the lofs of the child : But p\ciSnitnclK;|
when they happen about the term of quickening, they » 'i ’
feem to arife from the efcape of the uterus from its
confinement within the capacity of the pelvis ; in
which cafe they are commonly flight, of ftiort dura¬
tion, and never threaten any dangerous confequence.
II. Tire fecond clafs of complaints, viz. thofe that
are incident to the advanced ftages of utero-geftation,
and that depend on the change of fituation of the gra¬
vid uterus, its enlaigement and preffure on the neigh¬
bouring parts are more painful in their fymptoms,
and more dangerous in their confequences, than thofe
enumerated in the preceding clafs. The premature
exclufion of the foetus is generally the worft inconve¬
nience refulting from the one; the death of the mo¬
ther, along with the lofs of the child, is too frequently
an attendant of the other.
Difficulty or fupprejfion of urine—is fometimes occa¬
fioned by the preffure of the uterus on the neck of
the bladder, before the fundus uteri efcapes from its
confinement within the brim of the pelvis. This com¬
plaint, if early attended to, will feldom prove trouble-
fome or hazardous; but cannot be entirely removed
till the uterus rifes above the brim of the pelvis, and
by its enlargement becomes fupportcd by refting on
the expanded bones of the pffa ilia. But if negle&ed
in the beginning,
H retrovetjion of the uterus—is generally the confe¬
quence ; a cafe that demands particular attention.—
Here the fundus uteri, inftead of being loofe, falls
back in a reclined ftate within the hollow of the os
facrum : thus a tumor is formed in the vulva, where¬
of the os tine* makes the fuperior part; the body of
the uterus, by this means, becomes ftrongly wedged
between the re&um and bladder; and, from the en¬
largement of the uterus itfelf, and accumulating load
of fasces and urine, the reduction will prove in many
irtftances utterly impra&icable. A total fupprefilon
of urine, or a rupture of the coats of the bladder,
fever, inflammation, or gangrene of the uterus, often
enfue ; and thefe are fucceeded by delirium, convul-
fions, death.
The indications of cure, in this dangerous difeafe,
are fufficiently obvious : For, in the firft place, every
obftacle that prevents the reduction ftiould be remo¬
ved : thus the contents'of the reftum and bladder muft,
if pofiible, be evacuated ; emollient fomentations and
cateplafms muft be applied, if indicated by inflamma¬
tion at tumefa&ion of the parts. Secondly, The re-
du&ion of the prolapfed uterus muft be attempted, by
placing the patient upon her knees, with her head low
and properly fupported. While this is attempted
within the vagina, a finger or two fhould alfo be pafl'ed
within the re&um, by which the operation in fome
cafes may be facilitated : but, at other times, no power
whatever will be fufficient for this purpofe. Laftly, If
the redu&ion be accomplilhed, the fever, inflammatory
fymptoms, and other confequences of the difeafe, muft
be fubdued ; and a recurrence prevented by an open
belly, reft, and recumbent pofture, and promoting a
free difcharge of urine : means that ought to be per-
fifted in till the uterus rifes within the abdomen, when
the patient will be fecured from future danger.
6 Cq/liveneft
fjj’Part T. M I D W
sltnifeafes of Cojllvenefs in pregnancy—is inconvenient. It may
■Pregnancy. procee(l from the fame caufe with the preceding com-
"v plaint; it may depend -on the ftomach ; the febrile
heat, that in many women prevails, will alfo prove an
occafional caufe. It may be obviated or prevented by
a proper regulation of the regimen, and by fuch
gentle laxative medicines as are bell fuited to the ftate
of the woman ; the chief of which are. ripe fruit, mag-
nefia, lenitive ele&uary, cream of tartar, fttlphureous
and aloetic medicines, oleum ricini, emollient glyfters.
The piles—frequently arife in confequenee of coftive-
nefs, or from preffure of the gravid uterus on the has-
morrhqidal veins. Thefe are alfo to be removed or
palliated by the fame means employed on other occa*
fions; regard being had to this diftinftion, which may
be applied univerfally to the gravid Hate, that all vio¬
lent remedies are to be avoided: a light diet Ihould
be enjoined; the belly fhould be kept moderately
©pen ; and topical liniments or cataplafms Ihould be
applied, fuch as Balf. fulphur. Balf. traumaticum, Li¬
niment. ex ol. palmas, Ung, fambucin. cum laud, li¬
quid. Poultices of bread and milk with opium. See.
according to the various circumftances of the cafe.
Oedematous fwellmgs of the legs and lalia,— are occa-
fioned by the languid ftate ©f the circulation, by the
interruption of the refluent blood from the preflure of
the diftended uterus on the vena cava, &c. Thefe,
though very troublefome and inconvenient, are feldom
however of dangerous confequence, except where the'
habit is otherwife difeafed ; and feldom require punc¬
ture, as the fwelling generally fubfides very quickly
after delivery. They can only, therefore, at this time,
admit of palliation ; for which purpofe, along with a
proper diet and moderate exercife, a frequent recum¬
bent pofture, open belly, and dry fri&ions applied to
the legs evening and morning, will prove the moft ef-
fedlual means.
Varicous f’wellings in the legs and thighs—from the in¬
terruption of the venal blood in thefe parts, occafioned
by the preflure of the gravid uterus, are to be treated
in the fame manner with the preceding complaint.
Pains in the bach, loins, cholk'pains, cramp,—occa¬
fioned by the ftretching of the uterus and appendages,
and from the preflure of the uterus on the neighbour¬
ing parts, fymptoms that are moft troublefome in a firft
pregnancy, are to be palliated by venefedtion, an open
belly, and light fpare diet. If the patient be of a full
habit, and pre-difpofed to inflammatory complaints,
where the preflure is very great in the advanced
months, or in twins, &c. if proper remedies are ne-
gledled, inflammation ©f the uterus and adjacent vif-
cera, or dreadful epileptic fits, may quickly enfue ; the
event whereof is generally fatal. Crampifh fpafms in
the belly and legs require the fame palliative treatment;
to which may be added friction, and the application
of cether, ol. volatil. balf. anodyn. or the like, to the
parts affedted.
■Cough, dyfpneea, vomitings, difficulty or incontinency of
urine, occafioned by the preffure of the bulky uterus
on the ftomach, liver, diaphragm, &c.—Complaints
that can only be alleviated by frequent fmall bleedings,
a light fpare diet, and open belly. The patient (hould
be placed in an eafy pofture, fomething between fitting
and lying ; and when the uterus rifes high, a moderate
degree of preffure from the fuperior part downwards,
may in fome cafes prove ufeful. But this muft be ufed
Vol. XI. Part II.
I F E R Y. 777
with great caution : for dreadful are the effedls of vio- Difeafes of
lent preffure, or tight lacing, during pregnancy. It ^ic^nancy.‘
frequently kills both mother and child, and ought to
be guarded from the earlieft months.
Epileptic fits,—are a very dreadful and alarming ap¬
pearance. They generally depend on the fame caufe
with the above complaints : they may alfo arife from
irritation, excited by the motion and ftirring of the
foetus ; and from various other caufes. Such as have
had convulfions when young, are moft liable to have
them during pregnancy: they happen moft frequently
in. firft; pregnancies, or where the foetus is very large,
or in twins, triplets, &c. In fuch cafes, the diftention
of the uterine fibres is fo great, that actual laceration
is fometimes the confequence.
At whatever period of pregnancy they feize, the
utmoft danger may be dreaded. This, however, will
be in proportion to the feverity, duration, and recur¬
rence of the paroxyfm, to the term of gravidation, to
the conftitution of the patient, and her condition du¬
ring the remiflion. The danger is greater towards the
latter end of pregnancy than in the earlier months or
in time of labour.
Such as arife from inanition, from exceflive and
profufe hemorrhagies, from violent blows, falls, See.
or from a ruptured uterus, are for the moft part fatal.
Hyfteric or nervous fpafms muft; be carefully di-
ftinguilhed from true epileptic fits. The former are
milder than the latter ; they are not attended with
foamings ; they do not affeft the pofture ; the pulfe
is fmaller, feebler, and more frequent; the woman is
pretty hearty after they are over ; they are followed
with no bad confequences, and yield to the common
treatment. Women of ftrong, robuft, vigorous con-
ftitutions, are more generally the fubjeexs of the one ;
the delicate, the nervous, and the irritable, of the
other.
Epileptic fits generally come on very rapidly; if any
previous fymptoms occur, the fit is commonly an¬
nounced by an intenfe pain in the fcrobiculum cordis,
or violent head-ach.
In the pregnant ftate, thefe lies are for the moft
part fymptomatic, and will therefore only admit of
a palliative cure. They may be diitinguiflied into
three claffes ; thofe of the early months, thofe of the
latter, and thofe that come on with labour-pains.
With regard to the cure the term of pregnancy,
as well as the conftitution of the patient, and par¬
ticular caufe of the difeafe, muft carefully be conli-
dered.
i. Convulfions at an early period of pregnancy
chiefly happen to young women of a plethoric fan-
guine habit ; and can therefore only be removed or
palliated by a free and bold ufe of the lancet, by an
open belly, cool regimen, and fpare diet, ‘\fter
plentiful evacuations, if the ftomach be loaded with
acrid faburra or putrid bile, a gentle puke may be of
ufe : but fuch remedies, on thofe occafions, muft be
employed with great caution. Inftead of a plethoric,
if the patient is of a nervous habit, a very neceffary
and important diftin&ion, the intentions of cure will
effentially vary. For here opiates in lage dofes and
frequently repeated, emollient glyfters, ftupes applied
to the ■ legs, the femicupium, and every other means
to foothe the nerves and remove fpafmodic ftri&ure,
will prove the moft effectual remedies. If infenfible
5 E «
M I D W I F E R Y.
Part I.i
cr csmatons, opium, and other antifpafmodics,
fhould be exhibited by way of glyiler, and the pa¬
tient ought to be roufed by epifpaiHc and Simulating
cataplafms applied to the legs and hams. Convuliions
fucceeding profufe evacuations are generally mortal.
The vis vitae, in fuch circumftances, muft be fupport-
ed, by replenifhing the veffels with the utmoft fpeed:
this is to be done by pouring in nourilhing fluids as
fall as pofiible by the mouth and by glyfter; warm
applications Ihould alfo be made to the ftomach and
feet, and nervous cordials given internally along with
opium.
'1 he treatment of epileptic fits, depending on other
caufes than thofe now mentioned, muft be regulated
by a proper attention to the particular fymptoms with
which they are attended.
2. In the advanced months, fuch complaints are
more to be dreaded than in early geftation, as they
generally proceed from the irritation occafioned by
the diftention of the uterine fibres, or by the pref-
fure of the uterus on the contiguous vifcera : hence
the natural fundlions of thefe parts will be interrupted,
the circulation of their fluids will be impeded, and the
Mood, being thus prevented from defcending to the
inferior parts, will be derived in greater proportion to
the brain, and overcharge that organ.
The cure muft, in this cafe, chiefly reft on copious
and repeated bleedings, an open belly, and fpare
diej.
3. Laftly, when fits come on with labour-pains,
a fpeedy delivery, if it can be done with fafety, either
by turning the child, or by extra&ing with the forceps
When the bead is within reach, will prove the moft
effeftual cure.
When the bladder is diftended, the contents muft
be evacuated : if a ftone fticks in the urethra, it muft
be* puftied back or extra&ed. If the fits are the
effeAs of a rfiptured uterus, immediate death is gene¬
rally the eonfequence.
With regard to the treatment of fuch complaints,
no other change is generally requifite, than what
arifes from the fymptoms peculiar to this fituation.
In general, bill after delivery, they will only admit of
palliation.
Chap. VIII. Floodings.
These, though confined to no particular term, may
happen at every period of gravidation. The one is a
frequent confequenae of the other; the event of both is
often hazardous, as the earlier mifearriages are gene¬
rally preceded by an effufion of blopd from the uterus,
which, in the advanced ftages of pregnancy, befides
the lofs of the child, always endangers the life of the
mother.
The menorrhagia gravidarum—may be defined, an
effufion of blood from the uterfis, confined to no regu¬
lar or fiated periods, in quantity and duration various,
and liable to recur on the flighteft occafions.
The immediate caufe is, a reparation of fome por¬
tion of- the placenta or chorion from the internal fur-
face of the uterus. Whatever occafiohs this fepara-
tion may be confidered as the remote caufe, which,
though various, may be reduced to
I. Tbofe that affefr the general fyftem : an,
1. External accidents changing the ftate of the cir¬
culation.
2. Changes in the circulation from internal caufes.
3. Debility.
4. Plethora.
II. Thofe that affeft the uterus and placenta; as,
1. Direft affections.
2. Stimuli communicated from an affedion of other
parts
With regard to the cure.—Though a flooding in
fome conftitutions may happen, even in early geftation,.
and may remit and recur front time; to time, and the
woman go on to the end of her reckoning ; ahd tho’
it feldom or never happens that this complaint prpvea
mortal to the mother in the firft five wee'ks of preg¬
nancy ; yet every appearance of this kind, even the
flighteft, is to be dreaded ; as in the early months it
will often throw off the foetus, and, in the latter, al¬
ways threatens the utmoft danger both to mother and
child. Floodings of gravid women we cannot propofe
radically to cure ; they will only admit of palliation.
With this view, the indications are,
I. To leffen the force and velocity of the blood in
general.
II. To promote the eonftHdion of the patulous
mouths of the bleeding veffels, or the formation of con-
gula in their orifices.
1. To anfwer the firft indication, reft and a re¬
cumbent pofture, cool air, tranquillity of mind, a
light diet, venefedtion, and opiates, are -the chief
means.
2., To reftrain the violence of the hemorrhagy, in¬
ternal aftringent medicines are recommended; but this
is to be accompliftied chiefly by means of cold ftyptic
applications to the parts and their neighbourhood.
But as thefe floodings often arife from fo various and
oppofite caufes, it is difficult to lay down particular
indications, cr to point out a method of cure fuited to
every cafe that may occur. The intention- of cure can
only be regulated by a careful and judicious confide-
ration of the caufe, and of thofe particular circum¬
ftances with Which the cafe may be attended. In early
pregnancy, it may be reftrained by keeping the patient
quiet and cool, by giving internally cooling things and
opiates ; but, in the advanced ftages, the deluge is
fometimes fo profufe as to kill very fuddenly. Under
fuch circumftances, when the woman is near her time,
emptying the uter.us by delivery, if practicable, is the
only iafe expedient both for preferving the life of thq
mother and of the child.
If the hemorrhagy can be reftrained, a recurrence
mull be guarded againft, by avoiding or countera&ing
the occafional or remote caufes.
Chap. IX. Abortion, or Mifcarriage,
May be defined, the premature expulfion of the em¬
bryo or foetus. Some, however; make the following
diftindtion: When a woman mifearries in early gefta¬
tion, this they confider as an abortion ; but if in the
latter months, that they term a premature birth. The
fymptoms that threaten abortion are :
Flooding.
Paisa
M I D W
Pain m the back and belly.
Bearing down pains with regular intermlffions.
The evacuation of the waters.
The death of the child, which difcovers itfelf by the
following fymptoms ; though in general thefe are fo
doubtful and fallacious, that none of them afford an
infallible fign :
1. The fubfiding of the, abdominal tumor.
2. Ceffation of motion in the foetus.
3. The fenfation of a heavy weight falling from fide
to fide, as the woman turns herfelf in bed.
4. Sicknefs, faintings, rigors, cold fweats.
5. The breads turning flaccid.
6. Coldnefs of the abdomen, and putrid difcharge
from the vagina.
Abortions are feldom dangerous in the firft five
months; but a frequent habit of mifcarriage debili¬
tates the fyflem, fhatters the conflitution, and lays the
foundation of chronic difeafes'of the moft obftinate and
dangerous nature.
In the advanced months, the prognofls willbe more
or lefs favourable according to the patient’s former
date of health, the occafional caufe, and fymptoms with
which it is attended. The proximate caufe of abor¬
tion is the fame with that of true labour, viz. a con-
tratting effort of the uterus and abdominal mufcles,
affilted by the other expulfive powers. The remote
caufes cannot be explained with precifion ; as many
circumftances, with regard to the nature of impregna¬
tion, and connexion of the foetus with the placenta
and uterus, are fubjefts dill involved in darknefs. They
may in general, however, be reduced,
I. To whatever interrupts the regular circulation
between the uterus and placenta.
II. To every caufe that excites the fpafmodic con-
traftion of the uterus, or other afliding powers.
III. To whatever occafions the extin&ion of life in
the foetus.
Amongd the fird are :
1. Uifeafes of the uterus.
2. Impervioufnefs or fpafmodic condriftion of the
extremities of the uterine blood-vefiels.
3. Partial or total feparation of the placenta or cho¬
rion from the uterus.
4. Determination to other parts.
To the fecond general head belong all caufes that
produce a drong contraction of the eladic fibres of the
uterus, or of the parts that can prefs upon it, or that
•occafion a rupture Of the membranes : fuch as,
1. Violent agitation of mind or body.
2. A difeafe of the membranes.
3. Too large a quantity of liquor amnii.
4. The croi's podtion of the foetus.
5. Its motion and kicking.
The lad head includes the numerous caufes of the
death of the child, which, befides thofe referred to in
the preceding clafles, may be occahoned by,
1. Difeafes peculiar to itfelf.
2. Difeafes communicated by the parents.
3. External accidents happening to the mother: or,
4. Accidents incident to the foetus in utero.
5. Difeafes of placenta or funis.
6. Knots and circumvolutions of the chord.
7. Too weak an adhefxon of placenta or chorion to
the uterus : and.
I F E R Y. 779
8. Every force that tends to weaken or dedroy this Regimen,
attachment. .-r-Y- mV
With regard to the treament. ■ This mud be varied
according to the particular circumdances of the cafe :
nor is it poffible to point out particular indications,
or propofe any regular plan to be purfued for this pur-
pofe. Abortion is often preceded by no apparent
iymptom, till the rupture of the membranes, and eva¬
cuation of the waters, announce the approaching ex-
pulfion of the foetus. Either to remove threatening
fymptoms, or to prevent mifcarriage when there is rea-
fon to apprehend it, often bafflesbur utmod (kill; be-
caufe it generally happens, that there is a ceflation of
growth in the ovum; or, in other words, an extinction
of life in the fetus, fome time previous to any appear¬
ance of abortion. For indance, in early gedation, a
•woman commonly mifcarries about the 1 ith or 12th
week ; but the age of the fetus at this time is gene¬
rally no more than eight weeks. At other times, when
by accident the fetus perifhes, perhaps about the fifth
or fixth month, it will dill be retained in utero, and
the expuliion will not happen till near the completion
of full time.
As women who have once abforbed are fo liable to
a recurrence from a like caufe, at the fame particular
period, fuch an accident, in future pregnancies, Ihould
therefore be guarded againd with the utmod caution.
On the fird appearance of threatening fymptoms, the
patient fhould be confined to a horizontal podure ; her
diet fhould be light and cooling ; her mind diould be
kept as tranquil as poffible ; a little blood from the
arm may be taken occadonally ; and opiates admini-
dered according to circumdances: but excepting fo far
as depends on thefe, and fuch like precautions, for the
mod part, in the way of medicine, very little can be
done.
Manual affidance is feldom or never necedary during
the fird five months of pregnancy: the exclufion of
fetus and placenta diould very generally be truded to
nature.
The medical treatment of abortion mud therefore
be confidered with a view only to the prophylactic cure:
and this again will chiefly cdnfid in a proper
Chap. X. Regimen during Pregnancy.
Women, when pregnant, fliouldlive a regular tem¬
perate life ; moderation in eating and drinking fhould
now be very carefully obferved, and every thing that
has any tendency to dtfagree with the domach ihould
be avoided; otherwife the manner of life ihould be much
as ufual. If complaints do occur, thefe ihould be treat¬
ed as at other times; only guarding ag^ind fuch things
as, by violent operation, may endanger mifcafriage.
If the woman has formerly been fubjeCt to this acci¬
dent, the caufe ihould be carefully confidered, and fuit-
able remedies applied; if plethoric, for indance, flic
ihould be blooded, live fparingly, and kept quiet, till
fhe gets beyond the dangerous period. ; If ihe be weak,
delicate, and nervous, bark, light aromatic hitters,
mineral waters, and the cold bath (if able to bear it),
will prove the bed prophylaCtic remedies. The cold
bath has, in many cafes, cured the mod obdinate duor
albus, and fometimes even iterility itfelf; and, in re¬
laxed habits difpofed to mifcarriage, when every other
5 F 2 mean*
rSo M I D W I
Regimen, means lias failed, the cold bath has done confiderable
v—v—^ fervice : the praftice may fafely be continued for fome
months rifter conception, when it has been early be¬
gun, or when the patient'has been accuftomed to it.
Such a (hock will, however, a£t very differently on
different fyltems: hence it is an expedient by no
means to be indifcriminately ufed in the pregnant ftate.
Abortions that happen in early geftation, and that
come on fuddenly without any prefaging fign, if ever
they are to be prevented, it can only be done by a-
voiding all occafional caufes, by counteracting morbi¬
fic difpofitions, and by confinement to a horizontal po-
fture, for fome time before, and till the critical period
be over.
When a venereal taint in the parents is fufpefted to
be the caufe either of abortion or the death of the foe¬
tus, the like accident can only be prevented by put¬
ting both parties on a mercurial courfe.
- Pregnant women require a free pure air; their amufe-
ment fhould often be varied ; their company flrould be
agreeable and cheerful; their exercife ihould be mode¬
rate, and fuited to their inclination, conftitution, and
the feafon ; they Ihould avoid crowds, confinement.
F E R Y. Part T.
travelling over rough roads in a carriage, or being ex- R«gw
pofed to fea-voyages. Riding a-horfeback ihould alfo  v
be pra&ifed with great caution, that difagreeable ob-
jefts may be (hunned, and fhocks of every kind pre¬
vented. For this reafon, when riding is judged proper,
the woman Ihould be a courageous rider; /he Ihould
never ride without fomebody being in company ; the
horfe Ihould be tame and well trained ; the road Ihould
be fmooth as well as private ; and the exercife fhould
be gentle and eafy, aud never carried the length of
fatigue. Women fhould, with the utmoft care, guard
againft confining the breafts or belly ; early recourfe
fhould be had to jumps, and they fhould keep them-
felves as loofe and eafy as pofiible through the whole
term of utero-geftation. An open belly is neceffary
and important in the pregnant ftate; it keeps the
ftomach in good condition, prevents choljcs arid
other complaints that may terminate in mifcarriage.
When the abdomen is pendulous towards the latter
months, a gentle fupport by proper bandage will
prove ufeful j and the woman, when fatigued, fhould
occafionally, through the day, indulge in reft on a bed
or couch.
Part II. Of LABOURS.
T Abours are divided into three claffes: natural, la-
borious, and preternatural.
In whatever manner the head of the child prefents,
where the delivery at fulltime is performed by nature,
the labour is with great propriety called natural; when
the birth is protrafted beyond the ufual time, or can¬
not be accomplifhed without extraordinary affiftance,
it is deemed laborious ; and preternatural, when any
other part but the head prefents.
Chap I. Natural Labour.
By whatever power the uterus is enlarged, when
any further increafe is prevented, a ftimulus to contrac¬
tion muff enfue; by this means an uneafy fenfation is
excited, which mutt, in the woman, produce an effort
to procure relief: and thus arife the true labour-pains,
which at firft are flight and of fhort duration, a con¬
fiderable remifiion intervening : the periods of recur¬
rence foon become more frequent; the pains acquire
an increafed force, producing more and more change
on the os uteri; which, yielding to the impelling
caufe, gradually opens and expands; till at length
it becomes completely dilated, the membranes pro¬
truded and ruptured, and the child, by the expulfive
force of the uterus, affifted by that of the diaphragm
and abdominal mufcles, is thus puttied along and de¬
livered.
The fymptoms of approaching labour are. The fub-
fiding of the abdominal tumor: hence a difcharge of
mucus from the vagina, fometimes tinged with blood;
incontinency, or fuppreflian of urine ; tenefmus; pains
of the belly, loins, and about the region of the pubes;
reftlefnefs, hot and cold fits, &c.
Spurious pains are to be carefully diftinguifhcd from
thofe of genuine labour. The former arife from the
stretching of the uterus and its preffure on the neigh¬
bouring parts, or from coftivenefs; and are to be di-
ftinguiflied from the latter by the following fymptoms:
They are moft troublefome towards the evening, in¬
creafe in the night, and abate through the day ; they
are more trifling and irregular than true uterine pains;
the uterine orifice is not affedted; and there is no in¬
creafed flow of mucus from the parts.
True pains begin about the region of the kidneys,
ftrike forward towards the pubes, and down the thighs:
they return at regular periods : there is a copious dif¬
charge of mucus from the vagina; the os uteri gradu¬
ally opens, and can be felt to dilate in time of a pain;
while the membraneous bag, in a tenfe ftate, forcibly
putties againft the finger.
The event of labours is fo precarious, that no cer-
tain judgment can be formed from almoft any fymp¬
toms, till the labour itfelf be confiderably advanced.
A prognofis in general is chiefly to be formed from the
age, ftate of health, and temperament of the patient;
from the force, duration, and recurrence of the pains;
and from their effedt on the uterine orifice; from the
time of the rupture of the-membranes; from the gene¬
ral make and form of the woman, but, in particular,
of that of the pelvis; from the bulk and pofition of the
child, &c.
With regard to the method of delivery, and pofition
of the woman, this has been different at different ages,
and in different countries: the chief thing, however,
is to guard againft cold and fatigue, obferving that
the woman be placed in the moft favourable pofture
for fupporting the back, for the aftion of the abdo¬
minal mufcles, &c. and moft convenient for the necef¬
fary affiftants : till the labour is confiderably advanced, .
flie may be indulged in whatever pofture is moft a-
greeable ; after which the bed or couch is the moft
proper.
With regard to affiftance in natural parturition, the
accoucheur
f.«Part II.
M I D W
JH Natural accouclieur for the mofl part has little, to do, till the
Labour. mernbranes are ruptured, and the head in perinseo. In
W—*  time of labour, the woman fhould be kept very cool,
and every means of being overheated (hould be avoid¬
ed. She (hould be put to bed in proper time, placed
on her fide or back, with her head and fiioulders a little
raifed^a cloth tied to the bed-poft, or held by an af-
fiftant, to fupport her hands in time of pain, and her
feet refting againll a foot-board ; her knees fhould be
drawri up towards the belly, and a folded pillow put
between them. All efforts to prefs or ftrain, except
what nature excites, are improper, hurtful, and fhould
be avoided: the membranes, if poffible, ought not to
be ruptured till they almoft protrude at the os exter¬
num ; the perinaeum mufl be lubricated when formed
into a tumor, and carefully fupported while over-
ftretched; for this purpofe, a cloth fmoothly folded
fhould be applied over the part, to enable the accou¬
cheur to have a firmer hold. This is an important part
of his office; and muft be attended to with the ftri£teft
J | care. From the time this protrufion begins to form
till the head of the child be completely delivered, the
perinaeum muft be carefully preferved by the palm of
the hand firmly applied againft it, which fhould be car¬
ried backwards in a dire&ion towards the anus, and
kept fo during every pain. Thus the miferable con-
fequences will be prevented to vyhich the neglect of
this preffure expofes: for by this fupport the over-
ftretching of the perinaeum will be greatly leflened, the
parts will dilate gently and gradually, the vertex will
eafily flip from under the pubes, and the fore-head will
rife from under the perinaeum in a fafe, flow, and gentle
manner. The perinaeum muft now be rekafed, by cau-
tioufly Aiding it over the face and chin of the child;
and this ought to be made further fure of, by palling
a finger under it round and round. After the head has
thus mechanically advanced through the pelvis and va¬
gina, a pain or two muft be waited for, when in like
manner the body will follow; nothing more being ne-
ceflary than to fupport the child while it is gradu¬
ally pufhed forwards by the expulfive force of the na¬
tural pains.
When the child has cried, and the change in the
circulation freely taken place, the funis umbihcalis
muft be tied and divided, the infant muft be wrapped
in a warm receiver, and given to the nurfe to be wafh-
ed and dreffed.
The parts of the woman muft now be gently wiped,
I a warm foft? cloth muft be applied, and a proper time-
' waited for the feparation of the placenta.
This is alfo the work of nature, and feldom requires
more force to bring it along than if it lay entirely
loofe within the cavity of the uterus. Thus, in pulling,
no greater force fhould be employed than is juft fuffi-
cient to put the funis on the ftretch: forjf it is al¬
ready feparated, no violence is neceffary to extraft it;
and if the adhefion is very firm, all violent efforts are
improper, and often followed with moft dangerous con-
fequences. Its advancing is known by the contrac¬
tion of the uterus, and fhifting of the abdominal tu¬
mor, and by the lengthening of the cord By the
fpontaneous contraftion of the uterus, this feparation
is effefted; the expulfion will be Aower or more expe¬
ditious, according to the ftate and condition of the wo¬
man, according to the number of children Ihe has born,
I F E R Y.
and according to the duration or violence of the la¬
bour ; it is eafier and fooner feparated in a firft birth,
when the woman is in good health,and when the labour
has been properly managed. In moft cafes, this fepara¬
tion is accompliftied within half an hour after the de¬
livery of the child. It adheres moft firmly after pre¬
mature births, when the woman has been fickly during
pregnancy, where the labour has been tedious and dif¬
ficult, or when hafty attempts have been made to ex-
tra£t it. A finger, or finger and thumb, guided by
the funis, and introduced within the vagina, to bring
down the edge, will remove any difficulty occafioned
by the centre or bulky part palling the uterine or va¬
ginal orifice.
When it becomes neceffary to employ force in ex-
tra&ing the placenta, which is never requifite but in
cafes of flooding, when the woman has been in bad
health during pregnancy, when fhe has fuffered much
in time of labour, or when the firing has been torn
from it (though the firft of thefe cafes is perhaps the
only one wherein the practice is abfolutely proper), the
method of. doing it is as follows : In ordinary cafes,
the woman ftiould be laid on her back or fide ; but
when the belly is pendulous, or when the placenta is
attached to the fundus uteri, Ihe muft be placed on her
knees, which is the moft convenient pofture.
The accoucheur, though with a certain degree of
courage, yet with the utmoft poffible tendernefs, muft
then pafs his hand well lubricated through the vagina
into the uterus, and feel for the convex body of the
after-birth ; if the chord be entire, this will dire ft
him ; if not, he muft feel for the loofe membranes at
the edge of the cake, and muft not be deceived by
coagula of blood that lie in the way ; if the uterus be
conftrifted in the middle like a fand-glafs, a circum-
ftance that fometimes, though rarely, occurs, this muft;
be overcome by a gradual dilatation with one finger
after another, till the whole hand in a conical manner
can fafely be paffed. He muft not content himfelf
with feeling a part; he fhould be able to move his
fingers round the whole body of the cake ; the adhe¬
fion muft be fepsrated very gradually, in a direftion
from the fides round and round I'he placenta is diftin-
guiffied from the uterus, as well by its foftnefs as by
its convex puckered feel. This convexity increafes in
the fame proportion as the uterus contrafts : hence
the middle part or centre of the placenta is firft de¬
tached ; end if the edges are carefully feparated, by
gently palling the fingers behind^ the whole body be¬
comes loofe and difengaged, which muft now be
brought along with great caution, that no part be left
behind, and that n® injury be done to the woman in
making the extraftion.
Though bad confequences fometimes follow from
the retention of the placenta, yet it is much to be
queftioned, if thefe are not lefs to be dreaded than the
dangerous floodings, convulfions, deliquia, inflamma¬
tion, of the uterus, fever, &c. that may be induced
from the prepofterous praftice of palling the hand to
make the extraction : and would it not in general be
better to confine the praftice of introducing the hand,
to cafes of uterine hemorrhagies only ? Where the ad¬
hefion is fo firm as to require force, or where its place
of attachment is out of the reach of the finger, by
which, for the moft part, the edge may be brought
downj
7^3 MID W
DifEculf. down, la it not by far the fafeft and the moft rational
11'al'0l‘''' Pra^ice univerfaliy to trail to natuie ? Should the
mouth or body of the uterus become conilridted be¬
fore the reparation is effedled, no matter'; little is to
be dreaded: it will afterwards kindly dilate ; and the
feparation and expuliion will fpontaneoufly be accom-
pliihedwith as much fafety as in other animals, where
no force is ever ufed. Let every candid practitioner
acknowledge, that for one inftance where the reten¬
tion of the placenta has been attended with dangerous
confequences, a precipitate or forcible extraction has
proved fatal to hundreds.
After the delivery of child and placenta, the wo¬
man muil reft a few minutes ; her ftrength and fpirits
maybe recruited by fome light nouriftiing cordial; the
wet cloths, &c. muft then be removed ; the bed muft
be properly drifted and adjufted; and a gentle com-
preflion muft be made on the abdomen.
During lying-in, the woman ftiould avoid company
and noife ; her drefs and bed-linens ftiould be often
changed ; ftie ftiould avoid every means of being
overheated ; and with regard to her diet, it fliould,
for the firft week at leaft, be very light and of eafy
•digeftion.
Chap. II. Laborious or difficult Labour.
Hamilton t When the birth is protraClcd beyond the ordi-
Qatluei. nary time, or when the child’s head, though natu¬
rally prefenting, cannot be brought forwards with¬
out affiftance, the labour is accounted difficult or la¬
borious.
Though the caufes of laborioiis births are various and
complicated, they may in general be confidered as de¬
pending,
I. On the mother.
I L On the child,
ill. On the fecundines.
I. The birth may be protraCfed, or the labour-pains
interrupted, by,
(i.) Debility in the mother, arifing,
a From difeafe, vita.
1. Flooding.
2. Epileptic fits.
3. Crampifti fpafms.
4. Lownefs and faintifhnefs.
5. Inflammatory diathefis.
6. Colic.
7. Naufeating ficknefs and vomiting.
8. HeClic or confumptive habit.
b From paffions of the mind.
c From mifmanagement in time of labour.
(2.) Local complaints in the parts, or their neigh¬
bourhood, vix.
a In the bones, occafioning narrownefs and di-
ttortion.
I In the foft parts, nix.
1. Drynefs and conftriCtion of the vagina.
2. Thicknefs and rigidity of the os tineas.
3. Scirrhous or polypous tumors about thefe
parts
4. Accumulated faeces in the inteftines.
- 5. Stone in the urethra.
6. Prolapfus of the uterus, vagina, and rec-
tusu
I F E R. Y.
7, Obliquity of the uterus.
II. Difficulties alfo arife on the part of the child,
viz.
i4 From the bulk and offification of the head.
2. The fituation in which the head prefents.
3. Large broad ftioulders, or their tranfverfe defeent
through the pelvis.
III. The fecundines, viz.
1. The rigidity of the membranes, and the con¬
trary .
2. Too great a quantity of water.
3. The funis umbilicalis too long or too fbort.
4. The prolapfus of the funis before the child’s
head : and,
5. The attachment of the placenta towards the cer¬
vix or os uteri.
The treatment of laborious births requires a very
nice and careful attention to the condition of the pa¬
tient and other circumftances, from whence only we
can judge when affiftance becomes requifite, and how
it may be applied to the beft advantage* That pain
and mifery is the unavoidable and infeparable attendant
of child-bearing, though dealt out in different pro¬
portions to different fubje&s, the teftimony of all na¬
tions, and 'all ages, as well as daily experience, bear
witnefs : nor is the eafieft labour altogether exempted
from pain, even under the moft favourable circumftan¬
ces. The delivery, however, promifes to be fafe and
eafy, when the woman is of proper age, in good
health, the child prefenting right, and the pelvis well
proportioned ; but the force of the natural jaains may
be interrupted, and of confequence labour be retarded,
from,
I. Debility in the mother, arifing from
a Difeafe. This may appear under various forms ;
as,
1 ft, A flooding. Which is very alarming, even along
with labour-pains : though lefs fo in this cafe than
when at a diftance from full time ; becaufe as the la¬
bour-pains increafe, the hemorrhagy very generally
abates : or if not, breaking the membranes when the
aperture of the os uteri is fufficient to admit the hand,
feldom fails to produce that effect. The woman in
this cafe muft be kept cool. Opiates muft be admini-
ttered; ftie muft be comforted with the beft affurances
of a happy delivery ; and the natural pains muft be
waited for.
But if the henjorrhagy proceeds from a feparation
of the placenta, attached towards the cervix er orifi-
cium uteri ; in this unhappy cafe, the whole body of
the cake may be completely feparated before the aper¬
ture of the uterus be fufficient for allowing the head to
pafs; and the deluge may be fo fudden and impetuous,
that the woman will fink immediately under it. Break¬
ing the membranes, and making the delivery, either
by turning the child, or extracting with the forceps
or crotchet, according to circumftances, with as much
expedition as is confiftent with the mother’s fafety, is
the only expedient by which the threatening cata-
ftrophe may be prevented.
idly. Epileptic fits may in like manner retard la¬
bour, and endanger the life of the mother. If the
child is not thrown off by a few fits, which is often
the cafe, the delivery ftiouid be effe&ed as faon as
poffible.
II.
MIDWIFERY..
7*5
ult 3dly, Crampiffi fpafms ip the thighs, legs, rarely in in general are to be accounted for from the well- pifficutt
the pelvis, and can only be removed by delivery; which, Sthly, He&ic or confumptive habit,—It is a melan-
ps thefe pains are feldom if ever attended with danger, choly thing to attend a labouring woman in this ftate.
is not to be forced on this account. Breaking the mem- The pains are weak and trifling; ihe cannot force
branes will fometimes remove them. much dowp; and Are is feeble, and liable to faint when
4thly, Lownefs and faintiftmefs often occur, and the pain goes off. But however apparently e:;hauftcd,
frequently prove the caufe of protradleddabour. the progrefs of labour goes on, in moft cafes, much
No general rules with regard to the management of better than could be well expected. The orifice of the
flow labour can be recommended. The mode of treat- womb gives little reiift'ance to the force of the pains,
ment, where fo many circumftances may occur, muft weak and trifling as they are; the parts are loft and
be fuited to the condition of the patient, as every lax, and foon ftretch in fuch a manner, that, if there
particular cafe will in fome meafure require a different be no fault in the pelvis, the cluld readily obtains a
management. Much depends on the prudence and paflage.
judgment of the attentive pra&ftioner. For inftance. Here little is to be done but fupplying the patient
when the woman is nervous, low-fpirited, or weakly, from time to time with light noim'lhment; with cor-
from whatever caufe, in general her ftrength mult be dials that do not heat: and keeping up a free circula-
fupported : Ihe miift not be put on labour too early ; tion of cool air all around her : for this purpofe the
fne muft avoid heat, fatigue, and every means of ex- curtains Ihpuld be quite drawn a lice, doors and win-
haufting her ftrength or fpirits. When fhe is reftlefs, dows widely dpemd ; and fhe ftiould be placed in a
or the pains trifling and unprofitable, opiates are par- pofition with her head and breaft well raifed, that an
ticularly indicated ; they remove fpurious or grinding ' eafy ;refpiration may be promoted. Heiftic women un-
pains, recruit the fpirits, procure reft, and amufe time, der proper management jarely fink immediately after
Tittle elfe for the moft part is to be done. If the ute- delivery; they generally furvive a week or longer, tho*'
rus once begins to dilate, though the dilatation goes they leldom jmtlive the month.
on flowly, it is by much the heft and fafeft praflice to b. Paffions of the mind. Any piece of news in
cld nothing but regulate the management as above, which the patient, her family, or relations are inte-
The pains at laft will become ftrong and forcing; and refted, (hould be carefully concealed, as well as every
the delivery, even where the patient has been very thing that tends in general to affect the paffions ; as
weakly, will often fliave a fafe aad happy termination, labour may not only be interrupted from this caufe,.
In thefe tedious labours, if the ftrength of the woman but the moft dangerous fymptoms, as floodings, con-
be properly fupported, every thing almoft is to be ex- vulfrons, deliquia, and fatal fyncope, may be induced.
peAed from nature. Forcible means ftiould be the laft c. From mitmanagement in time of labour often a-
refource. rifes debility*? fo that the patient's ftrength is exhauft-
ythly, Inflammatory diathefts, in young fubjeAs of ed, the pains at length entirely, ceafe, and the head
ftrong rigid fibres and plethoric habits, muft be ob- of the child remains locked in the pelvis, merely from
abated by venfeAion, an open belly, and cooling re- want of force or pain to puih.it forward?. In all cafes
ginien. where the labour has the appearance of being tedious,.
6thly, Colic.—Many women have fevere attacks of the woman’s patience muft, as much as poffible, be
this difeafe immediately before the labour-pains come fupported. During the grinding pains, file muft be
on ; the reafon of which is fufficiently obvious : the kept cool and quiet: opiates may be exhibited to pafs
belly, which formerly rofe fo high that the fun- the time, till the forcing throes, enfue, when ihe will.
dus of the womb preffed againft the pit of the ftomach, acquire refolution, the parts will dilate kindly, and the
afterwards fubiiding, by the child’s finking to the labour end happily; whereas, if ihe coniic^eis herfelf in
lower part of the womb, and the oval of the head be- labour from the earlieft appearance of grinding pains,,
sng applied to the oval of the bafin, the contents of ihe is frightened, at the length of time, and her patience
the inteflincs will be forced lower and lower, and the runs out. Slo^v lingering labours happen chiefly to el-
ftrait gut will be diftended. Hence colic-pains, irri- derly women having a rigidity in the parts, to nervous
tation, and uneafinefa, a frequent defire to go to ftool, fubjeAs, and to fuch as have been weakly during preg-
or frequent loofe ftools, generally enfue. The beft pal- nancy. It is of great confequence, and the advice
Hative remedy is to injeA emollient glyfters repeatedly cannot be too much inculcated, to avoid exhaufting
till the bowels be entirely emptied. Although fome the woman’s ftrength too much at ftrft.
degree of purging fliould attend the tenefmus, it will 2. Local complaints in the parts, or their neighbour-
be neceffary to wafti the ftrait gut, by the ufe of one hood.
or more glyflers. rihe irritating caufe being in this a. Narrownefs or diftortion of the bones of the pel-
way removed, an opiate, if no inflammatory heat or vis. Where there is any material defeA in this cavity,
fever prevents, may be afterwards given with advan- a fuperficial knowledge of the form and ftruAure of
tage • the parts will enable us to judge. If, from the figure
7thly, Naufeating ficknefs, with vomiting.—When of the woman’s body, there is reafon to fufpeA a faulty
thefe fymptoms occur, warm water or chamomile-tea pelvis; if the fpine is twifted, the legs crooked, the
moft be drunk freely. Sicknefs and vomiting happen breilt-bone raifed, or the cheft narrow ; whether the
in fome degree in the eafieft labours. Sometimes they pelvis, be affeAed or not, file .will require a particular
proceed from a difordered ftate of the ftomach; but management; for the conftitution of fuch women is.
weaki
I
MlBWIFERY.
Pai
weak and feeble, and they cannot be much Confined to
bed on account of their breathing. We can never be
abfoiutely certain of a diftortion of the pelvis (except
when the diftortion is confined to the inferior aper¬
ture) till the uterine orifice is confiderably dilated.
After this time, if the pains are ftrong and forcible,
and the head of the child makes no advance, a narrow
pelvis or large head is to be fufpefted. The pelvis
may be faulty at the brim, bottom, or in the cavity or
•capacity. The firft of thefe, which moft frequently
occurs, is the moft difficult to be difcovered. The fe-
cond can be readily perceived by the .touch : for we
can feel the defefts in the ftiape of the os facrum and
coccyx, in the pofitltm of the ifclvia, and in the bend¬
ing of the pubes ; and where the diftortion is fo ge¬
neral, that the whole cavity of the pelvis is affe&ed,
the ftiape of the woman’s body, the flow progrefs of
the labour, and the ftate of the parts to the touch, will
afford fufficient information.
In the firft cafe, we can only know the diftortion by
the fymptoms; for we ftiould not attempt to introduce
the hand till the mouth of the womb be dilated : it is
afterwards unneceffary ; for we know that the pelvis is
too fmall, or the head too large, by its not advancing
in proportion to the pains, and by feeling a (harp
ridge like a fow’s back on the top ot the child’s head,
which is occafioned by the bones rifing over each other
in confequenee of the preffure.
How long nature, in fuch circumftances, can fup-
port the conflidl, it is difficult to fay. It is fufficient
to obferve, that when things are properly prepared for
the advance of the child, when the firft ftage of the
labour is accompliftied, but its progrefs is then fuf-
pended, it is of little confequence to the midwife whe¬
ther the obftacle is to be referred to the child or to the
mother; and a man-midwife ought to be immediately
called in.
If the patient’s ftrength declines; if the head, from
being locked in the bones of the pelvis, begins to
fwell, and the parts of the woman to be affefted with
tumefaftion and inflammation ; nature, in this cafe,
feems inefficient, and it will be dangerous longer to
delay the proper means of making the delivery ; as
mother, or child, or both, may fall a viftim to our
Hegledt. We muft not, however, allow ourfelves to
be impofed on, either by the impatience of the di-
ftreffed mother, or by the clamours of the officious
impertinents about her. In affording that affiftance
we are able to give, we are only to be directed by the
fymptoms of the cafe: we muft remember, that the
gentleft affiftance our hands or inftruments in laborious
births can afford, is always attended with hazard and
rifle ; that if inftruments be applied too early, nature
will be thus interrupted in her work, and the moft fatal
confequences may enfue ; and that if affiftance be de¬
layed too long, the mother may die undelivered: we
ought, however, to be informed, that the former prac¬
tice of having too early recourfe to forcible means,
where, in time, nature unaffifted might do her bufinefs,
has proved by far more fatal than the latter. We
ought therefore carefully to confider the general hiftory
of the patient, and particular circumftances of the cafe,
that we may hit the proper time of making the delivery;
which, in thefe laborious labours, is exceedingly diffi-
220.
cult to determine ; yet is a matter of the utmoft im- D'
portance, as there is always one, often two or more 1"
lives at ftake, and the accoucheur is accountable for
the confequences oflais mifcondudt or neglect.
h. The fault may be in the foft parts: as,
i. Drynefs and conftridtion of the vagina. Here
all ftretching and fcooping is to be avoided. The na¬
tural moifture is to be fupplied by lubricating with po¬
matum or butter, or by throwing up inje&ions of
warm oil; the parts are likewife to be relaxed by the
application of warm ftupes, or by warm fteams direct¬
ed to them.
2. Thicknefs and rigidity of the os tineas. This
happens chiefly in women well advanced in life, where
the parts open more flowly, and the labour generally
proves more tedious. Here alfo little is to be done but
waiting on with patience, comforting the woman as
well as poffible, and giving an opiate from time to
time. The parts may be relaxed with butter or po¬
matum, by throwing into the vagina inje&ions of
warm oil, or by the application of warm ftupes to the
os externum. Every forcible attempt to open or
ftretch the uterus, as fome authors prefume to advife,
is apt to induce inflammation aud its cbnfequences, and
to interrupt the natural pains: if is therefore univer-
fally the fafeft practice to truft in every cafe to thefe|
though tedious, or even violent, the labour for the
moft part \yill end more happily, and the woman re¬
cover better, than if force had been employed.
3. Polypous tumors, &c.—There is feldom occa-
fion, in cafe of cicatrices in the vagina, to dilate with
the fcalpel, to remove polypous tumors by excifion, or
to cut upon and extraCt a ftone from the urethra in
time of labour. But if circumftances are urgent, fuch
expedients are fafe and practicable, and warranted by
many precedents.
4. Accumulated faces in the inteftines ought al¬
ways to be removed by repeated emollient glyfters on
the firft appearance of approaching labour.
5. A ftone in the urethra, if it cannot be pulhed
back, muft be cut upon and extracted, as already ad-
vifed.
6. Prolapfus of the uterus may happen even at full
time, in a pelvis too wide in all its dimenfions ; for
which, however, nothing can be done but to fupport
the uterus in time of a pain, that the ftretching of the
parts may be gradual. Prolapfi of the vagina and
reCtum muft be reduced ^it the remiffion of the pain,
and a return by gentle preffure muft be prevented.
7. Obliquity of the uterus, though a favourite theo¬
ry of fome authors, never happens in fuch a dergee as
to influence delivery, except in the cafe of a pendulous
abdomen, or where it depends on the make or diftor¬
tion of the pelvis. The firft of thefe, though it may,
by throwing the child’s head over the pubes, occafion
perhaps fome little delay, will feldom prove any mate¬
rial obftacle to the progrefs of the labour.
II. The protraCtion of labour may depend on the child,
and may arife from,
1 ft, the bulk oroffification of the head.
There may be either a natural difproportion between
the head and body, or the fwelling may be occafioned
by a putrid emphyfema in confequence of the child’s
death, or the enlargement may proceed from a hydro¬
cephalus.
Part It
M I D \V I
cephalus. The firft of thefe cafes can only be difco-
vered by the flow progrefs of the labour, when the •
pains are ftrong and frequent, the foft parts fufficiently
dilated, the woman in good health, and no other ap¬
parent caufe to account for the remora. The fecond
is. difcovered from the hi dory of the cafe, from the
tommon fymptoms of a dead child, viz. the puffy em-
phyfematous feel of the prefenting part of the head,
and from the reparation of the cuticle when touched.
Laftly, the hydrocephalus is difcovered by the head
falling down in the pelvis in a large bulky form, by
the bones of the head being feparated at confiderable
diftances, and by a fluctuation evident to the touch.
On the whole, however, it may here be obferved, that
the moft probable or fufpicious fymptoms of the child’s
death are often deceitful.
From whatever caufe the head is enlarged, if the
difficulty arifes from this caufe, and the force of tke
pains prove infufficient to pufh the head forwards, re-
courfe muff be had to inftruments; and if the bulk of
the head is too large to pafs the diameter of the pelvis,
the cranium muft be opened to diminiih its fize, and
the brain evaluated previous to the extraction,
2dly, The pofition of the head, which may be
fqueezed into the pelvis in fuch a manner as not to ad¬
mit of that compreflion neceffary for its palling. Such
a caufe of difficulty, however, more feklom occurs
than many authors have imagined. The ralh and pre-
pofterous application of inftruments has, in fuch cafes,
proved the bane of thoufands. Here though the la¬
bour will prove more painful and more tedious, yet
nature in general, unaffifted, will accomplifh her own
work with more fafety to mother and child, than by
the intrulion of officious hands. Turning here is
always difficult, often dangerous. The fame obferva-
tion will hold of inftruments, which Ihould never be
employed but when alarming fymptoms occur: the
aflertion perhaps is not more bold than true, that, in
general, the moft difadvantageous pofuion in which
the head can offer is not fufficient, without fome other
eaufe concurring, either to prevent delivery, or to en¬
danger the life of mother or dhild fo much as would
be done by the movement of the gentleft hands. Yet,
in fome cafes, where the woman is weak and exhauft-
ed, and the pains trifling ; if the head of the child
be large, the bones firm, and the futures clofely con-
nefted; or if there be any degree of narrownefs in
the pelvis, a difficult labour is to be expected; and
the life of both mother and child will depend on a
well-timed and fltilful application of the furgeon’s
hands.
The unfavourable pofition of the head may be re¬
ferred to two kinds, which include a confiderable va¬
riety. i When the fontanella, or open of the head,
prefents inftead of the vertex. 2. Face-cafes.
If no other obftacle appears but the prefenting of.
the fojitanella, the labour will by proper management
generally end well; and much injury may be done by
the intrufion of officious hands.
Face-cafes are the moft difficult and laborious of all
kinds of births; and our fuccefs in thefe will chiefly
depend upon a prudent management, by carefully iup-
portmg the ftrengtb of the woman. The varieties of
face-cafes are known by ti e ; iredion of the chin ; for
the face may prefent, 1. With the chin to the pubes :
Vex.. XL Fart II.
F E R Y. 785
2. To the facrum 5 3. To either fide. The rule in Difficult
all thefe cafes is to allow the labour to go on till the ■Labuur- a
face be protruded as far down as poffible. It is often ' *
as difficult and hazardous to pufli back the child, and
to bring down the crown or vertex, as to turn the
child and deliver it by the feet. Sometimes a fkilful
artift may fucceed in his attempt to alter the pofition,
when he has the management of the delivery from the
beginning; or, in thofe cafes where the face is confi-
derably advanced in the pelvis, may be able to give
affiftance by paffing a finger tor two in the child’s
mouth, and pulling down the jaw; which-leffens the
bulk of the head; or, by preffing on the chin, to
bring it under the arch of the pubes; when the crown
getting into the hollow of the os facrum, the head will
afterwards pafs eafily.
3dly, The breadth of the (boulders, or their tranf-
verfe defcent- through the pelvis, rarely proves the
caufe of protrafted labour. The head is always pret¬
ty far advanced before any obftru&ion can arife from
this caufe ; and if the head has already palled, in a
pain or two the Ihouldcrs will follow. The fame rea-
foning will alfo apply with regard* to the aperture of
the uterus itfelf, if the head pafies freely, in like
manner will the Ihoulders ; the os uteri rarely, if ever,
is capable of contra£ling upon the neck of the child,
and thus preventing the advance of the Ihoulders; and
Ihould this prove the cafe, what can we do but wait
with patience ? After the delivery of the head, if the
woman falls into deliquia, or if, after feveral pains*
the Ihoulders do not follow, and the child’s life be in
danger from delay, we fiiould naturally be induced to
help it forward in the gentleft manner we are able, by
paffing a finger on each fide as far at the axilla, and
thus gradually pulling along.
HI. Laftly, From the fecundines, difficulty and dan¬
ger fomttimes arife.
1 ft, The rigidity of the membranes, and the con.
trary. From the firft of thefe caufes, the birth is
fometimes rendered tedious ; but as the fame effeft is
much oftener produced by the oppolite caufe, and the
confequences of the latter are more troublefome and
dangerous than the former, we Ihould always be ex¬
ceedingly cautious of having recourfe to the common
expedient of breaking the membranes, which ought
never to be done till we be certain the difficulty de¬
pends upon this caufe; and, even then, the head of
the child Ihould be well advanced, and the membranes
protruded almoft as far as the os externum. Many in-
conveniences arife from a premature evacuation of the
waters ; for thus the parts become dry and rigid, a
conftriftion of the os uteri fora time enfues, the pains
often either remit or become lefs ftrong and forcing,
though not lefs painful and fatiguing ; the dilatation
goes on fo flow, and the labour becomes fo fevere,
that the woman’s ftrength and fpirits, by the unpro¬
fitable labour, are quite overcome and exhaufted ; fo
that the head remains confined in the palfage, merely
from want of force of pain to pufti it forwards. The
woman in the beginning ol labour Ihould therefore be
treated with the utmoft delicacy and gentlenefs. The
work of nature is too often fpoiltd by officious hands.
She ffiould be feldom touched while the membranes are
whole, left they Ihould be ruptured ; and, even when
touching is neceffary, this Ihould only be done who*
» ' 5 G tke
?S6 M I D \V
Difiicuk the pains begin to remit, and the tenfe membranous
, i-'lb°ur- bag to relax.
2dly, Too great a quantity of water may prevent
the uterus from contracting, and thus weaken the force
of the pains. Though this may, however, occafion a
delay, it will never be attended with more dangerous
confequences; and the fame advice already given will
hold equally good in this cafe, that the membranes
fltould never be broken till the foft parts be complete¬
ly dilated ; and we are allured that the difficulty or de¬
lay proceeds only from this caufe.
3dly, The funis umbilicalis too long. The funis
may be faulty from its too great length, or the con¬
trary : thus the extraordinary length, by forming cir¬
cumvolutions round the child’s neck or body, fome-
times proves the caufe of protra&ing the labour. But
as this can only happen when the chord is of an un¬
common length, there i? generally enough left to ad¬
mit of the exit of the child with fafety ; and it is time
enough, in general, after the child is born, to flip the
noofe over the Ihoulders or head : there is feldom oc-
cat'on to divide the chord in the birth; a praCtice that
inay be attended with trouble and hazard.
The practice of introducing a finger in ano, to prefs
back the coccyx, or to prevent the head, when it ad¬
vances, from being retraCted by circumvolutions of the
chord, is now entirely laid afide ; an expedient that
can anfwer no end, but that of fretting and bruifing
the parts of the mother, and injuring thofe of the
child.
Funis too Ihort. The funis is fometimes thick and
knotty, or preternaturally thickened by difeafe. In
this cafe, part of the placenta may be feparated as-the
child advances through the pelvis, and thus a flooding
will enfue ; or the funis may be aClually ruptured,
tmd occafion the death of the child, if the birth does
not quickly follow. Such cafes, however, rarely hap¬
pen.
An inconvenience, at leaft fully as bad as the for¬
mer, may arife from the too great length of the fu¬
nis, though it may depend on other cireumftances:
qthly, The prolapfus of the funis before the head.
In this cafe, the funis, if pofiible, fhould be puihed
up above the prefenting part; for, if the labour pains
are flow, and the chord becomes cold, or the pulfation
in it begins to grow languid, the circulation will thus
be interrupted, and the life of the child deftroyed. If
the head is far advanced in the pelvis, and the child’s
life in danger, the delivery may be performed with the
forceps. But to pu(h up the head, and turn the child
with a view to preferve its life, as many author’s re¬
commend, is a practice by no means advifeable: we
fliould feldom, in this pofition, be enabled to fave the
child ; and turning under fuch circumftances can never
be done but at the immediate hazard of' lofing the
mother
5thly, Placenta attached towards the cervix or os
uteri. This cafe is truly melancholy ; for, if the de¬
livery is not fpeedily accompliflied, the effufion from
the uterine veffels will be fo copious and profufe, that
the unfortunate woman mufl: in a very fliort time |pe-
tifn. On this occafion the delivery muft be conduft-
*d in the belt mannef the judgment and fkill of the
I F E R Y. Part
operator can direft, and with as much expedition as D'flk
the fafety of'the mother will admit.
Thus, in molt laborious cafes, provided the wo¬
man’s ftrength be fupported, the management proper¬
ly regulated, the natural moifture of the parts when
deficient fupplied, manual afliftance very feldom be*
comes requifite : but as cafes do occur, wherein na¬
ture, with all advantages, will fail, and the common
methods of relief prove unfuccefsful, recourfe muft be
had to more powerful means, while the woman is able
to fupport the conflidt. In all fuch cafes, the condition
of the patient, the ftrudture and ftate of the parts, and
pofition of the prefenting part of the child, muft very
carefully be confidered.
Method of Delivery ly Injlruments.
When the powers of nature are infulficient to expel
the child, extraordinary afliftance muft be had re-
courfe to. In laborious births, this is chiefly of two
kinds.
I. The head is either extra&ed as it prefents : or,
II. Its diameter is diminiihed previous to the ex-
tra&ion.
The head may be detained from advancing through
the pelvis by all the caufes formerly enumerated.—*
Thefe are chiefly included in four general ones.
1. Weaknefs in the mother.
2. Narrownefs of the pelvis.
3. The bulk of the head of the child ; or,
4. Its difadvantageous pofition.
Whatever is the caufe, when the natural pains begin
to remit, and the parts of the woman begin to fwell;
when her ftrength declines, her pulfe grows feeble, and
there is no profpeft of advantage to be gained by de¬
lay ; meafures muft be taken for afiifting the delivery,
otherwife both mother and child may perifh from ne-
gle&> '
As inftruments are never to be employed but in the
moft urgent and neceffitous cafes, and exprefsly with
a view to preferve the life of mother or child, or both;
thofe of a fafe and harmlefs kind Ihould always be
made trial of, in preference to thofe of a deftru&ive
nature.
life of tl>e Forceps.
The forceps is an inftrument intended to lay hold
of the head of the child in laborious berths, and to ex¬
tract it as it prefents. This inftrument, as now im¬
proved, in the hands of a prudent and cautious opera¬
tor, may be employed without doing the leaft injury
either to mother or child.
In eveiy obftetrical cafe, wherein manual afliftance
becomes necefiary, the contents of reftum and bladder
(hould, if poffihle, be previoufly emptied.
The membranes alfo fliould be broken, the foft parts
completely dilated, and the head of the child as fat
as poffible advanced, previous to the ufe of any inftru¬
ment.
The form and ftru&ure of the parts of the woman,
the fituation and progrefs of the prefenting part of the
child, muft at this time be carefully eonfidered. The
concavity of the facrum, for inftance, will determine
the progrefs of the labour. The touch of the vertex,
fontanella, lambdoidal, or fagittal future, the fore or
back
'
-IPart II. MIDWIFERY.
id; Difficult back part of the ear, or fome part of the face, will af- always in his efforts only co operate with thofe of na*
■l *^our‘ certain the true prefentation of the child. ture. The child and mother will fuffer lefs by going
Wl r ' ‘ The lower the head is advanced in the pelvis, our on in this gradual manner than by precipitating the
fuccefs with the forceps is the more to be depended birth, which can never be done but at the rifle of de¬
an. For when it has proceeded as far as the inferior ftroying both. If, in making the extra&ion, the for-
aperture, by means of this inftrument it may be readi- ceps flip, they muft be cautioufly withdrawn blade by
ly relieved : but when the head of the child fs con- blade, and again introduced in the fame manner.—
fined at the brim, both the application of-inttruments. When the tumor of the perimeum forms, and the
, ' and the extra&ion by this means, are exceedingly dif- vertex begins to protrude at the os externum, the ac-
ficult and dangerous. © coucheur moft rife from his feat, raife the handle
1 he head may be.fo firmly wedged in the pelvis, gently upwards, and, by a half-round turn, bring the
that the forceps can neither be introduced nor fixed hind-head from under the fymphyfis or arch of the
without bruifing or tearing the parts of the woman : pubes; remembering carefully to guard the perinseutn
whatever, therefore, infurmountable difficulties occur, from laceration and its confequences, to which it is now
either in applying or extrafting with the forceps, the fo greatly expofed.
life of the mother muft not be endangered by fruit- In attempting the iqtrodu&ion of cither blade, if
lefs efforts : the head of the child muft immediately be it meets with any interruption, it muft be as often
opened, and the delivery accomplilhed without further withdrawn, and pufhed up again in a proper dire&ion,
delay. till every difficulty be furmounted ; and if, from the
In laborious births, the proper forcep-cafes may be fmallnefs or conftri&ion of the parts, the introdu&ion
reduced to two, which include, however, a confider* of the fecond blade ffiall feem impra&icable, tha for*
able variety. Thefe are, mer one mult be withdrawn, and the latter muft be
I. The fmooth part of the cranium. firft introduced.
II. The face, prefenting. 2. 1 he vertex may prefent with the face laterally in
The head may prefent, the pelvis. It is always difficult to apply the forceps
1 ft. Naturally, when low advanced in the pelvis, till the bulky part of the head has p'affed the brim ;
with the vertex to the pubes, and the forehead or face and here it is not only .difficult to the operator, but
in the hollow of the facrum. Or, extremdly hazardous to the pau'ent, to introduce this
|. 2dly, When higher in the pelvis, the vertex may inftrument till the ear of the child has got under the
prefent with the face laterally, the ears to the pubes pubes. When the ears thus prefent to pubes and fa-
and facrum. Or, crum, the woman ffiould be placed on her fide or
gdly, The fontanel may prefent with the face to the knees ; the moft difficult blade of the forceps flrould
pubes and vertex to the facrum ; or with the vertex be firft applied, which is the one under the pubes;
to the pubes and face to the facrum. when both are paffed, and properly fecured, the pa-
1. When the head prefents naturally. The woman tient ftrould again be turned to her back, before the
in this cafe muft be placed on her back a-crofs the operator attempts to extraft, and the head in. this
bed, properly fupported; the accoucheur, feated be- cafe (as the quarter-turn'can feldom be made with
fore or in a kneeling pofture, after gradually lubri- fafety) fliould be delivered in the manner wherein it
eating the perinseum and vagina, muft proceed gently prefents; becaufe, when confined any time in the paf-
to ftretch the parts, by palling the hand in a conical fage, its figure is altered by the overlapping of the
manner through the os externum vaginas, pulhing it bones, in fuch a manner that it paffes along, in gene-
forwards by the fide of the child’s head, till it ad- ral, with far lefs difficulty than to attempt to pulh up
vances as far as an ear, if poffible: along this hand and make the mechanical turns ; a work often alto-
he is to guide a blade of the forceps, which with the gether impradticable, by which contufion or lacera-
other handJie introduces in the dire&ion of the line tion of the parts of the woman, and the moft fatal
1 of the pelvis, holding the handle backwards towards confequences, may be occafioned. The handles of the
the perinaeum, and keeping the clam clofely applied to forceps muft here particularly be well preffed back-
the child’s head. This muft be infinuated very gradually wards towards the perinasum, that the clams may hu-
by a kind of wriggling motion, puffiing it on till the mour the curvature and intrulion of the facrum, and
blade is applied along the fide of the head over the accommodate themfelves to the form of the child’s'
ear ; he muft then gently withdraw the firft hand from head.
the pelvis, with which he muft fecure the handle of This is a cafe wherein the forceps often fail; if fo,
the blade of the forceps already introduced, till the they will fometimes fucceed by varying the mode of
other blade be paffed along the other hand, in the application, and fixing them over the forehead and
fame flow cautious manner : the handles muft then be occiput; if this method fails alfo, the fize of the head
brought oppofite to each other, carefully locked, and, muft be diminiftied, and the extradlion made with the
left they flip in extracting, properly fecured by tying blunt hook or crotchet.
a fillet or garter round them ; but this muft be loofed 3. The fontanella may prefent with the face to the
during the remiffion of pulling, to prevent the braih pubes. This is the moft common of the fontanel
from being injured by the preffure The extraction cafes ; though fometimes the face is lateral in the pel-
muft be made by very flow and gentle degrees, and vis, fometimes diagonal, and fometimes it is turned to
with one hand only, while the other is employed to the facrum. The true pofition is afeertained by the
guard the perinasum: the motion in pulling ihould direction of the fontanel, and that of the ear. Here,
be from blade to blade ; the accoucheur -muft reft from as in other laborious births, nature ihould be intruded
time to time, and, if the pains are not gone, ihould as long as we dare. The head does not always de-
5 G a feend
787
Diffiyift
^88 M I D W I
Difficult fcend mechanically through the capacity of the pel-
_ L-ibour- vjs> as fome praftitioners have fuppofed ; nor will
~v the deviation from its ordinary mode of defcent al¬
ways of itfelf influence the delivery, at leaft very rare¬
ly in fuch a manner as to require extraordinary affifi¬
ance. In whatever manner the head prefents, when it
is fituated high in the pelvis, the delivery cannot be
effe&ed without difficulty or hazard; in fuch circum-
ftances, the applicatioh of the forceps will frequently
baffle the utmoft efforts of the accoucheur, and the
confequences of fuch attempts may prove fatal to mo¬
ther and child.
When extreme weaknefs in the mother, floodings,
convulfions, or other urgent fymptoms, render it ne-
ceffary to force the delivery, whether the face be to
pubes or facrum, the forceps may be applied along
the ears, in the fame manner as dire&ed in a natural
labour ; and the head, for the reafons already -given,
fhould be brought al -ng in Ihe manner it prefents:
the ext raft ion fhould be made with great deliberation,
that the parts of the woman may have time to ftretch ;
the perineum muft be carefelly fupported ; the forceps
muff be gently releafed, when the head is delivered ;
and the reft of the delivery condudled as in a natural
labour.
In this cafe, when fituated high in the pelvis, the
fontanel prefenting, and the face either to pubes or
facrum, the long axis of the head interfe&s the fhort
diameter of the pelvis, and very often, though the
forceps be applied, and a firm hold of the head be ob¬
tained, it is not puffible to bring it along with all the
force we dare exert. If this method therefore fails,
the common forceps fhould he cautioufly withdrawn,
and the long ones applied, if poffible, over the fore¬
head and occiput, when the fize of the head, by the
compreffion it fuffers in paffing along, being perhaps
fomewhat diminifhed, the extra&ion will be fuccefsful-
ly performed. This method alfo failing, previous to
the operation of embryotomy, Dr Leak’s forceps,
with the third blade, may be had recourfe to. But of
this little can be faid with confidence, till the inftru-
ment has been more generally employed. From the
difficulty of fucceeding in the application of the com¬
mon forceps, it may, a priori, be concluded, that the
introduftion of a third blade, even in the hands of an
expert pradlitioner, however ingenious the invention,
is an expedient not eafily to be put in pra&ice. Nei¬
ther is Roonhuyfe’s lever, or a blade of the forceps
paffed up between the pubes and fore-head or hind-
head of the child, in order to procure the delivery of
the head, to be recommended in fuch cafes : however
fome have boafted of its fuccefs, it is an inftrument
that may do much mifehief ; and few pra&itioners can
life it with fafety.
II. Face prefenting.—Of laborious births, face-cafes,
as we have already obferved, are the moft difficult and
the moft dangerous. From its length, roughnefs, and
inequality, the face rnufl. occafion greater pain ; and
from the folidity of the bones, it mull yield to the pro¬
pelling force with much more difficulty, than the
ftnooth. moveable body of the cranium. Face-cafes
are the moft troublefome that occur in the pra&ice of
midwifery, and in which the moft expert pra&itioners
may be foiled in their attempts ; and thefe attempts, if
too early exerted, will be followed in many iuftances
F E E Y. Eart II#
with fatal confequences. Whatever way the face pre- Difficult i
fents, it Ihould be allowed to advance, as low as poffible labour. !
in the pelvis; by which means the accefs will be more
eafy, and the pofition, for the application of inftru-
ments, more favourable. In this aukward fituation,
much mifehief may be done by ralhnefs ; whereas, if
time be allowed, and the patient be properly fupport¬
ed, the delivery will generally end well.
The face fiiay prefent with,
1. The chin to the paibes.
2. to the facrum.
3. laterally.
From the difficulty of applying inftruments in thefe
cafes, fome authors recommend, as an univerfal prac¬
tice, to turn the child, and deliver by the feet. But
this in general is a dangerous pra&ice, and feldom or
never advifeable, except when the membranes remain
entire, till the os uteri is completely dilated, and the
head continues loofe about the brim of the pelvis; and
even then the propriety of the practice is doubtful;
becaufe if the head is ftnall, or the pelvis be well pro¬
portioned, the face will defeend without much difficul¬
ty ; and if otherwife, befides the riik in attempting to
turn, the child may be loft from the preffure of the
chord, or the difficulty of extra&ing the head after
the delivery of the body.
When affiftance becomes neceflary, the beft prac¬
tice in face-cafes is the following: Having placed the
patient in a convenient pofture, let the accoucheur in
the gentleft manner pafs his hand within the pelvis;
and, during the remiffion of pain only, endeavour to
raife the head of the child, fo that he may pufh up
the ffloulders entirely above the brim of the pelv is, and
thus change the pofition of the face : by this means, if
fuccefsful, he will be able to reduce the firft of thefe
cafes, fo as to make the fontanel prefent with the face
to the pubes ; he will reduce the fecond fo as to bring
down the vertex, with the face to the facrum; and the
third he will reduce to a vertex cafe, with the face la¬
teral. The delivery may be afterwards trufted to na¬
ture ; which failing, there is eafier accefs for the ap¬
plication of inftruments to make the extradion, as al¬
ready dire&ed. The fuccefs, however, of the ac¬
coucheur, in altering the pofition of the head, by puffl-
ing it up, will entirely depend on the time he is call¬
ed ; for, Ihould the head be firmly wedged in the pel-
vi>, no force he dares employ will be fufficient to alter
the pofture.
If therefore every attempt to reduce the face, and
make the vertex or fontanel prefent, ffiall prove unfuc-
cefsful, and fymptoms are urgent, the forceps muft be
applied over the ears of the child, and the extraction
performed in the beft manner the operator is able.
And, failing thefe, immediate recourfe muft be had to
the crotchet.
1. In the firft cafe, previous to the introduction of
the forceps, the chin, if poffible, fflould be advanced
below the pubes.
2. In the fecond, the chin fhould be advanced to
the inferior part of the facrum. And,
3. In the third, the chin fliould be as low as the
hinder part of the tuber ifehii: and although in gene¬
ral the head is to be extracted as it prefents, if the
operator meets with confiderable refiftance, it muft be
gently puflied up and turned-with the chin, either la¬
terally^
mart II.
i™Difficult
rfl^b.ur.
M I D W
terally, below tbe pnbes, or into the hollow of the
facrum, according to the particular circumftances of
the cafe, and in a dire&ion heft accommodated to the
form and diameter of the pelvis.
life of the SciJ/ars, Crotchet, and Blunt Hook.
When the head of the child, from its fize, unfa¬
vourable polition, or from a fault in the pelvis, cannot
be protruded by the force of natural pains, nor extrac¬
ted by the forceps, recourfe muft be had to more vio¬
lent means, and the life of the child muft be deftroyed
in order to preferve that of the mother. This opera¬
tion was by the ancients called embryotomy.
When the head, from its extraordinary bulk, is de¬
tained at the brim of the pelvis; on evacuating the
contents, the bones of the cranium immediately col-
lapfe, and the head is afterwards propelled by the force
of the labour-pains ; failing which only, the extrac¬
tion muft be mace with the blunt-hook or crotchet.
The unfavourable pofition of the head is of itfelf a
caufe infufficient to juftify the ufe of deftruftive inftru-
ments, which ought never to be employed but in ex¬
treme cafes, after every milder method has failed. From
the difficult accefs to the cranium in order to make a
perforation and evacuate the brain, a face-cafe makes
a very troublefome and dangerous crotchet one. Very
luckily, in narrow pelvifes, the face rarely prefents, and
very feidom advances far in that direftion ; at other-
times, the pofition may be fo altered, that the crown,
the back of the ear, or feme other part of the cranium,
can be reached ; otherwife the crotchet muft be fixed
in the mouth, orbit of the eye, kc. and the head
brought along in that dire&ion, till the feiffars can be
employed to open the fkull.
But the grand caufe of difficult labour is, the nar-
rownefs or diftortion of the pelvis. For when, at the
brim, inftead of four inches and a quarter from pubes
to facrum, it meafures no more than one and a half,
one and three-fourths, two, or two inches and one-
fourth, the ufe of inftruments becomes abfolutely re-
quifite, and very frequently in thofe of two inches and
one-half, and three inches ; or when the diameters
through the capacity, or at the inferior aperture, are
retrenched in the fame proportion, difficulties will in
like manner arife, and the delivery, except the labour
be premature, or the child of a fmall fize, cannot be
accomplifhed without the affiftance of deftnnftive in¬
ftruments.
We judge of the form of the woman ; by the pro-
grefs of the labour ; by the touch. When the fault is
at the inferior aperture, the touch is pretty decifive ;
e.g, if a bump is felt in the os facrum inftead of a con¬
cavity ; if the coccyx i^ angulated ; if the fymphylis
p'ubis projtfts inwards in form of an acute angle ; if
the tuberofities of the ifehia approach too near each
other; orthe one tuber be higher than the other; fuch
appearances are infallible marks of a diftorted pelvis.
But when the narrownefs is confined to the brim, this
is only to be difeovered by the introdudftion of the hand
within the pelvis : the projettion of the luntbar ver¬
tebra over the lacrum, is a fpecies of narrow pelvis
that moft frequently occurs in praftice. In this cafe,
the child’s head, by the preffure it fuftains between the
pubes and lacrum, is moulded into a conical or fugar-
I F E R Y.
loaf form, the parietal bofies are fqueczed
over-lapping one another, and will be felt to
when the labour is advanced, like an acute ridge, fome-
thing in the form of a fow’s back.
Inftead of the complicated inftrumental apparatus
invented by the ancients, fuch as ferews, hooks, &c.
for fixing in, laying hold of, and extra&ing the head,
as it prefented, an operation in many cafes difficult and
dangerous, when the head was bulky or the pelvis nar¬
row, as the woman frequently loft her life in the at¬
tempt ; the pra&ice of diminiihing the fize of the head,
by opening the cranium and evacuating the brain, pre¬
vious to the extra&ion, is a modern improvement, and
an important one: the inftruments for this purpofe
confift Amply of a pair of long feiffars, a (harp curved
crotchet, and a blunt hook : thefe are preferable to
every other, whether of ancient or modern conftruc-
tion.
When the accoucheur is under the difagreeable ne-
ceffity of deftroying the child^o preferve the mother,
(he muft be laid in the fame pbfition as already advi-
fed for the application of the forceps; and the fame
rules, recommended for the one operation, will in ge¬
neral apply to the other.
Thus, in the narroweft pelvis that occurs, previous
to opening the cranium, the foft parts fhould be com¬
pletely dilated, and the head of the child ffiould be fixed
fteadilyJn the pelvis and advanced as far as poffible ;
for while the head is high and loofe above the brim,
the application of inftruments is very difficult as well
as hazardous.
The long feiflars muft be cautioufly introduced into
the vagina, directed by the hand of the accoucheur;
the points muft be carefully guarded, till they prefs
againft the cranium of the child, which they muft be
made to perforate with a boring kind of motion, till
they are puffied on as far as the refts ; they muft then
be opened fully, carefully re-lhut, half turned, and
again widely opened, fo as to make a crucial hole in
the Ikull. They muft afterwards be pufhed beyond the
refts, opened diagonally again and again, in fuch a
manner as to tear and break to pieces the bones of the
cranium ; they muft then be (hut with great care; and
withdrawn along the hand, in the fame cautious man¬
ner as they were introduced, left they Ihould bruife or
tear the uterus, vagina, or any other part of the wo¬
man. After a free opening in the cranium has thus
been made, the brain muft be fcooped out with thq
fingers or blunt-hook, and the loofe (harp pieces of
bone muft be carefully feparated and removed, that no
part of the woman be tore while the head is extract¬
ing. The teguments of the fcalp ffiould now-be brought
over the ragged bones of the cranium, and the woman
ffiould be allowed to reft an hour or two, according to
her ftrength and other circumftances: the bones of the
cranium will now collapfe-; and if the woman has as
much ftrength remaining, orthe pelvis be not much
diftorted, the head being thus diminifhed, will be pro¬
truded by the force of natural pains; otherwife it muft
be extracted, either by means of two fingers introdu¬
ced within the cavity of the cranium, by the blunt-
hook introduced in the fame manner, guarding the
point on the oppofite fide while making the extrac¬
tion 5 or, failing thefe, by the crotchet, which, though.
dan*-
together, r>
the touch
790 MID W
Difficult dangerous m the hands of an ignorant rafh operator,
. our•, may be employed by the prudent pra&itioner with as
much fafety as the blunteft inilrument.
The method of introduftion is the fame with a blade
of the forceps. The chief thing to be attended to is,
to guard the point till it be applied againft the head,
and firmly fixed in its hold, which fhould always be
fomewhere on the outfide of the cranium : provided a
firm hold Is obtained, no matter where, behind the
ears, about the os petrofum, orbits of the eyes, maxilla
inferior, &c. according to the prefentation of the
head. The woman being properly fecured, and the
handle of the inftrument covered with a cloth, the ope--
rater mull; then pull, at firft gently, afterwards more
forcibly, reffing from time to time, and endeavouring
to make the extraction in the beft manner the cir-
cumftances of the cafe will admit of. If the pelvis be
much diftorted, fo th;,t, by means of the utmoft
ifrength the accoucheur can exert, little purchafe is
made, he may apply £o the oppofite fide a blade of
the forceps, which are'now fo conftru&ed as to lock
with the crotchet; let him then bring the handles to¬
gether, fecure properly, and thus endeavour to make
the extraction. Should this expedient alfo fail, the
blade of the forceps muff be withdrawn, the other
blade of the crotchet muff be applied, the handles
brought together and fecured, and the extraCIion
made, moving from blade to blade. c
Should the head prefent in fuch a manner, that, in
attempting to extraCf it, the crotchet divides the ver¬
tebras of the neck, and the head is thus fevered from
the body, an accident that can only happen in the
hands of an ignorant blundering praCfitioner; the head
.muff be pulhed up above the brim of the pcMs, the
crotchet or blunt hook muff be fixed under the axilla,
the arms mull be brought down, and the body extrac¬
ted, by fixing the crotchet below the fcapula on the
fternum, or among the ribs; the head muff afterwards
be extraCfed in the manner already advifed: or fhould
the head in extracting be pulled from the body, as
may happen when the child has been long dead, or
when it is putrid, the delivery of the body muft
be effeCted by means of the crotchet as now direct¬
ed ; a method preferable to that of turning, as fome
advife.
If the head, inftead of yielding to the force of pull¬
ing, be at laft cut and broken in pieces, the operator
muft endeavour to bring down an arm of the child, to
fix the crotchet about the jaw or neck, pull at both
holds, and thus attempt to make the extraction ; this
alfo failing, he muff bring down the other arm, fix the
crotchet in the thorax, and, in a word, muft tear the
child in pieces, that the delivery may be accomplifhed
by any means.
In face-cafes, where it is impracticable to alter the
pofition, and when the pelvis is much difforted, the
double crotchet is fometimes requifite; the handles muft
be well fecured, kept well backwards towards the pe-
rinaeum, and the motion always from blade to blade.
It very feldom, however, happens, that there is occa-
fion for the double crotchet: by this means the head
is flattened in pulling ; whereas if one blade only can
be employed, the head is lengthened, and, in pulling,
I F E R Y. Parti* >,
can better accommodate itfelf to the flupe of the pel- Preterwjj b
vis as it paffes along.
Chap. III. Preternatural Labour.
In whatever manner the child prefents when the
body is delivered before the head, the birth is account¬
ed preternatural.
Preternatural labours may be referred to one of the
four following claffes.
I. When one or both feet, knees, or the breech,
prefent.
II. When the child lies acrofs in a rounded or oval
form, with the arm, fhoulder, fide, back, or belly,
prefenting.
III. When one or both of the upper extremities
prefent, the child lying in the form of a fheath, the
feet towards the fundus uteri, the waters evacuated,
and the uterus ftrongly contracted round the body of
the child.
IV. Laftly, Premature or flooding cafes, or others
in which it may be neceffary to force the delivery, ei¬
ther previous to the rupture of the membranes, or
quickly after it.
i he caufes of crofs labours moft commonly afligned
by authors are, The obliquity of the uterus ; circum¬
volutions of the funis umbilicalis round the child’s
body ; the fliortnefs of the funis, or attachment of the
placenta towards the fundus uteri; fliocks affeCfting
the mother when pregnant, &c. The pofition of the
foetus may alfo be influenced by its own motion and
ftirrings, by the particular foim and bulk of its body,
by the manner of ftretching of the uterus, by the
quantity of liquor amnii, and by many other circum-
ftances.
rural S IC
The fymptoms that indicate an unfavourable pofi¬
tion of the child, before it can be difeovered by the
touch, are very uncertain and fallacious: a crofs birth
may, however, be fufpe&ed,
\Jlj If the pains be more flack and trifling than or¬
dinary.
zdfy, If the membranes be protruded in a long form
like a gut, or the finger of a glove.
$dly. If no part of the child can be difeovered when
the uterine orifice is confiderably opened.
4/^/y, If the prefenting part through the membranes
be fmaller, feels lighter, and gives lefs reliftance than
the bulky ponderous head.
Sthly, Laftly, after the rupture of the membranes,
if the meconium of the child be paffed along with the
waters, it is a fign that the breech prefents, or that the
child is dead.
Preternatural labours are difficult or hazardous, ac¬
cording to,
1. The form of the pelvis, and general health and
conftitution of the woman.
2. The bulk of the child, and its manner of prefent-
ing.
3. The time the waters have been evacuated, and
the uterus contrafted round the body of the child.
4. When complicated with plurality of children ;
the prolapfis of the funis umbilicalis; the limbs of the
child entangled with the chord; profufe and violent
flood-
M I D W I
• flood ings from the attachment of the placenta towards
the cervix uteri, See-
Turning is often laborious, and always dangerous iti
proportion to the force ufed in fearching for and bring¬
ing down the feet; though, in general, the difficulty
and hazard are not fo great, as in many cafes ftrittly
called laborious, when the head prefents; the treat¬
ment of preternatural labours being better known, and
For the moft part eafier put in practice.
Each clafs of the general divifion of crofs labours
includes a variety of different cafes. By confidering
a few of every clafs, a general idea of the whole will
be formed.
CLASS I.
Case i. The fimpleft and eafteft cafe is the Agrip-
pan pofture, when the child prefents with the feet.
The foot is to be diftinguilhed from the hand, firft,
by the weight and refiftance it gives to the touch; fe-
condly, by the ffiortnefs of the toes; thirdly, by the
projecting heel.
When the feet prefertt in the paffage, the 'labour
fhould be allowed to go on as if natural. If the child
be of an ordinary fize, the woman in health, the parts
well proportioned, in the way of affiftance nothing fur¬
ther feems neceffary but the application of a warm
cloth round the body of the child, which muff be pro¬
perly fupported till it advances as far as the pains are
able to force it. If the frze be ordinary, or rather
fmall, it will fometimes make the mechanical turns,
and be entirely puffied along by the force of the natu¬
ral pains; but it generally Hops at the fhoulders, after
the breech protrudes without the os externum, where
the refiftance is fo great, that the accoucheur’s affift¬
ance becomes requilite.
In this cafe, the patient muft be placed on her back,
properly fupported ; the hand of the accoucheur muft
be cautioufly introduced; the parts of the woman muft
be gently ftretched ; the feet of the child muft be laid
hold of, and brought as low in the vagina as poffible ;
a. foft warm cloth muft; be wrapped round them, and
the extraflion muft be performed in a flow cautious
manner, making large motions in a circular or lateral
dineftion, reftrng from time to time, if the pains are
gone; and if not, always waiting for the natural ef¬
forts. When advanced as far as the breech, the body,
if not already in a proper direction, muft be puffied
up, and genriy turned with the face towards the mo¬
ther’s back ; and to make fure that the face turns with
the body, or to prevent the chin, vortex, or fhoulders,
from catching on the pubes, or angle of the facrum,
an extraordinary quarter-turn more muft be made: this
muft be reverfed previous to the extraction ; and the
difficulty arifipg from the obftruCtion of the fhoulders
muft be removed in the following manner: While the
breaft and legs of the child are fupported over the palm
and fore-arm of the one hand of the accoucheur, which
he draws towards one fide, he muft introduce two
fingers of the other hand at the oppofite fide into the
vagina, over the back-part of the fhoulder, as far as
the elbow, and endeavour in the moft gentle maimer
to bring down the arm, always remembering in his
movements to humour the natural motions of the joint:
he mull then fhift hands, when the other arm is to be
relieved in the fame manner: both arms being brought
F E R Y. 791
down, the woman muft now reft a little, when a pain Pietcrna-
or two generally follows, and the head is alfo forced j
along. But fhould the woman be much exhaufted, ■
and if the head does not quickly advance, the child
may be loft from delay. The extraftion of the head
in preternatural labours is often the moft difficult and
the moft dangerous part of the delivery; the caufe of
refiftance, when it does not advance, is chiefly owing
to its confinement between the angle of the facrum
and pubes, when the bulky part of the head is de¬
tained at the brim ; whether the refiftance be here
or towards the inferior aperture of the pelvis, if the
head does not advance in a pain or two, the extrac¬
tion muft be made in this manner: While the right
band of the accoucheur fupports the body of the child
below, with two fingers preffing on either fhoulder,
the left hand and fingers muft in the fame manner be
placed over the back of the neck, and pulling gently
in the direffiion from pubes to facrum, he muft thus
endeavour to bring it along : but, fhould the pelvis be
narrow, or the child’s head of a large fize, or the face
be laterally or anteriorly placed in the pelvis, or, what
rarely happens, the os uteri contradled round the neck
of the child ; in either of thefe cafes, the accoucheur
will fometimes meet with the utmoft difficulty. Whei*
the above method therefore fails, he muft introduce
two fingers of the right-hand into the child’s mouth,
while thofe of the left-hand are expanded over the
fhoulders, as already directed; and in this way he
muft endeavour to relieve it, pulling from pubes
to facrum, alternately railing and depreffing the
head till it advances low down, fo that the face de-
feends from the hollow of the facrum, when the accou¬
cheur muft rife from his feat, amd bring the hind-head
from the pubes with a half-round turn, imitating that
of a natural labour.
If the pofition be unfavourable, the face, if pofiil le,
fhould be turned to the facrum, by pufhing up the
head, or by pufhing back the chin : If the contrac¬
tion of the uterus is the caufe of refiftance, which
rarely occurs, it muft be gently ftretched with the,,
fingers. Or if the difficulty arifes from circumvolu¬
tion of the chord round the legs, thighs, body, or
neck of the child, thefe muft be difengaged in the
eafieft manner poffible ; it is rarely aeceffary to divide
the funis on this account.
Should every method fail in bringing down the
head, the delivery muft be effeifted by means of the
forceps cautioufly paffed over the ears, with the
handles under the child’s body, in a direction down¬
wards towards the perinasum. If the pelvis be very-
narrow, or the head of a large fize, it muft be opened
by pufhing the feiffars through the occipital bone, fo
that the contents of the cranium may be evacuated,
and the extra&ion made by means of the forceps,
blunt-hook, or crotchet. But if the head, by the
efforts to extradl it, be actually fevered from the body,
and left behind in the uterus, an accident which fome¬
times occurs, it mull be delivered by inclofing it in
the forceps, while fecured from rolling by preffing
externally on the abdomen, if the forceps cannot
be applied, the cranium muft be opened, the texture
of the brain deftroyed, and the extraftion performed
by the fingers of the accoucheur, by the blunt-hookK
or by the crotchet. If the under-jaw remains, the
hed
y9l M I D W I
Preterna- head may be effe&ually fecnred till locked in the for-
I abtfur cePs» or *ts ke diminifhed, by introducing
' - a finger into the mouth, thrufting it through the jaw
under the chin, drawing it down, and palling a liga¬
ture through the perforation.
In cafes where the child has been long dead,
Ihould the be ly or thorax be dillended with air or
water, and prove the caufe of obftru&ion, the con¬
tents muft be evacuated by opening with the fcilfars.
or tearing with the crotchet; and in general, where
difficulties occur, the delivery mult be accompliffied
in that manner the circumllances of the cafe will beft
-admit of.
Cafe 2. When inftead of two, one foot only falls
into the vagina, the other is .fometimes detained by
catching on the pubes, and, if eafily come at, Ihould
be brought down, always remembering to humour
the natural motion of the joint; but, fhould the leg
be folded up along the child’s body, the attempt is
fometimes both difficult and dangerous,' and ought not
to be perlifted in, as the breech will either be forced
down by the affiftance of natural pains, or by gently
pulling by one leg only.
Cafe 3. When one or both knees prefent, the deli¬
very muft be conduced in the fame manner with that
of the feet.
Cafe 4. When the feet offer along with the breech,
ibis laft muft be puffied up, while the former are fe-
cured and brought down, till it be reduced to a foot¬
ling cafe, and otherwife managed as above.
Cafe 5. The breech may prefent with the fore-parts
' to the mother,
if. Anteriorly;
2c//)’, Laterally ; or,
a,dly, Pofteriorly.
Sometimes the breech may be difcovered, previous
±0 the rupture of the membranes; but afterwards with
•more certainty, by the meconium of the child paffed
with the waters, and by the touch.
In whatever manner the breech prefents, the deli¬
very fhould be fubmitted to nature, till the child be
advanced as far as the thorax, when the feet are to be
'brought down and laid hold of, the child, if neceffary,
pufhed up, the mechanical turns effected ; and the de¬
livery otherwife coadudred as in a footling cafe.
There is much lefs hazard in general, agreeable co an
old obfervation of Mauriceau, in allowing the child to
advance double, than in precipitating the extraction
by pufhing up to bring down the feet before the
parts have been fufficiently dilated; a practice diffi¬
cult and troublefome to the operator ; painful, and
fometimes dangerous, to the mother 5 and by which
the child is expofed to the rifle of ftrangulation, from
the retention of the head after the delivery of the
body If the child be fmall, though doubled, it will
eafily pafs in that direction ; if large, though the la¬
bour be painful, the natural throes are lefs violent and
lefs dangerous than the prepofterous help of the
accoucheur: If the child thus advances naturally, it
will be lefs expofed to fuffer; if it does not advance,
the parts of the mother will be prepared for the ac¬
coucheur to pafs his hand into the pelv.*, to raife up
the breech, to bring down one or both feet, and de¬
liver as above
Weaknefs in the mother, floodings and couvulfions,
Ng 220.
F E R Y. Part It
a very large child, or narrow pelvis, the prolapfus of freterngl
the funis, or its compreffion between the thighs of L'“ral ‘
the child, or between the child and pelvis, by which * uur*.
its life is endangered, if the chord cannot be reduced '“’"l
above the prefenting part, are the only exceptions to
the general rule of treating the breech as a natural
labour.
The pra&ice of helping forward the breech, by
paffing the blunt-hook under the ham, is now entirely
laid afide : this can never be done with fafety, till
the breech be fo low advanced, that the hand of the
accoucheur can be ufed. which may be employed with
more advantage as well as fafety.
CLASS II.-
In the former clafs of preternatural labours, it is
advifeable to truft to nature in many cafes, as the
birth will often be accompliftied without manual af¬
fiftance : but when the child lies a-crofs, no force of
pain can make it advance in that pofition ; and, with¬
out proper affiftance, both the mother and child would
periftt.
If the accoucheur has the management of the la- '
hour from the beginning, the child may be turned, in
the worft pefition, without difficulty ; but when the
waters have been for fame time evacuated, and the
uterus ftrongly contrafted, turning is laborious to the
operator, painful and dangerous to the mother. In
fuch cafes, the ancients endeavoured to make the
head prefent; but, from its bulk, they often failed,
and the attempt was often attended with fatal confe-
quences. The method of delivering by the feet is the
moft important modern improvement in the pra&ice
of midwifery ; an improvement to which many thou-
fands owe their lives,
When the child lies in a tranfverfe pofition, the
accoucheur muft infinuate his hand through the vagina
into the uterus in the gentleft manner, fearch for the
feet, bring them down with the utmoft caution, and
finifh the delivery as in footling-cafes. To effect this,
the following rules ffiould be obferved.
x. The patient muft be placed in a convenient
pofture, that the operator may be able to employ*
either hand, as the various circumftances of the cafe
may require.
2. Though the beft pofture, in, general, is laying
the woman on her back, it will be fometimes neceffary
to turn her to her fide; and, in thefe cafes, where the
abdomen is pendulous, where it is difficult to reach
the feet, or where they lie towards the fundus uteri,
the woman ftxould be placed on her knees and el¬
bows.
3. An exaft knowledge of the true pofition of the
child, and of the ftrufture and ftate of the parts,
ftrould be acquired, before attempting to make the
delivery.
4. The orifice of the uterus fhould be enlarged,
fo as freely to admit the hand ; and the ftronger pains
fhould be abated, before any attempt be made to de¬
liver.
5. Should the waters be drained off, the parts dry
and rigid, and the uterus cqntr idled round the child,
warm oil muft be injected into the uterus, otherwife
its rupture may be endangered.
6. In palling the hand into the uterus, this muft be
done
U’art TT.
MI D W I F E R Y.
793
Preterna-
||tural La
m hour.
done in the gentlefl manner ; the parts muft be well
lubricated with butter or pomatum ; the line of the
pelvis muft be attended to ; the efforts of the ope¬
rator muft be flow and gradual 5 and thus the ut-
moft rigdity in the foft parts will, in time, be over¬
come.
7. The hand muft be introduced only during the
remiffion of pain ; when pain comes, the accoucheur
muft always reft; otherwise he may pu(h his hand, or
the fetus, through the body of the uterus.
8. In puftring up, to come at the feet, this muft
never be done with the points of the fingers, nor with
the hand clenched, but with the palm of the hand, or
the broad expanded fingers, and- always during the
remiflion of pain, and the latter fiiould alfo be ob-
ferved in bringing down the legs ; but, in making the
extra&ion of the body, the efforts of the operator
fliould always co-operate with thofe of nature.
». The hand flrould, if poffible, be introduced along
the anterior parts of the child; and both feet, if eafily
come at, fliould be lajd hold of.
xo. In turning, the accoucheur fliould never con-
fider the child as dead, nor allow himfelf to be de¬
ceived byfymptoms doubtful and fallacious ; the child
is fometimes born alive when he would leaft of all ex-
peft it; therefore, in pufhing up, bring down the
legs, or extrafling the body, it ftiould be handled with
the greateft delicacy.
1 x. When the hand is within the pelvis, it ftiould
not always be moved in the line of the umbilicus, but
rather towards one fide of the fpine, by which more
room is gained, and the prominent angle of the facrum
avoided.
12. The hand fliould be paffed as far as the middle
of the child’s body, before attempting to fearch for
the feet; or before attempting to break the mem¬
branes, fliould thefe remain entire, till the aperture of
the uterus will admit of the hand.
13. If the hand cannot pafs the prefenting part of
the child to come at the feet, inftead of violently
pufhing back, the part fhould be as it were lifted up
in the pelvis, and moved towards a fide; by which
means difficulties may be furmounted, and great danger
often prevented.
By attending carefully to the above rules, lacera¬
tion of the uterus, floodings, convulfions, inflamma¬
tions, and their confequences, may be prevented ; ao
cidents that frequently happen in the hands of ignorant
rafli operators.
Cafe 1.—The arm prefenting. The right is to be
diflinguifhed from the left by laying hold of the
child’s hand, in the fame manner as in fhaking hands ;
and thus the general pofition of the child may be
judged oh
When the accoucheur is called in early, the, reduc¬
tion is generally practicable; but if the arm pro¬
trudes through the vagina, and the fhoulder be locked
in the pelvis, itf is needlefs, by fruitlefs efforts, for the
accoucheur to fatigue himfelf, and diftrefs his patient,
to attain a point by which he will gain no very ma¬
terial advantage ; as the hand can be paffed into the
uterus by the fide of the child’s arm, which will, of
courfe, return into the uterus when the feet are brought
down into the vagina.
In order to make the delivery, the hand of the ae-
Vom XL Part II.
coucheur, v/ell lubricated, muft be condu&ed into the Preferna
uterus by the fide of the child’s arm, along the tho-
rax, at the oppofite fide of the pelvis where the head .^
lies ; if any difficulty occurs in coming at the feet,
this hand muft be withdrawn, and the other intro¬
duced in its ftead ; and if ftill the hand cannot eafily
pafs beyond the child’g head or (boulder, the prefenting
part muft be raifed up, or gently pulhed to a fide,
that one or both feet may be laid hold of, which muft
be brought as low as pofllble, pufliing up the head
and (boulders, and pulling down the feet alternately,
till they advance into the vagina, or fo low that a
noofe or fillet can be applied ; and thus by pulling
with the one hand by means of the noofe, and pulh^ng
with the other, the feet can be brought down and the
delivery finilhed, however difficult.
The method of forming the noofe is by paffing the
two ends of a tape or garter through the middle when
doubled ; or, ftiould the garter be thick, by making
an eye on one extremity, and paffing the other end
through it: this, mounted on the points of the fingers
and thumb of the accoucheur’s hand, muft be con*
veyed into the uterus, paffed over one or both feet
and ankles, and fecured by pulling at the other ex*
tremity.
Cafe 2.—The fide. This is difcovered by feeling
the ribs.
Cafe 3.—The lack. This is difcovered by feeling
the fpine.
Caf 4.—The lelly. This is known by the funis.
Thefe cafes occur rarely, as the uterus muft with
difficulty admit of fuch pofitions. When any of thefe
parts do prefent, the child feldom pafles any part of
the brim of the pelvis, and is, in general, more eafily
turned than in feveral poftures in which it may offer.
The belly, from the difficulty with which the legs can
be bended backwards, except the child be flaccid,
putrid, or before the time, will very feldom diredlly
prefent; if fo, it will be early and readily difcovered
by the prolapfus of the funis, and there will be no
great difficulty to come at the feet, and deliver. The
rule m all thefe cafes is, to pafs the hand into the
womb in the gentleft manner poffible, and to fearch
for the feet and bring them down.
CLASS III.
When the child lies longitudinally in the uterus,
with the arm or (boulder prefenting, and the head
more or lefs over the pubes, or laterally in the pelvis,
the feet towards the fundus uteri, the waters evacu¬
ated, and uterus contracted round the child’s body ;
thefe are the moft difficult and laborious of all the
cafes of preternatural labours. Here the protruding
arm ought, if poffible, to be reduced, and the head
brought into the pelvis; for unlefs the child be very
finall, it is impoffible for the head and arm to pafs along
together.
In order toeffeft the redu&ion of the arm, different
inftruments have been invented ; but the hand of the
accoucheur is preferable to every thing of this kind,
whether of ancient or modern invention. This, con*
du&ed by the arm that protrudes, muft be infinuated
through the Vagina into the uterus, as far as the
(boulder of the child, which if the accoucheur can
■raife up, he will generally fucceed in reducing the
3 H arm.
794
M I D W I
Pretema- arm. Should this method fail, he muft attempt to
tUbour"a* UP t^ie ^ore'arm at elbow ; but, in bending
crr ^ ' it, muft be very cautious, to avoid overftraining or
^ diflocating the joint. In whatever manner the reduc¬
tion is accomplifhed, if any method proves fuccefsful,
the arm muft be retained till the head, by the force of
natural pain, enters the pelvis, and prevents its return;
otherwife the arm will defcend as often as it is redu¬
ced.
But if the attempts for reduftion prove imprafti-
cable, the woman muft be placed on her knees and
elbows, and the accoucheur, with great deliberation,
muft endeavour gently to Aide up his hand between
the uterus and child as far in the uterus as poffible, to
lift up the head and fhoulders, and fearch for and
bring down one or both feet, in the beft manner the
various circumftances of the cafe will admit of. As
foon as they can be laid hold of, they muft be gradu¬
ally brought down into the vagina, fo low that the
noofe can be applied over them, which muft be fixed
and pulled with the one hand, while the head and up¬
per parts of the body are railed and gently puflred up
with the other.
Should the arm have been long protruded without
the os externum, much fwelled, and cold ; the waters
drained off; the uterus ftrongly contra died ; and the
pofition of the child fuch as to render it impradhicable,
either to reduce fthe protruded limb or to fearch for
and Bring down the feet; the head, if eafily come at,
muft be opened and extra&ed with the blunt hook or
crotchet; or a crotchet muft be fixed amongft the ribs,
and the breech or feet thus pulled down.
Should the pelvis be very narrow, and unfurmount-
able difficulties occur, the arm muft be twifted off at
the elbow, though this expedient is rarely neceffary ;
and the delivery muft in general be accomplifhed as
the prudence and judgment of the operator can beft
direft ; always remembering, when one life muft fall
a facrifice, that the tree muft be preferred at the ex¬
pence of the fruit.
In this, as in other cafes, the fwelling and coldnefa
of the arm, and even want of pulfation in the artery,
are not infallible figns of the child’s death ; and (hould
this even be fo, it makes little difference in the mode of
delivery, unlefs that it will lead us to pay all our atten¬
tion to the mother : For a living child gives no more
affiftance in the birth than a dead one, whatever au¬
thors have faid to the contrary.
When both arms prefent, the delivery muft be con¬
duced in the fame manner as when one only prefents.
The former cafe is lefs difficult than the latter, as the
head feldom advances far when both arms fall into
the paffage, fo that they can either be reduced, or
there is eafy accefs to come at the feet to bring them
down and deliver.
CLASS IV.
When the membranes remain entire, till the foft
parts are fo much dilated that the hand will readily
find admittance ; or when the hand can be paffed with¬
in the cavity of the uterus, immediately after the rup¬
ture of the membranes, fo that part of the water may
be retained ; the delivery may be accompliflred, in the
jpoft troublefome preternatural cafes, with the greateft
fafety and expedition. But when the waters have
F E R Y.
been long evacuated, and the uterus clofely contrac¬
ted round the body of the child, the cafe wall prove
laborious to the operator, painful and dangerous to the
mother and child.
When there is reafon to fufpeft that the child lies
aerofs, which can often be afeertained, either by feel¬
ing the prefenting part through the membranes, or by
fome of the figns of preternatural labours already men¬
tioned ; the woman ffiould be managed in fuch a man-
net, that the membranes may be preferved entire as
long as poffible : for this purpofe fire firould keep
qiuet in bed, and her pofture ftrould be fuch as is leaft
favourable for ftraining, or exerting force during the
pain : (he {hould be touched as feldonr as poffible, till
the os internum be fufficiently dilated. 1 he accoucheur
ffiould then introduce his hand in a conical form, well
lubricated, into the vagina, and through the aperture
of the internal orifice, infinuating it between the ute¬
rus and the membranes, till it advances almoft as high
as the fundus uteri, when he muft break the mem¬
branes, by pinching fome part of them between a fin¬
ger and thumb, or by forcibly pufiiing a finger thro’
them; he muft then fearch for, and endeavour to lay
hold of, one or both feet, and deliver.
Should the membranes be ruptured in the attempt,
he muft be ready to run up his hand as quickly as can
be done with fafety, when, part of the waters by his
arm being retained, the operation of turning will be
facilitated. Should the placenta adhere on that fide
of the uterus where the hand is paffed, it muft again
be withdrawn, and the other hand be introduced in the
oppofite fide.
Floodings. It has been already obferved, that a
flooding, feldom proves fatal to the mother before the
feventh month of pregnancy ; after which period, from
its duration or excefs, the life of both the mother and
child may fuffer. Should therefore a flooding attack
a woman in the two laft months of pregnancy, from
whatever caufe it may arife, and whether attended
with labour-pains or not, if the htemorrhagy be fo
confiderable that flae is ready to- fink under it, and
that cold applications and other means of checking
the evacuation {hall fail, the woman muft be placed in
a proper pofture, her frinds prudently apprifed of her
danger, and the delivery muft be immediately perform¬
ed, by ftretching the vagina and os uteri, till the
hand of the operator can eafily gain admittance to
break the membranes, catch hold of the feet, and ex¬
tract the child.
If it can poffibly be prevented, the membranes in.
flooding cafes fhould never be broken till the aperture
of the uterine orifice will freely admit the hand to
pafs, that, after the evacuation of the waters, the ac¬
coucheur may have it in his power either to make the
delivery or not according as the effufion continues or
abates.
Soon after attempting to ftretch the parts, {hould
the labour-pains come on, the waters begin to be col-
le&ed, and the uterine hemorrhagy diminiffi, the ac¬
coucheur muft then withdraw his hand, and manage
the delivery according to circumftances. And if, for
inftance, the child prefents naturally, the delivery muft
be trufted to nature ; otherwife, if the flooding conti¬
nues, or the child prefents acrofs, the accoucheur muft
perfift in his work, going on {lowly, and with the ut-
rooft;
Part II.
Preternal
tU'-al La.
Part II. M I D W
Preterna- moft ddicacy, till he be able to reach the feet, to
tural La- bring them down, and deliver; always remembering,
bour* during this procefs, that the ftrength of the woman,
by proper nourifhnient, be fupported.
But fliould the placenta adhere to the cervix, or up¬
on the os uteri, the greateft danger is to be dreaded ;
for thus the flooding will commence from the moment
the os uteri begins to ftretch, and will increafe fo ra¬
pidly, that the woman, if not fpeedily delivered, muft
inevitably link under it. The whole body of the pla¬
centa, in fuch cafes, is fometimes feparated when the
labour has made but little progrefs; fo that the wo¬
man will often perifli whether delivery be attempted
or not. As this, however, is the only expedient by
which her life, and that of the child, can be faved ;
in every cafe where the placenta prefents, which the
accoucheur will readily difcover by the touch of the
foft pappy fubftance of that body, he muft immediate¬
ly place the woman in a proper poilure, infinuate his
hand gently by the fide of the protruding placenta,
break the membranes, fearch for the feet of the child,
and bring them down, fo that the delivery may be fB
niflred with all poffible expedition; for, in this un¬
happy cafe, a few minutes delay may prove fatal.
The after-birth ought never to be extracted before
the child, if it can polfibly be avoided.
After delivery, time Ihould be given for the uterus
to contract, that nature may thus throw olf the pla¬
centa, which never ought to be hurried away, unlefs
the continuance or a recurrence of the hemorrhagy
render it neceflary.
Prolapfus of the funis. Difficulties arifing from
the funis falling down into the vagina, and prefenting
along with fome part of the child, may, in this clafs
of the divifion of preternatural labours, be included.
A preffure on the chord, in fuch a degree as to in¬
terrupt the circulation, muft infallibly deftroy the life
of the child : hence a coldnefs and want of pulfation
in the chord is the trueft criterion of the death of the
child; and hence, in every cafe where the chord is
prolapfed before any bulky part of the child, if the de¬
livery be not accomplifhed with expedition, the child
will perilh. This is only to be prevented by replacing
the chord, and retaining it above the prefenting part,
till this laft, by the force of labour-pains, be fo far
advanced as to prevent the return of the former ; or
the child muft be turned and brought by the feet, pro¬
vided this can be done with lafety to the mother. But
it is often difficult to fucceed in the attempt of the one
or other ; and, if the woman has ftrohg pains, fuch
attempts are not to be hazarded, as the confequences
may prove fatal.
When the accoucheur is thus fituated between two
puzzling difficulties, the preference muft always be
given to the mother. If the child be fmall, and the
pelvis well formed, which may be known by the hi-
ilory of former deliveries, and if the labour goes on
quickly, the child will generally be born alive; but
if, on the contrary, the child be above the ordinary
lize, and the pelvis rather narrow, turning will prove
a dangerous operation to the mother, and there is little
profpeft of faving the infant by this means.
Befides our former divifion of labours, plurality of
I F E R Y. 795
children, monfers, extra-uterine fcetufes, and the Gafa- Plurality
rean operation, are parts of the fubjeft that yet remain ^ftfren
to be confidered. . ^ *.
Chap. IV. Plurality of Children.
The cafe of twins often occurs: of triplets feldom:
of quadruplets rarely: nor is there perhaps a finglc
inftance, where five or more diftindt fcetufes have been
found contained in the human uterus, though many
fuch fabulous hiftories have been recorded by credu¬
lous authors.
The figns of two or more children, fuch as the hid¬
den or extraordinary increafe of the uterine tumor*
motion felt in different parts of the abdomen, &c. are
very doubtful and fallacious : this can only be afcer-
tained after the delivery of one child ; and even then
a recurrence or continuance of labour-pains is not a
certain and infallible criterion ; neither is the abfence
of pains a fure indication of the contrary ; as many
cafes have occurred, where feveral days have intervened
between the birth of a firft and fecoud child. The chief
fymptoms to be depended on are, xft, The child be¬
ing of a fmall fize, and the quantity of liquor amnii
fo inconfiderable as not to account for the bulk of the
woman in time of pregnancy. 2dly, The bleeding
of the funis umbilicalis next the mother, ddly. The
remora of the placenta, qthly, The uterine tumor not
fenfibly diminifhed, which, very foon after delivery, in
ordinary births, will be found gradually (hifting lower
and lower, and will feel at laft as if a hard circum-
fcribed tumor like a ball between the umbilicus and
pubes. Hence the utility of the general pra&ice of
applying the hand externally on the abdomen, in every
cafe after delivery; by which an accurate knowledge
will be formed of the nature and manner of the ute¬
rine contraction. When, from any of thefe circum-
ftances, there is reafon to fufpeft another child, the
moft certain and infallible manner of difeovering it is,
the palling of a finger, or the introduftion of the
hand into the uterus, where another fet of membranes
will be perceived, and probably fome part of the child
prefenting through them.
The pofition of twins or triplets is commonly that
which is moft commodious, and which will occupy the
leaft room in utero : their fituation is often diagonal;
tho’ they may prefent in every poffible poflure. Thus,
therefore, the general rules recommended for the deli¬
very of one child, are equally applicable in the cafe of
twins, triplets, &c.
It has been the general pradlice with many, after
the birth of one child, to pafs the hand immediately
into the uterus, to break the membranes, catch hold
of the feet of the child, and thus deliver. But this is
certainly bad practice, whatever authors have laid to
the contrary. If the woman is healthy, and the child
prefents favourably, that is, with the head, breech, or
teet, natural pains ought to be waited for, when the
child will be expelled by the force of thefe only ; fail¬
ing which, manual affiftance, as in other cafes, muft
be had recourfe to.
It very rarely happens, when the firft birth is pre¬
ternatural, that the fecond membranes are ruptured in
making the extraction. Should this prove the cafe, the
5 H 2 limb*
7q6 M I D W I
Plurality limbs of the children may be confounded, fo that a
Ch'kfren an<* an a^m, °r t^ree *e£s> or arms ^*fferent
. J ' children, may prefent; which, however, will make
little difference in the mode of delivery ; the ac¬
coucheur will endeavour to lay hold of the foot or feet
moft readily within his reach, and will be cautious, in
bringing them down, to make fure they belong to the
fame body.
If the child prefents crofs ; if floodings, convulfions,
or other dangerous fymptoms, fliall take place ; if the
woman has fuffered much in the firft labour ; and if,
after feveral hours, a recurrence of labour-pains does
not enfue ; the hand muft then be introduced into the
uterus, the membranes muft be broken, and the child
muft be extra&ed by the feet; or, if the head remains
locked in the pelvis, and, from want of ftrength in the
woman, cannot be expelled, the treatment is the fame
as in other laborious births.
In twin-cafes it may be recommended as a general
rule, to avoid precipitating the -delivery of the fecond
child till the woman fliall have refted a proper time,
and till, by the contra&ion of the fundus uteri, the
fecond fet of membranes occupy the place of the firft,
and be protruded as far .as the os externum; when, and
not before, the delivery may fafely be aflifted, fhould
circumftances occur to render fuch afliftance neceffary:
whereas, by breaking the membranes and evacuating
the waters when the child lies high in the uterus, a
flooding may be brought on, or a fpafmodic conftric-
tion of the uterus round the body of the child may be
occafioned, which may render the deliveifjy both diffi¬
cult and dangerous.
The placentae of twins, triplets, &c. generally ad¬
here, though fometimes they are diftinft, and may be
thrown off at different times after the birth of the dif¬
ferent children ; fo that the pra&itioner fhould be on
his guard, and never fhould leave his patient till he
makes fure there be no more children. When a fecond
child is dif- ivered, no attempts ought to be made to
extrad th^_’acenta till after the birth of the remain¬
ing child ^^hildren ; as the woman would be fubjed
to flooding, which might prove of fatal confequence
before the uterus could be emptied of its contents.
In cafe of plurality of children, a fecond ligature
fhould be applied on the funis, on that end next the
mother, immediately after the birth of every child;
and a gentle compreffion fhould be made on the abdo¬
men of the woman after the firft delivery, which muft
be gradually tightened after every fucceeding one, to
prevent the confequences of a fudden removal of ute¬
rine preffure, which is to be dreaded where the diften-
fionjias been confiderable.
The placenta, in fuch cafes, muft be managed in
much the fame manner as ufual. In twins, &c. it ge¬
nerally feparates with great facility, provided time has
been given for the uterus to contrad. Both chords
fhould be gently pulled ; and when it advances towards
the uterine orifice, where, being large and bulky, it
commonly meets with confiderable refiftance, it re¬
quires the introdudion of a finger or two into the va¬
gina for bringing down the edge, after which the
body readily follows.
Chap. V. Monjters.
These are of various fizes and forms, and, unlefs
per Y, Part II. j
very fmall, the pofture favourable, and the woman CsfareaaM
well made, wull prove the caufe of a difficult and 0Peratlon‘M
troublefome delivery. Sometimes a child is monftrous 'r""^
from a preternatural conformation of parts, fuch as a
monftrous head, thorax, abdomen, &c. At other times,
there is a double fet of parts, as two heads, two bodies
with one head, four arms, legs, &c. But fuch appear¬
ances very feldom occur in pradice; and, when they
do, the delivery muft be regulated entirely according
to the circumftances of the cafe. A large head, tho¬
rax, or belly, muft be opened. If two bodies united
together are too bulky to pafs entire, they muft be fe-
parated ; the fame of fupernumerary limbs. If the
pofture be unfavourable, it muft be reduced when
pradicableotherwife the extradion muft be made
with the crotchet, in the beft manner the circumftances
of the cafe will admit of; always, in cafes of danger
or difficulty, giving the preference to the fafety of the
mother, without regarding that of the child.
Chap. VI. Cafarean Operation.
Wheh the delivery could not be accompliihed by |
other means, or when a w.oman died fuddenly with a
living child in her belly, an operation to preferve the
life of mother and child in the former cafe, and tofave
the child in the latter, has been recommended, and fuc-
cefsfully performed, by different authors, and in dif¬
ferent ages.
This operation is of ancient date ; it is the Jedio
Cafarea or partus Cajareas of the Latins, and the by-
Jlerotomia of the Greeks. Whether it was ever fuc-
cefsfully performed on the living fubjeft amongft the
ancients feems uncertain ; but that it has been fuccefs-
fully praftifed by the moderns on various occafions,
and in feveral different countries of Europe, there are
fo many authentic hiftories on record, that the faft will
fcarce admit of doubt.: but as this, like many oth|r
falutary inftitutions, has been much abufed, and in
many cafes improperly and injudicioufly employed,
.(for fome of thofe women who furvived the operation,
were afterwards fafely delivered of living children),
the circumftances which render this operation necef¬
fary demand a very particular inquiry, viz.
1. A narrownefs, or bad conformation of the bones
of the pelvis.
2. Imperforated vagina, or contra&ions in the va¬
gina, cicatrices, tumors, or callofities in the os uteri,
&c.
3. The efcape of the child through the uterus when
torn.
4. Ventral conceptions.
5. Hernias of the uterus.,
6. The pofition or bulk of the child.
It will be neceffary carefully to examine thefe diffe¬
rent caufes, in order to fhow that they are by no.
means, in every cafe, fufficiently powerful motives for.
having recourfe to it.
I. Bad conformation of the bones of the pelvis^
When the hand of the operator cannot be introduced
within the pelvis ; or, in other words, when its largeft.
diameter does not exceed one inch, or one inch and a
half, this conformation is perhaps the only one which
renders the Coeftirean operation abfolutely neceffary :
happily, however, fuch a ftrudture very feldom occurs
in practice j and when it does, the accoucheur wilt-
readily
PartH. M I D W I
C*fareao readily difccrer it.^by attending to the following cir-
^ pti^ation. curnftanceS) an(j to the common marks of a narrow
pelvis. Wherever the capacity of the pelvis is fo
itrait as not to admit any part of the child’s head to
enter, nor two fingers of the accoucheur’s hand to
conduct proper infiruments to tear, break down, and
txtraft the child piece-meal ; in this cafe, rec6urfe
mult be had to the Caefarean fe£Hon ; an expedient,
though dreadful and hazardous, that will give the wo¬
man and child the only chance of life ; and which, if
timely and prudently conducted, notwithftanding of
the many in fiances wherein it has failed, may be per¬
formed with fome probability of fuccefs.
It is true, the fuccefs of the operation in the city of
Edinburgh, where it has been done five times, has
proved difcouraging, as none of the women had the
good fortune to furvive it many days. This, however,
is not the fault of the operation, but is to be imputed
to the low, weak ftate of the patients at the time, who
had previoufiy been feveral days in labour, and their
flrength greatly exhaufted, before the operator was
called. Delivery by every other means was utterly im¬
practicable ; the operation, though the event was
doubtful, alone gave a chance of life ; and three of the
children by this means were extracted alive.
Mr Hamilton furgeon and profefibr of midwifery in
Edinburgh, having been an eye-witnefs of the opera¬
tion the latt time it was performed here, gives the fol¬
lowing account of the cafe which fell under his obfer-
vation.
Elifabeth Clerk, aged 30, had been married'for fe¬
veral years, became pregnant, and mifcarried in the
third month ; the expulfion of the abortion occafioned
fo fevere a ftrefs, as actually to lacerate the perinaeum.
Some time after her recovery, (he was irregular, af¬
terwards had one (how of the menfes, again conceived,
and the child, as (he imagined, arrived at full time.
She was attacked on Monday the 3d of January 1 774,
about midnight, with labour-pains, which went on
flowly, gradually increafing till Saturday the 15th,
when (he was brought from the country to the Royal
Infirmary here. Upon examination, the pelvis feemed
confiderkbly diftorted; but the body was otherwife
well (haped, though of fmall fize ; the os externum va¬
ginas was entirely (hut up, nor could any veftige of va¬
gina be obferved, nor any appearance of labia puden-
dorum : infiead of this, there was a fmall aperture at
the fuperior part of the vulva, immediately under the
mons venens, probably about the middle anterior part
of the fymphyfis pubis. This aperture (which had a
fmall procefs on the fuperior part, fomewhat refembling
the clitoris) was no larger than juft to allow the intro-
du&ion of a finger ; the meatus urinarius lay conceal¬
ed within it; a confultation of furgeons was called, and
the CsSfarean fedtion was determined on. Having had
no (tool, nor voided any urine for two days, an injec¬
tion was attempted to be thrown up ; but it did not
pafs, nor was it poffible to pu(h the female catheter
into the bladder. Mr. William Chalmcr was the ope¬
rator in this cafe. At fix-?? the evening, he made an
incifion on the left fide of the abdomen in the ordinary
way, through the integuments, till the peritonaeum was
txpofed ; two fmall arteries fprung, which were foon
flopped by a (light comprefiion : the wound was then
continued through the peritonaeum into the cavity of
F E R Y. 7$?
the abdomen, when the bladder appeared (Tightly fa- Cxfarean
flamed, much diftended, reaching with its fundus near er*-lon»-
as far as the fcrobiculus cordis : another unfuccefsful -1
attempt was made to pafs the female catheter; at
length a male catheter was procured, which was, after
fome diffieulty, introduced into the bladder, and the
urine evacuated to the quantity of above four pounds,
high-fmelled and fetid. This occafioned a neceffary
interruption for a few minutes, between making the
opening into the abdomen and uterus; the bladder
collapfing, the uterus, which before lay concealed, now
came in view, through which an incifion was made,
and a flout male childi was extracted alive ; and imme¬
diately afterwards the fecundines. The uterus con¬
tracted rapidly. After cleanling the wound, the lips
were brought together by the quill-future, and drelfed
fuperticialy. The patient fuppoited the operation
with furprifing courage and refolution ; nor was there
more than five or fix ounces of blood loft on the occa-
fion.
Being laid in bed, (he complained of ficknefs, and
had a flight fit of vomiting ; but, by means of an ano¬
dyne, thefe fymptoms foon abated : (he was affefted
with univerfal coldnefs over her body? which alfo aba¬
ted on the application of warm irons'to the feet: (he
then became eafy, and flept for four or five hours.
Next morning, the 16th, about two o’clock, (he com¬
plained of confiderable pain in the oppofite fide, for
which (he was blooded ; and an injection was given,
but without effect; for the pain incfeafed, ftretching
from the right fide to the fcrobiculus cordis ; nor did
fomentations feem to relieve her ; her pulfe became fre¬
quent, (he was hot, and complained of drought. At
7 A. M. the injeftion was repeated, but with no bet¬
ter fuccefs ; and eight ounces more of blood were ta¬
ken from the arm ; a third injection dill failed to eva¬
cuate any faeces ; the drought increafed ; and the pulfe
rofe to 128 ftrokes in a minute At n A. M. the
pulfe became fuller; and the refpiration much oppref-
fed. No (tool nor urine pafled fince the operation. At
12 (he was blooded’again, when the fizinefs appeared
lefs than formerly. She now took a folution of fal
Glauber, manna and cr. tart, at (hort intervals ; (he vo¬
mited a little after the laft dofe, had a (oft (tool, and
voided a fmall quantity of urine. At 3 P. M. her
pulfe was 136, and (lie had another (tool, when thin
faeces were evacuated ; (he was then ordered two fpoon-
fuls of a cordial anodyne mixture every fecond hour :
the vomiting now abated ; the pmlfe became fmaller
and more frequent ; (he pafled urine freely ; but the
pain and opprefled breathing increafed. At feven P.M.
her pulfe rofe to 42, and became weak and flutter- 1
ing; (he called for bread, and fwallowed a little with
fome difficulty ; her drought was intenfe the dyfpnoea.
Hill increafed She was now much opprefled, and began
to tofs;.the pulfe funk and became imperceptible ; (he
complained of faintifhnefs, but on belching wind her
breathing was relieved, and the pulfe returned, grow¬
ing fuller and ftronger : the pain of the fide (till in¬
creafing, 12 ounces of blood, very fizy, were taken
away and two glyfters .of warm water with oil were
injeded without efted : at 8 P. M. the pulfe became
lefs frequent and fmaller ;. (be complained much of the
pain towards the fcrobiculus cordis: her breathing was
much, opjrrefled £ her., belly was tenfe, and fwelled an
f 98
■Cxfarean big as before the operation ; her pulfe was now fmall
Relation ancj looked ghaftly; and expired a little
after eight, 26 hours after the operation.
It is to be regretted that the relations would not
permit the body to be opened.
Since the fuft certain accounts of the operation fuc-
cefsfully praftifed by a fow-gelder on his own wife, in
the beginning of the 16th century, there are on tecord
above 70 well-attefted hiftories, wherein it has been
fuccefsfully performed : for, of all the cafes related by
authors, it has not proved fatal to the patient above
once in ten or nine inftances ; which evidently Ihows
the propriety of the pra&ice, and probability of fuc-
cefs, both in regard to the mother’s own recovery, and
for certainly preferving the life of the child. But it
Ihould never be attempted, excepting in thofe cafes on¬
ly where it is abfolutely impoffible to deliver the wo¬
man by any other means whatever; for there are pel-
vifes to be met with, where, without having recourfe
to this operation, both mother and child mull inevi¬
tably perilh: fuch have occurred to many pradlition-
ers, who, from want of refolution or from ill-founded
prejudice, have allowed their patients to perilh from
negled, contrary to a well-known maxim in phyfic,
That, in a defperate cafe, it is better to employ a
•doubtful and even defperate remedy, than to abandon
the patient to certain and utter ruin. Such, for in-
itance, is a cafe related by Saviard, of a girl aged 27,
vvhofe ftature was only three feet, who came to lie-in
at Paris, in the Hotel Dieu; every method but the
■operation was in vain attempted ; both mother and
child died. Mauriceau alfo relates the hiftory of a
womart who was left to die, where the aperture of
the pelvis was fo fmall as not to admit the hand of the
accoucheur. And, not to multiply inftances, Mr De
la Roche gives a cafe where the woman had been feven
days in labour ; the child was faved by the operation ;
but the woman died the fifth day after, probably from
its being too long delayed : the diftance, in this fub-
je6t, from the. lower vertebra lumborum and os pubis,
was no more than two fingers breadth. The opera¬
tion, when the neceffity is evident, ought therefore to
be early performed, that the patient, who from her
make and conftitution is generally delicate and puny,
may have every chance of recovery in her favour, with¬
out being exhaufted by the fruitlefs efforts of a te¬
dious and painful labour, as too often has been the cafe.
On thefe occafions, the prudent accoucheur fhould call
in the advice of his elder brethren of the profeftion,
and, by his cautious and prudent condudt, avoid every
caufe of cenfure or reproach.
Exoftofes from the bones of the pelvis is a fpecies
of deformity very rarely met with in pra&ice, and
which feldom or never takes place to fuch a degree as
to render this operation neceffary.
II. Conftriftion, callofity, tumors, &c. about the
vagina or os tincae. The vagina and os tincae are
often affected with conftrictions from cicatrices, with
calloftties and tumors ; but it is feldom, if ever, ne-
ceffary to perform the Csefarean feftion on this ac¬
count. Tumors in the vagina may generally be re¬
moved with fafety, even after the commencement of
labour, and delivery happily fucceed; or it may be
fometimes practicable for the accoucheur to pafs his
hand by the fide of the tumor, to turn the child, and
3 4
Part II#
deliver. With regard to conftrid^ions in the vagina, Caefarean
and calloftties in the os uteri, there are many inftances O.ierauori.
where, at the commencement of labour, it was impof-
fible to introduce a finger into the vagina ; yet the
parts have dilated as labour increafed, and the delivery
terminated happily. At other times, the dilatation
has begun during pregnancy, and been completed be¬
fore delivery. There is a hiftory, for inftance, in the
Mem. ile l’Acad, des Scienc. 1712, of a Woman whofe
vagina was no larger than to admit a common writing
quill; fire had been married at 16, and conceived 11
years after: towards the fifth month of her pregnancy,
the vagina began to dilate, and continued to do fo till
full time, when fhe was fafely delivered. Guilemeau
dilated, and La Mottt extirpated, callofities in the va¬
gina and os tineas, when the children were fuccefsfully
expelled by the force of natural labour.
Harvey relates a cafe where the whole vagina wan
grown together with cicatrices; nature, after a tedi¬
ous labour, made the dilatation, and a large child was
born.
La Mott mentions his having delivered three wo¬
men, who had not the fmalleft veftige of an orifice
through the vagina to the uterus. Dr Simpfon cut
through a callofity of an os uteri which was half an
inch thick, &c.
Upon the whole, tumors in the vagina, or about
the orificium uteri, may be fafely extirpated without
danger of hemorrhagy or other fatal fymptoms, and
the delivery will happily fucceed : and if the vagina
be impervious, the os externum (hut up, or the labia
grown together, the parts fhould be opened with the
fcalpel, rather than rifk an operation, at bell in the
iftue doubtful and precarious: an operation never al¬
lowable in fuch cafes, and therefore univerfally impro¬
per in difeafes or malconformation of the foft parts of
generation. If the os externum be entirely clofed, if
the cavity of the vagina be entirely filled up, or the
paffage confiderably obftrufted by tumors, callofity,
or conftritftion from cicatrice, and there is no reafon to
fufpeA a fault in the pelvis, of which a judgment may
be formed by the common marks of deformity, under
fixe, or a rickety habit; it is by much the beft prac¬
tice to open a paflage through the vagina, and deliver
the woman in the ordinary way. If there be no de¬
feat in the pelvis, the head of the child, or any other
bulky part that prefents, will advance in this dire&ion,
till it meets with a refiftance in the foft parts: thus
the teguments will at length be protruded before the
child’s head, in form of a tumor, when.a fimple inci-
fion downwards to 'the'perinaeum, in the diredlion of
the anus, will remove the caufe of difficulty, by re¬
lieving the head; the child will afterwards fafely
pafs, and the wound will heal without any bad con-
fequence.
The ftate of the pelvis, and progrefs of the labour
in thefe cafes, may often be learned by the touch of
the finger in ano.
III. Lacerated uterus is another caufe for which
this operation has beet "recommended. The uterus
may be ruptured from violence in making the delivery;
or fuch an accident may happen naturally, either from
the crofs prefentation of the child in time of pregnan¬
cy, or in time of labour, when the pelvis is narrow :
thefe cafes are generally fatal; and it is very feldom.
MIDWIFERY.
I Part II. M I D W
S Cafarean if ever, that the life of the mother can be faved by the
| Operation. Csefarian fe&ion, after the foetus efcapes through the
^ torn uterus into the cavity of the abdomen : becaufe it
often happens, that inflammation and fphacelus has
affedted the parts of the uterus that fuftained the pref-
fure previous to the rupture ; or, if otherwife, convul-
Ifions or other fatal fymptoms foon enfue, from the
quantity of blood, water.', &c. poured into the cavity
of the abdomen.
When the child cannot be extraQqd by the natural
paflages, tremors, fingultus, cold fweats, fyncope, and
the death of the mother, for the moft part, fo quickly
I follow, that it will at leaft feem doubtful, to a prudent
humane practitioner, how far it would be advifeable,
after fo dreadful an accident, the woman apparently in
the agonies of death, rafhly to perform another dan¬
gerous operation, even with a view to preferve the
| child, till he had waited till the mother recruits or
expires.
If part of the child be contained within the uterus,
and the feet can be reached, the praftice is to deliver
by the orifice of the womb: but when the whole foetus
has efcaped entirely without the uterus, the Csefarean
operation is recommended as the only means of prefer-
ving both mother and child.
If the operation on this occafion be ever allowable,
it may be a Heed,
i. At what time mull it be performed ?
2. Would it not have the appearance of inhumanity
to have recourfe to this expedient immediately after
the uterus burfts, when the woman is feemingly ready
to*expire, although it be the only time when there is
a chance of faving the child ?
3, In moft cafes where this accident happens, Ihould
the Caefarean feftion be made, is it ftot highly impro¬
bable that the mother will furvive fo terrible a lacera¬
tion ?
4. For if it be done with a view to fave the mother,
in what manner is the extravafated blood, &c. to be
evacuated from the cavity of the abdomen ?
What feems to make cafes of this kind unfavourable,
when the accident happens in time of labour, is,
im'o. That here the parts before rupture in moft
cafes are in a gangrenous ftate.
2do, As the rupture is commonly towards the cer¬
vix, there is generally a much greater hemorrhagy,
by reafon of the flow contradfion of the uterus at this
place.
^tw. The uncertainty, whether, or how long, the
patient will furvive it, feems alfo a confiderable obftacle
to the operation under fuch djfagreeable circumftances,
Ne oc:uliJJe videatur, quem Jon interemit.
IV. Ventral conceptions is a fourth indication for
this operation. Thefe are either in the ovaria, tubes,
or cavity of the abdomen, and feldom arrive at great
fize ; or are retained, very often along time, without
©ccaiioning much complaint. The ifiue of thefe con¬
ceptions has a'fo been no lefs various than extraordi¬
nary ; for after being retained for a great many years
in an indolent ftate, at length abfeefles or ulcerations
have formed, and they have been difeharged through
all the different parts of the abdomen.
Moft women feel pain and violent motion at the
time of ordinary delivery in thefe cafes of ventral con¬
ception 5 if therefore the operation be ever neceffary,
I F E R Y. 799,
now is the proper time to perform it. But in general, Caefarean
as the feparation of extra-uterine foctufes from their in- Qi’eratiuiy
volucra may occafion immediate death in many cafes, "*
from the vaft hemorrhagy that might enfue from the
non contractile power of the parts to which they ad¬
here ; unlefs they point outwardly, or excite the moft
violent fymptoms, they ought univerfally to be left to
nature.
V. Herniae of the uterus are feldom or never fuffi-
cient to induce us to perform the Caefarian feCtion, as
the uterus is very rarely influenced in fuch a manner,
that the orifice cannot be reached, and the delivery fuc-
cefsfully made. Many inftances are to be found among
furgical authors, where deliveries, under fuch circum¬
ftances, have been happily performed, without having
recourfe to fo hazardous an expedient. Thus Mauri-
ceau mentions a cafe, where the uterus, in a ventral
hernia, was pulhed along with the inteftines above the
beHy, and contained in a tumor of a prodigious fize ;
the woman, however, was delivered at the end of her
time in the ordinary way. La Mott relates the hi*
(lory of a woman in a preternatural labour, whofe ute¬
rus and child hung down pendulous to the middle of
her thigh, but whom, notwithftanding, he fafely de¬
livered : and Ruyfch gives a cafe where the rriidwife
reduced* the hernia before delivery ; although it was-
prolapfed as far as the knee, the delivery was fafely
performed, and the woipan had a good recovery.
Laftly, The pofition or bulk of the child.
Since the praftice of turning the child and deliver¬
ing by the feet, and the late improvement of obftetri-
cal inftruments, this operation is never to be performed,
on account of pofition, monftrofity, or any other ob¬
ftacle on the part of the child.
Upon the whole, when the pelvis is faulty to fuch
a degree, that no inftrument can be conducted to tear
and extraft the child, this perhaps is the only cafe-
wherein this operation ftiould be performed on the li¬
ving fubjeft. Incifions through the teguments of the
abdomen to extract extra uterine foetufes, 6r bones of
foetufes, do not properly fall under the name of Ccefa-
rean JcElioit, as that name implies incifion of the uterus
alfo.
When a woman advanced in pregnancy dies fudden-
ly, either by accident or by natural difeafe, the Caefa¬
rean feffion is recommended as an expedient to pre¬
ferve the life of the child. This is a very proper mea-
fure, provided the death of the mother be afcerEained;
but fometirhes it is a very nice and difficult point to
diftinguilh between a. deliquium and death; and there¬
fore the accoucheur on fuch an occafion muft a& with
the utmoft circumfpe&ion. If the operation be de¬
layed but a very flrort while ‘after the mother expires,
it will probably be in vain to make the attempt; for,
whatever fabulous ftories may be related to the con¬
trary, there are few authentic cafes of the foetus of any
animal furviving the mother, perhaps an hour.; and
therefore every thing ftiould be in readinefs to extradl
the child with all pofiible expedition, after the event
of the mother’s death. But, in fuch cafes, the ago¬
nies of death often perform the part of labour, and the
child is fometimes thrown off in articulo mortis; or
the os uteri is fo much dilated, that there is eafy ac-
cefs to pafs the hand, turn the child, and deliver. Thus;
one Ihould be very cautious in having recourfe to this.,
opera*-
%
pD
MIDWIFERY.
' •.■rf'arcMi 'operation, even *n the above cireumftances ; which
^Opcfation never be done,
v " ‘ i. Till the death of the mother be afcert^ined be¬
yond doubt; . v . ;
2. Till the ftate of the os uteri be examined r
3. Till the confent of the relations be obtatriedj
A*hd,
Laftly, It need not be undertaken, except where
the mother dies liiddenly, between the .7th.and 9th
month. ,' '
It is ufinecefTnry where the difeafe has-been linger¬
ing ; in fuch cafes' the child commonly dies before the
-mother.
When it. is dmibtful whether the child be alive or
not, it may be determined by applying the hand on
the abdomen of the mother about the time of, and for
a little while after, her death, when the life of the
child will be difcovered by its motions and ftrug-
gling.
* Thus having pointed out the different caufcs that
fietermine this operation, it may be obferved, that it
is a frightful and hazardous- one ; and although per¬
formed fuccefsfully in a number of cafes, yet, in
tnany; others, it has failed, and the woman has died
either immediately or fooit after. It fhould never,
therefore, be undertaken but on extraordinary and
defpecate occafions; and then it is not only advifeable,
but incumbent, on every pra&itioner to whom fuch
cafes occur.,
To conclude, it may not be improper to give a few
direftions with regard to the method of performing the
operation on the living fuhjedt.
Having emptied the bladder, and evacuated the
contents of the inteftines with repeated emollient gly-
fteri; the patient being encouraged, with proper cor¬
dials, and eveay other vequifite in readinefs, fhe muff
be placed on a table or bed, with her left fide gently
raifed witbpillows or bplfters, and properly fecured
• by afliftants. *An incifion muff be made with a com¬
mon convex fcalpel, beginning rather below the navel
at the middle fpace between it and the fpine of the
os ilium, carrying it obliquely forwards towards this
bone, fo that the wound in length may exceed fix
inches. This external wound is to be carried through
the common teguments of- the abdomen till the pe-
ritonceurri is expofed, when the operator fliould reft a
dittle, till the hemorrhagy be entirely abated. He
muft tfien, with great caution, make a fmall opening
ihrotigh this membrane, introduce his finger, and up¬
on this a fcalpcl (which is preferable to fciffars), and
with great expedition make a complete dilatation ; he
muft now wipe -away the blood with a fponge, prefs
the cmentum or inteftines gently to a fide, if in the
way, and endeavour to difcoverto what part of the
uterus the placenta adheres, that it^may be avoided
in making the incifion. This may eafily be known
by a thicknefs and folidity in the part, which diftin-
guifii it from the reft of the uterus; it is ftill more
eafily difcovered when the membranes are entire. The
- blood-veffels are lefs in number, and fmalleft in the
middle and anterior part of, the uterus, which there¬
fore, if the placenta does not interfere, is the proper
place (for making the incifion, which muft be perform¬
ed with the utmoft attention, left the child fhould be
-wounded : if the membranes are entire, more freedom
N° 230.
Part II.
may be ufed, and vice verfa. The direction and length Csefarean'!
of the wound of the uterus muft be the fame with the ore~ltl0n*
external one. The child muft now be quickly extradl- ^
ed, and the placenta carefully feparated : thefe muft
be given'to an affiftant, who will divide the chord,
and take care of the- child, as the operator’s attention
muft be wholly beftowed on the mother. The coagu¬
lated bloed, &c. being removed by a fponge wrung
out of warm water (left the uterus or inteftines be
protruded, which are very trbublefome to reduce), the
lips of the external wound inuft be«quickly brought
together, and retained by an afiiftant till fecured by a
few flitches 5 generally three will be fufficient: as
many neediest fhould be ready threaded with pretty
large broad ligatures; t^e middle flitch ought to be
made firft ; the needle fhould be introduced at a pro¬
per diftance, i. e. about an inch and one-fourth from
the fide of the wound, carrying it firft from without
inwards, and then from within outwards, fecuring
with a double flip a knp(»,.to be ready to untie, left
violent tenfion or inflammation fhould enfue ; under
the knot a foft comprefs of lint, fharpee, or rolled
plafter, fhould be applied, and the whole dreffings muft
be fecured by a proper comprefs and bandage. The
patient muft: be afterwards treated in the fame man¬
ner as after lithotomy, or any other capital opera¬
tion.
Queeritur. To what eaufe is the unfuccefssful event
of this operation to be imputed ? When the operation
proves fatal, to what immediate caufe are we to
aferibe the death of the patient ? Is it nervous, or
uterine .irritation, from cutting, that kills ? Is it in¬
ternal hemorrhagy, or the extravafation of fluids into
the cavity of the^abdomen ? Or are not the fatal con-
fequences rather to be’imputed to the accefs of the air
on the irritable vifeera ? This can only therefore be ,
prevented by expofing thefe parts for as fhort a fpace
of time as poffible. Dr Moriro, the preferit anatomi¬
cal profeffor at Edinburgh, in making experiments on
young fmall animals, fuch as bitches, cats, frogs, &c.
by opening the cavity of the abdomen, and tying the
biliary dudls, remarks, that though a large opening
into the abdomen be made by incifion, if the wound
be quickly clofed and ftitched, fthe animal w$l recover,
and no bad confequences follow j but if expofed a
few minutes to the air, dreadful pain foon comes on,
which the creature expreffes by the fevereft agonies;
convulfions at laft enfue, and death within four or fix
hours after the operation. On opening the abdomen
after death, the whole vifeera are found to be in an
inflamed ftate, and univerfally adhering to one ano¬
ther. He has often repeated the experiment, and the
fame appearances as often take place.
May not the analogy here juftly apply to the hu¬
man fubjeft ? And, in performing the Csefarean ope¬
ration, fliould we not be very careful that the vifeera
be expofed as little as poffible, and that the wound be
covered with the utmoft poffible expedition ?
Chap. VII. Of the SeEUon of the Sympbyfis.
M. Baudelocque, as has already been obferved, con¬
demns this operation ; and, from what he has advan¬
ced,' apparently with reafon. As no theory, however,
can be looked upon as thoroughly eftablifhed until it
Part H. M I D W I
>6t^ion of be confirmed-by experience, this gentleman has col-
lefted together a number of the principal fads rela-
. p y,ls‘ ting to this fubjeft. He fuppofes, that unlefs it hag
been fuccefsful in faring both the life of the woman
,and child,-the cutting of the fymphyfis of the pubeg
.cannot by any means be faid to have anfwered its
purpofe. It is not fufficient that the child has (hown
fome figns of life at its birth, and that the mother has
furvived for fome time. In this refpjft the Caefarean
operation has the advantage of it, as it always faves
.the life of the child, and it is very rare for the woman
.to fink under it immediately. He is of opinion, that
there is fcarcely one of the cafes of this operation, the
relation of which may not be juftly conteited, orfolid
objections raifed againlt it; either becaufe the opera¬
tors have been deceived with regard to the dimenfioos
.of the pelvis and of the child’s head, or becaufe they
have greatly exaggerated the advantage gained by
the reparation of the bones.—The firft and moft
•remarkable inftance of fuccefa in this operation is of
a woman named Soucbot; but though it is not de-
.nied that the woman was delivered, and recovered
•after the operation, yet it has been faid by thofe who
.take the contrary fide, that there was no neceffity for
performing it. It is certain that this woman had
been delivered four times before ; in all of which cafes
the child was killed. M, Baudelocque does not en¬
ter into the merits of this queftion : he confiders only
what advantage could pofiibly be gained by it.
“"Whatever degree of reparation (fays he) took
place between the ofia pubis after the feftion of the
fymphyfis, it muft have augmented, the fize of the
-• . paffage ; that is an inconteftable faft ; but how much
did it enlarge in the direftion in which it was origi¬
nally too narrow ? The folution of this problem would
be eafy, if we knew the dimenfions of Souchot’s pel-
vis as well as we know thofe of her child’s head.
According to the eftimation made of it by the phy-
ficians who performed the operation, the diameter
of the pelvis was only two inches and a half in the di¬
reftion from the pubes to the facrum fuperiorly, and
that of the child’s head was jpft three inches and a
■ ' half. The excefs of the latter Vas confequently one
inch, as well as the amplitude to be. procured to the
former. A feparation of two inches and a half be¬
tween the ofia pubis, the greateft which it was
then thought could be obtained, not being able to
give more than fix lines to the diameter of the pelvis
in the aforefaid direftion, they thought to make the
remaining furplus of the head pafs into the feparation
between the bones ; and, moreover, they had the pre¬
caution to make the partial protuberances pafs fuc-
ceflivdy through the ftrait, in order to get another
line by that means $ fo that by this fyftem, the fac¬
tion of the pubes produced a refult of 13 lines at
leaft, confidenng it relatively to delivery. Notwith-
ftanding this ingenious calculation, and this great
produft, the paflage was ftill found narrow enough
to give fome obftruftion to the child’s head, and to
endanger its life-
“ It feems evident that this plan was not formed till
after the execution 5 and that they have only fought
to explain what they muft have done according to
the opinion which they entertained that the diameter
of the child’s head was an inch larger than that of the
Voi. XI. Part II,
F E R Y. Sox
pelvis, and not according to what they did and ohfer- Se&ion of
ved ; becaufe no one had yet determined the produft
of a feparatiqn of two inches and a half between the p ^ ^ f
ofia pubis, with refpeft to the different diameters of
the pelvis, and particularly refpefting that which jroes
from before backward ; becaufe they did not meafure
the feparation as they affirm they did, neither in the
cafe of, Souchot nor in any other ; becaufe the ac¬
coucheurs of that woman were then agitated, much
agitated, as they have publicly confefled ; laftly, be.
caufe this great produft, and thofe fage calculation#
which we admire in their hiftory of it, were not then
neceflary. Though they have allowed but two inches
and a half to the fmall diameter of the fuperior ftrait,
other accoucheurs equally fkilful have afiigned it fix
lines more ; and they were not deceived if they ‘con-
fidered it a little diagonally, as the fmalleft diameter
of the child’s head always prefents ; that is to fay, from
one of the fides of the projeftion formed by the bafe
of the facrum to the fymphyfis of the pubes.”
Our author now goes on to fhow at great length,
that the pelvis of the woman in queftion was lefs oiit
of proportion than had been reprefented ; that only
two lines of enlargement were neceflary, and no more
than two were obtained. In like manner, he fays,
that all the other women upon whom M. Sigault
operated were equally well formed excepting one na¬
med Fefpres. This woman died after palling five
days in great agony. The olfa pubis were feparated
about an inch and an half; and in confequence of this
feparation, the facro-iliac fymphyfes were plainly inju¬
red, as well as the neighbouring parts. On infpefting
the body, thefe were found open, with the periolleum
feparated from them : there was alfo a colleftion of
purulent matter of a dark grey colour, extending very
far into the cellular tiflue of the left iliac folia, &e.
In this cafe, both the mother and her child perilh-
ed; and M. Baudelocque looks upon it to be fufficient
to Ihow the inefficacy of the operation : and he tells
us, that out of five women whom Sigault delivered in
this way, one died, and four of the children ; but M.
le Roy, a more fuccefsful operator, out of an equal
number faved all the children. In a cafe related by
this gentleman, the ofia pubis are faid to have fepa-
ratqd two inches ; and by parting the thighs, an open¬
ing of near three inches was obtained ; but in this cafe
again, M. Baudelocque controverts the meafurements
of Le Roy. Another woman named Du Belloy, on
whom the operation was performed, began to walk
on the tenth day after ; and this feems to be almolt
the only cafe again ft which M. Baudelocque has not
fome objeftion. He mentions, however, an experi¬
ment performed on the body of- a woman who had
died on the nth day after the Cariarean operation
had been performed in the linea alba. The body was
oedematous, which rendered the cafe more favourable;
and a dead child was placed in the belly, after taking
out the uterus. The pelvis was only 20 lines in the
fmall diameter, and four inches and a quarter in the
tranfverfe. The diameter of the child’s head was but
three inches five or fix lines from one parietal pro¬
tuberance to the other 5 the trunk was thin, and eve¬
ry part of the body had been prefled and kneaded,
to reftore as much as poffible the fuppleuefs which
death had taken away. An attempt was then made
J I to
802 M I D W I
thews'"®* t0 ^r‘n^ t^5C through the pelvis by pulling its
phyfis1" ^eet » ^ut was found impoflible thus to difengage
* 1—I, ■ it farther than the breait. The fymphyfis of the
pubes was then laid bare by an incifion of two inches
and an half; preferving, below, the anterior commiflure
of the labia pudendi; and above, an extent of 18 or 20
lines under the inferior angle of the Csefarean opera¬
tion. The o,ila pubis feparated at firft no more than
nine lines ; which opening was augmented as gradu¬
ally as poffible to 21 lines by feparating the thighs,
and afterwards it was farther increafed to two inches
and an half by pulling the hips. It was next at¬
tempted to bring away the head, which had
fpontaneoufly placed itfelf in the moft advantageous
fituation: but, though ffiveral gentlemen of the
profefiion employed their ftrength fuccellively at
the trunk, and on the lower jaw with two fingers
in the mouth, it did not advance a fingle line;
nor would it pafs the ftrait until M. Baudelocque fe-
conded thofe efforts by preffing on the head with one
hand placed in the belly, and by compreffing it ftrong-
ly in the direction of its thicknefs. At the inftant
when it cleared the ftrait, the inferior angle of the in¬
cifion in the teguments tore to the vulva ; and the
wound was fo lengthened towards that of the Caefa-
rean operation, that thofe three openings were very
near making but one. The facro-iliac fymphyfes,
which were already a little open, and the ligaments
and periofteum ruptured by the time that the offa pubis
were feparated 21 lines, now gave way entirely, and
with fo much noife as to be diftindfly heard byevery one
of the affiftants. The ofi'a pubis, after the paffage of
the head, remained at the diftance of three inches
from each other ; the angle of the right os pubis was
two inches and fix lines from the centre of the pro-
je&ion of the facrum, and the angle of the left os
pubis only two inches and three lines; fo that the dia¬
meter of the pelvis was augmented feven lines in one
way and ten in the other.
From this experiment, M. Baudelocque concludes,
that very little advantage can be expefted from the
operation where the pelvis prefents only 18 or 19
lines, or even 2 1 fuperiorly, fuch as was the pelvis of
Belloy. We muft obferve, however, that we cannot
argue with propriety from a dead to a living fub-
jeift: though if the meafurements are wrong, as our
author afterwards fays, although affirft he “ had no¬
thing particular to objeA” to her cafe, the whole ar¬
gument in favour of the operation muft fall to the
ground.
Objeftions of a fimilar kind are made to every other
cafe which M. Baudelocque relates : And as it is im-
pofiible for thofe who were not acquainted with the
parties to judge of the propriety or impropriety of
the operation, vve (hall content ourfelves with’defcri-
bing from M. Baudelocque the appearances met with
in the body of a woman who had died in the opera¬
tion. “ The left labium was very much fwelled and
livid; the facro-iliac fymphyfes were of a brownifh
colour to the extent of an inch at leaft, on account
of the blood extravafated under the periofteum which
was detached from them ; they were overflown with a
purulent and ichorous difeharge, more abundant on
the left fide than the right; and which fprung from
the bottom of them, through feveral openings, which
were fo many rents, whenever the ofla ilia were mo-
F E R Y. Part If
ved and prefled towards the facrum ; the left fym- SeAon of
phyfis was open five lines, and the right only three t!,e sjlrn'
a gangrenous abfeefs was feen on the right fide be- ^ ^ s
hind and above the acetabulum, .which extended to
the anterior and inferior part of the uterus, where
there was an efchaf of the fame nature ; an ulcer alfo
gangrenous, and in form of a chink, was obferved in
the pofterior part of that vifeus, from the upper part
of its neck to the infertion of the ligament of the ova¬
rium, and it penetrated into its cavity. The diame¬
ter of the pelvis was two inches and a half from the
pubes to the bafe of the facrum ; five inches from one
fide to the other ; and four and an half from one ace¬
tabulum to the facro-iliac jun&ion of the oppofite
fide. The fe&ion had been made on the left os pubis*
which was cut clean, and without the fmalleft notch.”
From thefe, and a number of other examples
which our limits will not allow us to infert,. our au¬
thor deduces the following conclufions.
“ Though the feftion of the pubes has been thought
more fimple, more eafy, and certain, than the Csefa-
rean operation, at a time when experience had not
yet demonftrated the difficulties it might prefent, and
the dangers that might follow it, ought we to think
the fame of it at prefent ? How many times already
has it been neceffary to have recourfe to the faw to
feparate the ofia pubis ? and how often has it not been
found impoffible to procure any diftance between them
after the reparation! How often has this operation
produced a free palTage for the child, whofe prefer-
vation ought neceffarily to enter into the plan of the
operator, as well as that of the mother, and confti-
tute a part of its fuccefs ?
“ This new operation will appear more fimple and
lefs painful than the Casfarean, if wc only confider
the extent of the incifion, and the nature and impor¬
tance of the parts concerned in it: that is an indif-
putable fad. It is only the teguments and the fat
which is divided, at moft only two inches and an
half, and the fymphyfis of the pubes ; there are ufual-
ly only fmall veffels cut, incapable of furniftiing much
blood, and the inftrument does not touch the uterus;,
the child comes into the world by the way that na¬
ture intended, and which the feftion of the pubes
renders more or lefs acceffibie; there is no confide-
rable hasmorrhagy to be feared, nor thofe extravafa-
tions of milky and purulent matter which almoft al¬
ways mortally injure the interior vifeera which they
fall upon ; there are no abfolute difficulties in the ex¬
ecution of this operation but what arife from the in¬
timate confolidation sf the bones ; and it no way ex-
pofes women to fubfequent hernias which have been-
fo frequently feen after the Csefarean operation i this
is the idea which its partifans have had of it, and
which the greater part of them ftill entertain.
“ But the fe&ion of the pubes feldom procures the
child an eafy exit;, for hitherto the greater part have
died in the paffage, or have been victims, a few minutes
after their exit, to the efforts neceflary to effeft it.
When the feparation of the offa pubis has been made, it
has not always been poffible to remove them from eack
other, on account of the confolidation of the ilia with the-
facrum; and this cafe, which does not feem to be ex¬
ceedingly rare, and which cannot be known till aftkr
the operation, renders it fruitlefs, and cannot difpenffe
us from the Csefarean operation*
6 *^11
Part IL
Setftinn of “ If we reflet ever fo little on the danger to which
the Sym- ch;id is expofed in a preternatural labour,. where
. P!iyils' we are obliged to- bring it by the feet, and on the
*" v fmall number that then efcape death, when the mo¬
ther’s pelvis has not, pretty nearly, all its natural di-
menfions, we difcover another fource of accidents
which accompanies the fedtion of the pubes ; and
which doubtlefs Ihould diminilh, if we could com¬
mit the expulfion of the child to the contractions of
the uterus, or take hold of the head with the forceps,
as fome pradtitioners have already done : but, except
in that very fmall number of cafes, the child has al¬
ways been extradted by the feet whether the head
prefented or not
“ Though this operation very feldom fecures the
child’s life, even when the pelvis is not excefiively
deformed, it is not then always exempt from the fe¬
vered confequences to the mother. The death of
both is certain when that deformity is extreme. The
confequences of a fpontaneous feparation of the ®ffa
pubis, and of the offa ilia and facrum, in fome natural
or laborious labours, long fince announced thofe which
might be expedted from this new operation ; the ex¬
ample of Vefpres, thofe of the fifth woman on whom
M. le Roy performed it, the fourth by M, Cambon,
that at Arras, at Duffeldorp, at Spire, at Lyons, at
Genes, that by M. Riollay, by M. Matthiis, &c. have
proved that it was not without caufe that thofe acci¬
dents were dreaded. A devaftation in the external
parts and the neck of the uterus; an inflammation
and gangrene of that vifcus ; collections of purulent,
fanious, and putrid matter, in the cellular tiflue of
the pelvis ; a hernia of the bladder between the ofia
Subis; echimofes along the pfoae mufcles; injury to
te canal of the urethra; incontinence of urine, and
gangrenes more or lefs profound, &c. form the group
of accidents of which this new operation is fufcep-
tible. Granting that thofe of the Caefarean operation
are as formidable for the mother, at leaft it prefents
a certain refource, exempt from every danger, for
the child. Which of the two operations, therefore,
ought to be preferred ?
“ Even if we could, without inconveniences to the
woman, obtain a feparation of two inches and an half
between the ofia pubis after the fedlion of their fym-
phyfis, the Csefarean operation would ftill be the foie
refource in cafes of extreme deformity of the pelvis ;
the fedtion of the pubes cannot enter into comparifon
80J
with it, except when the fmall diameter of the fupe- Section of
rior ftrait fhall have, at leaft, an extent of two inches the sym*
and an half. Though 1 fufpended my judgment, at
the time I publiihed my firfl edition, concerning the ** ^ '
preference to be given to one of thefe two methods,
in the latter cafe, till I could procure more pofitive
information of the innocence or danger of fo confide-
rable a feparation ; though I required that men who
had no interefl: in vaunting this new method to the,
detriment of the former; in one word, that its ad-
verfaries fhould have feen a feparation of two inches
and an half, without a rupture of the facro-iliac fym-
phyfes, and without inconveniences to make me adopt
this new operation ; at prefent, better informed on
all thefe points, I am not afraid to rejedt it, and to
affirm that no one has ever feparated the ofia pubis
two inches and a half without deftroying the life of
the woman. It has had no fuccefs but when it has
been performed on pelvifes at leafl: two inches three
quarters in' the fmall diameter, and when the fepara¬
tion has been limited to much lefs than the point to
which they fancied it was carried; in thofe cafes, in
faft, where it was abfolutely ufelefs; the pelvis being
larger ftill, for I have found it to. be more than three
inches in fome of the women. The fedtion of the
pubes cannot at prefent maifttain any comparifon with
the Casfarean operation ; at moft, it might be fubfti-
tuted for,the forceps, in fome particular cafes only: for
it cannot, without great inconveniences, give the pel¬
vis an increafe of more than two lines from the pubes
to the facrum fuperiorly ; and that inftrument may,
without danger, reduce the diameter of the child’s
head as much. . But what praftitioner would prefer
anew operation, which feems to be furrounded by
rocks on every fide, to one that has been crowned with
a thoufand fuccefles ? If we allow the former any ad¬
vantages, they would never be more evident than in
that fpecies of locked head mentioned by Roederer,
where we cannot (fays he) introduce any inftrument
between the head and the pelvis, at whatever part
we attempt it; in that cafe, it would merit a prefe¬
rence over opening the cranium, the ufe of the crot¬
chets, and the Caefarean fe&ion propofed by the fame
author: it would be preferable alio, in cafes where
the inferior ftrait is contracted tranfverfely, provided
that a fmall feparation were fufficient to give that dia¬
meter the neceflary extent.”
MIDWIFERY.
Part III. Of DISORDERS subsequent to DELIVERY.
fpent and exhaufted, let her take a little warm wine
Chap. I. Of the general Management of Women or caudle, or, according to the common cuftom, fome
after Delivery. nutmeg and fugar grated together in a fpoon: the
  principal defign of adminiftering this powder, which
r | 'HE woman being delivered of the child and pla- among the good women is feldom negkCted, is to fup-
J- centa, let a foft linen-cloth, warmed, be applied ply the want of fome cordial draught, when the pa-
to the external parts; and if the complains much of a tient is too weak to be raifed, or fuppofed to be in
fmarting forenefs, fome pomatum may be fpread upon danger of retchings from her ftomach’s being over-
it. The linen that was laid below her, to fpunge up loaded. When the hath in fome meafure recovered her
the difcharges, mull be removed, and replaced with ftrength and fpirits, let the cloths be removed from
others that are clean, dry, and warm. Let her lie on the parts, and others applied in their room ; and, if
her back, with her legs extended clofe to each other; there is a large difeharge from the uterus, let the wet
or upon her fide, if fire thinks ftie can lie eafier in that linen below her be alfo ffiifted, that file may not run
pofition, until fhe recovers from the fatigue : if ftie is the rifle of catching cold.
When
804 M I D W I
Mannpe- Wlien the patient is either weak or faintifh, fhe
*r)eliverer ou^^lt not 1:0 ta^en out °f or eveB raifed up-
t 'J'"'’ to have her head and body fhifted, until (he is a little
recruited ; otherwife flie will be in danger of repeated
faintings, attended with convulfions, which fometimes
end in deqth. To prevent thefe bad confeqnences, her
fkirt and petticoats ought to be loofened and pulled
down over the legs, and replaced- by another well
warmed, with a broad head-band to be flipt in, below,
and brought up over her thighs and hips : a warm
double cloth muft be laid on the belly, which is to be
furrounded by the head-band of the ikirt pinned mo¬
derately tight over the cloth, in order to comprefs-
the vifcera and the relaxed parietes of the abdomen,
more or lefs as the woman can eafily bear it; by
which means the uterus is kept firm in the lower part
of the abdomen, and prevented from rolling from fide
to fide when the patient is turned : ■ but the principal
end of this compreffion is to hinder too great a quan¬
tity of blood from ruihing into the relaxed veffels of
the abdominal contents, efpecially when the uterus is
emptied all of a fudden by a quick delivery. The
preflure being thus fuddenly removed, the head is all
at once robbed of its proportion of blood, and the
immediate revulfion precipitates the patient into dan¬
gerous lypothymia.
For this reafon the belly ought to be firmly com-
preffed by the hands of an affifiant, until the bandage
is applied; or, in beu of it, a long towel, fheet, or
roller, to make a fuitable compreffion : but for this
purpofe different methods are ufed in different coun¬
tries, or according to the different circumftances of
the patients. • The head-cloaths and drift ought alfo
to be changed, becaufe with fweating in time of la¬
bour they are rendered wet and drfagreeable. Several
other applications are neceffery, when the external or
internal parts are rent or inflamed; misfortunes that
fometimes happen in laborious and preternatural cafes.
We flrall conclude this chapter with giving fome ne-
eeffary diredlions with regard to air, diet, &e.
Although we cannot remove the patient immedi¬
ately after delivery into another climate, we can qua¬
lify the air fo as to keep it in a moderate and falutary
temper, by rendering it warm or cold, moift or dry,
according to the circumftances of-the occafion. With
regard to diet, women, in time of labour, and even
till the ninth day after delivery, ought to eat little fo-
lid food, and none at all during the firft five or feven :
let them drink plentifully of warm diluting fluids, fuch
as barley-water, gruel, chicken-water, and teas :
caudles are alfo commonly ufed, compofed of water-
gruel boiled up with mace and cinnamon,. to which^-
when ftrained, is added a third or fourth part of white
wine, or lefs if the patient drinks plentifully, fweet-
ened with fugar to their tafte : this compolition is
termed white caudle ; whereas, if ale is ufed inllead of
wine, it goes under the name of brown caudle. In
fome countries, eggs are added to both kinds; but,
in that cafe, the woman is not permitted to eat meat
or broths till after the fifth or feventh day : in this
country, however, as eggs are no part of the ingre¬
dients, the patient is indulged with weak broth fooner,
and fometimes allowed to eat a little boiled chicken.
But all thefe different preparations are to be prefcribed
weaker or ftronger, with regard to the fpices, wine,
or ale, according to the different conftitutions and
F E R Y. Part Ilf,;,
fituations of different .patients : for example, if ftie is Manage-
low and weak, in confequence of an extraordinary dif- nient after
charge of any kind, either before or after delivery, or. Deliv^>
if the weather- is cold,' the caudles and broths may
made the ftronger ; but if fhe is of a full habit of body,-
and has the leaft tendency to a fever, or if the feafon is- -
exceffively hot, thefe drinks ought to be of a very weak,
confiftence, or the patient reftritled to gruel, tea, bar¬
ley and chicken-water, and thefe varied according to-,
the emergency of the cafe.
Her food muft be light and eafy of digeffion, fuch;.
as panada, bifcuit, and fago ; about the fifth or feventh .
day ftie may eat a little boiled.chicken, or thelightdF
kind of young meat; but thefe laft may be given,
fooner or later according to the cireumftances of the
cafe and the appetite of the patient. In the regi¬
men as to the eating and drinking, we ftiould rather-
err on the abftemious fide than indulge the woman
with meat and ftrong fermented liquors, even if thefe
laft ftiould be molt agreeable to her palate; for we
find by ^experience that they are apt to increafe or
bring on fevers, and that the moft nourifhing and fa¬
lutary diet is that which we have above prefcribed.
Every thing that is difficult of digeftion, or quickens
the circnlating fluids, muft of necelfity promote a fever,
by which the neceffary; difcharges are obftrufted, and
the patient’s life endangered.
As to the article of fleeping and watching, the pa¬
tient muft be kept as free from noife as polfible, by
covering the floors and flairs with carpets and cloths,.
oiling the hinges of the doors, lilencing the bells, ty¬
ing up the knockers, and in noify ftreets ftrowing the
pavement with ftraw ; if, notwithftanding thefe pre¬
cautions, ftie is difturbed, her ears muft be fluffed with >
cotton, and opiates adminiftered to procure fleep ; be-
caufe watching makes her reftlefs, prevents perfpira- -
tion, and promotes a fever.
Motion and reft are another part of the nonnaturals
to which we ought to pay particular regard. By toff-
ing about, getting out of bed, or fitting up too long,
the perfpiration is difcouraged and interrupted ; and
in this laft attitude the uterus, not yet fully contraft-
ed, hangs down, llretching the ligaments, occafioning
pain, cold fliiverings, and a fever : for thfc prevention
of thefe bad fymptoms, the patient muft be kept quiet
in bed till .after the fourth or fifth day, and then be
gently lifted up in the bed-cloaths, in a lying pofture,
until the bed can be adjufted, into which fhe muft be-
immediately reconveyed, there to continue, for the
moft part, till the. ninth day ; after which period wo¬
men are not fo fubjeft to fevers as immediately after
delivery. Some there are who, from the nature of
their conftitutions, or other accidents, recover more.
flowly ; and fuch are to be treated with the fame
caution after as before the ninth day, as the cafe feems
to indicate : others get up, walk about, and recover,
in a much fhorter time : but thefe may fome time or
other pay dearly fortheir foolhardinefs, by encouraging
dangerous fevers; fo that we ought rather to err on
the fafe fide than run any rifk whatfoever.
What next comes under confideration is the cir-
cumflance of retention, and excretion. We have for¬
merly obferved, that, in time of labour, before the
head of the child is locked into the pelvis, if the wo¬
man has not had an eafy paffage- in her belly that fame
day, the re&um and colon ought to be emptied by a
glyiler
n r. m i d w
glyfter, which will affift. the labour, prevent the difa-
gjreeable excretion of the faeces before the child’s head,
and Enable the patient to remain two or three days af¬
ter, without the neceflity of going to llool. However,
fhould this precaution be ncgletted, and the patient
very coftive after delivery, we muft beware of throwing
up Simulating glyiters, or adminiftering Itrong cathar¬
tics, left they Ihould bring on too many loofe ftools,
which, if they cannot be ttopt, fometimes produce fa¬
tal confequences, by obftrudfing the perfpiration and
lochia, and exhaufting the woman, fo as that fhe will
die all of a fudden ; a cataftrophe which hath frequent¬
ly- happened from this ptaftice- Wherefore, if it be
neceifary to empty the inteftines, we ought to prefcribe
nothing but emollient glyfters,, or fome very gentle
opener, fuch as manna, or eh8 lenitivum. But no ex¬
cretion is of more confequence to the patient’s reco¬
very than a free perfpiration ; which is fo abfolutely
neceffary, that unkfs Ihe has a moifture continually
on the furface of her body for fome days after the
birth, ftie feldom recovers to advantage: her health,
therefore, in a great meafure, depends upon her enjoy¬
ing undifturbed repofe, and a conftant breathing fwea',
which prevents a fever, by carrying off the tenfion,
and affifts the equal difcharge of the lochia : and when
thefe are obttruded, and a fever enfues with pain and
reftleffnefs, nothing relieves the patient fo effeCfually
as reft and profufe fweating,. procured by opiates and
fudorifics at the beginning of the complaints; yet thefe
laft muft be more cautioufly prefcribed in exceflive hot
than in cool weather.
The laft of the nonnaturals to be confidered are the
paffions of the mind, which alfo require particular at¬
tention. The patient’s imagination mutt not be difturb-
ed by the news of any extraordinary accident which
may have happened to her family or friends: for fuch.
information hath been known to-carry off the labour-
pains entirely, after they were begun, and the woman
lias funk under her dejedion of fpirits ; and, even after
delivery, thefe unfeafonable communications have pro¬
duced fuch. anxiety as obftru&ed all the neceffary ex¬
cretions, and brought on a violent .fever and convul-.
lions, that ended in death.
Chap. II. Of violent Floodings*
All women, when ihe.placenta feparates, and af¬
ter it is delivered, lofe more or lefs red blood, from the
quantity of half a pound to that of one;pound, .or
even two ; but ftiould it exceed this proportion, and
continue to flow without diminution, the patient is-in
great danger of her life : this hazardous hemorrhagy
is known by the violence of the difcharge, wetting.frefh.
cloths as faff as. they can be applied ; from the pulfe
becoming low and weak, and the countenance turning
pale; then the extremities grow cold, ..fhe finks into
fainting*, and, if the difcharge is not fpeedily flopped
or diminiihed, .is feized with convulfions, which often.
terminate in death..
This dangerous efflux is occafioned by every thing:
that hinders the emptied uterus from contracting,.fuch
as great weaknefs and laffitude, in confequence of re,
ppated floodings before delivery ; the fudden evacua¬
tion of the uterus ; fometimes, though feldom, it
proceeds from part of the placenta’s being left in the ,
I F E R Y,
womb ; it may happen when there is another child, or After
more, ftill undelivered ; when the womb is kept dif-
truded with a large quantity of coagulated blood : or
when it is inverted by pulling too forcibly at the pla¬
centa.
In this cafe, as there is no time to be loft, and in¬
ternal medicines cannot aft fo fuddenly as to anfwer
the purpofe, we muft have immediately recourfe to ex¬
ternal application. If the diforder be owing to 'weak¬
nefs, by which the uterus is difabled from contracting
itfelf, fo that the mouths of the veffels are left open ;
or, though contra&ed a little, yet not enough to re-
ftrain the hemorrhagy of the thin blood ; or if, in fe-
parating the placenta, the accoucheur has fcratched or
tore the inner furface or membrane of the womb ; in
thefe cafes, fuch things muft be ufed as will affift the
contractile power of the uterus, and hinder the blood
from flowing fo faft into it and the neighbouring vef¬
fels ; for this purpofe, cloths dipped in any cold a-
ftringent fluid, fuch as oxycrate, or red tart wine,
may be applied to the back and belly. iSome prefcribe
venefection in the arm, to the amount of five or fix
ounces, with a view of making revulfion ; if the pulfe
is ftrong, this may be proper; otherwife, it will do
more harm than good. Others order ligatures, for
compreifing the returning veins at the hams, arms,
and neck, to retain as much blood as poflible in the
extremities and head. Befides thefe applications, the
vagina may be filled with tow or linen-rags, dipped
in the abovementioned liquids, in which a little alum
or fachar-faturni hath been diffolved ; nay, fome prac¬
titioners injeCt proof-fpirits warmed, or, foakingthem
up in a rag or fpunge, introduce and fqueeze them
into the uterus, in order to conftringe the veffels.
If the flooding proceeds from another child, the re- •
tention of the placenta,, or coagulated blood, thefe
ought immediately, to be extracted ; and if there is an
inverfion of the uterus, it muft be fpeedily reduced.
Should the hemorrhagy, by thefe methods, abate a
little, but ftill continue to flow, though not in fuch a
quantity as to bring on fudden death, fome red wine
and jelly ought to be prefcribed for the patient, who
ftiould take it frequently, and. a little-at a time; but
above all things’chicken or mutton broths, admini-"
itered in the fame manner, for fear of overloading the
weakened ftomach, and occafioning retchings ; thefe
repeated in fmall quantities, will gradually fill the ex-
haufted veffels, and keep up the.circulation. If the
pulfe continues ftrong, it will be proper to order re-'
peated draughts of barley-water, acidulated with elixic
vitriol: but if the circulatio* be weak and languid,
extract of the bark, diffolved in aq. cinnamomi tenuist
and given in fmall draughts, or exhibited in any other-
form, will be ferviceable; at the fame time, lulling
the patient to reit with opiates. Thefe, indeed, when
the lirit violence of the flood is abated, if properly and
cautioufly ufed, are generally more effectual than any
other medicine.
Chap. III. Of the After-pains.
After-paims commonly happen when the fibrous
part of the blood is retained in the uterus or vagina, >,
and formed into large clots, which are detained by
the fudden contraction of the.os internum and exter-j
5 nuns.
SoS MIDWIFERY. Part III.
I.ochm, num, after the placenta is delivered : or, if thefe
""■■'V”-— (iiould be extradted, others will fometimes be formed,
though not fo large as the firft, becaufe the cavity of
the womb is continually diminilhing after the birth.
The uterus, in contradting, prefTes down thefe coagu-
la to the os internum ; which being again gradually
1(.retched, produces a degree of labour-pains, owing
to the irritation of its r.crves : in confequence of this
uneafinefs, the woman fqueezes the womb as in real
labour; the force being increafed, the clots are pufhed
along, and when they are delivered fire grows eafy.—
The larger the quantity is of the coagulated blood,
the feverer are the pains, and the longer they conti-
Women in the firft child feldom have after-pains ;
becaufe, after delivery, the womb is fuppofed to con-
tradt. and puflr off the clots with greater force in the
firft than in the following labours: after-pains may
olfo proceed from obftrudtions in the veffels, and irri¬
tations at the os internum. In order to prevent or re¬
move thefe pains, as foon as the placenta is feparated
and delivered, the hand being ntroduced into the ute¬
rus, may clear it of all the coagula. When the womb
is felt through the parietes of the abdomen larger
than ufual, it may be taken for granted that there is
either another child,. or a large quantity of this clot¬
ted blood; and, which foever it may be, there is a
neceffity for its being extra&ed. If the placenta comes
away of itfelf, and the after-pains are violent, they
may be alleviated and carried off by an opiate : for,
by Keeping and fweating plentifully, the irritation is
removed, the evacuations are increafed, the os uteri is
infenfibly relaxed, and the coagula Kick eafily along.
When the difeharge of the lochia is fmall, the after-
pains, if moderate, ought not to be reftrained; be¬
caufe the fqueezing which they occafion promotes
the other evacuation, which is neceffary for the re¬
covery of the patient. After-pains may alfo proceed
from an obftrudtion in fame of the veffels, occafioning
a fmall inflammation of the os internum and liga¬
ments ; and the fqueezing thereby occafioned may
not only help to propel the obftru&ing fluid, but al¬
fo (if not too violent) contribute to the natural dif-
charges.
Chap. IV. Of the Lochia.
We have already obferved, that the delivery of the
child and placenta is followed by an efflux of more or
lets blood, difeharged from the uterus, which, by the
immediate evacuation of the large veffels, is allowed to
contract itfelf the more freely, without the danger of
an inflammation, which would probably happen in the
contraction, if the great veffels were not emptied at the
fame time: but as the fluids in the fmaller veffels can¬
not be fo foon evacuated, or returned into the vena ca¬
va, it is neceffary that, after the great difeharge is
abated, a flow and gradual evacuation Kiould conti¬
nue, until the womb ftiall be contracted to near the
fame fize to which it had before pregnancy ; and to
this it attains about the 18th or 20th day after deli¬
very, though the period is different in different wo¬
men.
When the large veffels are emptied immediately af¬
ter delivery, the difeharge frequently ceafes for feveral
hours, until the fluids in the fmaller veffels are propel-Milk-fevt
led into the larger, and then begins to flow again, of  
a paler colour.
The red colour of the lochia commonly continues
till the fifth day, though it is always turning more
and more ferous from the beginning : but, about the
fifth day, it flows of a clear, or fometimes (though
feldom) of a greenilh tint; for, the mouths of the
veffels growing gradually narrower by the contrac¬
tion of the uterus, at laft allow the ferous part only
to pafs: as for the greenilh hue, it is fuppofed to pro¬
ceed from a diffolution of the cellular or cribriform
membrane or mucus, that furrounded the furface of
the placenta and chorion; part of which, being left in
the uterus, becomes livid, decays, and, diffolving,
mixes with and tiCtures the difeharge as it paffes
along.
Though the lochia, as we have already obferved,
commonly continue till the 18th or 20th day, they
are every day diminilhing in quantity, and fooneft
ceafe in thofe women who fuckle their children, or
have had an extraordinary difeharge at firft ; but the
colour, quantity, and duration, differ in different wo¬
men : in fome patients, the red colour difappears on
the firft or fecond day ; and in others, though rarely,
it continues more or lefs to the end of the month : the
evacuation in fome is very fmall, in others exceflive :
in one woman it ceafes very foon, in another flows
during the whole month : yet all of thefe patients
(hall do w'ell.
Some allege, that this difeharge from the uterus is
the fame with that from a wound of a large furface ;
but it is more reafonable to fuppofe, that the change
of colour and diminution of quantity proceed from
the flow contradtion of the veffels; becaufe, previous
to pus, there muft have been lacerations and im-
pofthumes, and, in women who have fuddenly died
after delivery, no wound or excoriation hath appeared
upon the inner furface of the womb, which is fome¬
times found altogether fmooth, and at other times
rough and unequal, on that part to which the pla¬
centa adhered. The fpace that is occupied before
the delivery, from being fix inches in diameter, or
18 inches in circumference, will, foon after the birth,
be contradted to one third or fourth of thefe dimen-
fions.
Chap. V. Of the Milk fever.
About the fourth day, the breads generally begin
to grow turgid and painful. We have formerly ob¬
ferved, that, during the time of uterine geftation, the
breads in moll women gradually increafe till the de¬
livery, growing fofter as they are enlarged by the
veffels being more and more filled with fluids ; and by
this gradual diftenfion they are prepared for fecreting
the milk from the blood after delivery. During
the two or three firft days after parturition, efpe-
cially when the woman has undergone a large dif¬
eharge, the breads have been fometimes obferved to
fubfide and grow flaccid; and about the 3d or 4th
day, when the lochia begin to decreafe, the breads
fwell again to their former fize, and ftretch more and
more, until the milk, being fecreted, is either fucked
by the child, or frequently of itfelf runs out at the
nipples.
Moft
4>artHI. M I D W ]
jtflvKlk-fevcr. Mod of the complaints incident to women after
-^<111 hm-^   delivery, proceed either from the obftrudlion of the
lochia in the uterus, or of the milk in the breads, oc-
cafioned by any thing that will produce a fever; fuch
as catching cold, long and fevere labour, eating food
that is hard of digeftion, and. drinking fluids that
quicken the circulation of the blood in the large
veflels ; by which means the fmaller, with all the fe-
cretory and excretory dufts, are obftrufted.
The difcharge of the lochia being fo different in
women of different conftitutions, and befides in fome
meafure depending upon the method of management,
and the way of life peculiar to the patient, we are not
to judge of her fitur.tion from the colour, quantity,
and duration of them, but from the other fymptoms
that attend the difcharge ; and if the woman feems
hearty, and in a fair way of recovery, nothing ought
to be done with a view to augment or diminifh the
evacuation. If the difcharge be greater than fhe can
bear, it will be attended with all the fymptoms of
inanition ; but as the lochia feldom flow fo violently
as to deftroy the patient of a fudden, fhe may be fup-
ported by a proper nourifhing diet, aflifted with cor¬
dial and reftorative medicines. Let her, for example,
ufe broths, jellies, and affes milk ; if the pulfe is lan¬
guid and funk, fhe may take repeated dofes of the
confeS. cardiac, with mixtures compofed of the cordial
waters and volatile fpirits : fubaftringents and opiates
frequently adminiftered, with the cort. Peruvian, in
different forms, and auftere wines, are of great fervice.
On the other hand, when the difcharge is too fmall,
or hath ceafed altogether, the fymptoms are mote
dangerous, and require the contrary method of cure :
for now the bufinefs is to remove a too great pleni¬
tude of the veflels in and about the uterus, occafioning
tenfion, pain, and labour, in the circulating fluids ;
from whence proceed great heat in the part, refllefs-
nefs, fever, a full, hard, quick pulfe, pains in the head
and back, naufea, and difficulty in breathing. Thefe
complaints, if not at firft prevented, or removed by reft
and plentiful fweating, muft be treated with venefec-
tion and the antiphlogiftic method.
When the obftru&ion is recent, let the patient lie
quiet, and encourage a plentiful diaphorefis, by drink¬
ing frequently of warm, weak, diluting fluids, fuch
as water-gruel, barley-water, tea, or weak chicken-
broth.
Should thefe methods be ufed without fuccefs, and
the patient, far from being relieved by reft, plentiful
fweating, or a fufficient difcharge of the obftrudled
lochia, labour under an hot dry fkin, anxiety, and a
quick, hard, and full pulfe, the warm diaphoretics
muft be laid afide ; becaufe, if they fail of having the
•deiired effedt, they muft neceflarily increafe the fever
and obftrudtion, and recotirfe be hai^to bleeding at
the arm or ankle to more or lets quantity, according
to the degree of fever and obftru&ion ; and this eva¬
cuation muft be repeated as there is occafion. When
the obftrudlion is not total, it is fuppofed more pro¬
per to bleed at the ankle than at the arm ; and at
this laft, when the difcharge is altogether flopped,
her ordinary drink ought to be impregnated with
nitre.
If fhe is coftive, emollient and gently opening
glyfters may be occafionally injedled j and her hreafts
: F E R Y. * - 807
muft be fomented and fucked, either by the mouth or Milk-fever,
pipe-glafles. If by thefe means the fever is abated,
and the neceflary difcharges return, the patient com¬
monly recovers ; but if the complaints continue, the
antiphlogiftic method muft ftill be purfued. If, notr
withftanding thefe efforts, the fever is not diminifhed
or removed by a plentiful difcharge of the lochia from
the uterus, the milk from the breafts, or by a critical
evacuation by fweat, urine, or ftool, and the woman
is every now and then attacked with cold fhiverings;
an abfcefs or abfceffes will probably be formed in the
uterus or neighbouring parts, or in the breafts ; and
fometimes the matter will be tranflated to other fitua-
tions, and the feat of it foretold from the part’s being
affected with violent pains: thefe abfceffes are more or
lefs dangerous according to the place inVhich they
happen, the largenels of the fuppuration, and thegood
or bad conftitution of the patient.
If, when the pains in the epigaftric region is violent,
and the fever increafed to a very high degree, the pa¬
tient fhould all of a fudden enjoy a ceflation from pain,
without any previous difcharge or critical eruption,- the
phyfician may pronounce that a mortification is be¬
gun ; efpecially if, at the fame time, the pulfe becomes
low, quick, wavering, and intermitting : if the wo¬
man’s countenance, from being florid, turns dulky and
pale, while ftie herfelf, and all the attendants, conceive
her much mended; in that cafe, (he will grow deli¬
rious, and die in a very fliort time.
What we have faid on this fubjefit regards that fe¬
ver which proceeds from the obftrudted lochia, and in
which the breafts may likewife be affefted: but the
milk-fever is that in which the breafts are originally
concerned, and which may happen tho’ the lochia con¬
tinue to flow in fufilcient quantity ; neverthelefs, they
mutually promote each other, and both are to be treat¬
ed in the manner already explained; namely, by o-
piates, diluents, and diaphoretics, in the beginning ;
and, the preferiptions failing, the obftru&ions muft
be refolved by the antiphlogiftic method deferibed a-
bove. The milk-fever alone, when the uterus is not
concerned, is not fo dangerous, and is much more eafily
relieved. Women of an healthy conftitution, who
fuckle their own children, have good nipples, and
whofe milk comes freely, are feIdom\r never fubjeft
to this diforder, which is more incident to thofe who
do not give fuck, and negletft to prevent the fecretion
in time ; or, when the milk is fecreted, take no mea-
fures for emptying their breafts. This fever likewife
happens to women who try too foon to fuckle, and con¬
tinue their efforts too long at one time ; by whicb
means the nipples, and confequently the breafts, are;
often inflamed, fwelled, and obllrufted.
In order to prevent a too great turgency in the vef-
fels of the breafts, and the fecretion of milk, in thofe
women who do not choofe to fuckle, it will be proper
to make external application of thofe things which, by
their preffure and repercufiive force, will hinder the
blood from flowing in too great a quantity to this part*
which is now more yielding than at any other time r
for this purpofe, let the breafts be covered with emp.
de mini a-, diapalma, or cmp. fmp. fpread upon linen*
or cloths dipped in camphorated fpirits, be frequent¬
ly applied to thefe parts and the arm-pits ; while ther
patient’s diet and drink is of the lightelt kind, ‘and
gives
8o8 M I D W I
Evacua. given in fmall quantities. Notwithftanding thefe pre-
tl01is' cautions, a turgency commonly begins about the third
day ; but by reft, moderate fweating, and the ufe o£
thefe applications, the, teniion and pain will fubfide
.about the fifth or fixth day, efpecially if the milk runs
out at the nipples: but if the woman catches cold,
or is of a full habit of body, and not very abftetm-
ous, the tenfion and pain increafing, will bring on a
cold Ihivering fucceeded by a fever ; which may ob~
■ ftruft the other excretions, as well as thofe of the
■ breaft.
In this cafe, the fudorifics above recommended muft
be prefcribed ; and if a plentiful fweat enfue, the pa¬
tient will be relieved ; at the fame time the milk muft
be extracted frcm her breafts, by fucking with the
mouth or glafles: fliould thefe methods fail, and the
fever increafe, {he ought to be blooded in the arm ;
and inftead of the external applications hitherto ufed,
emollient liniments and cataplafms muft be fubftituted,
in order to foften and relax. If, in fpite of thefe en¬
deavours, the fever proceeds for fome days, the pa¬
tient is frequently relieved by critical fweats, a large
.difeharge from the uterus, miliary eruptions,, or loofe
; ilools mixed with milk, which is curdled in the inte-
ftines ; but fliould none 6f thefe evacuations happen,
and the inflammation continue with increaiing violence,
there is danger of an impofthume, which is to be
. brought to maturity, and managed like othet inflam¬
matory tumors ; and no aftringents ought to be ap¬
plied, left they fliould produce feirrhous fwellings in
,the glands.
As the crifis of this fever, as well as of that laft de-
feribed, often conffts in miliary eruptions over the
whole furface of the body, but particularly on the neck
■ and breaft, by which the fever is carried off, nothing
. ought to be given which will either greatly increafe
. or diminifli the circulating force, but fuch only as will
keep out the eruptions. But if, notwithftanding thefe
eruptions, the fever, inftead of abating, is augment¬
ed, it will be neceffary to diminifli its force, and pre¬
vent its increafe, by thofe evacuations we have men¬
tioned above. On the contrary, fliould the pulfe fink,
■ the eruptions begin to retreat inwardly, and the mor-
bific matter be in danger of falling upon the vifeera,
we muft endeaW'&r to keep them out by opiates and
fudorific medicines; and here blifters may be applied
with fuccefs.
Chap. VI. Of the Evacuations neceffary at the
end of the Month after Delivery.
Those who have had a fufficient difeharge of the
lochia, plenty of milk, and fuckle their own children,
commonly recover with eafe, and, as the fuperfluous
fluids of the body are drained off *t the nipples, fel-
dom require evacuations at the end of the month ; but
if there are any complaints from fulnefs, fuch as pains
and flitches, after the 20th day, fome blood ought to
be taken from the arm, and the belly gently opened
by frequent glyfters/or repeated dofes of laxative me¬
dicines.
If the patient has tolerably recovered, the milk ha¬
ving been at firft fucked or difeharged from the nipples,
and afterwards difeuffed, no evacuations are neceffary
JT220.
F E R Y, PanlM,
before the third or fourth week ; and fometimes not Etpianjl
monly happens about the fifth week ; if they do not _
appear within that time, gentle evacuations muft he’
prefcribed, to carry off the plethora, and bring down
sthe catamenia.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CCCXVI. fig. X. reprefents a well formed
pelvis.
AA AA, The offa ilia, properly fo called, a a, The
iliac foffae, bill. The angle which divides tranf,
verfely and obliquely, from behind forward, the in¬
ternal face of the os ilium into two parts, making
part of the brim of the pelvis, cccc. The criftae of
the offa ilia, rr, Their anterior fuperior fpines. ff
The angle formed by the internal lip of the crifta of
the os ilium, to which is attached a ligament inferted
at the other end in the tranfverfe apophyfis of the laft;
lumbar vertebra, gg. The inferior angle of the os
Ilium, which makes part of the acetabulum.
BB, The os ifehium. hh, Its tuberofities. i i, Ita
branches, & k, Its pofterior part, making part of the
acetabulum.
CC, The body of the os pubis. //, Its angle, m
Its pofterior extremity, making part of the acetabu¬
lum. nn, Its defeending branch, uniting with that
of the ifehium.
DDD, The os facrum. 1,2,3,4, The anterior holes,
000, Its bafe. pp. The fides. q. The point. E, The
coccyx. F, The laft lumbar vertebra. rr,The tranfverih
apophyfis of -that vertebra, s ,r, The ligament proceed¬
ing from the tranfverfe apbphyfis of the laft vertebra
to the angle of the internal lip of the crifta of the oa
ilium, marked ff. tt, Another ligament which de-
feends from the fame apophyfis to the fuperior edge
of the facro-iliac fymphyiis.
GG, The femur or thigh-bone. VV, Its head re¬
ceived in the acetabulum, u, u. The, foramina ovalia.
H, The fymphyfis of the offa pubis, II, The facro-
iliac fymphyfes. K, The facro-vertebral fymphyfis.
Fig. 2. reprefents the fuperior ftrait of a well formed
pelvis.
a a, The iliac foffse. b. The facro-vertebral angle,
or projedtion of the facrum. c. The laft lumbar ver¬
tebra. dd, The lateral parts of the bafe of the fa¬
crum. ee. The facro-iliac fymphyfes. ff. The parts
over the acetabula. g. The fymphyfis of the pubes.
The lines denote the different diameters of the fu¬
perior ftrait. AB, The little diameter. CD, The
tranfverfe or great diameter. EF, GH, The oblique
diameter, extending from the left acetabulum to the
right facro iliac jundiionl
Fg. 3. {hows the inferior ftrait of a well formed
pelvis.
a The external faces of the offa ilia. Their
anterior fuperior fpines. cc, Their anterior inferior
fpines. dd, The acetabula. e e, The foramina ovalia,
with the obturator ligaments, ff. The ifehiatie tube-
rofitiea. gg, The offa pubis, h h, The branches of
the oa pubis and rfehium united. U, The facrum. h,
The coccyx. //, The facro-ifchiatic ligaments, m.
The fymphyfis of the pubes, n, Its arch.
The
MIDWIFERY.
r late, cccxi.
Part HI.
MIDWIFERY.
The diameters of the inferior ftrait are marked by
e the lines. AA, The antero-pofterior, or great diame-
„ ter. BB, The tranfverfe or little diameter. CC,
DD, The oblique diameters.
Fig. 4. (hows a deformed pelvis.
a a, The offa ilia, b b. The ofla pubis, c c, The
ofla ifchia. ddd, The laft lumbar vertebras, e. The
projeftion of the facrum. /f. The facro-iliac fymphy-
fes. g. The fymphyfis of the pubes b h. The fora ¬
mina ovalia. i i. The branches of the offa pubis and
ifchia, which form the anterior arch of the pelvis.
i i, The acetabula.
A A, The antero-pofterior diameter; the natural length
being 14or 15 lines. BB, The tranfverfe diameter;
the natural length four inches and ten lines. CC, The
diftance from the projection of the facrum to that
Plate
liJCCCVH.
when examining the fame by the touch, with one of
the fingers in the vagina.
KK, the uterus as ftretched in the fecond or third
month, containing the embryo, with the placenta ad¬
hering to the fundus.
Fig. 13. In the fame view and feftion of the parts
with the former figures, reprefents the uterus in the
eighth or ninth month of pregnancy.
A, the uterus as ftretched to near its full extent,
with the waters, and containing the foetus entangled
in the funis, the head prefenting at the upper part of
the pelvis.
BB, the fuperior part of the offa ilium. CC, the
acetabula. DD, the remaining pofterior parts of
the offa ifchium. E, the coccyx. F, the inferior
part of the redtum. GGG, the vagina ftretched on
point of the margin which anfwers to the left aceta- each fide. H, the os uteri, the neck being ftfetched
bulum, being 13 lines. DD, The diftance from the to its full extent or entirely obliterated. II, part of
fame point of the facrum to that of the margin w'hich the vefica urinaria. KK, the placenta, at the fupe-
anfwers to the right acetabulum, 20 lines.  A —
Fig. 5. ftiows a vertical fe&ion of the pelvis.
A. A, A, A, The four laft lumbar vertebrae. B, B, B,
The os facrum. CC, The coccyx, dd. The furface
refulting from the feftion of the fymphyfis of the pu¬
bes. E, The left iliac foffa. F, The left fide of the
fuperior ftrait. G, The facro-ifchiatic ligament. H,
The tuberofity of the ifchium.
i i. The entrance of the vagina. K, one of the labia
pudendi. L, The anus. M, The mo ns veneris. N,
The left natis.
Fig. 10. gives a front-view of the uterus infitu, fuf- labour pains,
pended in the vagina ; the anterior parts of the offa II, the inferior part of the uterus, ftretched with
' m, with the offa pubis, pudenda, perinseum, and the waters which are below the head of the child that
being removed, in order to Ihow the internal prefents.
parts. KK, the two placentas adhering to the pofterior part
A, the laft vertebra of the loins. BB, the offa ili- of the uterus, the two fcetufes lying before them, one
um. CC, etabula. DD, the inferior and po- with its head in a proper pofition at the inferior part
fterior parts 01 me offa ifchium. E, the part cover- of the uterus, and the other fituated preternaturally
ing the extremity of the coccyx. F, the inferior part with the head to the fundus ; the bodies of each are
of the redlum. GG, the,vagina cut open longitudb here entangled in their proper funis, which frequently
nally, and ftretched on each fide of the collum uteri, happens in the natural as well as preternatural poli-
to ihow in what manner the uterus is fufpended in the tions.
rior and pofterior part of the uterus. LL, the mem¬
branes. M, the funis umbilicalis.
Fig. 14. gives a front view of twins in utero in the
beginning of labour.
A, the uterus as ftretched, with the membranes and
waters. BB, the fuperior parts of the offa ilium.
CC, the acetabula. DD, the offa ifchium. E, the
coccyx. F, the lower part of the redtum. GG, the
vagina.
H, the os internum ftretched open about a finger-
breadth, with the membranes and waters, in time of
fame.
HH, part of the vefica urinaria ftretched on each
fide of the vagina, and inferior part of the fundus
uteri.
I, the collum uteri. K, the fundus uteri. LL,
the tubi Fallopiani and fimbrias. MM, the ovaria.
NN, the ligamenta lata and rotunda,
rior part of the redtum.
LLL, the membranes belonging to each placenta.
Fig. 15. fhows, in a lateral view and longitudinal di-
vifion of the parts, the gravid uterus w'hen labour is
fomewhat advanced.
A, the loweft vertebra of the back ; the diftance
from which to the laft mentioned vertebra is here (hown
OO, the fupe- by dotted lines. CC, the ufual thickuefs and figure
of the uterus when extended by the waters at the lat-
Fig. II. gives a front view of the uterus in the be- ter end of pregnancy. D, the fame contradled and
ginning of the firft month of pregnancy ; the anterior grown thicker after the waters are evacuated. EE,
part being removed that the embryo might appear *l— a  ——J.-i— 17
thr iugh the amnios, the chorion being differed off.
xv, the fundus uteri. B, the collum uteri, with a
view of the rugous canal that leads to the cavity of
the fundus. C, the os uteri.
Fig. 12. In the fame view and fedlion of the parts as
the figure of the uterus when pendulous. FF, the
figure of the uterus when ftretched higher than ufual,
which generally occafions vomitings and difficulty of
breathing. G, the os pubis of the left fide. HH,
the os internum. I, the vagina. K, the left nym-
pha. L, the labium pudendi of, the fame fide. M,
in fig. 10. fhow's the uterus as it appears in the fecond the remaining portion of the bladder. N, the anus.
or third month of pregnancy.
F, the anus. G, the vagina, with its plicae.
HH, the pofterior and inferior part of the urinary
OP, the left hip and thigh.
Fig. 16. fhows the forehead of the foetus turned
backwards to the os facrum, and the occiput below the
bladder extended on each fide; the anterior and fupe- pubes, by which means the narrow part of the head
rior part being removed. is to the narrow part of the pelvis, that is, between the
II, the mouth and neck of the womb, as railed up inferior parts of the offa ifchium.
Vol.XI. PartIL j,K Af
MI D W
A, the uterus eontra^ed clofely to the foetus after
e the waters are evacuated. BCD, the vertebras of
„ the loins, os' facrum, and coccyx. E, the anus. F,
the left hip. G, the perinasum. H, the os externum
beginning to dilate. I, the os pubis of the left fide.
K, the remaining portion of the bladder. L, the
pofterior part of the os uteri.
Fig. 17. is principally intended to fhow in what man-
h ner the perinasum and external parts are ilretched by
the head of the fetus, in a firfl pregnancy, towards
the end of the labour.
A, the abdomen. B, the labia pudendi. C, the
clitoris and its preputium. D, the hairy fcalp of the
fetus, fwelled at the vertex, in a laborious cafe, and
protruded to the os externum. E, F, the perinasum
and anus pulhed out by the head of the fetus in
form of a large junior. GG, the parts that cover the
tuberofities of the offa ifehium. H, the part that co¬
vers the os coccygis. '
Fig. 18. firowsin what manner the head of the foetus
is helped along with the forceps, as artificial hands-,
when it is necefiary for the fafety of either mother or
child.
AABC, the vertebra; of the loins, os facrum, and
coccyx. D, the os pubis of the left fide. E, the re¬
maining pait of the bladder. FF, the inteftinum rec¬
tum. GGG, the uterus. H, the mens veneris. I,
the clitoris, with the left nymph. X, the corpus ca-
vernofum clitoridis. V, the meatus urinarius. K,
the left labium pudendi. L, the anus. N, the peri-
naeum. Q_P, the left hip and thigh. R, the fkin and
mufcular parts of the loins.
Fig. 19. Ihows the head of the fetus, by ftrong la¬
bour-pains, fqueezed into a longifii form, with a tu¬
mor on the vertex, from a long compreffion of the
head in the pelvis.
K, the tumor on the vertex. L, the forceps. M,
the vefica urinaria much diftended with a large quan¬
tity of urine from the long preflure of the head a-
gainft the urethra. N, the under part of the uterus.
OO, the os uteri.
Fig. 20. fhows, in the lateral view, the face of the
child prefen ting and forced down into the lower part
of the pelvis, the chin being below the pubes, and
the vertex in the concavity of the os facrum : the wa¬
ter being likewife all difeharged, the uterus appear
clofely joined to the body of the child.
Fig. 21. (hows, in a lateral view, the head of the child
in the fame pofition as in the former figure.
AB, the vertebrae of the loins, os facrum, and coc¬
cyx. C, the os pubis of the left fide. D, the infe¬
rior part of the rettum. E, the perinaeum. F, the
left labium pudendi. GGG, the uterus.
Fig. 22. give»a lateral internal view of a diftorted
pelvis, divided longitudinally, with the head of a fetus
of the feventh month palling the fame.
ABC, the os facrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis
of the left fide. E, the tuberofity of the os ifehium
of the fame fide.
Fig. 23. gives a fide view of a diftorted pelvis, di¬
vided longitudinally, with the head of a full grown
foetus fqueezed into the brim, the parietal bones de-
cufiating each other, and compreffed into a conical
form.
ABC, the os facrum and coccyx. D, the os pubis
I F E R Y. Part III
of the left fide. E, the tuberofity of the os Ifehium. Explana-
F, the proceflus acutus. G, the foramen magnum. of ^
Eig. 24. ftiows, in a front view of the pelvis, the ‘a^es'
breech of the fetus prefenting, and dilating the os in- p|are
ternum, the membranes being too foon broke. CCCIX*
Fig. 2;. is the reverfe of the former, the fore-parts
of the child being to the fore part of the uterus.
Fig. 26. reprefents, in a front view of the pelvis, the
fetus comprefled, by the contraftion of the uterus, in¬
to a round form, the' fore-parts of the former being to¬
wards the inferior part of the latter, and one foot and
hand fallen down into the vagina. In this figure, the
anterior part of the pelvis is removed, by a longitudi¬
nal feftion through the middle of the foramen mag¬
num.
AA, the fuperior parts of theofla ilium. BB, the
uterus. C, the mouth of the womb ftretched and
appearing in OOOO, the vagina. D, the inferior and.
pofterior part of the os externum. EEEE, the re¬
maining part of the ofla pubis and ifehium. FFFF,
the membrana adipofa.
Fig. 26. reprefents, in the fame view with fig'. 27.
the fetus in the contrary pofition ; the breech and
fore-parts being towards the fundus utCri, the left
arm in the vagina, and the fore-arm without the os
externum, the Ihoulder being likewife forced into
the os uteri.
Plate CCCVI. fig. 8'. ftiows a deformed pelvis of
which the fmall diameter of the fuperior ftrait is only
2 inches feven lines. The figure is triple : F. I.
ftiows it in its natural ftate ; F. II. the ofl'a pubis fe-
parated 18 lines; and F. III. with a feparation of two
inches and an half, in order to fliow the quantiy of
amplification which the fedtion of the fymphyiis in
fuch a pelvis can produce.
F. I. a a> the two laft lumbar vertebrae ; bbb b, the
tranfverfe apophyfes of thefe vertebrae ; c cy ligaments
proceeding from the tranfverfe apophyfes of the laft of
thefe vertebrae to the middle and pofterior part of the
internal lip of the crifta of the os ilium ; dd, other
ligaments defeending from the fame apophyfes to the
fuperior part of the facro-iliac fymphyfes; e, the pro-
jedtion of the facium ; ff, the lateral parts of the bafe
of the facrum ; gg, part of the offa ilia : the reft of
thofe bones being concealed by F. II. and III.
h h. The bodies of the ofla pubis ; i i, their angles.
b l’. The offa ifehia ; / /, the branches of thefe bones,
and of the pubes.
m, The arch of the offa pubis at the fore part of
the pelvis.
n n. The foramina ovalia concealed by the offa pu¬
bis of F. II. and III.
A, The fymphyfis of the offa pubis feen perfpec-
tively. B B, the facro-iliac fymphyfes.
F. II. 0 o, Part of the offa ilia.
PP, The bodies of the offa pubis ; q q, their angles?
r r, their articular facettes feen perfpedively ; fft very
fmall portions of the branches of the offa pubis.
s s, The offa ifehia appearing behind the foramina
ovalia of n5 III ; tt, articular facettes of the ofl'a ilia,
correfponding to fimilar ones obferved at the fides of
the facrum.
F.III. w«. The offa ilia; “yu, their criftse; xx, theangle
formed by the internal lip of the crifta in the middle
and pofterior part of its length j yy, the anterior and
n fuperior
Part III.
Fxplana- fupmoi' fpates ef the oflh ilia ; a z, the anterior fpines
^ones 5 ^ articular facettes of the offa ilia,
^ making part of the facro-iliac fymphyfes.
i i. The ofia pubis ; 2 2, their angles; 3 3, their
articular facettes feen perfpe&ively.
4 4, The ofla ifehia ; 5 5, the united branches of
the ofia ifehia and pubis ; 6 6, the acetabula.
The lines indicate the natural fize of the pelvis in
the different directions in which they are traced ; and
their dotted extremities, the amplification which the
fuperior ftrait acquires in thofe fame directions at a fe-
paration of eighteen lines, and of thirty lines be¬
tween the ofia pubis. Line I. Antero-poilerior dia¬
meter of the fuperior ftrait, or the diftance from the
pubes to the projection of the facrum ; two inches
Teven lines. Line II. Tranfverfe diameter of the fu¬
perior ftrait, in its molt extenfive part; four inches
feven lines. Line III. Oblique diameter of the fupe¬
rior ftrait, which extends from that point of the
ftrait which correfponds with the anterior edge of the
left acetabulum, to the right facro-iliac junCtion ;
three inches eleven lines. Line IV. The other o-
blique diameter, which extends from that point of
the ftrait which anfwers to the anterior edge of the
right acetabulum, to the left facro-iliac fymphyfis;
four inches.
By giving the fmalleft attention to the relation of
thefe dimenfions to thofe which the head of a foetus
of the ufual fize prefents in their direction in time of
labour, we (hall fee that they are very favourable;
except the firft, which is, ftriCtly fpeaking, eleven
lines too fhort, being only thirty-one lines in extent :
whereas the tranfverfe diameter of the head is com¬
monly forty-two. It is only in this latter direction,
and to the extent of eleven lines, that it would be ne-
cefiary to augment the capacity of fuch a pelvis, to
favour delivery. As the greater part of thofe who
have performed this new operation, have only obtained
a reparation of eighteen lines or thereabouts between
* ' the offa pubis, it is fixed at that degree in the fe-
cond figure.
By fuch a feparation in a pelvis perfectly fimilar to
that here reprefented, the angle of each os pubis re¬
cedes from the centre of the projection of the facrum
three lines or very near beyond their natural diftance
from it. (See the lines V. and VI). The antero-
pofterior diameter receives but the fame increafe, if
we confider it as lengthened to the middle of the dot¬
ted line IX. IX. which marks the depth at which it
may be prefumed the lateral convexity of the head
engages. Both the oblique diameters augment five
lines before, and about two lines and an half back¬
ward ; and the tranfverfe diameter feven lines or very
nearly.
It is evident, that a feparation of eighteen lines on
fuch a pelvis cannot remove the difpreportion which
extfts between the fmaU diameter of the fuperior ftrait
and the fmall diameter of the child’s head ; fince the
former augments only three lines, confidered in the
‘moft favourable point of view. The amplification
which the other diameters receive from a fimilar fe¬
paration, is abfolutely ufelefs ; thofe diameters being
naturally large enough.
Suppofing that the offa pubis recede in an equal
degree, in feparating two inches and an half, the angle
8ll
of each of them will remove from the centre of the Ttxphm-
proje&ion of the facrum, only fix lines farther than t;ou ,lic
the diftance they werfe from it before; which alfo t‘iatfca
gives an increafe of but fix lines between thefe two *’ ^ J' ‘
points. (See the lines VII. andV III). The fmall
diameter of the entrance of the pelvis does not gain
much more, confidering it to the middle of the dot¬
ted line XX. which marks the bounds beyond which
the convexity of the head could not engage between
the offa pubis, even if the pelvis were divefted of all
its foft parts : which does not happen in the fedtion of
the pubes, for the neck of the bladder, the canal of
the urethra, their cellular tiffue, the anterior femi-
' circle of the orifice of the uterus, and the anterior
part of the vagina prefent at the opening and before
the child’s head. At this degree of feparation, the
tranfverfe diameter augments about thirteen lines, and
each oblique diameter nearly fourteen lines : a fuper-
fluous increafe, fince thofe diameters, in the pelvis
reprefented, have all the length requiiite for delivery.
The pofterior extremities of the oblique diameters,
which are dotted and marked with the figures XI and
XII, fhow the feparation which is to be feared in the
facro-iliac fymphyfes, by feparating the offa pubis two
inches and an half. It was at that degree that Mr
Baudelocque obfeived they were open in moft of his
experiments ; fince he could eafily put the end of his
finger, and even of his thumb, into them.
Admitting that the convexity of one of the fides of
the child’s head may letjjitfelf in between the offa pubis
feparated to two inches and an dialf, as far as the dot¬
ted line X X, traced on that very convexity, it is evi¬
dent that that feparation cannot procure the relation
of dimenfions neceffary for an eafy delivery, when the
pelvis has originally but two inches fix or feven lines
in the fmall diameter : whence it follows that the fec-
tion of the pubes, fuppofin^ that we could obtain a
feparation of two inches and *an half in the living wo¬
man without expofing her to difagreeable accidents,
would not anfwer in the cafe of a pelvis fimilar to that
reprefented in this plate.
Fig. 9. ftiows a pelvis with only 14 or 15 lines in
the fmall diameter of its entrance, and four inches
ten lines in the largeit. The figure is triple like
the former. F. I. reprefents it in its natural fitua-
tion ; F. II. with the offa pubis feparated two inches
and a half; and ,F. III. with a feparation of three
inches. M. le Roy fays, that he conftantly obtained
thefe two degrees of feparation without any inconve¬
nience.
F. I. aaa. The three laft lumbar vertebra. 6, The
projection formed by the lall of thofe vertebrae, with
the bafe ofthe facrum. cc. The fides of the bafe of the
facrum. ddd, The tranfverfe apophyles of the right
fide of the above-mentioned vertebrae, ee, A liga¬
ment extending from the firft. of thofe apophyfes to the
angle made by the internal lip of the crifta of the os
ilium towards its middle and pofterior part. fj\ An¬
other ligament which depends from that apophyfis to
the fuperior part of the facm-iliac fymphyfis. gggg.
Part of the os ilium, h h, The bodies of the offa pu¬
bis : i /, their angles, k k. The offa ifehia. I /, The
branches of the offa ifehia and pubis, w, The arch of
the offa pubis, n «, The forarnina ovalia. A, the fym-
phyfisofthe offa pubis. BB,The facro iliac fymphyfes.
M I D W I F E R Y.
812 M I D W I
Explana- F. II. o o o o, Part of the ofia ilfa. //, The arti-
tJ FMes*116 cu^ar facettes t^ie off3 ^*a> making part of the fa-
, ^ es' cro-iliac fymphyfes. pj>, The bodies ofthe offa pubis.
^ qq, The .angles of the offa pubis feparated two inches
and an half, r r. The cartilaginous facettes of the
offa pubis feen perfpeftively. s s, The branches of
the offa ifchia and pubes.
F. III./f. The offa ilia: uu, their criftas : vv,
their anterior fuperior fpines : x x, their anterior
inferior fpines.
yy, The anterior inferior fpines of the offa ilia of
F. II. z z, Their anterior articular facettes, making
part of the facro iliac fymphyfis.
fS5 The bodies of the offa pubis : ! i, their an¬
gles. 2 2, The articular facette of each os pubn feen
perfpe&ively. 3^, The united branches ofthe offa
pubis, and ifchia feen perfpedtively.-
4 4,’ The offa ifchia. 5 ?, The foramina ovalia,
behind which is feen part of tire offa ifchia of F. II-
6 6, The acetabula.
The lines indicate the length of the different dia¬
meters of the fuperior {trait, in the direction in which
they are traced ; and their dotted extremities, the
amplification to be expe&ed from a feparation of two
inches and an half, and of three inches.
Line I, The antero-pofterior, or fmall diameter of
the fuperior {trait; one inch two or three lines.
Line II, The tranfverfe diameter of the fame lliait:
this line, which is four inches ten lines in extent,
pafles, under the projeftion of the facrum. Line III,
The diilance from the middle and left lateral part of
the projeftion of the facrum, to that point of the
margin of the pelvis which anfwers to the anterior
edge of the acetabulum on the fame fide ; one inch.
Line IV, The diftance from the middle and right
lateral part of the projeftion of the facrum, to that
point of the margin which anfwers to the anterior
edge of the acetabulum on the fame fide; one inch
eight lines.
The relation of thefe dimenfions to thofe of a
child’s head of the ufual fize, is fuch, that the fmall
' diameter of the latter, fuppofed always to be three
inches and an half, furpaffes the fmall diameter of the
entrance of fuch a pelvis by 27 or 28 lines. This
pelvis would be large enough in the dire&ion of the
line II, II.
By feparating the offa pubis two inches and an half,
we augment the breadth of the entrance of the pelvis
about three quarters of an inch in the' direction of
the line II, II : as much, or nearly in the dire&ion
of the line III, and only fix lines in that of the line
IV. The angle of each os pubis marked by the let¬
ter q, recedes from the centre of the projection of
the facrum, nine or Iten lines beyond what it was di-
ftant from it before the feparation of the bones : the
entrance of the pelvis increafes as much in the direc¬
tion of the line V, and only half an inch in the courfe
of the line VI. The fmall diameter, or the line 1,
continued to the middle of the dotted line IX, IX,
which {hows the depth to which the child’s head may
be let in between the offa pubis feparated two inches
and an half, if the pelvis were divefted of all its foft
parts : this diameter will then be augmented only
feven lines 5 whence we fee that it would ftill, be
F E R Y. Partlll,
an inch and an half, at leaft, ftiorter than the fmall Kxt'iana-
diameter of the head of a child of the ufual fize. *
The feftion of the pubes would therefore be fruit- j
lefs on fuch a pelvis, if it could only procure a fepa- J
ration of two inches and an half; which feems a very
exorbitant one. With more reafon would it be un-
fuccefsful, if we could feparate the offa pubis only 18.
lines, as has moft frequently happened ; fince it could
not procure the proportion neceffary for delivery, even
if we could turn that feparation entirely to the ad¬
vantage of the finall diameter of the fuperior ftrait.
Let us fee if a feparation of three inches could pro¬
cure that proportion.
By feparating the offa pubis three inches, we aug¬
ment the breadth of the pelvis 12 or 13 lines in the
direction of the line II, II ; 10 lines at moft in
the -courfe of the lihe III; only feven in the line IV;
about an inch in the line V; and only feven lines
in the direction of the line VI : the angle of each
os pubis recedes an inch farther from the projection
of the facrum, than the diftance it was at before
the feparation of the bones; which augments ‘:the
opening of the pelvis to the amount of an inch or
thereabouts in the direction of the line VII, and only
half an inch in the line VIII. The antero-pofterior
diameter of the entrance of this pelvis, confidered as far
as the middle of the dotted line X, X, which {hows
the greateft depth to which the child s head could be
let in between the offa pubis feparated three inches,
if the pelvis were divefted of the foft parts, increafes
but 10 lines or thereabouts; which cannot remove
the difproportion that exifted before the feftion of
the pubes, between that diameter and the thicknefs
of the child’s head which muft pafs in that direction.
From whence we ought to conclude that this fepara¬
tion alfo would have no fuccefs, .if the pelvis were as
much deformed as that defigned.
The dotted lines XI and XII, fhow the feparation
to be feared in the facro-iliac fymphyfes, by feparating
the offa pubis three inches.
The two other dotted lines, marked by the cha¬
racters IX, IX, and X, X, {how how far the child’s
head may be let in between the offa pubis feparated
to the two degrees ftated : they were traced on the
convexity of a -real head applied behind the offa pu¬
bis in a pelvis {tripped of its foft parts.
Plate CCGX. fig. 29. (hows a well formed pelvis, the
anterior part of which is taken away, to ftiow one of
the tranfverfe pofitions of the face of the child, and ex¬
plain more fully the mechanifm of that kind of labour.
a, a. Part of the iliac foffae. b, b. Part of the cri-
ftae of the offa ilia. c, c, Their anterior fuperior
fpines.
J, d, The ifchiatic tuberofities. e,e, The acetabn-
la. /,/, The thicknefs of the offa ifchia fawn through
vertically before their tuberofities.
gyg. The bodies of the offa pubis fawn through be¬
fore the acetabula.
h, h, h, A circle reprefenting a vertical feftion of
the uterus, the anterior part of which is taken away
in order to {how the child, i, The child’s chin,
The pofterior extremity of the head. I, /, /, The le¬
ver applied along the crown of the head, the extrer
mity of it extending beyond the pofterior fontanella.
M I IJ WTF K ll\
art III. M I D \V
Jxplana* W} The ’eft lateral, and inferior part of the pelvis.
Plates'*16 B> A Port*on t^ie lateral part of the uterine
cavity, o, '1'he left hand, p, q. The fore and middle
fingers, placed at the fidcs of the nofe, and preffing
againft the ripper jaw. R, The right harfd grafping
the extremity ®f the lever.
. Fig. 30. fhows the fame vertical fe£Hon of a pelvis
as the laft ; v/ith the child’s body entirely difengaged
from it. The head grafped by the forceps is retain¬
ed at the fuperior llrait, with the occiput over the
pubes, and the lower part of the fore-head againft the
projection of the facrum. -•
a, a. The laft lumbar vertebrce. d, d, The canal of
thefe vertebrae, and of the facrum. g>g,g>g> Spiny
tubercles of the vertebrae above mentioned, b, b, b.
The falfe vertebrae of the facrum. c,c,c, The coc¬
cyx. e, e, The flatted portion of the anterior face of
the facrum.
/, The left facro-ifchiatic ligament, b, The carti¬
laginous and ligamentous facette of the left os pubis,
making part of the fymphyfis.
i. The mons veneris, b, k, k, i, A circle reprefent-
ing the feclion of the uterus, the right fide of which
is taken away to fhow the head and the inftrument.
/, ^ A portion of the placenta attached to the fupe¬
rior and anterior part of the uterus.
m, m, m. The female branch of the forceps applied
on the left fide of the head, which anfwers to, the right
fide of the pelvis, n, n> The male branch of the for¬
ceps, applied at the left fide of the pelvis, and the
right fide of the head. 0, Part of the left fmall facro-
ifchiatic ligament. P, Part of the left os ilium, the
reft being concealed by the head.
$r, The point to which we ought to bring the lower
extremity of the forceps, in bringing the head down
into the cavity of the pelvis.
R, The point of elevation at which the extremity
©f the forceps muft be held, when the head occupies
the bottom of the pelvis, after having replaced the
face underneath.
Fig. 31. fhows alfo the vertical fe&ioh of a pelvis;
but it is fuppofed to have only three inches fix lines
in the fmall diameter of its entrance. The bafe of
the cranium is engaged in it in a tranfverfe direftion,
the occiput being turned towards the left fide, and
the face to the right fide ; fo that the greateft thick-
nefs of the head is ftill above the ftrait.
«, a. The two laft lumbar vertebrae. b,l,b,b,b. The
five falfe vertebrae of the; facrum. c,c,c, The three
pieces of the coccyx, d, d. The canal of the afore-
faid vertebrae, e, e, e, e. Their fpinous apophyfes. f,f.
Part of the anterior face of the facrum.
g. The left facro-ifchiatic ligament, h. The car¬
tilaginous and ligamentous facette of the left os pu¬
bis, making part of the fymphyfis. i, The mons ver
neris.
k, k, h, h, A circle indicating the feftion of the ute¬
rus in the fame dire&ion as that of the pelvis. /, 4 A
portion of the placenta attached to the fundus of the
uterus.
m, m, m, The female branch of the forceps, applied
on the left fide of the child’s head, and under the
fymphyfis of the pubes. n,n,», The female branch
of the forceps applied on the right fide of the head,
and before the facrum. 0, A dotted line, in the di¬
rection of which the inftrumeat muft be pulled to
I F E R Y. 8ij
bring down the head head into the pelvis. /, The Explana-
point of elevation at which the forceps muft be held don°ftho
when the head is brought down to the bottom of * e8' .
the pelvis, after having turned the face into the curve ’
of the os facrum.
Plate CCCVI. fig. 6. (hows M. Baudelocque’s ca¬
lipers for meafuring the antero-pofterior diameter of
the fuperior ftrait.
a, a. The branches of the calipers. B, The hinge
which unites the two branches, r, <r, Lenticular but¬
tons which terminate the branches, d, A graduated
fcale nine inches long, intended to demonftrate the
thicknefs of the body comprifed between the two
branches. This fcale is contained in a deep groove
cut lengthwife in the branch of the calipers, from the
letter e to the hinge B ; and paffes through a mortoife
made in the other branch under the letter f. e, The
place where the fcale is united by a kind of hinge.
f, A little fcrew with a flat head, defigned to fix-the
fcale, while we calculate the thicknefs of the body
comprifed between the two branches.
Fig. 7. fliows the pelvimeter of M. Coutonli deve¬
loped in thd pelvis.
A, A, The firft branch ; whofe fquare, B, is ap¬
plied to the projection of the facrum. G, c, A kind
of hooks intended to keep the firft branch in its place,
while we introduce and develope the fecond. This
has a dove-tailed groove, in which the body of the
fecond branch is lodged and moved, d, d, the fe¬
cond branch of the inftrument, whofe fquare e is
placed againft the fymphyfis of the pubes. F, a
fcale four inches long, graduated in the branch d, d;
and intended to Ihow the degree of opening from the
pubes to the facrum.
Plate CCCVIII. fig. 21. reprefents, in a lateral
view of the pelvis, the method of extracting, by means
of a curved Crotchet, the head of the foetus, when
left in the uterus, after the body is delivered and fe-
parated from it; either by its being too large, or the
pelvis too narrow.
ABC, the os facrnm and coccyx..
D, the os pubis of the left fide.
EE, the uterus.
F, the locking part of the crotchet.
g, h, i. The point of the crotchet on the infide of
the cranium.
Fig. 32. reprefents the forceps and blunt hook. Plate
A, the ftraight forceps, in the exaCl proportion asCCCIXi
to the width between the blades, apd length from the
points to the locking.part;. the firft being two and
the fecond fix inches, which, with three inches and a
half (the length of the handles), make in all 11 inches
and a half.
B reprefents the pofterior part of a Angle blade, in
order to fhow the width and length of the open part
of the fame, and the form and dimenfions of the
whole.
C, the blunt hook, which is ufed for three purpofes-:
j. To affift the extraction of the head, after the cra¬
nium is opened with the fciffars, by introducing the
fmall end along the ear on the outfide of the head to
above the under-jaw, where the point is to be fixed 5
the other extremity of the hook being held with one
hand, whilft two fingers of the other are to be intro¬
duced into the forefaid opening, by which hold the
head is to be gradually extracted. 3. The fmall end i
if*
$14
MIDWIFE
Explaniu {a ufefiil in abortion, In any of the firft four or five
*'">ia/es*18 fnont^8*tQ hook down the feeundineg, when lying loofe
/ in the uterus, when they cannot be extrafted by the
fingers or labour-pains, and when the patient is much
weakened by floodings. 3. The large hook at the
other end is ufeful to aflift the extra&ion of the body,
when the breech prefents ; but fliould be ufed with
great caution, to avoid the diflocation or fra&ure of
the thigh.
Fig. 33. A reprefents the whale-bone fillet, which
may be fometimes ufeful in laborious cafes, when the
operator is not provided with the forceps, in fudden
and unexpected exigencies.
BB, two views of a peflary for the prolapfus uteri.
After the uterus is reduced, the large end of the pef-
Tary is to be introduced into the vagina, and the os
.uteri retained in the concave part, where there are three
holes to prevent the ftagnation of any moifture. The
fmall end without the os externum has two tapes drawn
through the two holes, which are tied to four other
tapes, that hang down from a belt that furrounds the
woman’s body, and by this means keep up the peflary.
This peifary may be taken out by the patient when (he
•goes to bed, and introduced again in the morning; but
as this fometimes rubs the os externum, fo as to make
its ufe uneafy, the round kind, marked C, are of more
general ufe. They are made of wood, ivory, or cork,
{the laft covered with cloth and dipped in wax): the
peflary is to be lubricated with pomatum, the edge
forced through the paflage into the vagina, and a fin¬
ger introduced in the hole in the middle lays it acrofs
■within the os externum. They ought to be larger or
fmaller, according to the widenefs or narrownefs of the
paflage, to prevent their being forced out by any ex¬
traordinary {training.
DD gives two views of a female catheter, -to fhow
its degree of curvature and different parts.
Fig. 34. <7, reprefents a pair of curved crotchets lock¬
ed together in the fame manner as the forceps. The
dotted lines along the infide of one of the blades re-
prefent a (heath contrived to guard the point till it is
introduced high enough : the ligature at the handles
marked with two dotted lines is then to be untied, the
fheath withdrawn, and the point being uncovered is
fixed as in fig. 21. (PI. cccviii.)
b. Gives a view of the back-part of one of the crotch¬
ets, which is 12 inches long.
r, A front view of the point, to fhow its proportional
length and breadth.
7l, The fciflars for perforating the cranium in very
narrow' and diftorted pelvifes. They ought to be made
very ftrong, and at leaft nine inches in Idngth, with
flops or refts in the middle of the blades, by which a
large dilatation is more eafily made.
Plate CCCX. fig. 33. gives an anterior view of
the improved lever by Roonhuyfen, an inftrument
now come into confiderable reputation. ,Fig. 36. ftiows
the fame in profile. Fig. 37. the lever recommended
R y. Pan nr
by M. Baudelocque. Fig. 38. one of the blades of a Ex| Una,:
lever recommended by M. Herblnaux, fixed in the t;on ot th*
handle. Fig- 39. an anterior view of the fame blade *^*tes*
with the {trap. Fig. 40, the fpout of the fyringe,
when the inllrument is ufed for injedling oil, or any
other liquid into the uterus. The.following is a gene¬
ral defcription of Roonhuyfen’s lever, with the method
of ufing it, as given by M. Preville, and added to his
edition of Smellie’s Midwifery. “ The lever is an ob-
long piece of iron, 11 inches long, one broad, and
about an eighth of an inch in thicknefs, it is ftraight
in its middle for four inches, and becomes gradually
curved at each extremity : the curves are of different
lengths and ’depths ; the edges are rounded ; and the
extremities for the fpace of an inch, and alfo the
middle of the inftrument, are diredted to be covered with
plafter, and then the whole of it to be (heathed with
thin dogfkin; taking care to avoid inequalities or folds,
which might injure the woman or child. In ufing
it, the accoucheur muft introduce the fore finger of
his left hand into the vagina near the anus, to ferve
as a guide for the inftrument, which muft now be
gently infinuated between his finger and the head of
the, child, taking care that no part of the uterus be
included between the lever and the head. The in¬
ftrument muft then be moved to the right and to the
left, to find where there is the greateft fpace, and in
fome degree to loofen and difengage the head; and then
gradually carried round, until it comes under the pubes,
lifting the end of it from time to time, to obtain a freer
paffage. The handle of it muft now be raifed, and
the inftrument gently drifted about, until the occiput
is exadlly lodged in its curve. The more completely
and exactly the curve touches and embraces the head,
the more fpeedily and ealily the delivery will be ef-
fe&ed. The inftrument being thus firmly and equally
applied to the head, the accoucheur muft flowly and
uniformly raife the handle with his right hand, while
with his left he preffes the middle of it downward ;
by this means the coccyx is forced backward, and
the lower part of the pelvis is enlarged. By conti¬
nuing to raife the handle of the lever and to prefs down
its middle or centre, the head of the child is made to
defcend into the dilated cavity of the vagina: and
this is commonly effe&ed in a few minutes; when the
left hand muft be applied firmly againft the anus and
perinaeum, forcing thofe parts upwards and forwards
towards the orifice of the vagina, to prevent laceia-
tion ; for which purpofe alfo the whole operation
muft be performed flowly and cautioufly, imitating
as much as pofiible a natural labour.”
“We found (add the authors of the paper,) a
cord fixed round one of the ends of the inftrument,
about the middle of the curve. This cord, we ima¬
gine, ferved no other purpofe than to point out tha
end of the inftrument commonly made ufe of, or ta
meafure the length of the part introduced.”
END OF THE ELEVENTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for. flacjng the PLATES of VOL. XL
Part I.
Plate
ccxcii. 7 ,
CCXCIII.J
CCXCIV.
Part II.
CCXCV.
CCXCVI.
CCXCVII.
CCXCVI II.
CCXCIX.
Page
45
3^5
693
704
709
713
716
Plate
CCC.
CCCI.
CCCII.
cccnr.
CCCIV.
cccv.
CCCVI.
CCCVII.
CCCVI1I.
cccix 7
CCCX. J
page
7*9
724*.
749
753
756
757
808
809
810
814
ERRATUM.
In Vol. VIII. col. 2. marg. note 66. For inferiority., read fuperiority.
1 ipl ■
.